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Ecological Indicators 11 (2011) 1375–1384

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Ecological Indicators

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istorical perspectives of material use in Czechoslovakia in 1855–2007

an Kovanda ∗, Tomas Hakharles University Environment Center, J. Martiho 2/407, 162 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic

r t i c l e i n f o

rticle history:eceived 1 September 2010eceived in revised form 21 February 2011ccepted 23 February 2011

eywords:ocio-economic metabolismconomy-wide material flow analysis

a b s t r a c t

The article deals with the historical development of material use in the Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia/Czechoslovakia in 1855–2007. We calculate domestic material consumption (DMC), an indicatorbased on the concept of socio-economic metabolism and economy-wide material flow analysis, and relateit to various socio-economic factors such as changes in political regimes, industrialization and consequentgrowth in GDP and population. DMC is good at reflecting the gradual industrialization which took placeup to the First World War, then the strong focus on the development of heavy industry under communistrule, and finally the swing to a more consumer industry and service-oriented economy after the fall of

EW-MFA)omestic material consumption (DMC)istorical analysis

ndustrializationaterial productivityecouplingetal resources

the communist regime and the subsequent transition from a centrally planned to a market economy. Thecomparable DMC figures per capita for Czechoslovakia and the United Kingdom prove that we arrived atfeasible values of material consumption.

© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

. Introduction

Material flow analysis presents a well-established approacho study interactions between societies and their natural envi-onment. It is based on the theory of socio-economic, societal orndustrial metabolism (Ayres, 1989, 2004; Baccini and Brunner,991; Fischer-Kowalski and Haberl, 1993; Ayres and Simonis,994), which assumes a socio-economic system is interconnectedith the environment through material and energy flows. It is said

hat these flows are behind the majority of environmental problemseople have to face today, such as structural landscape changeselated to mining of fossil fuels and extraction of other raw materi-ls, biodiversity loss related to production of biomass in large-scalegro-ecosystems, global climate change and acidification relatedo consumption of fossil fuels, and eutrophication related to use of

ineral fertilizers (Schmidt-Bleek, 1994; Giljum et al., 2005; Vaner Voet et al., 2009). It is important to monitor these material andnergy flows and strive to reduce them, as this reduction shouldead to a decrease in pressures exerted on the environment byuman society. It is further useful to analyze these flows in relation

o economic and social development in an historical perspective,s it supports the understanding of current patterns and dynamicsf material flows and related environmental problems (Martinez-

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +420 220 199 476; fax: +420 220 199 462.E-mail address: jan.kovanda@czp.cuni.cz (J. Kovanda).

470-160X/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.oi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.02.016

Alier and Schandl, 2002; Hornborg et al., 2007; Costanza et al., 2007;Moore et al., 2010). Insights from this analysis can be applied inscenarios and models aimed at future trends in resource use andproviding ex-ante assessments of the environmental and economiceffects of different resource policies. This issue was addressed byGiljum et al. (2008), for instance.

Even though there is a growing body of literature on currentpatterns, structure and the dynamics of the socioeconomic use ofmaterials and energy (for instance Adriaanse et al., 1997; Mündlet al., 1999; Matthews et al., 2000; Mäenpää and Juutinen, 2001;Pedersen, 2002; Barbiero et al., 2003; Bringezu et al., 2004; Giljum,2004; Weisz et al., 2006, 2007a; Xu and Zhang, 2008), the histori-cal aspect of this phenomenon covering the 19th century and thefirst half of the 20th century has so far been addressed only rarely(Schandl and Schulz, 2002; Krausmann and Haberl, 2002; Galeset al., 2007; Cusso et al., 2006; Kuskova et al., 2008; Krausmannet al., 2009). The author’ other recent articles were focused on theperiod 1990 onwards (Kovanda et al., 2008, 2010). The primarygoal of this paper is to provide an historical perspective of materialconsumption in Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia/Czechoslovakia andto relate it to the main socio-economic changes in society whichhave taken place in history in 1855–2007. The rest of the article isstructured as follows: Section 2 provides information on methods

and data used for the analysis, Section 3 presents and discusses themain findings and Section 4 suggests in conclusion some topics forfurther work in the field of historical analyses of socio-economicmetabolism.

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1376 J. Kovanda, T. Hak / Ecological Indicators 11 (2011) 1375–1384

Table 1Summary of data sources used for the analysis including an estimate of the level of reliability.

Material category Particular material flows

Biomass APT Cereals, roots and tubers, fodder plants, other agricultural biomass, by-products from harvesting, grazing frommeadows and pastures, wood, products from biomass (including fishery products)

Fossil fuels APT Brown coal, hard coal, crude oil, natural gas and products from fossil fuelsMetal ores APT Iron ore, non-ferrous ores, pig iron, steel and other products from metalsConstruction non-metallic minerals Limestone for cement production, sand and gravel for concrete and asphalt production, other non-metallic

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APT construction mineralsIndustrial non-metallic minerals APT Limestone for industrial proces

anhydrite, salt, natural and artifi

. Methods and data

Material flows in Czechoslovakia have been approached fromn economy-wide perspective. We carried out the economy-wideaterial flow analysis (EW-MFA), which was first standardized

n the Eurostat methodological guide (Eurostat, 2001) and fur-her elaborated in the Eurostat compilation guide (Weisz et al.,007b) and within the OECD work program on material flowsOECD, 2008). The aim of the EW-MFA is to quantify the physi-al exchange between a national economy, the environment andoreign economies on the basis of the total material mass flow-ng across the boundaries of the national economy. The ultimateoal of the analysis is to get a material balance, i.e., the state whenaterial inputs into the economy equal material outputs summedith additions to the physical stock of the economy (e.g., traffic

nfrastructure, buildings and durable goods). The analysis focusesn solid materials and typically excludes water and air (Eurostat,001; Schandl et al., 1999).

