Greek School Textbooks at a Political Crossroads: Defining the Greek Citizen in the

Greek School During the Reign of Colonels (1967-1974)

By Theodore G. Zervas1

North Park University (Chicago)

Introduction

Greece, Greek Christians was the slogan of the Greek Junta after itoverthrew the Greek government in 1967 and ruled Greece until 1974. Led by a group of rightist army officers, headed by George Papadopoulos, the Junta passed a series of educational reforms during its seven-year reign (Επταετία) that sought to (re) define the Greek citizen. This paper analyzes several elementary and middle school textbooks, educational decrees, and other primary sources to help shed light on how schooling (and more generally education) duringwhat would be known as the “Reign of the Colonels” or “Military Junta” attempted to reshape a Greek national identity.

This paper seeks to answer the following research questions:1) What were some similarities and differences found within textbooks used prior and after the Junta took power in Greece? 2) How did the school textbook foster an understanding of what it meant to be Greek? and 3) To what extent did the Junta attempt to (re) instill “traditional” Greek values into Greek society through the Greek school system.

This paper is divided into four sections. It begins with a discussion on the Junta regime and its implementation of new educational policies. It then follows with a discussion on textbooks, their political, social, and cultural implications as well as the debate on what language the textbooks would be written, Demotic (common Greek) or Katharevousa (purified Greek). Later this paper analyzes

several Greek elementary and middle school textbooks used inthe Greek schools between 1967-1974, and concludes with the Junta’s lasting impact on Greek education.

Educational Reforms

On April 21, 1967 a group of right-wing army officers overthrew the Greek government and the King of Greece. Scholars have characterized Greece under the Junta as a time of major social, economic, and political change. They have also maintained that the Greek school system reflected this abrupt change. The Junta, an authoritarian and staunchly anti-communist government sought to instill discipline in Greek society, by suppressing civil liberties, establishing military courts, and imprisoning suspected communists.2 Through the centralized Greek school, the Junta sought to create a society that was obedient, industrious, and loyal to the state and government.

Immediately, after the Junta took power it passed LegislativeDegree 129/67. The decree overturned much of the educational reforms first laid out by the Greek King in 1964. The King’s reforms attempted to modernize Greek education by 1) extending free and public education up into university level, 2) abolishing entrance exams for entry into secondary schools, and 3) reforming admissions criteriainto university.

While the Junta overturned most of the 1964 reforms, textbooks continued to remain free to students up into university level and a greater number of students were granted admission into university. Leaders of the regime also kept a close eye on the school system by hand-selectingeducational committees that oversaw teaching syllabi, teaching methods, and teaching appointments so that traditional Helleno-Christian (Ελληνο-Χριστιανών) values were being taught in the Greek schools.3

The most controversial reform (which continued to be a heated issue well into the 1970’s) was the use of “purified”(Katharevousa) Greek over “common” (Demotic) Greek. In 1968 the Junta’s constitution declared purified Greek as the official language of the state. Schools had to also teach students in this language and all textbooks (except those inprimary school) would be written in the purified Greek. Teachers who were opposed to the change (from Demotic “common Greek” to Katharevousa “purified Greek”) were immediately dismissed from their teaching posts. The use of the purified over the common Greek however expressed the regime’s belief that language would help preserve the Greek nation, the Greek Orthodox faith, and the Greek family (Πατρίς, Θρησκεία και Οικογένεια).4

The regime also took steps in revising the school curriculum. At the secondary level a mandatory course titled “Elements of Democratic Principles” was replaced witha course on citizenship.5 The new course stressed the importance of the nation and the Greek people working collectively together for the betterment of the state and society. Also of concern to the regime were the actions and appearances of students both in public and private life. One government document stated, “…the school must ensure thedescent appearance and behaviors of all students especially that of female students who fashion eccentric attire.”6 School uniforms became mandatory from elementary to the upper high school. The regime also believed that “The school must monitor the life and conduct of students outsidethe school, because certain behaviors lead to anarchism and communism.” 7

By 1971 the regime established a “Committee for the Study ofEducation.”8 The committee was comprised of six university professors, two general educational administrators, three teachers, and one technical education specialist. The committee was charged in providing recommendations on how toimprove Greece’s school system. Among the committee’s recommendations was extending compulsory schooling to nine

years and expanding vocational programs. The committee alsostressed the importance of science and mathematics in the curricula as well as placing more emphasis into special education. By 1973 the Junta established five vocational and professional training schools throughout Greece and more resources and money went to support special educational programs.

Of greatest concern to the regime were school textbooks, thier content and how the material within the textbooks was being presented to students. The first page of all textbooks (and in some textbooks the last page) included theJunta’s revolutionary emblem, which was the mythical ancient Greek Phoenix rising from flames while a silhouette of Greeksoldier, bearing a rifle, (with a fixed bayonet) stood guard. On the header were the words Eλλάς (Greece) and at the footer April 21, 1967, which was the date of the colonel’s coup de’etat.

