Also by Thomas Ber'J

The Historical Theory of Giambattista Vico

Buddhism

The Religions of India

The Dream of the Earth

Befriending the Earth (with Thomas Clarke)

The Universe Story (with Brian Swimme)

THOMAS BERRY

The

GREAT WORKOur Way z'nto the Future

BELL TOWER A NEW YORK

tNV~EFG-~,'IS.B~1-\OJ'l'~

Some of the material in this book previously appeared in a different form.

Copyright © 1999 by Thomas BerryPhotograph on title page spread copyright © by Carr Clifton

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or byany means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any

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BeUTower and colophon are registered trademarks of Random House, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Berry, Thomas Mary, 1914-The great work: our way into the future/Thomas Berry. _ Ist ed.p. em.

Includes bibliographical references.I. Deep eco!ogy-Philol;ophy. 2. Human ecology-Philosophy.

I.Title.GE195.B47 1999

304.2-dc21 99-26350

elP

ISBN ~0525-9

10 9 B 7 6 5 4 3 2 I

First Edition

To the children

To all the children

To the children who swim beneath

The waves of the sea, to those who live in

The soils of the Earth, to the children of the flowers

In. the meadows and the trees in the forest, to

All those children who roam over the land

And the winged ones who fly with the winds,

To the human children too, that all the children

May go together into the future in the full

Diversity of their regional communities.

TO ALL THOSE WHO

HAVE ASSISTED ME THROUGH

THESE MANY YEARS,

I AM GRATEFUL.

Contents

Introduction .Xl

. THE GREAT WORK . 1

2 . THE MEADOW ACROSS THE CREEK · 12

3 . THE EARTH STORY · 21

4· THE NORTH AMERICAN CONTINENT · 33

5 . THE WILD AND THE SACRED · 45

6 . THE VIABLE HUMAN · 56

7· THE UNIVERSITY .n

8 . ECOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY · 86

9· ETHICS AND ECOLOGY .. · 100

10 . THE NEW POLITICAL ALIGNMENT · 107

11 . THE CORPORATION STORY ... · 117

12 . THE EXTRACTIVE ECONOMY 136

13· THE PETROLEUM INTERVAL 150

14· REINVENTING THE HUMAN · 159

15 . THE DYNAMICS OF THE FUTURE · 166

16· THE FOURFOLD WISDOM 176

17 . MOMENTS OF GRACE 196

BibliograpqyIndex.

· 202

· 237

Inlroduclt·on

HUMAN PRESENCE ON THE PLANET EARTH IN THE OPENING

years of the twenty-first century is the subject of this book. We needto understand where we are and how we got here. Once we are clearon these issues we can move forward with our historical destiny, tocreate a mutually enhancing mode of human dwelling on the planetEarth.

Just nowwe seem to be expecting some wonderworldto be attainedthrough an ever-greater dedication to om sciences, technologies, andcommercial projects. In the process, however, we are causing immenseruin in the world around us.

We might begin to think about our present life-situation byreflecting for a moment on the wonder of Earth, howit carne to be theg",·den planet of the universe and what might be our human role inthis context. To appreciate our immediate situation we might alsodevelop a new intimacy with the North American continent. For weneed the guidance and support of this continent as we find our wayinto the future.

The most basic and most disturbing commitment of the originalEuropean settlers was to conquer this continent and reduce it to humanuse. Because the exaltation of the human and the subjugation of thenatural have been so excessive, we need to understand how the bumancommunity and the living forms of Earth might now become a life-giving presence to each other. We have already shaped the criticalunderstanding and the appropriate technologies that can assist inestablishing a beneficial human presence with the other componentsof this continent and also with the one great Earth community. Weneed only see that our human technologies are coherent witb theever-renewing technologies of the planet itself.

ix

x . INTRODUCTION

An indispensable resource in fulfillment of this task is the guid-ance of the indigenous peoples of this continent, for they have under-stood, better than we have understood, the integral relation of humanswith this continent and with the entire natural world. In an earlierperiod we have been profoundly concerned with divine-human rela-tions. In more recent centuries we have been concerned with interhu-man relations. Our future destiny rests even more decisively on ourcapacity for intimacy in our human-Earth relations.

Of the institutions that should be guiding us into a viable future,the university has a special place because it teaches all those profes-sions that control the human endeavor. In recent centuries the univer-sities have supported an exploitation of the Earth by their teaching int~e various professions, in the sciences, in engineering, law, educa-non, and economics. Only in literature, poetry, music, art, and occa-sionally in religion and the biological sciences, has the natural worldreceived the care that it deserves.