For the period 1855–2007, we compiled selected material flowndicators as defined in the above methodological standards. First,

e calculated domestic extraction used (DE), which includes allomestically extracted raw materials, such as fossil fuels, metalres, non-metallic minerals, and harvested biomass. Second, wealculated the physical trade balance (PTB), which is calculateds physical imports minus physical exports. Third, we calculatedomestic material consumption (DMC), which is the sum of DEnd PTB. Although DE only comprises raw material and biomass,hysical imports and exports contain all stages of products, fromaw materials to semi-finished and final products. For ease of pre-entation of the results of the analysis, all materials have beenggregated into five broader material categories: fossil fuels and

roducts thereof, biomass and products thereof, metal ores androducts thereof, non-metallic construction minerals and productshereof, and industrial non-metallic minerals and products thereof.he detailed composition of these broader material categories is

Fig. 1. Czechoslovaki

agnezite, dolomite, industrial sands, kaolin, feldspar, fluorspar, gypsum andertilizers, glass, pottery

shown in Table 1. The “and products thereof” is further in the textabbreviated as “APT”.

For 1855–1913, the indicators have been compiled for thelands of Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia, which were parts of theAustro-Hungarian monarchy. For present-day Slovakia, which waspart of the Hungarian kingdom at that time, very sparse aggre-gate data were available for this period. In 1918, Slovakia and asmall part of present-day Ukraine (Ruthenia) joined Bohemia andMoravia-Silesia and formed the Czechoslovak Republic. In 1938,Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia were occupied by Nazi-Germany andformed the Bohemian and Moravia-Silesian Protectorate, whileSlovakia became an independent state. After the Second WorldWar, Czechoslovakia was reconstituted (now without Ruthenia)and lasted till 1992. In 1993, Czechoslovakia split into the CzechRepublic (former Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia) and Slovak Repub-lic. For 1918–1992, indicators have been compiled for the wholeof Czechoslovakia. From 1993, the indicators cover both theCzech Republic and the Slovak Republic. Since the foundation ofCzechoslovakia in 1918 until its split in 1993, various forms ofgovernment and state systems were in place in this country (fora detailed summary see Kuskova et al. (2008)). For the sake of sim-plicity, we call the country Czechoslovakia for this entire period,although the official name changed from time to time. Fig. 1 showsa map of Czechoslovakia 1918–1938 broken down into its con-stituent parts, which indicates the territorial expanse of the countrythroughout the monitored period.

The study based the time series of indicators on official datarecords (both national and international) as much as possible.A great source of inspiration for our work was the study ofKuskova et al. (2008), which compiled time series for biomassand fossil fuels for Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia/Czechoslovakia for

1830–2002. We adopted these time series, but revised the data for1990–2002, which seemed to be somewhat underestimated com-pared to the official EW-MFA of the Czech and Slovak Republics(Czech Statistical Office, 2006a, 2008; Kovanda et al., 2008, 2010;

a (1918–1938).

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Table 2Detailed composition of the main material categories and data sources.

Period Data sources/level of reliability of the data/

1855–1989 Kuskova et al. (2008)/++/, State Statistical Office (1920–1932)/+/, State Statistical Office (1934–1938)/+/, the Federal Statistical Office(1958–1989)/++/, Federal Statistical Office (1985)/++/, Kafka (ed.) (2003)/++/, Czech Geological Survey – Geofond (1961–1990)/++/, USGS(1963–1988)/+/

1990–2007 Czech Statistical Office (2006a, 2008)/+++/, Kovanda et al. (2008, 2010)/+++/, Gustafikova (unpublished)/++/

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Phase 1 (1855–1913): Gradual growth of DMC until World War I.DMC grew from approximately 31 million tons in 1855 to 73 milliontons in 1913, which corresponds to growth of about 135 percent.

1 We used GDP in International Geary-Khamis dollars for our analysis, as thereis no other long-term, reliable and internationally comparable time series of GDPfor Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia/Czechoslovakia available. The International Geary-

ote: Low reliability/+/; medium reliability/++/; high reliability/+++/.

ustafikova, unpublished) and extended them up to 2007 using thefficial time series. The data sources used by Kuskova et al. (2008),uch as the State Statistical Office (1920–1932), State Statisticalffice (1934–1938), the Federal Statistical Office (1958–1989), andederal Statistical Office (1985) were further used to search forata on the extraction of construction and industrial non-metallicinerals and physical imports/exports of metal ores APT and con-

truction and industrial non-metallic minerals APT. Additional dataources included Kafka (ed.) (2003) for extraction of metal ores,he Czech Geological Survey – Geofond (1961–1990) for extrac-ion of construction and industrial non-metallic minerals, and USGS1963–1988) for physical imports/exports. The time series for these

aterial groups was then completed using the data from the offi-ial Czech and Slovak EW-MFA. The summary of data sources usedor the analysis, including our estimate of the level of reliability ofhe data, is shown in Table 2.

