Group Work Strategies in a Jamaican Classroom Setting: What to bear in mind?

Group Work Strategies in a Jamaican Classroom Setting.

María Teresa Sánchez Alcolea

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Group Work Strategies in a Jamaican Classroom Setting: What to bear in mind?


Summary

Group work is a widely known, but not always properly exploited language teaching strategy. Carefully planned, it may be successfully used in language classes; resulting in better learning, bonding, solidarity and, even, individual self-confidence. Not so carefully planned, it is on occasions used by some teachers simply to “save time and to maintain order by keeping all pupils simultaneously occupied” (Walter, 1930:6). Nevertheless, whichever use is made of group work, it is a language learning strategy strongly based on humanistic methods and a task-based approach and, success level aside, serves to enhance pupils participation and, with it, a more successful learning of the target language translated in a “stimulation of simultaneous talking, a greater variety of quantity and quality language use, exploratory talk, and an enhanced communication”. (Long, 1990:35)

The paper discusses the importance of interaction in a group to: a) “decompose Target Language structures and derive meaning from classroom events; b) create opportunities for students to incorporate TL structures into their speech; c) establish a jointly constructed communication (Chaudron, 1988:10); and d) allow more productivity by keeping students engaged.

The author positions Group Work as an effective learning strategy, especially for large groups of learners willing to show full commitment to the task, and discusses issues relating to motivation, group and personal responsibilities, as well as code switching.

Introduction

Cooperation is an important human and social aspect. It offers important rewards

derived from satisfaction; to some, because their needs have been met; to others, because

they have experienced those naturally human feelings activated as a result of having

contributed with something.

In education, a social activity per excellence, cooperation surfaces in many ways;

but especially during learning as a cooperative process. In reviewing the positive effects

of cooperative learning, Sharan and Shaulov affirm that,

Cooperative learning fosters positive social relations among classmates

through peer collaboration and mutual assistance in small groups; it gives

expression to the motivating effects of working together with others

toward a common goal largely free from competition; and it cultivates the

pupil’s sense of acceptance on an equal footing with others in the group

(Sharan & Shaulov, 1990:174).



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Therefore, a collaborative approach to the teaching learning process brings forth

essential elements of camaraderie and spirit of cooperation, thus counteracting the

competitiveness and isolation which a whole class arrangement may develop. Whole

class “isolates pupils psychologically, generates invidious social comparisons and

competition for the teacher’s praise and attention (Sharan & Shaulov, 1990:174).

One of the questions this paper raises is whether cooperative learning, especially

in the form of group work, is an advisable strategy? Beebe & Masterson summarise some

of the advantages of working in groups stating that groups,

Have more information than individuals;

Stimulate creativity;

Help members remember what they discussed;

Help members get a better understanding of themselves (Beebe & Masterson,

2006:12-13)

Despite the general character of Beebe & Masterson’s proposal, it is suitable to

say that those advantages are quite valid for the teaching/learning process, especially in

the context of Foreign Language Teaching. This means that, using a collaborative

learning approach, by means of a group work strategy, can offer social as well as

psychological benefits.

The second question the paper raises is whether, within the Jamaican context, it is

viable to consider group work as a teaching strategy during English language classes. In

this regard, and departing from the premise that group work could be an effective strategy

in a Jamaican classroom setting, it is important to consider certain issues which affect the

development of such strategy; namely the presence of Jamaican Creole, which creates a

peculiar language situation and demands serious consideration of potentially counter-

producing tendencies such as code-switching.

In the context an English language class, code switching tends to militate against

the main objectives of the lessons by creating a negative barrier which limits the full-

fledged development of language skills, limiting as well English language proficiency.



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Code switching results from the regular mixture of Standard English and

Jamaican Creole; a situation deriving from the language dichotomy existing in Jamaica,

which involves a regular usage of both languages, accompanied by a reduction (erasure in

some cases) of necessarily differential barriers.

Such barriers establish the specific characteristics of languages and ultimately

determine the goals of a language class. That is, if speakers do not perceive differential

barriers between languages, they may end up mixing them in total lack of awareness,

which explains the option of language awareness and contrast as possible solutions for

code switching during English Language classes in Jamaica.

Furthermore, the paper claims that the reinstatement of differential barriers also

depends on the fostering of the need to establish patterns of usage during an English

class, which largely relates to the degree of students’ motivation. This paper, therefore,

reviews some of the issues surrounding the teaching of English as an L2 in Jamaica,

proposing the validity of group work as a teaching/strategy, but also considering the

reasons and possible solutions to code switching as one of the counter-producing

elements in the context of English language classes.

What is English Education?

For many people, the teaching of English is synonymous to the teaching of the

international language which has been reigning over the universe for several years. For

this reason, English has come to represent several things at the same time, and all might

be correct.

