ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Groundwater arsenic contamination in Manipur, one of the sevenNorth-Eastern Hill states of India: a future danger

Dipankar Chakraborti Æ E. Jayantakumar Singh ÆBhaskar Das Æ Babar Ali Shah Æ M. Amir Hossain ÆBishwajit Nayak Æ Sad Ahamed Æ N. Rajmuhon Singh

Received: 13 April 2007 / Accepted: 29 December 2007

� Springer-Verlag 2008

Abstract Manipur State, with a population of 2.29

million, is one of the seven North-Eastern Hill states in

India, and is severely affected by groundwater arsenic

contamination. Manipur has nine districts out of which four

are in Manipur Valley where 59% of the people live on

10% of the land. These four districts are all arsenic con-

taminated. We analysed water samples from 628 tubewells

for arsenic out of an expected total 2,014 tubewells in the

Manipur Valley. Analyzed samples, 63.3%, contained

[10 lg/l of arsenic, 23.2% between 10 and 50 lg/l, and

40% [50 lg/l. The percentages of contaminated wells

above 10 and 50 lg/l are higher than in other arsenic

affected states and countries of the Ganga–Meghna–Brah-

maputra (GMB) Plain. Unlike on the GMB plains, in

Manipur there is no systematic relation between arsenic

concentration and the depth of tubewells. The source of

arsenic in GMB Plain is sediments derived from the

Himalaya and surrounding mountains. North-Eastern Hill

states were formed at late phase of Himalaya orogeny, and

so it will be found in the future that groundwater arsenic

contamination in the valleys of other North-Eastern Hill

states. Arsenic contaminated aquifers in Manipur Valley

are mainly located within the Newer Alluvium. In Mani-

pur, the high rainfall and abundant surface water resources

can be exploited to avoid repeating the mass arsenic poi-

soning that has occurred on the GMB plains.

Keywords Groundwater arsenic contamination �North-Eastern Hill states � Manipur Valley �Arsenic with depth of tubewell � Watershed management

Introduction

Based on 20 years of surveys of groundwater arsenic

contamination and its health effects on the Ganga–

Meghna–Brahmaputra (GMB) Plains, with a population of

over 500 million, we have found that significant portions of

all the states on the Ganga Plain (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,

Jharkhand, West Bengal), some parts of the Brahmaputra

plain (Assam), and most of the plains of Bangladesh are

arsenic affected (Chakraborti et al. 2004).

The history of arsenic discoveries in states and coun-

tries in GMP-Plain is presented chronologically in

Table 1. Except for a preliminary report by Singh (2004)

on some areas in five of the seven North-Eastern Hill

states, and our work on Assam (Chakraborti et al. 2004),

no other published data are available on groundwater

arsenic contamination in North-Eastern Hill states of

India. In Manipur, Singh (2004) analysed 12 hand tube-

well water samples from Kakching Municipality in

Thoubal district, of which 6 contained [50 lg/l of

arsenic.

Present Address:D. Chakraborti (&) � E. J. Singh � B. Das �B. A. Shah � M. A. Hossain � B. Nayak � S. Ahamed

School of Environmental Studies, Jadavpur University,

Kolkata 700032, India

e-mail: dcsoesju@vsnl.com

URL: www.soesju.org

B. A. Shah

Department of Geological Sciences,

Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India

M. A. Hossain

Institute of Statistical Research and Training,

University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh

N. R. Singh

Department of Chemistry, Manipur University,

Canchipur, Manipur 95003, India

123

Environ Geol

DOI 10.1007/s00254-007-1176-x

From the available reports (Chakraborti et al. 2004;

Nickson et al. 2005) it has been noticed that most of the

arsenic affected floodplains in Asia are by the side of the

rivers that originate in the Himalayas or Tibet Plateau.

Thus it is considered that Himalayas and surrounding

mountains are potential sources of arsenic bearing miner-

als. Because the North-Eastern Hill states are part of the

Himalayan mountain range, we anticipated finding

groundwater arsenic contamination in the Newer Alluvium

(Holocene) of the Brahmaputra, Barak, Surma and Imphal

rivers. These basins cover parts of all the seven North-

Eastern Hill states: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya,

Tripura, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram (Fig. 1a).

The objective of this paper is to describe the magnitude

and severity of arsenic contamination in the four valley

districts of Manipur State which form only 10% of the state

but are home to about 60% of the population. We further

demonstrate the potential for watershed management and

surface water resources to avoid the danger of arsenic

poisoning.