With the exception of total limestone extraction, cement andsphalt production and trade flows in cement, the data on non-etallic construction minerals were only included in the above

ata sources for recent years. The historical development of thisaterial category was therefore calculated using an approach sug-

ested by Eurostat (Weisz et al., 2007b) and applied, for example,y Krausmann et al. (2009). The amount of limestone extractedor cement production was calculated assuming a ratio of cementroduction to limestone of 1:1.19. The resulting numbers werehen subtracted from total limestone extraction to deliver data onxtraction of limestone for industrial processes. The amount of sandnd gravel used for concrete production was calculated assumingratio of cement consumption to sand and gravel of 1:6.09. The

ement consumption was calculated as cement production plushe physical trade balance of this material category. Following theecommendation of Krausmann et al. (2009), we further extrapo-ated the amount of sand and gravel used for asphalt productionssuming a ratio of asphalt production to sand and gravel of 1:0.95,nd accounted for other construction materials (bricks, buildingnd ornamental stone, sand and gravel used for purposes otherhan concrete and asphalt production) assuming an average use of.2 tons per capita for rural and 3.6 tons per capita for urban pop-lations. These last two coefficients were modeled specifically forzechoslovakia assuming that total use of non-metallic construc-ion minerals in 1989 was similar to the total use of non-metalliconstruction minerals in 1990, which was the first year based com-letely on statistical data. This assumption was used, because itas true for all other material categories, for which both 1989 and

990 data came from the statistics. It was further assumed for mostf the non-metallic construction minerals that their extraction (orroduction) was equal to their consumption. This assumption wasased on the notion that construction materials are usually trans-orted less than 50 miles due to their comparatively low pricesU.S. Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2008). It means that theE of non-metallic construction minerals was equal to DMC and

ice versa. The only trade flows taken into account were inter-ational trade in cement: the available data showed that theseows were significant, at least at the end of the monitored periodthe 1990s).

When deriving the time series, we put an emphasis on their con-sistency over time. It means that, for instance, when the importsand exports of some commodities were not available for a mean-ingful part of the time span considered in the analysis, we have notincluded them at all. This is the reason why the total DMC num-bers for the end of the period (1990–2007) slightly differ from theofficial Czech and Slovak DMC data (Czech Statistical Office, 2006a,2008; Kovanda et al., 2008, 2010; Gustafikova, unpublished), whichare based on the full DMC accounts. This difference is not, how-ever, more than a few percent. The overall data availability wasquite good for fossil fuels APT, metal ores APT and biomass APT,and due to this reason they were calculated also for non-metallicconstruction minerals APT. On the other hand, the data availabilitywas very low for industrial non-metallic minerals APT before 1960,which led to some underestimation of total DMC before this year.But as the share of industrial non-metallic minerals APT in DMCwas only about 7 percent in 1960–2007, this underestimation is notvery significant. There are two major gaps in the time series whichroughly correspond to the periods of World War I (1914–1918) andWorld War II (1938–1945). For these periods the data availabilitywas insufficient to compile indicators.

Besides the material flow data, we also used some socio-economic variables for our analysis. The principle ones includedpopulation (Kuskova et al., 2008; Czech Statistical Office, 2006b;Federal Statistical Office, 1985) and GDP in purchasing power par-ities (Maddison, 2009).1

3. Results

3.1. Overall material flows

Figs. 2 and 3 show the historical development of the two com-ponents of domestic material consumption (DMC): physical tradebalance (PTB) and domestic extraction used (DE). Fig. 4 shows thehistorical development of DMC itself.

Over the period studied, PTB was negligible for industrialnon-metallic minerals APT, for biomass APT until 1990, and for con-struction minerals APT (which was also given by the way this lastmaterial category was calculated), but significant for fossil fuelsAPT, metal ores APT and biomass APT since 1990.

The development of DE mostly followed the development ofDMC. The development of DMC over the whole period can be bro-ken down into a few distinctive phases:

Khamis dollar is a hypothetical unit of currency that has the same purchasing powerthat the U.S. dollar had in the United States at a given point in time. It is basedon the twin concepts of the purchasing power parities (PPP) of currencies and theinternational average prices of commodities, and it is used to make comparisonsboth between countries and over time (Wikipedia, 2010).

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Fig. 2. Physical trade balance (PTB) in Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia (1855–1913)and Czechoslovakia (1919–2007). Note: Marble columns in this and all other figuresshow the breaks in time series during World War I (1914–1918) and World WarII (1938–1945). Note: Positive PTB values refer to net import while negative valuesrefer to net export of particular material categories.

Fig. 3. Domestic extraction used (DE) in Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia (1855–1913)and Czechoslovakia (1919–2007).

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sil fuels gradually replaced biomass as the main source of energythroughout industrialization (Haberl, 2006; Kuskova et al., 2008).Non-metallic construction minerals APT first recorded a decline,

ig. 4. Domestic material consumption (DMC) in Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia1855–1913) and Czechoslovakia (1919–2007) showing the phases of its develop-

ent.

his growth was mostly caused by the advent of fossil fuels. WhileMC of fossil fuels was about 1 million tons and accounted for 3ercent of total DMC in 1855, it was 26 million tons and its share

f total DMC was about 35 percent in 1913.

Phase 2 (1919–1929): Acceleration of DMC growth after the for-ation of the Czechoslovak Republic in the 1920s.2 In this period

2 As there is no overwhelming growth of DMC between 1913 and 1919, it can bessumed that DMC of Slovakia was quite low in 1855–1913. Moreover, a large partf the DMC growth was accounted for by biomass between 1913 and 1919, which

ators 11 (2011) 1375–1384

DMC increased from 89 million tons in 1919 to 114 million tons in1929, i.e., by 29 percent. This increase happened across all mate-rial categories, but most significantly in the metal category (134percent growth from 1.6 million tons to 3.7 million tons) and fossilfuel category (41 percent growth from 27 million tons to 38 milliontons).

Phase 3 (1930–1937): Decrease and iterative growth of DMC inthe 1930s. DMC first went down to a level of 100 million tons in1934 compared to 1929, which represents a decrease of about 13percent, and then grew at a similar pace and reached 114 milliontons in 1937. The decrease of DMC was mostly accounted for by fos-sil fuels at the beginning of the 1930s while its iterative growth was,besides fossil fuels, caused by non-metallic construction minerals.