The image reflected the Junta’s belief that their revolution saved the nation (Εθνοσωτήριος Επανάστασις) from falling into

the hands of anarchists and communists, but also like medical doctors it was the regime’s job to heal the nation from the ills caused by decades of a corrupt parliamentary democracy (παλαιοκομματισμός) and western liberalism (δυτικό φιλελευθερισμό) that had brought a period of darkness (σκοταδισμός) to Greece.

According to the regime the nation was a construction zone (εργοταξίων) that would be rebuilt through its leaders who were guided “…by both [Greek] history and the Greek Orthodoxfaith….”9 The following section examines the importance of school textbooks in in the Greek schools.

The Social and Political Implications in the School Textbook

Scholars have investigated scores of textbooks for thier content, didactic presentation, as well as what messages they intend to broadcast to their audience. Michael Apple, Linda-Christian Smith, Paulo Friere, Henry A. Giroux are among those who have looked at how the textbook is essentially a vehicle that achieves a political, cultural, and social means.10

It is reasonable to say that curriculum is central in schools and that knowledge is imparted in school textbooks. Historically, the modern school regulates what children learn and how they learn through the promotion of a state mandated curricula and the adoption of textbooks. Textbooks are also among the most important vehicles in shaping a national identity as well as a public awareness of a nation’s past.11 Benedict Anderson’s concept of “imagined communities” is easily applied to the use of textbooks in Greece. 12 The student through the textbook may become politically and culturally indoctrinated and form in his/herconsciousness an understanding of what it means to be part of a broader national community.13 Textbooks are in other words how a nation sees itself and how it wants to be seen by others.14

In Greece, pupils at an early age become inundated with images of the nation as well as the nation’s place in history.15 Greek history since the nineteenth century has been presented in the Greek school textbook as one continuous unbroken historical thread from past to present.16 After the Greek Revolution (1832) the Greek statebuilt its curricula around school textbooks and the notion that the Modern Greeks were the direct descendants of the ancient Greeks.17 In the Greek school, students learned thatthey were part of a broader national community that was linked by a shared national past and common blood. Through the teaching of a common Greek history, Greek language, and the virtues of Greek Orthodox Christianity students also learned to feel an emotional connection to the nation.

After the Second World War, Greek schools fostered notions of citizenship, and loyalty to the nation and state, the importance of family and the community as well as the dangers of anarchism and communism (αναρχοκομμουνιστές).18 Someof these beliefs were promoted in the school textbooks by incorporating stories about family, community, and religion.During the Junta’s reign revisions to textbooks were few and minor. Some textbooks from previous periods continued to be used in schools. However, one finds that the school textbooks used during the Junta focused more on traditional and ethno-religious themes such as the nation, Greek Orthodox Christianity, and the Greek family and less on ancient and contemporary topics such as ancient Greece and Greece’s place in the world as had been the case prior to when the Junta took power. The following section analyzes several textbooks that were used in the Greek schools duringthe Junta’s reign and discusses how the regime attempted to redefine what it meant to be Greek through the vehicle of the textbook.

An Analysis of Several Greek Textbooks

The textbooks examined in this section are from the primary (δημοτικό), middle school levels (γυμνάσιο) and first year of

high school (λυκείων). The textbooks were primarily school readers and history books. Most of the textbooks had been revised after the Junta took power 1964.

G. Kalamatianou et al. school reader (Αναγνωστικών) was used in the Greek schools for much of the middle to later part ofthe twentieth century. The textbook was intended for students in their first year of middle school. A comparisonof the 1955 edition of the textbook with the 1973 edition helps shed light on some of the revisions made to the textbooks after the Junta took power in Greece.

The 1955 edition is 215 pages in length, while the 1973 edition is 301 pages long. The fist part of the 1973 editionbegins with an image of Jesus Christ followed by a short poem titled “Christmas” and “The Miracle” both of which do not appear in the 1955 edition.19 The 1955 edition includes instead a short story “December for the Orphans,” “The Eternal Mystery,” “The Sacrifice of Iphigenia.” Later in the1955 edition one finds stories about the Greek Monarchy suchas a story titled “One Nation and One King” which stresses the importance of the Greek monarchy in Greek cultural,

social, and political life.20 The 1973 edition on the otherhand, is purged of any stories about the Greek monarchy. Included instead are short biographies of individuals who extolled traditional values. One such example is a biography of Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965) the German/Frenchpolymath who believed that western civilization was in a cultural decline because of the spread of socialism and communism.

Another story from the 1955 edition “H Arapitsa” which dealswith a child’s visit to a factory does not appear in the 1973 edition. It was likely omitted because the story’s content and message was viewed as too “left leaning”. Overall the changes made between the two texts are few and minor. However, during the Junta’s rule more stories with religious and national themes were incorporated into the textbook. This was the case in many readers and history books during the period as well.