Regional setting

Manipur State is surrounded by mountains with plain land

(valley) at the centre, known as Manipur Valley. It has an

area of 22,327 km2 and a population 2.29 million (2001

census). The climate is subtropical with annual temperature

ranging from 0 to 36�C and annual rainfall varying from

933 to 2,593 mm. The majority of the population depends

on agriculture. Manipur consists of nine districts (Fig. 1b),

each having 3–4 blocks. Four districts are in plain land and

the rest are in hilly areas. The four plain districts of the

Manipur Valley occupy 10% of the total area (Fig. 1c) of

the state and are home to 59% of the state’s total popula-

tion live in these four districts.

To understand the state of groundwater arsenic con-

tamination in the Manipur Valley, we surveyed all four

districts (Fig. 1c): Imphal East (709 km2, population

394,876), Imphal West (519 km2, population 444,382),

Thoubal (514 km2, population 364,140) and Bishnupur

(496 km2, population 208,368). The area is mainly

underlain by the Holocene Newer Alluvium, and is the

main area for tubewell exploitation in Manipur, and

where tubewells have been installed at depths of between

5 and 120 m.

Geology of Manipur

The Hills of Manipur lie between the Naga–Patkai Hills on

the north and northeast, and the Chin-hills on the south

forming an integral part of the Indo-Myanmar (Burma)

Ranges (IMR). The structural and tectonic pattern is tran-

sitional between the NE–SW trending pattern of Naga–

Patkai Hills and N–S trend of Mizoram and Chin Hills

(Brunnschweiler 1974). It comprises geologically young

rock formations that were uplifted by the Tertiary orogeny

of the Himalayas from the shallow bed of the Tethys Sea.

The rocks are dominantly Tertiary and Cretaceous sedi-

ments with minor igneous and metamorphic rocks. Flysch

sediments of Tertiary age underlie nearly 70% of the state

(Soibam 1998).

Disang and Barail flysch sediments underlie much of

central Manipur. The oldest formation, the Disang Series

(Eocene) comprises splintery shale with minor mudstone,

siltstone, sandstone and limestone. The Disang is overlain

by the Oligocene Barail Formation contained abundant

carbonaceous matter. The Barail is succeeded by the pre-

dominantly argillaceous Surma and the Tipam formations.

The sediments of the Surma basin is molasse (Nandy

1980). Ultrabasic igneous rocks, of the Ophiolite Zone, are

intruded into the Disang Group in east of Manipur. The

general tectonic trend of rock formations in the state is

NNE-SSW, but varies between N–S and NE–SW, and

locally NNW–SSE. Almost all the major structural ele-

ments such as folds reverse and thrust faults follow this

regional strike/trend.

Table 1 History of arsenic

discoveries in GMB Plain in

chronological order

Year Location Reference

1976 Chandigarh, North-India Datta and Kaul (1976)

1984 West Bengal, India Garai et al. (1984)

1992 Bangladesh Dhar et al. (1997)

1995 West Bengal incident came to limelight International conference (1995)

1998 Bangladesh incident came to limelight International conference (1998)

2001 Nepal Shrestha et al. (2003)

2002 Bihar, India Chakraborti et al. (2003)

October–December 2003 Uttar Pradesh, India Chakraborti et al. (2004)

December 2003–January 2004 Jharkhand, India Chakraborti et al. (2004)

January–February 2004 Assam, India Chakraborti et al. (2004)

Environ Geol

123

Topographically, Manipur comprises a ridge and furrow

terrain where sediments derived from surrounding ridges are

deposited in the furrows (Soibam 1998). In the Manipur

Valley, lenses of argillaceous sediments were deposited in

the Assam–Arakan trough. Manipur is divisible into a cen-

tral valley and the surrounding mountains. About 25% of the

valley is occupied by lakes, wetlands, barren uplands and

hillocks. The NNW–SSE oriented valley is oval shaped, and

slopes gently to the south. The Imphal or Manipur River

meanders through the Manipur Valley in a NW–SE direc-

tion (Fig. 1c) and passes through a gorge to flow out of the

state to join the Chindwin River in Myanmar.