Phase 4 (1946–1980): Steep increase in DMC after the WorldWar II, which lasted until the end of the 1970s. DMC grew from97 million tons in 1946 to 367 million tons in 1980, i.e., by about280 percent. The growth of DMC in 1946–1980 was caused by fos-sil fuels (growth of approx. 480 percent from 27 million tons in 1946to 154 million tons in 1980), and by non-metallic construction min-erals, as heavy industries are very infrastructure intensive (growthof approx. 230 percent from 38 million tons to 124 million tons).There was also a significant growth in metal ores (growth of approx.390 percent from 2.2 million tons to 11 million tons) and industrialnon-metallic minerals (growth of 72 percent from 16 million tons in1960 to 28 million tons in 1980).3 The lowest growth was recordedfor biomass, which went up by 65 percent from 30 million tons in1945 to 50 million tons in 1980.

Phase 5 (1981–1989): Stabilization of DMC in the 1980s. In thisperiod DMC stagnated and ended up in 1989 at similar levels to1980.

Phase 6 (1990–1994): Steep decrease in DMC in the first halfof the 1990s. The total DMC decreased from 360 million tons in1990 to 238 million tons in 1994, i.e., by 34 percent. The decreasetook place in all material categories with the highest in metal ores,which went down by 62 percent from 8.8 million tons in 1990to 3.3 million tons in 1994, followed by non-metallic constructionminerals (decrease of 45 percent from 136 million tons to 75 milliontons), industrial non-metallic minerals (decrease of 40 percentfrom 29 million tons to 18 million tons), fossil fuels (decrease of23 percent from 135 million tons to 104 million tons) and biomass(decrease of 21 percent from 50 million tons to 39 million tons).

Phase 7 (1995–2007): Stagnation and mild fluctuation of DMC inthe second half of the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century.Following the steep decrease in the first half of the 1990s, DMCfluctuated in the second half of the 1990s and in the first decade ofthe 21st century. This was not true for non-metallic constructionminerals only, which recorded steady growth in this period (byabout 52 percent from 28 million tons in 1994 to 43 million tons in2007).

Fig. 5 shows the proportions of particular material categories intotal DMC. Fossil fuels APT and biomass APT recorded the largestdynamics in their shares of total DMC. While fossil APT fuelsincreased from a few percent to more than 40 percent, biomassAPT showed the opposite: a decline from about 45 percent to 13percent. This development can be attributed to the fact that fos-

supports the fact that Slovakia was still a mostly agricultural country with a lowlevel of industrialization in the second half of the 19th century and the first half ofthe 20th century (Selucky, 1960).

3 For this development phase, we refer to a different time span compared to otherDMC material categories, as the data availability for industrial non-metallic mineralsdo not allow for any analysis before 1960.

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J. Kovanda, T. Hak / Ecological Indicators 11 (2011) 1375–1384 1379

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ig. 5. Shares of particular material categories in total DMC in Bohemia andoravia-Silesia (1855–1913) and Czechoslovakia (1919–2007).

ut their share has been fluctuating around an average of 34 percentince roughly the 1910s (with the range varying from 28 percento 43 percent). Industrial non-metallic minerals APT have shownhe most stable share of all material categories since the 1960s atbout seven percent. An analysis of the previous period is, however,mpossible due to a lack of data on this material category. The low-st share in DMC was recorded for metal ores APT. Their share wasess than two percent before the First World War, then increasedo five percent and went down again to two percent.

There have not been many studies so far focusing directly onistorical DMC, so the possibilities for international comparison areuite limited. Fig. 6 shows historical per capita DMC for Bohemiand Moravia-Silesia/Czechoslovakia, the United Kingdom (UK) andhe whole world. The comparison with the rest of the world isomewhat problematic because an increase in DMC per capita incertain region can be nullified by a decrease in another region,hich hampers drawing any conclusions on the basis of relation toarticular socio-economic changes. The world data are thereforehere to show a more complete picture only and we do not assesshem any more deeply in Section 4.

DMC per capita was somewhat higher in the UK compared toohemia and Moravia-Silesia in the second part of the 19th cen-ury. By the first half of the 20th century, however, Bohemia and

oravia-Silesia and then Czechoslovakia had caught up with theK. After World War II, Czechoslovakia and the UK experienced

imilar growth in DMC, but it leveled off and declined more quicklyn the UK.

DMC can be related to economic variables such as GDP to expresshe efficiency by which an economy transforms material inputs intoconomic output. Fig. 7 shows the material productivity (GDP toMC ratio) for Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia/Czechoslovakia, the

ig. 6. Domestic material consumption (DMC), international comparison (Source:rausmann et al. (2009), Schandl and Schulz (2002), own calculations).

Fig. 7. Material productivity (GDP/DMC), international comparison (Source:Krausmann et al., 2009; Schandl and Schulz, 2002; Maddison, 2009; own calcu-lations).

UK and the whole world. The world data are not discussed anyfurther for the same reasons as for DMC per capita.

There was first stagnation and then a slight growth in materialproductivity in Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia before World War I.A drop in this indicator followed the First World War, althoughit can be partly a consistency problem, as DMC excluded Slovakiabefore 1919, but the available GDP data covered Czechoslovakia forthe whole monitored period. Material productivity grew steeplyafter the formation of the Czechoslovak Republic, but this growthwas interrupted by the world crisis of 1929. After World War IImaterial productivity stagnated and this lasted until the end of the1980s. Finally, the fall of the communist regime and the transi-tion towards a market economy brought about an unprecedentedgrowth in material productivity. The pattern of development ofmaterial productivity was quite similar in the UK: growth until thebeginning of the 1930s, a decrease during the Second Ward War andthe post-war industrialization, and recurrent growth in the secondhalve of the 20th century.