Our educational institutions need to see their purpose not astraining personnel for exploiting the Earth but as guiding studentstoward an intimate relationship with the Earth. For it is the planetItself that brings us into being, sustains us in life, and delights uswith its wonders. In this context we might consider the intellectual,political, and economic orientations that will enable us to fulfill thehistorical assignment before us-to establish a more viable way intothe future.

As in creating some significant work the artist first experiencessomethi ng akin to dream awareness that becomes clarified in the cre-ative process itself, so we must first have a vision of the future suffi-ciently entrancing that it will sustain us in the transformation of thehuman project that is now in process. Such an entrancing vision wepropose here as the Ecozoic Era, the period when humans wouldbecome a mutually beneficial presence on the Earth.

That future can exist only when we understand the universe ascomposed of subjects to be communed with, not as objects to be

Introduction . xi

exploited. "Use" as our primary relationship with the planet must beabandoned. While there are critical issues in providing food, shelter,and livelihood to vast numbers of peoples, these issues themselvesultimately depend on our capacity to sustain the natural world so thatthe natural world can sustain us. All our sciences and technologiesand all our social institutions become dysfunctional if the natural lifesystems cease to function.

Intimacy with the planet in its wonder and beauty and the fulldepth of its meaning is what enables an integral human relationshipwith the planet to function. It is the only possibility for humans toattain their true flourishing while honoring the other modes of earthlybeing. The fulfillment of the Earth community is to be caught up inthe grandeur of existence itself and in admiration of those mysteriouspowers whence all this has emerged.

Nourishment of both the outer body and the inner spirit will beachieved in intimate association with each other or not at all. That wecan now understand and work toward this fulfillment is the challeng-ing future that opens up before us in these early years of the twenty-first century.

•

TheGREAT WORK

1

1

The

GREATWORK

HISTORY IS GOVERNED BY THOSE OVERARCHING MOVEMENTS

that give shape and meaning to life by relating the human venture tothe larger destinies of the universe. Creating such a movement mightbe called the Great Work of a people. There have been Great Worksin the past: the Great Work of the classical Greek world with itsunderstanding of the human mind and creation of the Westernhumanist tradition; the Great Work of Israel in articulating a newexperience of the divine in human affairs; the Great Workof Rome ingathering the peoples of the Mediterranean world and of WesternEurope into an ordered relation with one another. So too in themedieval period there was the task of giving a first shape to theWestern world in its Christian form. The symbols of this Great Workwere the medieval cathedrals rising so graciously into the heavensfrom the region of the old Frankish empire. There the divine and thehuman could be present to each other in some grand manner.

In India the Great Workwas to lead human thought into spiritualexperiences of time and eternity and their mutual presence to eacbother with a unique subtlety of expression. China created one of the

2 . THE GREAT WORK

most elegant and most human civilizations we have ever known as itsGreat Work. In America the Great Work of the First Peoples was tooccupy this continent and establish an intimate rapport with the pow-ers that brought this continent into existence in all its magnificence.They did this through their ceremonies such as the Great Thanks-giving ritual of the Iroquois, the sweat lodge and the vision quest ofthe Plains Indians, through the Chantways of the Navaho, and theKatsina rituals of the Hopi. Through these and a multitude of otheraspects of the indigenous cultures of this continent, certain modelswere established of how humans become integral with the larger con-text of our existence here on the planet Earth.

While all of these efforts at fulfilling a Great Work have madesignificant contributions to the human venture, they were all limitedin their fulfillment and bear the marks of their deeply human flawsand imperfections. Here in North America it is with a poignant feel-ing and foreboding concerning the future that we begin to realize thatthe European occupation of this continent, however admirable itsintentions, has been flawed from the beginning in its assault on theindigenous peoples and its plundering of the land. Its most impres-sive achievements were establishing for the settlers a sense of per-sonal rights, participatory governance, and religious freedom.If there was also advancement of scientific insight and technolog-

ical skills leading to relief from many of the ills and poverty of theEuropean peoples, this advancement was accompanied by devasta-tion of this continent in its natural florescence by the suppression ofthe way of life of its indigenous peoples and by communicating tothem many previously unknown diseases, such as smallpox, tubercu-losis, diphtheria, and measles. Although Europeans had developed acertain immunity to these diseases, they were consistently fatal toIndians, who had never known such diseases and had developed noimmunities.