El inglés representa diferentes cosas para cada persona. Para algunos,

representa la lengua de la literatura inglesa. Para otros, es la lengua del

mundo angloparlante. Algunos la identifican como la lengua del

colonialismo. Otras ven el inglés simplemente como un medio para hacer

negocios y ganar dinero1.” (Richards & Jackhart, 1998:37)

1 “English represents different things for each person. For some, it represents the language of English

literature. For others, it is the language of the Anglophone World. Some identify it as the language of

colonialism. Others see English simple as a means to do business and make money.” (my translation)



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Today, English is primarily the Lingua Franca in the world. “For this, to deal with

different international bodies and organisations […] people need English. Furthermore,

English gives them easy access to the ever-expanding knowledge of science and

technology, arts and education, innovations and discoveries as all the works - books,

journals, reports, research-findings - are available in English. It is the language of

information technology that has, in fact, made the whole world a global village. English

is the language of the international labour market. English for occupational/ professional

purposes can help find jobs in other countries. In the local labour market also English has

a prestige. Knowing the language of a country […] may help one to work in that country

or in a country where that language […] is spoken. But knowing English enables to work

more or less in the whole world” (Language in India” Ch.2).

English Versus Creole

In Jamaica, English is taught primarily because it is the Official language of the

island, therefore used as the means of instruction and the ultimate end every

“knowledgeable” person wishes to achieve. That is, being educated in Jamaica is

synonymous to speaking English properly. This has been, and continues to be, a reality

despite the heavy campaign put forward in support of Jamaican Creole “as a distinct and

autonomous linguistic system, a language in its own right” (Devonish, 1986:97).

Many are the advocates of Jamaican Creole. One of the most resolute among

them, Professor Hubert Devonish, of the University of the West Indies in Jamaica, have

claimed the need to bring Creole to the surface as a medium of instruction, especially

because of the “tremendous lack of awareness of the existence of Creole as a distinct

language variety” (Devonish, 1986: 52).

Referring to the preponderance of Jamaican Creole in the island, Professor

Devonish took a bold step and proposed the inclusion of this language as a medium of

instruction, since “it is also becoming accepted that the native language of [Creole-

speaking] children should be respected within the school, and that English should be



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taught as an additional language rather than as a replacement for their native language”

(Devonish, 1986:104)

This proposal has come a long way from the 80’s when it was presented. Two

decades later, Creole has entered practically all the domains of Jamaica’s linguistic

universe, and even when English continues to be the Official language of the island, it is

a fact that Creole is spoken practically everywhere, a fact that owes much to the socio

historical events occurring in the island since Manley’s Revolution in the 70’s.2

However, this proposal of inclusion of Creoles or local languages as the means of

instruction in the countries where they are spoken is not exclusive of Jamaica. In Africa,

the same desire to enhance the teaching/learning process by using the mother tongue of

pupils has strongly surfaced.

Intellectual workers of Africa, a continent also recording a history of colonial

domination, with the addition of a deep political and linguistic disunity to make matters

worse, have also presented their proposal for an indigenous instruction noticing that

“across the continent and irrespective of the particular colonial past of a country, we are

forced to state poor performance regarding practically all major demands on the educational

system, such as low school intakes, uneven distribution of girls and boys in schools, poor

standards of teaching, low motivation of teachers and pupils, high rates of drop-outs and class

repeaters, poor results at final examinations, low transfer from primary to secondary (and from

secondary to tertiary) education, with primary school leavers remaining practically illiterate and

with no or rather low competence in the official language; quite often school leavers have gained

little or no practical or vocational qualification to make them better farmers, gardeners or

craftsmen when they return from school” (Wolff, 2006:29)

2 Manley’s Revolution in the 1970’s “popularised” education by way of social reforms, literacy campaigns

and the ruling of free education; thus opening doors to persons from all backgrounds. These persons took

their mother tongue with them to schools and the workplaces, while at the same time they were improving

their social standing as a result of their educational growth. The language, then, reached “up” in the social

ladder with them, now participating in a hitherto prohibitive social environment.



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The situation described above has raised the conviction that instruction in the official

languages (English, French, Dutch and Portuguese) is far from helping African learners to grow

intellectually, hence the urgent need to establish new language policies.

Language planning in Africa has to take place against the background of

several factors, including multilingualism, the colonial legacy, the role of

education as an agent of social change, high incidence of illiteracy, and

concerns for communication, national integration and development

(Wolff, 2006:29)

The common ground for all these local language campaigners is that learning

takes place more efficiently when developed in the students’ mother tongue. During a

conference held on May 29, 2002, under the theme “Valuing Jamaican Patois/Creole” at

Newman College of HE, in Birmingham, England, Clement Lambert, from the Institute

of Education at the University of the West Indies, referred to “three options relating to the

role of Creole and Standard English in education, “(1)Develop Creole as a language of

instruction, with the accompanying resources which will be required to enable children to

become bilinguals in Creole and Standard English; (2) [r]ecognise that many children

entering school have Creole as a first language, support and value it, and then “move

aggressively” towards acquisition of the target language, Standard English; [and ] (3)

[p]retend Creole does not exist, and treat the children as first-language speakers of

Standard English. Of these the third had been tried and failed; and the Jamaican

education system had now accepted (2). Option (1) was ruled out due, amongst other

things, to lack of resources” (Lamber, 2002, cited in Sebba, 2002)

Therefore, the teaching of English in Jamaica, in fact, faces the opposition of

Jamaican Creole; Mother tongue to most Jamaicans. This situation owes much to the

campaign carried out in support of Creole as the medium of teaching/learning in the

island. Such desire has been based on solid grounds, and has been transforming the

linguistic landscape in most Jamaican schools3; creating, at the same time, a peculiar

3 Creole is not used as a medium of instruction in every Jamaican school. However, the most relevant

aspect of this matter is that it is used naturally in practically all school and classroom settings, as many



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language situation characterised by the use of Creole as the natural form of expression,

even during English classes. This creates a problem given the fact that, since “the

vocabularies of [the students’] vernacular and English overlap, they would find it

difficult, unless they have been deliberately trained in language awareness, to recognise

differences between their vernacular and English.” (Craig, 2006:61)

The above becomes more acute with the realisation that, not only students, but

teachers often resort to code-switching from English to Creole as well; as they feel the

message can thus be best understood.