Although the absolute values of GDP per capita in Bohemiaand Moravia-Silesia/Czechoslovakia were comparable to Austriaand higher than in other parts/succession states of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy before World War II, it was far below the percapita GDP of UK (it was 2606 International Geary-Khamis dollarsin Czechoslovakia, but 5144 International Geary-Khamis dollars inthe UK in 1925, for instance) (Maddison, 2009; Lacina and Hajek,2002).1 This was reflected by much lower material productivity inabsolute values. The drop in material productivity in the UK afterWorld War II brought this country closer to the Czechoslovak level,but the difference started to grow again in the 1960–1980s. On theother hand, after 1990 the material productivity in Czechoslovakiaonce more started to converge with the UK’s material productivity.

3.2. Particular material categories

This part of the article is focused on the historical developmentof particular material categories of DMC. As fossil fuels and biomasswere discussed thoroughly by Kuskova et al. (2008), we concentrateon metal ores APT, industrial non-metallic minerals APT and non-metallic construction minerals APT.

Fig. 8 shows DMC of metal ores APT in Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia for 1855–1913 and Czechoslovakia for 1919–2007. Fig. 9shows DMC of industrial non-metallic minerals APT for Czechoslo-vakia for 1960–2007. Data availability for this material category

did not allow for any analysis before 1960. Fig. 10 shows DMC ofnon-metallic construction minerals APT.

DMC of metal ores APT recorded the largest fluctuation of allmaterial categories. The most fluctuating DMC of metal ores APT

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Fig. 8. Domestic material consumption (DMC) of metal ores APT in Bohemia andMoravia-Silesia (1855–1913) and Czechoslovakia (1919–2007). Note: Negative val-ues for pig iron and steel and other products from metals refer to net export of thesematerial categories.

Fig. 9. Domestic material consumption (DMC) of industrial non-metallic mineralsAt

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PT in Czechoslovakia (1960–2007). Note: Negative values for glass and pottery refero net export of this material category.

as recorded for the 1930s and above all for the first half of the990s. After this, DMC at first seemed to stabilize, but then peakednprecedentedly in 2004 when the Czech and Slovak Republicscceded to the European Union. DMC of industrial non-metallicinerals APT showed a similar pattern of development to otheraterial categories in the 1960–1980s: first growth, which then

eveled out before the fall of the communist regime. After 1990MC of industrial non-metallic minerals APT went down and finally

tabilized at about 2/3 of the 1980s level.

ig. 10. Domestic material consumption (DMC) of non-metallic constructioninerals APT in Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia (1855–1913) and Czechoslovakia

1919–2007).

ators 11 (2011) 1375–1384

Although DMC of non-metallic construction minerals APT wascalculated for most of the period, the calculated data for 1989 alignsvery well with the data from statistics for 1990 for all subcategoriesof this material category. The difference between these two yearswas only a few percent, which proves the validity of the selectedcalculation method. The time development of this material cate-gory mostly followed the total DMC.

4. Discussion

4.1. Overall material flows

PTB shows dependency of the economy on materials fromabroad. The PTB for fossil fuels APT was negative until the SecondWorld War: coal was the main fossil fuel used in this period and asCzechoslovakia has abundant deposits of this raw material (CzechGeological Survey – Geofond, 1961–1990) it was able to export partof its production. After the Second World War, however, the situ-ation changed significantly with the advent of crude oil and lateron natural gas. Czechoslovakia has very low deposits of these rawmaterials and had to cover their consumption by imports. This ledto a significantly positive PTB for fossil fuels APT, which reached alevel of more than 25 million tons in the 1980s. The same applied tometal ores APT. Their PTB was mostly positive, as deposits of metalores in Czechoslovakia were already significantly depleted duringthe 13–18th century (Kafka (ed.), 2003).

The gradual growth of DMC in Phase 1 could be attributed tothe industrialization of Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia, which grad-ually became the most economically developed and industrializedparts of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy (Lacina, 2000). While themajority of the population was working in agriculture in Bohemiaand Moravia-Silesia in 1869, these countries overtook the rest of themonarchy in the level of industrialization at the beginning of the20th century with about 40 percent of the population employedin industry (Häufler, 1984). There was manufacturing of pig ironbased mostly on domestic iron ore deposits (Kafka (ed.), 2003), butthe focus was put on consumer industries such as food and textiles.The textile industry, the oldest and largest one, consumed domes-tic wool and flax, as well as imported cotton (Häufler, 1984). Thegrowth of DMC in 1855–1913 was mostly caused by fossil fuels,which proved to be a handy and cheap energy source for devel-oping industries. This was supported by the fact that Bohemia andMoravia-Silesia had abundant domestic deposits of coal, which wasa prime fossil fuel used in this stage of industrialization.

The new Czechoslovak Republic inherited a meaningful partof the production capacities of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy:while accounting for only 20 percent of the monarchy area and 25percent of the monarchy population, it accounted for 70 percent ofmonarchy industry (Häufler, 1984; Plevza, 1978). This good startingposition was exploited for the further development of mostly con-sumer industries, but also some heavy industries, such as iron andsteel and the manufacturing of fabricated metal products, so thatthe volume of industrial production was about 40 percent higherin 1929 compared to the pre-war period (State Statistical Office,1968). This was reflected by the accelerated growth of DMC in Phase2.