Meanwhile the incoming Europeans committed themselves todevelopment of the new industrial age that was beginning to dominatehuman consciousness. New achievements in science, technology,

The Great Work . 3

industry, commerce, and finance had indeed brought the human com-munity into a new age. Yet those who brought this new historicalperiod into being saw only the blight side of these achievements. Theyhad little comprehension of the devastation they were causing on thiscontinent and throughout the planet, a devastation that finally led toan impasse in our relations with the natural world. Our commercial-industrial obsessions have disturbed the biosystems of this continentin a depth never known previously in the historical course of human

affairs.The Great Work now, as we move into a new millennium, is to

carry out the transition from a period of human devastation of theEarth to a period when humans would be present to the planet in amutually beneficial manner. This historical change is somethingmore than the transition from the classical Roman period to themedieval period, or from the medieval period to modern times. Sucha transition has no historical parallel since the geobiological transi-tion that took place 67 million years ago when the period of thedinosaurs was terminated and a new biological age begun. So now weawaken to a period of extensive disarray in the biological structure

and functioning of the planet.Since we began to live in settled villages with agriculture and

domestication of animals some ten thousand years ago, humans haveput increased burdens upon tbe biosystems of the planet. These bur-dens were to some extent manageable because of the prodigality ofnature, the limited number of humans, and their limited ability todisrupt the natural systems. In recent centuries, under the leadershipof the Western world, largely with the resources, psychic energy, andinventiveness of the North American peoples, an industrial civiliza-tion has come into being with the power to plunder Earth in its deep-est foundations, with awesome impact on its geological structure, itschemical constitution, and its living forms throughout the wideexpanses of the land and the far reaches of the sea.

Some 25 billion tons of topsoil are now being lost each year withuntold consequences to the food supply of future generations. Some

4 . THE GREAT WORK

of the most abundant species of marine life have become commer_cially extinct due to overexploitation by factory fishing vessels andthe use of drift nets twenty to thirty miles long and twenty feet deep. Ifwe consider the extinctions taking place in the rain forests of thesouthern regions of the planet with the other extinctions, we find thatwe are losing large numbers of specie each year. Much more couldbe said concerning the impact of humans on the planet, the distur-bance caused by the use of river systems for waste disposal, the pol-lution of the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels, and theradioactive waste consequent on our u e of nuclear energy. All of thisdisturbance of the planet is leading to the terminal phase of theCenozoic Era. Natural selection can no longer function as it has func-tioned in the past. Cultural ejection is nowa decisive force in deter-mining the future of the biosystems of the Earth.

The deepest cause of the present devastation is found in a modeof consciousness that has established a radical discontinuity betweenthe human and other modes of being and the bestowal of all rights onthe humans. The other-than-human modes of being are seen as hav-ing no rights. They have reality and value only through their use bythe human. In this context the other than human becomes totally vul-nerable to exploitation by the human, an attitude that is shared by allfour of the fundamental establishments that control the human realm:governments, corporations, universities, and reLgions-the political,economic, intellectual, and religious establishments. All four arecommitted consciously or unconsciously to a radical discontinuitybetween the human and the nonhuman.

. In reality there is a single integral community of the Earth thatmcludes all its component members whether human or other thanhuman. In this community every being has its own role to fulfill, itsown dignity, its inner spontaneity. Every being has its own voice.EVelYbeing declares itself to the entire universe. Every being entersmto communion with oth bei Thi fer emgs. IS capacrty for relatedness, orpresence to other beings f .... .

, or spontaneity 10 action, IS a capacity pos-sessed by every mode of bei th h "

emg roug OULlhe enure universe.

The Great Work . 5

So too every being has rights to be recognized and revered. Treeshave tree rights, insects have insect lights, rivers have river rights,mountains have mountain rights. So too with the entire range ofbeings throughout the universe. All rights are limited and relative. Sotoowith humans. We have human rights. We have rights to the nour-ishment and shelter we need. We have lights to habitat. But we haveno rights to deprive other species of their proper habitat. We have norights to interfere with their migration routes. We have no rights todisturb the basic functioning of the biosystems of the planet. We can-not own the Earth or any part of the Earth in any absolute manner. Weownproperty in accord with the welJ-being of the property and for thebenefit of the larger community as well as ourselves.