It has been suggested above, that English-based vernacular speakers, when

immersed in English subject matter and given tasks to perform in English,

often perform those tasks in their vernacular, without any reference to the

English they are supposed to be learning… [and] the teachers themselves

of vernacular speakers often get carried away by the cognitive or meaning-

focused aspects of the English tasks and neglect the focused aspects

(Craig, 2006:62).

The righteous campaign to elevate Creole to the level of National and prestigious

language has born its fruits; some sweet, some sour. Creole continues to spread and

consolidate in Jamaica; but, at the same time, the regular interaction with English has

erased differential barriers; thus reducing awareness regarding the specific differences

between the two languages and bringing as a result a consistent use of both languages

during English language classes.

In the abstract to his article “laik yu nu waan mi pikni fi laan di waitmaan

langwij! / or Creole, without Controversy, in West Indian Education”, Dennis Craig

tackles on some of these issues:

Linguists have often assumed the role of activists for Creole-language

literacy. In this context, the growth of tolerance for cultural, including

linguistic differences, has to be taken into account. Is the self-identity and

self-esteem of the Caribbean Creole speaker still under threat, as it was,

say, fifty years ago? Undoubtedly there is still a need for continued public

teachers resort to this language to make their lessons clearer for their pupils, and the majority of school

populations use Creole as their language of interaction.



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education in the latter respect, but is it possible that linguistic activism has

served its purpose? The attitudes of homes and communities are seen as

determinants of the kinds of educational action that are possible. These

attitudes have to be currently evaluated against the background of

relatively rapid linguistic change in contemporary times, globalisation, and

the individual’s everincreasing need for literacy in a world language. In

this context, while continuity of cognitive growth in one’s first language

remains critically important, the use of one’s first language in education

can justifiably assume different forms. This fact has been known for some

time, but it has a new urgency in the present-day world. For Caribbean

Creole-speaking populations, what continues to be appropriate is that

primary and secondary schools should have a range of Creole utilisation

procedures, from which selection can be made, and that can be used

flexibly and in varying ways, depending on sociolinguistic conditions, to

optimise children’s education (Craig, 2002).

Creole has come into classrooms and has stayed is most of them, even in the

English classes. Part of the problem, perhaps, relates to the fact that many individuals,

including teachers are not fully aware of the fact that English and Creole are two separate

languages and should be treated accordingly. This, then, brings forth the need to

understand the place each of these languages occupies. Is English a first, second or

foreign language? The answer to this question is quite relevant for this matter, because it

might determine the methodological approach to the teaching of it.

Despite the overwhelming task that trying to change mentalities entails, there

have been attempts to deal with this issue:

The introduction of the CAPE syllabus “Communication Studies” […]

focusses on aspects of grammar of Creole vernaculars as compared to

English on the one hand, on the linguistic situations in Caribbean

territories and their historical background on the other hand. An invitation

extended to final year linguistics students in L32B Creole Linguistics at

UWI Mona during the second semester of 2000-01 to assist in filling this

gap was enthusiastically taken up. It resulted in four groups of three

students each developing a lesson plan for a topic in the comparative

analysis of Jamaican Creole and English and piloting their lessons at a

Kingston high school. After compiling and editing the material, it was

distributed to high schools across the island, and used as a basis for



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training high school teachers, both in individual schools and in a training

session at UWI which involved teachers from schools island-wide. An

evaluation form came back with positive feedback and requests for further

training. The lesson plans are now used in schools across Jamaica, and

teachers have generally expressed appreciation for the material, in

particular for its explicit guidance through the topics. The topics covered

in the material are: (1) the comparative analysis of the vocabulary of

Jamaican Creole and English; (2) the comparative analysis of pluralization

in Jamaican Creole and English; (3) the comparative analysis of

consonants and their combinations in Jamaican Creole and English; (4) the

comparative analysis of tense marking in Jamaican Creole and English.

Each lesson plan contains a background section which aims to familiarize

the teachers with the topic at hand, a step-by-step lesson plan, and

worksheets intended for reproduction and distribution to students. We see

this development as a prime opportunity for developing language

awareness issues which are specific to the Caribbean situation in the high

school curriculum” (Kouwenberg, 2002).

What is, then, the role of an English teacher in Jamaica? It would be wise to

understand that some of them could feel “divided to the vein” (Walcott, 1986), as they

are expected to teach English to a student population of predominantly Creole speakers,

and many of them are Creole speakers themselves! Hence, in many occasions, it results

much easier to establish communication trough meaning by communicating in their

native tongue, Creole; rather than parroting phrases in Standard English and losing

opportunities for a meaningful learning (Brown, 2000:83), which is so vital for a fruitful

teaching/learning process.