The decrease in DMC at the beginning of Phase 3 can beattributed to the world crisis of 1929, the following recovery mayhave been strengthened by the advent of Fascism in Germany,which resulted in the mobilization of military industries and prepa-ration for a possible war.

With the exception of 1946 and 1947, Czechoslovakia was acentrally planned economy under communist rule in Phase 4,which put an emphasis on economic growth based on mining andheavy industries, such as iron, steel and chemicals (Reznicek et al.,

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this was not enough for expanding industries and iron ore hadto be imported. Its imports gradually increased and at the endof the 1920s they were roughly equal to domestic production.Besides iron ore, the Czechoslovak Republic continued the mining

4 New European Union member states acceded to the European Union in 2004

J. Kovanda, T. Hak / Ecologica

977). As these industries are in general very intensive on energyources, infrastructures and material inputs for production, DMCrew accordingly. Another factor contributing to DMC growth washe political aim to bring Slovakia to a similar level of industrial-zation as Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia, which was pursued in the950s and 1960s (Selucky, 1960; Reznicek et al., 1977). Comparedo other material categories, biomass APT recorded a relative lowncrease in this Phase. As shown by Steinberger et al. (2010), DMC ofiomass APT is largely driven by population while the DMC of otheraterials is much more closely related to economic development.

he growth in population was about 19 percent in Czechoslovakian 1946–1980 so the increase in biomass consumption above thisevel can be attributed to changes in peoples’ diet (higher incomef calories per capita and higher share of meat) (Federal Statisticalffice, 1985). A more precise assessment of the influence of variousrivers on the development of particular DMC material categoriesould require an IPAT analysis as shown, for instance, in Kovanda

nd Hak (2008).It seems that the centrally planned economy exhausted its

otential for economic growth as measured by GDP in Phase 5,ince it slowed down by about 50 percent compared to previousecades (Maddison, 2009).1 This was reflected by stagnation inotal DMC. The steep downward trend of DMC followed in Phase. The end of the 1980s saw the fall of communist regimes in Euro-ean countries, including Czechoslovakia, which was followed byhe transition of the centrally planned economy towards a marketconomy. Czechoslovakia further split into two states in 1993: thezech Republic and the Slovak Republic. The decrease in DMC cane attributed to several reasons (Kovanda et al., 2008): (1) a vastrough in the overall economic output at the beginning of the 1990snd the consequent lower demand for material inputs, (2) damp-ning of material-intensive industries such iron and steel and anncrease in the share of services, which are in general less material-ntensive than industries, (3) substitution of coal with liquid andaseous fuels, which are, per mass unit, more energy-efficient, and4) increase in material efficiency due to the modernization of theroduction base.

As both the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic recordedignificant economic growth in Phase 7 and the DMC stagnated, itan be assumed that both countries were still profiting from someactors that reduced material consumption and increased materialroductivity identified for the first half of the 1990s.

The somewhat higher level of DMC per capita in the UK com-ared to Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia in the second part of the 19thentury can be attributed to the fact that industrialization startedarlier in this country. The fact that Bohemia and Moravia-Silesiand then Czechoslovakia had caught up with the UK by the firstalf of the 20th, however, supports the notion about the high levelf industrialization in Czechoslovakia in this period (Plevza, 1978;acina, 2000). The steeper decline in DMC in the UK in the 1930suggests that this country was more severely hit by the world crisisf 1929 compared with Czechoslovakia. The similar growth in DMCfter World War II reflects the development of heavy industries inoth countries while the earlier leveling off and decline of DMC

n the UK means that this country turned towards consumer andervice-based industries more quickly and thus developed a lessaterial-intensive economy. This is supported by data on the struc-

ure of gross value added from the 1970s onwards, which clearlyhows a decreasing share of industry and an increasing share of ser-ices in total gross value added (Eurostat, various years). The DMCumbers also suggest that this transition was much smoother inhe UK and lacked the turmoil related to the fall of the commu-

ist regime and the transition from a centrally planned to a marketconomy in Czechoslovakia.

The development of material productivity proves that the indus-rialization based on heavy industries leads to stagnation of this

ators 11 (2011) 1375–1384 1381

indicator. On the other hand, the shift to a more service-basedeconomy brings about increase in material productivity. It was adrawback of Czechoslovakia that due to communist rule the post-war focus on heavy industries lasted until the end of the 1980s,which caused a significant lag in material productivity comparedto former EU15 countries such as the UK.

The concept of material productivity is related to the conceptof decoupling economic growth from environmental pressure anddegradation (OECD, 2008). The higher the material productivity,the lower the consumption of materials per unit of GDP and thelower the pressure exerted on the environment per unit of GDP.The issue of decoupling has a prominent position in many Europeanenvironmental and sustainability policies nowadays (EuropeanCommunities, 2002, 2005, 2006). As shown in the above analy-sis, the environmental pressure per unit of GDP is still higher innew European Union member states4 such as the Czech and SlovakRepublics compared to older European Union member states suchas the UK.5

4.2. Particular material categories

The large fluctuation of metal ores APT can be substantiatedby the fact that while society needs a steady supply of food(biomass), energy (fossil fuels) and shelter (non-metallic construc-tion minerals) for its inhabitants to survive, metals are used forindustries. The production of metal industries is going up and downin order to accommodate the price changes of metals, as well asnew emerging or closing markets. Apart from the times of theAustro-Hungarian monarchy, DMC of metal ores APT recorded themost stable growth in the 1920s when Czechoslovak industry tookadvantage of the favorable inheritance of industrial capacities afterthe dismemberment of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and thenin the 1950–1970s. Czechoslovakia was integrated into the sys-tem of the spatial division of labor among the members of theCouncil for Mutual Economic Assistance in this period (Bideleuxand Jeffries, 2007), which provided overall price stability and mar-kets for metal products. The periods with the largest fluctuationincluded the 1930s, which can be attributed to the world crisis of1929, and above all for the first half of the 1990s, which was relatedto the transition from a centrally planned to a market economy.