In a first year of High School (lyceum) students were required to take a course on modern Greek history. One of the books assigned to students was A Brief History of Modern Greece (1914-1968) by Daphne Gregoriou.21

The textbook was introduced after the Junta took power. The textbook begins with the First World War to 1968. The entiretextbook is 289 pages in length and includes a few maps. The 1971 edition of the textbook is divided into four sections: a) Greece During the First World War, B) Greece Between the Wars, c) The Second World War, and d) The Nuclear Age and Cold War. The final section of the textbook,“The Revolution of April 21, 1967” is dedicated to the Junta’s overthrow of the Greek government. Most of the section tries to justify the Junta’s revolution. The section discusses how the revolution was intended to save the nation from a corrupt government and how the nation is in a better condition now that the Junta is in power. The section was carefully written to support the Junta’s political, social, and economic initiatives. The section also criticizes political figures that were outspoken against the regime. It concludes with the Junta’s plans for the future of Greece as well as how the regime plans to protect the Greek people from the threat of communism.

The threat of communism was also made evident in many schooltextbooks. In a 1967 reader, a story and a poem appear that both deal with the paidomazoma (παιδομάζωμα) or the rounding up of Greek children during the Greek Civil War (1945-1949). The story is titled simply “The Paidomazoma.” The story reminds its readers of the grim events after the Civil War when thousands of Greek children were taken from their families and sent off to live in socialist counties throughout Europe. The story begins by stating “Today’s parents, who hold their children tightly in their arms…have to learn about a dark chapter in our nation’s history.”22 The story seems to be intended more to parents than to children, since the first line of the story is addressed to them. The story continues by describing weeping mothers loosing their children to fleeing Greek communist where theywould never see their beloved children again.

The practice of the paidomazoma is later compared in the story to the capture or recruitment of children (devsherme) during Ottoman times. The poem that follows the story is titled “On the Paidomazoma.” Part of the poem goes as follows:

Κλάιν οι μανάδες τα παιδιά κι οι αδελφές τ' αδέλφια κλαίγω και εγώ και καίγομαι κι όσο να ζω θα κλαίγωπέρσι πιραν το γιόκα μου, φέτο τον αδελφό μου…

The mothers cry for their children and the sisters cry for their brothersI cry, and so long as I live I will burn inside Last year they took my son, and this year my brother…23

For sometime the Greek Civil War and the paidomazoma were both sensitive topics in Greece, and few textbooks made mention of the events. The majority of the Greek public wasuncomfortable discussing the events and most Greeks were in agreement that the best way to forget about them was not to

discuss them at all. During the Junta however both events were included in the textbook and the threat of communism was made more apparent. The Cold War and the polarization ofthe world between east and west in the 1960’s and 1970’s brought the historical struggle between communism and capitalism to the forefront. The paidomazoma was used by the Junta to cast fear in the minds of the Greek families by indirectly sending the message, that if communist were to take over Greece, they would once again come after their children. Ultimately this was successful in garnering support from a public who was unsure of what to make about this threat.

Conclusion

On November 14, 1972 students at the Athens Polytechnic (Πολυτεχνειον) took to the streets of Athens in protest to the Junta’s policies. Fearing that the protest would spread tothe rest of the country, George Papadopoulos ordered police to break the strike. When police arrived, protesters fled to the university where they continued their struggle withinthe university’s walls. A few days later Papadopoulos ordered tanks and military personnel to enter the campus andarrest the protesters. After police entered the campus 24 students were killed and dozens more were injured. After the incident the Greek nation became disillusioned with the Junta. A few years later in 1974 the Junta was overthrown andits head members were arrested and tried for treason. This brought an end to their seven-year reign in Greece.

What is the overall impact that the Junta had on Greek education? While there has been extensive scholarship on the ways that historical narratives have been (selectively) put to use in schools, the Junta’s role in Greek education provides a particular striking case that helps shed light onthe ways in which schools and textbooks attempt to redefine a national identity along political and ideological lines. The legacy of the Greek Civil War as well as the conflict between communism over democracy were made more relevant in

textbooks during the Junta’s reign. While mention is made about the Civil War and the paidomazoma the voices of Greek communists are virtually silenced in the textbook. No mention is made of early communist attempts to rid Greece ofits Nazi occupation during the Second World War.

The paidomazoma as well as the Civil War are treated merely as a result of communist attempts to bring Greece into a politically socialist sphere of influence and to rid Greece of its traditional Helleno-Christian values and traditions. Previous textbooks make no mention of the Greek Civil War and the paidomazoma. The atrocities commitment by both sides during the Civil War, the divisions created within communities, the banishment of supposed Greek communist, andthe fear of political instability were imbedded in the mindsof the Greek people for decades to come.