However, it is important to be clear on the role language teachers have to play,

even if the students are partially verse in the Target Language. At the end of the day,

partially should not be the marker of completion, and serious attempts should be made to

bring the students’ to the recognition that English also needs a space in their lives. This

implies that the first step for a successful teaching of English in Jamaica is motivation,

which begs the question, are teachers motivated? It is preferable to depart from the

premise that they are.



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The role of motivation

Motivation plays a decisive role in the teaching/learning process. From the

students’ perspective, it ‘is one of the most important factors influencing their success or

failure in learning (McDonough, 1989:142).Therefore, it is important to consider the

degree of motivation towards the English class.

McDonough (1989) presents seven aspects related to motivation, which deserve

consideration in this paper and which include “a) energy; b) willingness to learn; c)

perseverance; d) interest; e) enjoyment of lessons; f) incentives; and g) benefits of

knowing the language” (McDonough, 1989:143).

All the aspects above can be considered when analysing the teaching of Standard

English in the Jamaican context. However, the extended presence of English in school

curricula could make it a Herculean task trying to determine exactly how motivated

Jamaican students are in respect to the learning of English; or their level of energy, etc.

Nevertheless, it could be practical to approach the issue departing from the last among

the seven factors. So, even when measuring the factor as such may prove an impossible

task, it would still be practical and beneficial to refer to the obvious advantages of

mastering the global Lingua Franca, which perhaps might incline the balance in favour of

learning English.

From a practical perspective, motivation finds its way through the understanding

of how valuable it is to be marketable in today’s world, hence the advantage of being

prepared to enter any professional ground on equal basis. This doubtlessly relates to

considerations regarding the economic, especially financial, benefits derived from being

considered a world class professional. With such facts in hand, the work of any English

teacher is half done.

The other half, then, relates to those effective strategies a teacher will resort to in

order to guarantee the quality of the teaching learning process. One of these strategies

relates to the use of collaborative learning, namely group work.



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Effectiveness of Group Work strategies in an English class

Group work is a widely known, though not always properly applied, language

teaching strategy. Carefully planned, it is usually and successfully used in Foreign

Language classes; bearing rewarding results in terms of learning, bonding, solidarity and,

even, individual self-confidence. Not so carefully planned, it is on occasions used by

some teachers simply to “save time and to maintain order by keeping all pupils

simultaneously occupied” (Walter, 1930:6).

Nevertheless, whichever use is made of group work, it is a language learning

strategy strongly based on humanistic methods and a task-based approach and, success

level aside, serves to enhance pupils participation and, with it, a more successful learning

of the target language translated in a “stimulation of simultaneous talking, a greater

variety of quantity and quality language use, exploratory talk, and an enhanced

communication”. (Long, 1990:35)

Interaction in a group, therefore, allows to a) “decompose Target Language

structures and derive meaning from classroom events; b) create opportunities for students

to incorporate TL structures into their speech; and c) establish a jointly constructed

communication (Chaudron, 1988:10). It also allows a more productive use of time,

departing from the premise that “if teachers devote large amounts of time to explanations

or management instructions, learners have less opportunity to produce the target

language” (Chaudron, 1988:52).

Group work strategy to carry out effective group discussions may involve a set of

moments, departing from group organization and evolving through a process building up

to class presentations. A proposal may involve the following:

Leader selection

Warm-up and discussion

Leader rotation

Group self-corrections of language items

Leader rotation for group sharing



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Collective writing

Board writing and class corrections/contributions

Knowledge

Group self-correction

Collective Writing (Groups)

Dramatization

Conversation

Reading for class consideration

Panel discussion

Board Writing

Collective correction (Class)

G

r

o

u

p

d

i

s

c

u

s

s

i

o

n

Leader RotationLeader Rotation

Leader RotationLeader Rotation

Figure 1: Group Work knowledge creation and collective learning

As indicated in Figure 1, group work relies heavily on tasks. Learners face three

major tasks while participating in a group activity. They are expected to “[make] sense of

instructional tasks posed on L2, then [attain] a sociolinguistic competence to allow

greater participation, and finally, [learn] the content itself. Attitudes may again have an

influence, but the cognitive demands of communication and socialization into the L2

community are dominant.” (Chaudron, 1988:5)



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The construction of knowledge, as seen in Figure 1, travels from an initial phase

of understanding the instructional task by way of “interactive features which entail ways

of negotiating comprehensibility and meaning” (Chaudron, 1988:9). This is achieved by

group discussions of the task until reaching to common ideas or concepts, involving as

well self-correction and group presentations. The final phase evidences the

sociolinguistic competence achieved by means of in-class dramatizations, readings or

panel presentations, among other activities.

A very important stage in group work is Leader Rotation, which allows a

generalization and consolidation of knowledge, though still in groups. Choosing leaders

from among those students who show less progress is a useful strategy, as it allows more

practice and helps them raise their self-confidence.

Group work, therefore, may result a very effective learning strategy for large

classes, provided that it is understood such strategy needs to be productive and demands

full commitment on the part of the learners. Lack of motivation towards the task implies

waste of time, as a great percentage of the lesson depends on the group responsibility

towards each other; as well as towards themselves as individuals.