With respect to metals, Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia/Czechoslovakia showed the typical development patternsof industrialized economies (Behrens et al., 2007; Giljum et al.,2009) in the monitored period: it mined or imported raw metalswhich were turned into more processed metal products and usedeither domestically or exported. At the end of the 19th century andthe beginning of the 20th century, Bohemia and Moravia-Silesiaused mostly domestically mined iron ore. While its productionwas 76 thousand tons in 1880, it increased to 865 thousand tons in1910. The production of pig iron went up accordingly (Kafka (ed.),2003). Other mined metal ores included polymetallic ores, whichwere used for production of gold, silver and lead, and uranium ore,used for production of uranium pigments. After the formation ofCzechoslovakia, iron ore was mined in Slovakia as well, although

and 2007 include Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovak Republic and Slovenia.

5 Older European Union member states as of 1995 include Austria, Belgium,Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal,Spain, Sweden, the Netherlands, and the UK.

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f polymetallic ores, uranium and manganese ore in Slovakia.he developing metal industries produced pig iron, steel, rolledtock and rails in this period, which were also partly exported. Fornstance, the export of rolled stock represented nearly 40 percentf total production in 1930. After World War II, Czechoslovakiatill mined iron ore, but its gradually depleted deposits wereargely replaced by resources from abroad, which representedp to 90 percent of iron ore consumption. Moreover, there werelso significant imports of chromites and bauxite. The mining ofolymetallic ores continued, but great emphasis was put on theining of uranium ore, which was considered a strategic resource.

ts extraction peaked at 600 thousand tons at the end of the 1950snd then its yearly production stabilized at about 540 thousandons (Kafka (ed.), 2003). Under the communist administration,zechoslovakia saw a tremendous development in heavy industry,rimarily the iron and steel industries: production of steel grewy approx. 300 percent between 1950 and 1985 (Mitchell, 2003).ignificant amounts of this production – up to 30 percent – werexported, which effectively decreased DMC of metals in this periodompared to DMC of iron ore and non-ferrous metal ores. Thesexports went mostly to the countries of the Council for Mutualconomic Assistance with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republicslaying a key role (Federal Statistical Office, 1958–1989). Afterhe fall of the communist regime, the mining of ores was even

ore suppressed, with only iron ore mined in the Slovak Republicnd uranium ore mined in the Czech Republic at the end of theonitored period. Domestic resources thus constituted only a

ew percent of the total raw metal consumption. There were alsoignificant changes in the production base during the transitionrom a centrally planned to a market economy. The focus was putn consumer industries, such as the electro-technical industry andar industry, from which the latter in particular gained a signifi-ant position in both the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic,mounting to about 20 percent of total gross value added fromanufacturing (Eurostat, various years). Both countries remained

ery export-oriented, but the markets changed dramatically:or instance, about 80 percent of exported metal products wentrom the Czech Republic to the EU15 countries at the beginningf the 21st century (Czech Statistical Office, various years). Thetrong trade links to EU15 countries also seemed to be behind thenprecedented upheaval of DMC of metals in the year of accessiono the European Union, as it brought about an elimination of thedministrative barriers in foreign trade (for details see Kovandat al., 2010).

Unlike metals, the vast majority of consumed industrial rawinerals came from domestic resources. On average, only 3 percentere imported—principally apatite, asbestos and salt. Manufac-

ured industrial non-metallic minerals from imports includedineral fertilizers and sulphuric acid, but their share of total DMCas again only a few percent. Similarly, the role of exports was neg-

igible. The only products which had a negative trade balance andecreased the total DMC compared to DMC of all other industrialon-metallic minerals APT, were glassware and pottery. This, how-ver, mostly happened after the transition period towards a marketconomy.

The largest part of DMC of industrial non-metallic minerals APTas composed of limestone for industrial processes, which weresed in the iron and steel, chemical and food industries. Otherajor industrial non-metallic minerals included dolomite used in

he iron, steel, chemical and ceramic industries, industrial sandssed in the foundry and glass industries and clays and kaolin used

n the chemical and ceramic industries. All these minerals main-

ained similar shares of total DMC after the fall at the beginning of990s compared to 1960–1980s, with the exception of kaolin. Itshare was 10 percent in 1990, but due in large part to increasingxtraction in the Czech Republic it increased to 19 percent in 2007.

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In fact, the Czech Republic was one of the major kaolin producersin Europe at the beginning of the 21st century (Bundesanstalt fürGeowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, 2005).

Regarding the DMC of non-metallic construction minerals APT,its part other non-metallic construction minerals represented bybuilding/crushed stone, ornamental stone and brick clays in the1990–2007 data, was the most stable part of DMC. Due to the calcu-lation procedure, its development was driven both by the increasein population and by the increasing proportion of the urban pop-ulation. Before World War I, the population gradually grew from6.5 million inhabitants in 1855 to 9.5 million inhabitants in 1914,while urbanization grew from 50 percent to 64 percent. The num-ber of inhabitants rose to 13 million due to the inclusion of Slovakiain 1919, but urbanization dropped to 50 percent, as Slovakia wasa mostly rural region (Selucky, 1960; Reznicek et al., 1977). Forthe rest of the period, the growth of the population and urbaniza-tion was gradual with the exception of 1946 when the populationwent down from 14.2 million to 12.9 million due to the transfer ofmostly Germans from the borderlands after World War II. In 2007,Czechoslovakia ended up with 15.7 million inhabitants and urban-ization of about 74 percent (Czech Statistical Office, 2006b; FederalStatistical Office, 1985). Building stone, ornamental stone and brickclays were used for the construction of housing throughout themonitored period and before the more abundant use of concreteand asphalt for the extension of transport infrastructure. The lengthof the roading system was 4958 km in Bohemia and Moravia-Silesiain 1848 and covered all main transport routes (Brunclik et al., 2009),so this consumption was mostly due to regional roads and themaintenance of the current road system.