While there were minor revisions to the textbooks from previous periods, the Junta did have control to a certain extent on what was being taught in the Greek schools. Evidence of this is found in the textbooks as well as educational policies enacted during the Junta’s reign. In all, the Junta created a generation of Greeks who became disenchanted with Greek politics as well as the Greek government’s role in education. Many of the textbooks used during the Junta regime continued to be used in the Greek school up until the 1980’s. However, after the overthrow ofthe Junta, teachers were encouraged by school officials to supplement readings or skip readings introduced during the Junta’s reign. Schools were also advised to tear out any pages from the textbooks that bore the Junta’s revolutionary emblem.24 In 1976, the Ministry of Education once again incorporated major reforms in Greece’s education system. The process was called Κάθαρσης or the purging of educational policies laid out by the Junta.25 Among the changes were, a new organization of grade levels in schools,the reinstitution of common Greek in schools, and revisions to textbooks and the national school curriculum.26

This paper also raises questions that may be applied to other nations who have undergone drastic political or socialchange. More generally for what reason and for what purposes were these changes made. These are questions that could lead to further research on the ways that government use textbooks to redefine its people or for what purposes are these changes made.

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1 Theodore G. Zervas is an Associate Professor of Education at North Park University (Chicago). 2 Couloumbis, Theodore A. (1974). “The Greek Junta Phenomenon.” Polity.Vol 6. No. 3. 3 Woodhouse, C.M. (1985). The Rise and Fall of the Greek Colonels. Franklin Watts. 4 Πατρίς, Θρησκεία και Οικογένεια was one of the Junta’s political slogans. 5 See Aνδρέου, Aποστόλη. (1999). “Η εκπαιδευτική πολιτική (1967-1974).” Θέσεις. Vol. 66.6 Ibid. My Translation7 Ibid. My Translation8 Ibid.9 Mikedakis, Emmi. (2000). “Manipulating Language: Metaphors in the Political Discourse of Georgios Papadopoulos.” Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Conference of Greek Studies. Flinders University.10 See Apple, Michael W. and Christian-Smith, Linda K. ed. (1991). The Politics of the Textbook. Routledge. Friere, Paulo. (2000).Pedagogy of the Oppressed. trans. Ramos-Bergman, Myra. Continuum. Giroux, Henry A. (1997). Pedagogy and the Politics of Hope: Theory, Culture and Schooling, A Reader. Westview Press. 11 Koulouri, Christina ed. (2002). Clio in The Balkans: The Politics of History Education. Center for Democracy and Reconciliation in Southeast Europe. Thessaloniki, Greece. 12 See Anderson, Benedict. (2006). Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Verso Publishing. 13 Ahier, John. (1998). Industry, Children and the Nation: An Analysis of National Identity in School Textbooks. Falmer Press. 14 Stojanovic, Dubravka. (2001). “History Textbooks and the Creation of a National Identity”. in Koulouri, Christina. ed. Teaching the History of Southeaster Europe. Center for Democracy and Reconciliation in SoutheastEurope. 15 Avdela, Efi. (1998). Ιστορια και Σχολειο. (History and Schooling). Visos. Athens. In Greek. 16 Avdela, Efi. (2000), “The Teaching of History in Greece.” Journal of Modern Greek Studies. Vol 18. 17 Zervas, Theodore G. (2012). The Making of a Modern Greek Identity. Education, Nationalism, and the Teaching of a Greek Historical Past. East European Monographs: Columbia University Press18 Karakatsani, Despina. “The History of Citizenship Education in Greece During the Post-War Period (1950-1990): Content and Aims.” in

Naumovic, S and Javanovic, M e.d. Childhood in South East Europe: Historical Perspectives of Growing Up in the 19th and 20th Century. Belgrade-GrazL Zur Kunde Sudosteropas. 19 Γ. Καλαματιανού et. al. (1973). Αναγνωστικών Ε. Δημοτικού. Athens.20 Γ. Καλαματιανού et. al. (1955). Αναγνωστικών Ε. Δημοτικού. Athens.21 Γρηγορίου, Δάφνη. Μια Σύντομη Ιστορία της Σύγχρονης Ελλάδα (1914-1968). Athens.22 Λ. Βρανούση, et. al. (1967). Νεοελληνικά Αναγνομασματα Α' Λυκείου. Athens.23 Ibid.24 Γιοβαννη, Ελένη, Μπαλτά, Σοφία. Η Κοινωνική Δικαιοσύνη Στα Κείμενα Νεοελληνικής Λογοτεχνίας Του Λυκείου (1974-1999). Athens.25 Kazamias, Andreas. (1978). “The Politics of Educational Reform in Greece: Law 309/1976.” Comparative Education Review. Vol. 22. 26 Ibid.