The formation of the Manipur River and its tributaries that

drain the area was closely connected with the upliftment of

the South Manipur Hills and subsequent erosion of the weak

crest of the anticlinorium. There were multiple episodes of

low energy, fluvio-lacustrine deposition during the Quater-

nary, and these sediments are encountered to depths of

150 m. Disconnected lenticular water bodies dominate the

valley (Fig. 1c). The Manipur Valley has been infilled by

thick alluvium which is subdivided into the Older (Pleisto-

cene) and Newer Alluvium. The Older Alluvium is made up

of clay, silt, coarse sand, gravel, pebble and boulders,

deposited adjacent to the foothills and forming older river

terraces in the lower part of Manipur Valley. The Newer

Alluvium is composed of clay, sand, silt and dark clay with

carbonaceous matter, deposited mainly in the central and

upper part of the Manipur Valley.

Fig. 1 a Groundwater arsenic

contaminated area in

Ganga–Meghna–Brahmaputra

Plain, b Map showing all the

nine districts in Manipur

including the four (A–D) valley

districts, c The map showing the

study areas in Manipur Valley

Environ Geol

123

Sources of water in Manipur State

At the beginning of the twentieth century, there were

approximately 500 lakes in Manipur State (Manipur 2007)

with innumerable small ponds, swamps and marshes along

lakesides and inter-riverine tracts and many community

and household ponds. Many of these water bodies no

longer exist due to encroachments for paddy cultivation

and human settlement. At present there are still a number

of large and small lakes. Loktak in Bishnupur district is the

largest and most important freshwater lake (289 km2) in

the North Eastern Hill states and could be used as a potable

water resource after appropriate treatment. There are 155

water bodies covering an area of 530 km2 (World Bank

2007). Two main rivers drain Manipur: the Barak drains

the west and the Manipur drains the east, including the

Manipur Valley. The Manipur catchment has an area of

6,332 km2 and an average annual yield is 51.9 9 108 m3.

The Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) estimated the

groundwater resource potential of the Manipur Valley to be

around 44 9 106 m3 per annum (Mastec 2007). No previous

information on the potability of the groundwater with respect

to fluoride, arsenic, and other heavy metals was available.

Manipur receives rainfall from the SW and NE mon-

soons, with an average annual rainfall of about 2,000 mm.

A water balance calculation, considering water demand and

the available surface water resources, by Mastec (2007)

showed that the annual availability of 18.5 9 109 m3 of

water is 66% in excess of current annual requirement of

11.1 9 109 m3 (up to 2000 AD). With the prospect of water

recycling, various departments dealing with water resour-

ces and supply are optimistic that there is sufficient water

to meet the long-term needs of the Manipur Valley.

Water use in Manipur State

Before 1980, almost 100% of water used for domestic

purposes was from rivers, lakes, ponds (local name Pukh-

ris) and in hilly areas dug-wells and streams. Still now

rainwater is the main source for agricultural water. With the

increase in population from 1.0 million in 1971 to 2.29

million in 2001, use of land for human settlement, agri-

cultural activities and extensive use of fertilizers,

pesticides, insecticides, herbicides has not only reduced

water availability but also led to deteriorating water quality.

Presently groundwater is readily available. Our survey

identified 1,173 Public Health Engineering Department

(PHED) installed and 841 private tubewells. During inter-

views, villagers said that they do not like the taste of tubewell

water and mainly drink pond water. It appears that most

villagers are not aware of the danger of drinking untreated

pond water. In some cases, there are indications that

sufficient surface water is not available. For example,

Kakching Municipality (Thoubal district) was previously

supplied from a natural reservoir which dried up, and so

PHED installed 52 hand tubewells and local people installed

90 tubewells. Similarly, when PHED could not get enough

surface water to supply in Khundrakpam village (Imphal

East) they installed a tubewell-based supply. Presently, there

are 10 tubewell-based schemes covering 31 villages in the

Manipur Valley (PHED 2006). At present, underground

water is not used for agriculture but this may happen in the

future, and could add to arsenic exposure via the food chain.

Hand tubewell use in the Manipur Valley

Public Health Engineering Department installed the first

tubewell in the Manipur Valley early in 1982, and the first

private tubewell was installed in June 1982. PHED drilled

more hand tubewells after 1991–1992, many more tube-

wells than private owners. PHED reported that they had

installed 1,173 tubewells in the Manipur Valley up to 2006.

Methodology

Sample collection and procedure for arsenic analysis

In the four districts, our survey covered 8 of 9 blocks, 88

out of 490 villages, and 18 out of 28 municipal areas.