Czechoslovakia has reported the production of cement andasphalt since the 1930s, which is reflected by the appearance oflimestone for cement production, and sand and gravel for con-crete and asphalt production in DMC. Although one can assumethat a minor amount of cement had been produced before thisdate, the increased volumes in the 1930s could be related to thebuilding of massive fortifications in Bohemia before the SecondWorld War, which was the answer to growing Nazi power inneighboring Germany (Aron et al., 1990). After World War II, con-sumption of limestone for cement production and sand and gravelfor concrete and asphalt production grew significantly to becomethe dominant part of DMC of non-metallic construction minerals.This growth proved that heavy industries are very infrastructure-intensive because when there was a decline in the importance ofheavy industry in the 1990s, concrete production (and consump-tion of sand and gravel) went down steeply. An additional factorenhancing the consumption of sand and gravel was the sealing ofroads, which took place in the 1950–1960s: about 70 percent ofroads were equipped with a dust-free surface in 1970 (Bruncliket al., 2009). Moreover, the construction of a motorway networkstarted in the 1960s, which reached a length of 356 kilometers in1990 and 657 km in 2007 (Ministry of Transport, 2008).

4.3. Future development of historical material flow analysis

Future work in the field of historical material flow analysiscan be broken down into data-related work and analysis-relatedwork. Data-related work should focus on the further testingof the method for the calculation of extraction/consumption ofnon-metallic construction minerals and on making the histori-cal MFA data available for other countries. Analysis-related workshould look for empirical relationships between the material flowindicators and other socio-economic factors within an historical

perspective (e.g., technological advancement), which might, how-ever, be again hampered by scarce availability of historical dataon factors other than population and GDP. These relationshipscould be used in scenarios and models in order to extrapolate fur-

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her trends in material consumption and ensuing environmentalnd socio-economic problems. The models can, for instance, assessotentials and help in planning for decoupling economic growthrom material consumption, which is highly relevant from theiewpoint of European environmental and sustainability policies.his was addressed by Giljum et al. (2008), who showed that pos-ible improvements in material productivity in Europe are likely toe accompanied by increasing imports of material-intensive prod-cts, causing shifts in environmental pressures related to materialxtraction and processing away from Europe towards resource-richountries. Interesting insights into behavior of the socio-economicystem could result from the relationship of various material flowndicators to each other. The authors of this article plan calculatinghistorical time series of the physical stocks of the Czechoslovak

conomy and relate it to the DMC indicator. This will show whichart of DMC is transformed into fixed capital and present a basisor industrial production, and which part is directly transformednto emissions and waste flows. It can be assumed that the share ofxed capital formation will differ depending on the socio-economicevelopment of the country.

. Conclusions

This article shows that development of DMC closely mir-ors socio-economic development in Bohemia and Moravia-ilesia/Czechoslovakia: first, slow industrialization, which tooklace in the second half of the 19th century, was reflected mostlyy the growing consumption of fossil fuels. The fossil fuel share ofMC grew from a small base to more than 30 percent in this period,

ubstituting biomass as the main source of energy. Industrializa-ion accelerated after the formation of the Czechoslovak Republic in918, but came to a stop during the world crisis of 1929. Next, accel-ration occurred after World War II when Czechoslovakia becamecentrally planned economy under communist rule, which put anmphasis on the massive development of heavy industries. Thishase of industrialization was accompanied by growth in DMC in allaterial categories with the exception of biomass. The role of met-

ls in Czechoslovak industry should be emphasized here becauselthough Czechoslovakia became one of the prime producers ofteel in this period, it lacked sufficient domestic resources of metalres and had to import about 90 percent of total consumption. Theteep increase in DMC leveled off in the 1980s, which was followedy a decrease in DMC after the fall of the communist regime in989. This decrease can be attributed to the transition from a cen-rally planned to a market economy and the related dampening of

aterial-intensive industries and an increase in the share of ser-ices, the substitution of coal with liquid and gaseous fuels, andn increase in material efficiency due to the modernization of theroduction base. With respect to metals, however, the high for-ign trade dependency that had developed in the 1950s–1980sven increased. The positive effect of the above factors also con-inued in the second half of the 1990s and in the first decade ofhe 21st century: DMC did not grow, but rather fluctuated in thiseriod, although both the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republicxperienced significant economic growth.

The international comparison of DMC per capita shows veryomparable results for Czechoslovakia and the UK, while worldMC per capita is substantially lower. GDP per DMC shows a sim-

lar trend for Czechoslovakia and the UK, but absolute values forzechoslovakia were significantly below the British values over thehole monitored period. The development during and after the

ransition period from a centrally planned to a market economyndicates that material productivity in Czechoslovakia (and possi-ly in other former communist countries) may align with materialroductivity in EU15 countries in a foreseeable future.

ators 11 (2011) 1375–1384 1383

Acknowledgments

The research presented in this article was undertaken as part ofthe project 205/08/1475 “Historical analysis of the Czech Repub-lic socio-economic metabolism and its requirements for energy,materials and land-use,” funded by the Grant Agency of the CzechRepublic. This support is gratefully appreciated. We would fur-ther like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their usefulcomments during the submission procedure.

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