A sense of the continent being here primarily for Our use hasbeen developing throughout the past few centuries. We proceededwith our destruction of the forests until the terminal phase of thetwentieth century, when we found that we had cut downover 95 per-cent of the primordial forests of this continent. With the new tech-nologies that emerged in the last half of the nineteenth century andthe automobile industry that developed in the early twentieth century,industrialization achieved a new virulence. Roadways, superhigh-ways, parking lots, shopping centers, malls, and housing develop-ments took over. Suburban living became normative for the good life.This was also the time when the number of free-flowing rivers begantodecline. The great dams were built on the Colorado, the Snake, andespecially the Columbia rivers.

Yet this was also the time when resistance began. The increasingthreat to the natural life-systems of the continent awakened the senseof need for grandeur in the natural world if any truly human develop-ment was to continue in our cultural traditions. This new awarenessbegan in the nineteenth century with such persons as Henry DavidThoreau, John Muir, John Burroughs, and George Perkin Marsh;with John Wesley Powell and Frederick Law Olmstead; also withartists, especially Thomas Cole, Frederick Edwin Church, and AlbertBierstadt of the Hudson River School.

4.THE

GREAT

WORK

TheCreat

Work

.5

ofthe

most

abundantspecies

ofmarine

lifehave

becomecom

mer-

ciallyextinct

duetooverexploitation

byfactory

fishingvessels

andthe

useofdriftnets

twenty

tothirty

miles

longand

twenty

feetdeep.Ifweconsider

theextinctions

takingplace

inthe

rainforests

ofthe

southernregions

oftheplanet

withthe

otherextinctions,

wefind

thatweare

losinglarge

numbers

ofspecies

eachyear.

Much

morecould

besaid

concerningthe

impact

ofhum

ansonthe

planet,the

distur-bance

causedbythe

useofriver

systemsforw

astedisposal,

thepol-

lutionofthe

atmosphere

bythe

burningoffossil

fuels,and

theradioactive

waste

consequentonour

useofnuclear

energy.Allofthis

disturbanceofthe

planetisleading

tothe

terminal

phaseofthe

Cenozoic

Era.Natural

selectioncan

nolongerfunction

asithasfunc-

tionedinthepast.

Cultural

selectionisnow

adecisive

forceindeter-

mining

thefuture

ofthebiosystem

softhe

Earth.The

deepestcause

ofthepresent

devastationisfound

inamode

ofconsciousnessthathas

establishedaradical

discontinuityhetw

eenthe

humanand

othermodes

ofbeingand

thebestow

alofallrights

onthe

humans.

Theother-than-hum

anmodes

ofbeingare

seenashav-

ingnorights.

Theyhave

realityand

valueonly

throughtheir

useby

thehum

an.Inthis

contextthe

otherthan

humanbecom

estotally

vul-nerable

toexploitation

bythe

human,

anattitude

thatisshared

byall

fourofthe

fundamental

establishments

thatcontrolthehum

anrealm

:governm

ents,corporations,

universities,and

religions-thepolitical,

economic,

intellectual,and

religiousestablishm

ents.Allfour

arecom

mitted

consciouslyorunconsciously

Laaradical

discontinuitybetw

eenthehum

anand

thenonhum

an.

Inreality

thereisasingle

integralcom

munity

oftheEarth

thatincludes

allitscom

ponentmembers

whether

human

orother

thanhum

an.Inthis

community

everybeing

hasitsownrole

tofulfill

itsowndignity,

itsinner

spontaneity.Every

beinghas

itsownvoice.

Everybeing

declaresitself

tothe

entireuniverse.Every

beingenters

intocom

mumonWIthother

beings.This

capacityforrelatedness,

forpresence

toother

beings,for

spontaneityinaction,

isacapacity

pos-sessed

byevery

mode

ofbeingthroughout

theentire

universe.

Sotooevery

beinghas

rightstoberecognized

andrevered.

Treeshave

treerights,

insectshave

insectrights,

rivershave

riverrights,

mountains

havemountain

rights.So

toowiththe

entirerange

ofbeings

throughoutthe

universe.Allrights

arelimited

andrelative.

Sotoowithhum

ans.Wehave

humanrights.

Wehave

rightstothe

nour-ishm

entand

shelterweneed.

Wehave

rightstohabitat.

Butwehave

norights

todeprive

otherspeciesoftheir

properhabitat.