Water samples were collected in acid pre-washed 10 ml

polythene bottles. The bottles were kept overnight in dilute

laboratory grade nitric acid (1:1) and finally washed with

distilled water. Immediately after collection, 1 drop of

dilute nitric acid (1:1) GR Grade was added as pre-

servative. Arsenic and iron were determined from these

samples. Spot urine samples were collected in the same

pre-washed bottles, adding 2 drops of 50% hydrochloric

acid as a preservative, and then kept in an ice-box during

transport at Jadavpur University, by air, to the laboratory,

where they were stored in a refrigerator at 4�C.

Total arsenic in water was determined by flow-injection-

hydride generation atomic absorption spectrometry (FI-

HG-AAS) and iron by Spectrophotometry.

For urine samples, inorganic arsenic and its metabolites

(arsenite, arsenate, monomethyl arsonic acid and dimethyl

arsinic acid) were measured by FI-HG-AAS with no further

chemical treatment. Under these experimental conditions

of FI-HG-AAS, arsenobetaine and arsenocholine present in

urine are not detected (Chatterjee et al. 1995). The details

of sample collection, analytical procedure for water and

urine samples and details of the instrument and flow

injection system were as reported earlier (Chatterjee et al.

1995; Samanta et al. 1999).

Environ Geol

123

The accuracy of our analytical method using FI-HG-

AAS was verified by analyzing Standard Reference

Materials [CRM (BND 301) NPL, India water (certified

value 990 ± 200 lg/l; found 960 ± 40 lg/l); SRM

(quality control sample for trace metal analysis) from

USEPA Environmental Monitoring and Support Labora-

tory, Cincinnati, OH, USA (certified value 17.6 ± 2.21 lg/l;

found 16 ± 3.5 lg/l); Urine SRM 2670, NIST, USA

(elevated level)(certified value 480 ± 100 lg/l; found

477 ± 30 lg/l)].

Results and discussion

All the tubewells sample were drilled wells. The age of

wells was collected from PHED (2006) for 565 of 628

tubewells sampled, and ranged from less than 1–25 years.

The average ages of public and private tubewells were 11

and 7 years, respectively. Depth information for 579

tubewells indicated range of 5–120 m, with an average of

50 m. Based on door to door interviews indicated an

average of 233 users for each tubewell.

Of the 628 water samples analysed for arsenic, 366

(58.3%) were from PHED tubewells and 262 (41.7%) from

private tubewells. We do not know the total number of pri-

vate tubewells, but from the ratio (1.4:1) of PHED to private

tubewells we surveyed, the numbers of public and private

tubewells were estimated to be 1,173 (June 1982 to March

2006) and 841, respectively (Table 2). However, in Thoubal

district, there were more private (117) than public (79)

tubewells (1:1.5). The reason for the higher number of pri-

vate tubewells was because the reservoir from which PHED

supplied Kakching Municipality dried up. So, the people of

Kakching had no practical alternative to installing private

tubewells. This practice is expected to continue.

Groundwater arsenic contamination in four districts

of the Manipur Valley

We analysed 628 of the estimated 2,014 hand tubewells in

the Manipur Valley. Table 3 shows the frequency distri-

bution of arsenic concentrations in tubewells. Figure 2a, b

and c show the groundwater arsenic contamination status in

three districts of Manipur State. Of the tubewells tested,

63.3% had arsenic[10 lg/l, 23.2% between 11 and 50 lg/l

and 40% [50 lg/l. The cumulative frequency distribution

of arsenic concentrations in four districts is presented in

Fig. 3. The most severely arsenic-affected district was

Thoubal, where 77.6% of tubewells contained [10 lg/l

and 44.4% [50 lg/l. The least affected district was Bish-

nupur, where 21.4% of wells contained[10 lg/l and 7.1%

[50 lg/l. Ta

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Environ Geol

123

Figure 2c shows the status of arsenic contamination in

Kakching Municipality as per our survey. In the three

districts, Imphal west, Imphal East and Thoubal the pro-

portion of groundwater sources with arsenic contamination

exceeding 10 and 50 lg/l are quite high. A comparison of

arsenic concentrations in all states and countries on the

GMB plains and the Manipur Valley is presented in

Table 4. Although the number of hand tubewells in

Manipur is much less, the proportions of arsenic concen-

trations [10 and [50 lg/l are higher than on the GMB

plains (Table 4). The proportions are similar to those in the

most severely affected districts of Bangladesh.