Overall, group work and cooperative learning should result a “natural

development and exposure to [the Target Language] in meaningful, social interaction”

(Chaudron, 1988:4), offering “opportunities for extensive use of the target language in a

classroom context” (Akcan, 2006:9).

As a teaching/learning strategy, Group Work should be viewed as a working tool

which requires careful planning and management:

In an ideal classroom, management is invisible. The atmosphere is calm,

movement and interaction are comfortable, and pupils work quietly. The

teacher gives few directions and reprimands pupils infrequently. In the

real world, some classes are tough to manage. In most instances, however,

a teacher can create an orderly classroom. Doing so requires good

knowledge of the pupils and careful planning. It also requires the existence

of a clearly understood and consistently monitored set of rules and

procedures that prevents management problems before they occur. Before



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planning rules and procedures, you must consider both the characteristics

of your pupils and the physical environment of your classrooms” (Anca,

2006:10).

Effective management of group work, thus, demands careful planning and deep

knowledge of the student population. Otherwise, the effects of the teaching/learning

process can be disastrous.

Anca (2006:9) proposes some ideas to prevent negative tendencies during group

work activities:

a) Maintain order at all times.

b) Keep learner’s attention and total involvement in the learning task

c) Watch out for discipline problems

d) Try to anticipate possible reactions

e) Keep group balance (fast, average and slow learners)

f) Maintain adequate task flow*

g) Avoid Code Switching**4

Maintaining order

Group Work is a learning strategy in which students take an active role. However,

it is essential to keep in mind that the teacher is the ultimate leader or, in corporate terms,

the General Manager5. Especially in a language class, the teacher should try to follow

group progress closely, aiming at clarification and avoiding code-switch.

Keeping learner’s attention and total involvement in the learning task

Checking on work progress will prevent the tendency of students to “float”

because they feel comfortable or because they are shy. This is one of the reasons why it is

advisable to designate slow or average learners as group leaders.

4 To Anca’s proposal, I have added * and ** from my personal experience. ** works for all language

classes, but should be given particular consideration for the teaching of Standard English in Jamaica. 5 This may seem contradictory with the Humanistic approach which advocates independence and self-

growth. However, given the language situation in Jamaica, it is important to follow English language

objectives closely in order to avoid what Craig terms “confusion of objectives”.



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Watching out for discipline6 problems

In any large class, there may be situations which offer a chance for indiscipline. In

their role as managers of the process, teachers should emphasize on the need to maintain

an adequate discipline, without crushing the necessary relaxation favouring the learning

process.

Anticipating possible reactions

The “unpredictable nature of classrooms increases their complexity and challenge.

You teach in front of people. In a sense, you are on a stage, and your successes and

mistakes occur in the public space. The pupils’ (and possibly other observers’)

perceptions of your actions can have unintended consequences.” (Anca, 2006:9)

Keeping group balance (fast, average and slow learners)

Success in group work activities may depend on how balanced groups are,

especially for time management sake. Group balance may assist a great deal in keeping a

uniform progress rate among all groups, since there is a time limit for each lesson and the

final aim should always be class presentations.

Maintaining adequate task flow

Despite a possible ideal balance among groups, there might be some that work

faster than others. It is important to have additional activities prepared for such cases to

prevent lack of productivity or boredom.

Avoiding Code-switching

Code switching is one of the most serious problems in a language class. It affects

the natural interaction expected and may act as a deterrent in the learning process. Given

the aims of this paper, code switching will be treated as a separate issue, because it has a

considerable influence on the learning of English in Jamaica.

6 Discipline here is understood as being focused on the activity; not the traditionally desired “peace and

quiet”. The purpose of this activity is to generate group interaction in order to develop language skills, so

there will be a natural flow of conversation around the classroom. The aim is to maintain an “orderly

noise”.



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Group Work Principles and Anti-principles

Gathering from teaching experiences, group work is a language teaching/learning

strategy which entails principles and anti-principles, as shown in Figures 2 and 3.

Figure 2: Group Work Principles

Figure 3: Group Work Anti-principles

Joke sharing

forum in the

“wrong”

language

A chat-room

for other

“stuff”

Make-up for

lack of

teacher’s

preparation

Whimsical

topic

discussion

Make-up for

teacher’s

laziness,

tiredness and/or frustration

Unplanned

device to keep

students busy

A place for

some to “float”

and let others do

the work

Group Work

is

NOT

Enhancement of

Language Skills

Forum for Sharing

Knowledge

Meaningful

Learning

Meaningful

Interaction

Collective Skill

Development

Collective Building of Knowledge

Planned Collective

Interaction

Cooperative Learning

Group

Work

IS

IS



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Figures 2 and 3 are literally graphic. Any experienced language teacher will

immediately recognise the essential positive elements shown in Figure 2 as determinants

of a desired high-quality language learning through cooperation. Taken as a whole, those

eight principles may lead to a successful development of language skills. Figure 3, on the

other hand, summarises the negative counterparts which may constitute obstacles in the

development of language teaching/learning. Being aware of these principles and anti-

principles can prove very profitable for any teaching venture, but they carry especial

importance for the deployment of a work group strategy in a language class.