Wehave

norights

tointerfere

withtheir

migration

routes.Wehave

norights

todisturb

thebasic

functioningofthe

biosystemsofthe

planet.Wecan-

notownthe

Earthorany

partoftheEarth

inany

absolutemanner.

We

ownproperty

inaccord

withthewell-being

oftheproperty

andforthe

benefitofthelarger

community

aswellas

ourselves.Asense

ofthe

continentbeing

hereprim

arilyforour

usehas

beendeveloping

throughoutthe

pastfew

centuries.Weproceeded

withour

destructionofthe

forestsuntil

theterm

inalphase

ofthe

twentieth

century,when

wefound

thatwehad

cutdownover

95per-

centofthe

primordial

forestsofthis

continent.Withthe

newtech-

nologiesthat

emerged

inthe

lasthalf

ofthe

nineteenthcentury

andtheautom

obileindustry

thatdevelopedintheearly

twentieth

century,industrialization

achievedanew

virulence.Roadw

ays,superhigh-

ways,parking

lots,shopping

centers,malls,

andhousing

develop-ments

tookover.Suburhan

livingbecam

enorm

ativeforthe

goodlife.

Thiswasalso

thetimewhen

thenum

beroffree-flow

ingrivers

begantodecline.

Thegreat

damswerebuilt

onthe

Colorado,the

Snake,and

especiallythe

Colum

biarivers.

Yetthis

wasalso

thetimewhen

resistancebegan.The

increasingthreat

tothe

naturallife-system

softhe

continentawakened

thesense

ofneedforgrandeur

inthenatural

world

ifanytruly

humandevelop-

ment

wastocontinue

inOUfcultural

traditions.This

newawareness

beganinthe

nineteenthcentury

withsuch

personsasHenry

David

Thoreau,John

Muir,

JohnBurroughs,

andGeorge

PerkinMarsh;

withJohn

Wesley

Powelland

FrederickLaw

Olmstead;

alsowith

artists,especially

ThomasCole,Frederick

EdwinChurch,and

Albert

Bierstadt

oftheHudson

RiverSchool.

6 . THE GREAT WORK The Great Work . 7:

To the work of naturalists and artists was added the work of theconservationists in the political realm. These leaders brought aboutthe preservation of Yellowstone National Park in 1872, the firstwilderness area anywhere on Earth to be officially set aside forpreservation in perpetuity. Later, in 1885, New York State estab-lished the Adirondack Forest Preserve, a region to be kept forever inits wilderness condition. In 1890 Yosemite National Park was estab-lished in California. In that same period the first voluntary associa-tions were formed to foster a deepened appreciation of the naturalworld. The Audubon Society, founded in 1886, was concerned pri-marily with appreciation of the various bird species. The Sierra Clubwas founded in 1892 and the Wilderness Society in 1924. Bothsought to create a more intimate relationship between the humancommunity and the wild world about us.

These various groups were the beginning. The larger dimensionsof what was happening could not have been known to those living inthe nineteenth century. They could not have foreseen the petroleumindustry, the automobile age, the damming of the rivers, the emptyingof the marine life of the oceans, the radioactive waste. Yet they knewthat something was wrong at a profound level. Some, such as JohnMuir, were deeply disturbed. When the decision was made to build adam to enclose Hetch-Hetchy Valley as a reservoir for the city of SanFrancisco, he considered it the unnecessary destruction of one of themost sacred shrines in the natural world, a shrine that fulfilled someof the deepest emotional, imaginative, and intellectual needs of thehuman soul. "Dam Hetch-Hetchy! As well dam for water-tanks thepeople's cathedrals and churches, for no holier temple has ever beenconsecrated by the heart of man" (Teale, p. 320).

Throughout the twentieth century the situation has worseneddecade by decade with relentless commitment to making profit by ruin-ing the planet for the uncertain benefit of the human. The great corpor-ations have joined together so that a few establishments now controlvast regions of the Earth. Assets of a few transnational corporations

begin to rise toward the trillion-dollar range. Now, in these closingyears of the twentieth century,wefind a growingconcern forour respon-sibility to the generations whowill live in the twenty-firstcentury.

Perhaps the most valuable heritage we can providefor future gen-erations is some sense of the Great Work that is before them of movingthe human project from its devastating exploitation to a benign pres-ence. We need to give them some indication of how the next generationcan fulfill this work in an effective manner. For the success or failureof any historical age is the extent to which those living at that timehave fulfilled the special role that history has imposed upon them. Noage lives completely unto itself. Each age has only what it receivesfrom the prior generation. Just now we have abundant evidence thatthe various species of life, the mountains and rivers, and even the vastocean itself, which once we thought beyond serious impact fromhumans, will survive only in their damaged integrity.