Variation of arsenic concentration with tubewell depth

Of 579 tested tubewells, 71% were 30–70 m deep, and the

average depth was 50 m with a standard deviation 20 m.

Figure 4 compares the relationship between depth and

arsenic concentration of tubewells in the arsenic areas of

the GMB plains with the Manipur Valley. For comparison

purposes we considered only depths up to 120 m because

this was depth of the deepest tubewell in the Manipur

Valley. Fig. 4 shows that the depth trend in Manipur

Valley differs from the GMB plains in that arsenic con-

centrations do not vary systematically with depth. In all

other cases, arsenic concentrations increased to a maximum

in the range 20–40 m. In the GMB plains, deep aquifers,

preferably 200 m (except unconfined zone and leaky

aquifers) are considered to be arsenic safe. In Manipur,

even tubewells[100 m cannot be assumed to be safe. The

average number of users per tubewell in Manipur was 233

Valley, compared to 27, 24, 20, 18 and 16 in West Bengal,

Bangladesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, respectively.

Thus, it may be concluded that the tubewell culture in

Manipur has only just started.

Correlation of iron concentration with arsenic

Iron concentrations in 416 samples ranged from 40 to

39,537 lg/l, with a median of 3,138 lg/l and a mean of

6,150 lg/l (standard deviation 7,811 lg/l). Table 5 shows

that iron concentrations in tubewells in the Manipur Valley

are similar to those on the GMB plains, and here also the

correlation between iron and arsenic is poor (Fig. 5).

Arsenic in urine samples

Elevated arsenic concentration in urine is an indicator of

recent exposure. Assuming excretion of 1.5 l urine per day,

arsenic concentrations in 56 urine samples from theTa

ble

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Environ Geol

123

municipal areas of Imphal East, Imphal West, and Thoubal

range from 13 to 500 g/day, with a median concentration

of 57 g/day, and mean of 89 g/day (standard deviation

86.5 g/day) respectively. In 66.1% samples, arsenic con-

centrations exceeded 40 lg/day (normal excretion of

arsenic in urine ranges from 5 to 40 g/day). The arsenic con-

centrations in urine samples ranged from 13 to 500 lg/day.

Figure 6 represents the histogram of the arsenic concen-

tration in urine samples. From Fig. 6 it appears that 19

(34%) samples contained arsenic within the normal range

of arsenic in urine (5–40 g/day) and the remaining 37

(66%) samples exceeded the normal range. The results

(Fig. 6) indicate recent exposure to arsenic in the Manipur

Valley population. Our analytical system measures inor-

ganic arsenic metabolites (As3+, As5+, MMA, DMA), but

does not detect arsenobetaine, the main constituent in sea

food. So, the higher arsenic metabolites represent exposure

mainly from drinking water. Table 6 compares arsenic in

urine in states and countries in GMB Plain and the Manipur

Valley.

Conclusion and recommendations

Groundwater contamination affects all four districts of the

Manipur Valley and 63.3% of hand tubewells exceed

the WHO guideline value for arsenic in drinking water

Fig. 2 Groundwater arsenic contamination status in three districts of Manipur Valley. a Imphal West, b Imphal East, c Kakching Municipality

area and Thoubal Block of Thoubal District

Fig. 3 Cumulative frequency (%) distribution of the tubewells

against different arsenic concentration ranges for four districts of

Manipur Valley

Environ Geol

123

(10 g/l) and 40% exceed the Indian Standard of 50 lg/l.

Unlike on the GMB plains, there is no systematic relation

between arsenic concentration and the depth of tubewells

but in the Manipur Valley arsenic contamination does not

vary with depth. Because 59% of the population of

Manipur lives in the four districts of the Manipur Valley,

the situation will become more serious if the people

continue drinking contaminated tubewell water. Four

decades ago, the villagers of West Bengal and Bangladesh

were reluctant to use underground water but now a tube-

well at one’s house is perceived to be as essential as food.

Groundwater is a major source for drinking water and

water for irrigation. During our 1-year survey in the

Manipur Valley, we recognized that the villagers do not

like the taste of tubewell water and still prefer the water

from community ponds or other surface sources such as

rivers, lakes, reservoirs in hilly areas etc. Although the

average rainfall is high (2,000 mm/annum), people do not

use it because there are plenty of other available resour-

ces. However, in nearby state of Mizoram, where there are

fewer lakes and ponds, for generations people have used

rainwater and collected stream water in small open tanks

known as Tunikhor.