Group Work Strategy in a Jamaican Setting

Can group work be effectively used while teaching English in a Jamaican

classroom setting? The answer to such question depends on certain theoretical and

methodological considerations, including Jamaica’s language dichotomy and the issue of

code-switching; which regularly and, on many occasions, unconsciously, is used by most

English-based Creole speakers.

Jamaica language situation

Jamaica shows a rich linguistic universe, known among linguists as “Creole

continuum”, which includes the presence of phases such as Acrolect, Mesolect and

Basilect. In “purely social and demographic terms, the most important variety in Jamaica

is the intermediate one known as the mesolect; its broad limits include the speech uttered

by most Jamaicans, in most situations” (Patrick, 2003:3). “Standard (English) exists

alongside the Creole and is distinctly flavoured by it - in pronunciation, vocabulary, and

grammar” (Winford, 2002:1). This creates a peculiar situation for the learners of English.

In view of the far-reaching differences in syntax and sound pattern, it

would be quite plausible, for example, to consider English and "patois"

(the folk designation for Jamaican Creole) two distinct languages.

However, this is not the view of most Jamaicans, (my emphasis) who

tend to think of themselves as English-speaking and therefore regard

patois as some kind of English (Mair & Sand, P. 2)



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Therefore, given this “mental” inclination to mistake one language for the other,

the role of an English teacher becomes more complex. On the one hand, “there is a

tremendous lack of awareness of the existence of Creole as a distinct language variety”

(Devonish, 1986:52), which brings forth the assumption that students may be producing

“broken English, [hence the upsets regularly noticed in English written examinations due

to the problems students are facing on account of their] limited competence in English”

(Devonish, 1986:102).

The belief that “Creole languages are, after all, only ‘dialects’ of English [and

that] genuine language differences only exist when there is a marked difference in

vocabulary” (Devonish, 1986:87) has also trapped many teachers who fail to establish the

adequate contrast between the two languages, thus failing to raise the necessary

awareness in order to set the basis for a solid language learning and usage.

But the problem acquires more complexity because, even when “British

English, with an R.P. accent, has been the inherited colonial norm and continues to

exercise a strong influence in official language use, in the educational system, and the

more conservative segments of the media […] political decolonisation and the

attendant development of a new sense of cultural awareness and ethnic pride have led to

a profound change in the structure, function and prestige of many of the Creole

languages of the region (and) while the structural base of the traditional rural Creole

"basilect" is gradually being eroded through intensive language contact with English,

the resulting modified or "mesolectal" forms of the Creole have lost much of the social

stigma traditionally associated with them. British English, the traditional "acrolect", by

contrast, has lost some of its prestige and represents a norm more often proclaimed than

actually followed” (Mair & Sand:2)7.

As a result of this situation “the majority of linguists who have studied English

usage in the region therefore conceive of the complicated polyphony of more English-

7 Date of paper is not stated



19

like and more Creole-like ways of speaking as a "continuum" which provides for

gradual but far from random transitions between the two extreme linguistic poles.”

(Mair & Sand, :3)

This continuum gradient brings about noticeable differences in language usage,

which not only surface, but in fact affect the normal development of the language class.

Like in many other countries, in Jamaica “[p]roficiency in English varies according to

area, location, and city [and] classroom conditions and teaching methods vary

considerably. Therefore, although it is possible to assume that an average student after

certain years of study, acquire knowledge of basic structures of English, however, it

would be a misconception to assume that an average student […] equally knows the

structures of the language” (Hasan, 2004: 22).

Code Switch as a Teaching Strategy

Based on the above, many teachers would resort to code switch in order to bridge

the gap among the students with different language levels, but also between the students

and the content being taught. Code switch, then, becomes a teaching/ learning strategy

when meaning needs to be clarified.

In many African schools, code switch is used as a strategy in order to make up of

the precarious situation of the English language:

To help children understand what they are saying [and] to encourage them to

speak and participate in classroom activities, teachers frequently use a strategy

we call code-switching, switching between students’ home language and the

official medium of instruction. Teachers know that they are not allowed to code-

switch, yet most of them still do […]. Teachers who are using a code-switching

strategy do so with a bad conscience since they know that the official guidelines

say they are not allowed to use such a strategy. Actually the use of such a

strategy may be the best way to have students understand subject matter if one

has to teach in a language students are not familiar with […]. Teachers code-

switch not only to get subject matter across but also in order to create a more

relaxed atmosphere in class” (Alidou & Brock-Utne, 2006:86).

The above looks quite familiar to Jamaica. As Carolyn Cooper indicates, the “causes of

widespread illiteracy in Jamaica [can be related to the fact that] the language Jamaicans



20

speak, they cannot write-, and the language they write, they cannot speak. The children

are taught to read and write the 'Standard Oxford' English which is basically a foreign

tongue to them, causing much pain and anguish and causing people to give up on reading

and writing all together” (Sullivan, 2005 citing Pryce, 1997, p.239-40.). A situation like

this calls for desperate measures and code switch definitely does the part.