Table 4 Comparison of arsenic concentration above 10 and 50 lg/l in arsenic affected states and countries in GMB Plain with Manipur Valley

States and

countries in GMB Plain

Total samples

analysed for arsenic

% Samples

above 10 lg/l

% Samples

above 50 lg/l

Maximum

arsenic concentration

Reference

Uttar Pradesh 4,780 46.5 27.7 3,191 Ahamed et al. (2008)

Bihar 19,961 32.7 17.8 2,182 Ahamed (2006)

Jharkhand 3,354 35.0 15.0 1,018 Ahamed et al. (2008)

West Bengal 140,150 48.1 23.8 3,700 Ahamed et al. (2008)

Bangladesh 50,808 40.3 26.3 4,730 Ahamed et al. (2008)

Manipur Valley 628 63.3 40.0 502 This Study

Fig. 4 Relationship between depth and arsenic concentration of

tubewells for arsenic affected states and countries in Ganga–Meghna–

Brahmaputra (GMB) Plain and of Manipur Valley. WB West Bengal,

BD Bangladesh, UP Uttar Pradesh, JK Jharkhand

Table 5 Comparison of iron concentrations in hand tubewells of arsenic affected states and countries in GMB Plain and Manipur Valley

States and

countries in

GMB Plain

Total Samples

analysed

% Samples

above

300 lg/l

% Samples

above

1,000 lg/l

% Samples

above

5,000 lg/l

% Samples

above

10,000 lg/l

% Samples

above

15,000 lg/l

% Samples

above

20,000 lg/l

Max.

conc.

Uttar Pradesh 583 94.5 77.9 31.9 2.6 0.5 0.3 43,575

Bihar 1,414 95 79.5 25.5 2.3 0.3 0.17 21,630

Jharkhand 559 89.3 52.6 16.6 1.6 12,589

West Bengal 17,050 93.2 75.6 28.3 4.3 0.9 0.4 77,000

Bangladesh 547 99.5 95.2 42.6 1.3 0.4 0.2 48,773

Manipur Valley 416 97.4 86.3 31.7 17.5 13.0 9.6 39,537

Fig. 5 The correlation between arsenic and iron in Manipur Valley

Environ Geol

123

The PHED of Manipur State pipes treated water to urban

and some rural areas from rivers, lakes and natural water

reservoirs from hilly areas. However, the water supplied in

most areas, even in the capital, is inadequate in quantity

and irregular. In rural areas the water supply is even worse.

Outside urban areas, ponds are the most common tradi-

tional source of drinking water and villagers continued to

drink this unsafe water.

When the first water came out from underground in

West Bengal in early 1960s, the villagers called it ‘‘the

devil’s water’’. But later they changed their minds as the

water irrigated rice crops all the year round and potable

water was available at the doorstep. But the economic gain

has come at tragic human cost. After West Bengal’s arsenic

experience, we came to know that the same problem exists

in Bangladesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and Assam.

Millions are drinking arsenic contaminated water, and

many are at grave health risk, and we fear that the expe-

riences of West Bengal and Bangladesh will be repeated.

West Bengal and Bangladesh are called lands of rivers with

flooded river basins, wetlands, ox-bow lakes, 2,000 mm of

annual rainfall, yet the villagers depend mainly on tubewell

water for drinking and irrigation. Even when surface water

is available, they use groundwater due to its easy access,

and so the tubewell culture dominates, but meanwhile there

is practically no watershed management. The mistakes

made in West Bengal and Bangladesh should not be

repeated in Manipur. The arsenic problem in Manipur has

just been discovered, and at present, people are reluctant to

use tubewell water. In this condition, with careful utiliza-

tion of existing surface water, rainwater and economic

utilization along with the education of the villagers and

their active participation appear to be the viable approaches

to stop the future arsenic danger in Manipur.

Acknowledgments Funds from Hamdard National Foundation to

carry out arsenic related work in North Eastern Hill States for 5 years

is greatly appreciated. The authors sincerely thank to K. Rajen

(Geophysicist, IPD, PHED, Govt. of Manipur) for providing relevant

database, S. Ibotombi and E. Ranjitkumar from Earth Sciences

Department of Manipur University for their constructive suggestions.

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