Code switch as identity marker

Another issue which deserves careful consideration is that, on occasions, code

switching surfaces as an “act of identity”8. In his seminal work Acts of Identity, Robert

La Page analyses the situation of West Indians in Great Britain and their use of language

to reaffirm their identity

“[West Indians can be seen] as an identifiable ethnic group [that tends] to have

greater difficulty in achieving well within the British educational system [due to

their use of] language. Educational failure appears to be linked with

unemployment and with the emergence of something reflecting an alternative

culture among young West Indians, accompanied by the use of an argot referred

to as ‘Jamaican’ as a sign of group identity” (La Page, 1985:77)

This is not far from the reality at home, though the word “argot” would never do

justice to what Jamaica Creole is as a language and what it represents for its speakers.

Nevertheless, it is a fact that the use of Jamaican Creole has become generalised and

symbolises the notion of “Jamaicanness”. As in any other society, in Jamaica “language

is frequently used as a defining characteristic of [ethnicity]” (La Page, 1985:244).

A similar situation occurs in America, where different ethnic groups use their

language as a marker of their identity. “Speakers of Chicano English and other

variants ‘maintain solidarity with those linguistic features’ which ‘signal … home and

community’. Their speech gives comfort and promotes camaraderie. It may also employ

double negatives and other non-standard forms that are not often welcome at school”

(Tavitian, 2007:2)

8 For a detailed discussion of the Acts of identity see Robert La Page Acts of Identity, 1985



21

Language as an identity marker is a reality in all civilisations. Some of which

have been misunderstood and repressed. A typical case of such repression can be found

in Peru, where many languages are still struggling against the ruling colonial Castilian:

Wandari refers to different realms of the Harakmbut world, visible and

invisible. The invisible realm is the realm of the spirits: the sky, the forest,

the river and under the river in Serowewhere the spirits of the dead

Harakmbut live. Human beings live in the visible realm of the wandari

where living things are animated by soul-matter. The well-being of

humans and of the flora and fauna of the rivers and forest is affected by

relations between the visible and invisible realms. Harakmbut establish

relations with spirits through hunting, fishing and gardening activities.

They learn how to avoid endangering themselves and their families from

dangerous spirit forces. For example, young people learn to contact

benevolent spirits in their dreams and develop beneficial relations so that

the spirit will tell them where to go to hunt and how best to garden. The

spirits communicate in the Harakmbut language. Thus the Harakmbut

language is not only used for communication and learning in the visible

realm but also for communicating with and learning about the invisible

realm of the spirits (Aikman, 1999:P.201).

So, how can these people express such notions in Castilian? They have to code

switch when expressing those notions that do not exist as such in the European language

they are forced to speak for “commercial and survival reasons” (Aikman, 1999:202).

Some scholars show their awareness of the link existing between language and

identity. Such is the case of a study carried out in Johns Island with Gullah speakers in

which students were asked to tell stories which would present “their own knowledge and

world view (communicating it ) to the outside world” (Van Sickle, et al, 2002:81). The

scholars pointed out that

Because our goal was definitely not to eradicate their native language and

culture, we focused on code switching as a means of preserving their

heritage while giving them two ways to communicate about the same

topics. In addition, the alternative terminology that we used with the

students was designed to stretch both their thinking and their precise use

of words” (Van Sickle, et al, 2002: 81-2 cited in PACE Newsletter)



22

The study showed that “certain grammatical peculiarities of the dialect, like “he

busy,” meaning “he’s busy right now”, and “he be busy,” meaning “he’s always busy”,

make nonstandard English into a separate language. Asking its young speakers to express

these ideas in standard English simply could not reflect what the pupils intended to say”

Therefore, when dealing with the issue of code switch, it is essential for teachers

to be aware of the importance of such language strategy as an expression of identity. Two

questions derive from this analysis:

a) How to balance the epistemological question of personal and ideological

identity with the goal of teaching a language that to many represents the

language of the oppressor?

b) How (and why) to avoid code switching in a situation where two languages

bear such a bittersweet relationship?

The answer to the first question requires a complex socio-psychological and

linguistic study that escapes the scope of this paper. Considerations for answering the

second question are presented below.

Disadvantages of Code Switching in a language class

Code switch does not constitute a problem in “content” subjects where the main

objective is grasping the meaning of the content in order to have the students develop

skills of analysis and synthesis in order to presents knowledge results; such being the

reasoning underlying the use of code switching as a teaching strategy. However, a

completely different situation emerges in the case of English language classes.

English language classes have as a main objective to develop skills in Standard

English. Hence questions such as, a) what is the task ahead for an English teacher?; b)

what is the real place of English in Jamaican classrooms and, by extension, in Jamaican

society?, and c) how aware are Jamaicans of their linguistic dichotomy? A full answer to

any of these questions requires a time and space that escape the possibilities of this paper.

Perhaps, it could be the subject of a further and more thorough research. This paper will

focus on code switch considering if it can be avoided in English language classes.



23

As stated before, code switch is to be avoided in a language class, in any language

class. Experienced foreign language teachers are fully aware of the fact that code switch

is usually confused with translation. They are also aware that translation should not be a

teaching method, especially in beginner levels, because it is not “believable” (Asher,

1983:2)

Translation does not help most students because there is no long-term

understanding. When students translate, there is short-term comprehension

which is erased the moment the student leaves the classroom, if not

sooner. The problem with translation is that the instructor has made an

assertion, which the critical left-brain of the student perceives as a “lie”

(Asher, 1983:1).

One major problem when using translation as a teaching/learning method is that

teachers may believe they have communicated meaning to the pupils, but it is

questionable whether students have actually “[internalized] the meaning of the words. For

most students the answer is definitely no” (Asher, 1981:P.3). So, translation poses a

problem because it may hinder the process of meaningful learning, in many cases

contributing to retard, if not eliminate, language growth.

Another disadvantage of code-switching/translation strategy is that there is no real

learning of the structure of the Target Language. Pupils will be set to “see” Target

Language structures through the structures known to them in their Mother Tongue. This

may help to explain the reason why some pupils are of the conviction that they are

speaking English while, in fact, they are reproducing a Creole structure, like the widely

accepted “from I was a boy”.9

Ways to avoid code switching in a language class. A modest Proposal

The analysis above leads to affirm that code switching is not simply a language

strategy used to find an exact way of expression; nor is it the reflection of people who

9 For a detailed discussion of Creole language structures, see Alleyne’s, Comparative Afro American,

(Unpublished manuscritpt)



24

speak any sort of “broken” language. What surfaces from the analysis is that code

switching is a very complex phenomenon which needs careful attention.

In the Jamaican context, code switching is more than a simple transfer from

English to Creole or vice versa; it entails a process of deep social connotations by means

of which students try to express their true selves. With such considerations in mind,

however, the English teacher has the task to establish patterns of usage which reflect an

observance of the objectives of the lesson and the curriculum. It is then that factors such

as motivation, language awareness and contrastive reference come to play a vital role.

Motivation, as has been stated before, may be the key to achieve the expected

results. By enhancing the students’ understanding regarding their prospects, considering

the creation of a favourable learning environment which takes into account individual

differences and social needs, teachers may be consolidating strong motivation

mechanisms which may in the long run determine the fulfilment of McDonough’s seven

principles.

However, the achievement motivation in a group of students is only half

rewarding. True success in a Creole speaking context also depends on how aware

students are regarding the similarities and differences existing between their Mother

Tongue and the Target language; which, due to their role of the latter as lexifier of their

L1, create a discomfort zone in which “first language orientation of the syllabus prevents

the latter role of standard English –dominant drama from being clear” (Craig, 2006:206).

In this regard, Craig (2006) affirms that “language awareness “is an important

aspect of ‘self-awareness’ (however) the existing CXC syllabus, consistently with its

dominant literacy-fictional emphasis, gives to ‘drama’ the role of this subprogramme”

(Craig, 2006:206). The situation here is that, logically, students’ dramatization will

emphasize more on Creole because, even if performing a play originally in English, “in a

local community context (there might be) a combined use of both vernacular and

English” (Craig, 2006:206).



25

This combination is necessary for the purpose of developing a contrastive view of

English and Creole; thus enhancing self-awareness among Creole speakers. However,

within the content of an English language class, the use (or abuse) of Creole dominated

dramas simply defeats the purpose, which is L2 learning and practicing. Thus, when it

comes to group work it is necessary to stress the importance of observing the purpose of

the lesson at all times, creating opportunities for Standard-English dominated situations.

In fact, “standard English dominant performances are a powerful tool for putting students

through the language learning processes of perception/ reception, internalizational/

understanding (Craig: 2006:206).

Student’s language awareness is essential, as is the teachers’ awareness of the

need of keeping track of Standard English use at all times during an English language

class. These factors will contribute and, in the long run determine, the adequate flow of

the lesson as part of a language class, thus establishing the character of group work as an

essential tool in the development of language skills.

Final Remarks

As a language teaching/learning strategy, group work plays an essential role

because it helps create important opportunities for constant and meaningful language

practice. On the other hand, it serves as the basis for the consolidation of habits of

cooperation and independent learning, which have a positive effect on individual

performance by enhancing self-confidence and self-awareness; while also increasing

motivation.

Due to the above contribution to the teaching/learning process, group work may

also be useful during English language classes the Jamaica context. However, there are

some elements which need serious consideration before embarking on the task of

designing and implementing this strategy. As indicated in the body of the paper, it is

important to be aware of the particular language situation of Jamaican learners, due to

their exposure to a language dichotomy caused by the close relationship existing between

L1 and L2.



26

Such closeness has resulted in the erasure of important differential barriers

evidenced in a regular mixture of both codes in practically all domains, including

academic activities. Due to the evidenced prominence of code switching in the context of

English language classes, it becomes necessary to create a learning environment in which

elements such as motivation, language contrast and language awareness are assigned

roles to counteract the negative effect of code switching, especially when developing

group work activities that create the setting for students’ interaction in a relaxed and

friendly atmosphere.

As in the case of any language class, group work can be successfully used in

teaching Standard English in a Jamaican classroom setting, provided that all parties

involved are aware of the distinctive features between English and Creole; as well as the

place these languages occupy. Such awareness may help to curtail the blurring effect of

the regular and interchangeable usage of both English and Creole; thus helping to

increase the effectiveness of group work as a teaching/learning strategy.

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Group Work Strategies in a Jamaican Classroom Setting: What to bear in mind?

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