The Great Work before us, the task of movingmodern industrialcivilization from its present devastating influence on the Earth to amore benign mode of presence, is not a role that we have chosen. It is arole given to us, beyond any consultation with ourselves. We did notchoose. We were chosen by some power beyond ourselves for this his-torical task. We do not choose the moment of our birth, whoour parentswill be, our particular culture or the historical momentwhen we will beborn. We do not choose the status of spiritual insight or political or eco-nomic conditions that will be the context of our lives. Weare, as it were,thrown into existence with a challenge and a role that is beyond anypersonal choice. The nobility of our lives, however, depends upon themanner in which we come to understand and fulfill our assigned role.

Yet we must believe that those powers that assign our role mustin that same act bestow upon us the ability to fulfill this role. Wemustbelieve that we are cared for and guided by these same powers thatbring us into being.

Our own special role, which we will hand on to our children, isthat of managing the arduous transition from the terminal Cenozoic to

8 . THE GREAT WORK

the emerging Ecozoic Era, the period when humans will be present tothe planet as participating members of the comprehensive Earthcommunity. This is Our Great Work and the work of Our children, justas Europeans in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were given therole of bringing a new cultural age out of the difficulties and strife ofthat long period from the sixth through the eleventh centuries, At thistime, the grandeur of the classical period had dissolved, the cities ofEurope had declined, and life in all its physical and cultural aspectswas carried on in the great castles and monasteries to constitute whatcame to be known as the manorial period in European history.

In the ninth and tenth centuries the Normans were invading thenascent culture of Europe from the north, the Magyars were movingin from the east, and the Muslims were advancing in Spain. Westerncivilization was situated in a very limited region under siege. Inresponse to this threatening situation, medieval Europe toward theend of the eleventh century began the crusading wars that united thenations of Europe and for two centuries engaged them in an eastwarddrive toward Jerusalem and the conquest of the Holy Land.

This period might be considered the beginning of the historicaldrive that has led European peoples in their quest for religious, cul-tural, political, and economic conquest of the world. This movementwas continued through the period of discovery and control over theplanet into our own times when the Western presence culminatespolitically in the United Nations and economically in such establish-ments as the WorldBank, the International Monetary Fund, the WorldTrade Organization, and the World Business Council for SustainableDevelopment. Wemight even interpret this Western drive toward lim-itless dominion in all its forms as leading eventually to the drivetoward human dominion over the natural world.

The immediate achievement, however, of the thirteenth centurywas the creation of the first integration of what became Western civi-lization. In this century new and dazzling achievements took place inthe arts, in architecture, in speculative thinking, in literature. By rais-ing up the medieval cathedrals a new and original architecture was

-

The Great Work . 9

created. In these soaring structures an artistic daring and refinementwas manifest that has been equaled only in rare moments in the largerhistory of civilizations. This was also the period of Francis, the poorman of Assisi who established in Western civilization both the spiri-tual ideal of detachment from Earthly possessions and an intimacywith the natural world. It was also the period ofThomas Aquinas, whooriginated Aristotelian studies, especially in the field of cosmology, inmedieval Christian civilization. Within this context Thomas reinter-preted the entire range ofWestern theological thought. As the philoso-pher Alfred North Whitehead has noted, this was the time when theWestern mind took on that critical keenness and reasoning processthat made our modern scientific thought processes possible. In litera-ture the incomparable Dante AJighieri produced his Commedia in theearly fourteenth century, a time when Giotto was already beginning,with Cimabue, the great period of Italian painting.

The importance of recalling these shaping forces in the narrativeaccount of Western civilization is that they arose as a response to theDark Ages from the sixth- through eleventh-centuries in Europe. Weneed to recall that in these and in so many other instances the darkperiods of history are the creative periods; for these ar'ethe times whennew ideas, arts, and institutions can be brought into being at the mostbasic level. Just as the brilliant period of medieval civilization aroseout of these earlier conditions, so we might recall the period in Chinawhen, in the third century, the tribal invasions [1'0111 the northwest hadbroken down the rule of the Han dynasty and for several centuriesbrought about a disunity throughout the empire. Yet this period of dis-solution was also the period of Buddhist monks and Confucian schol-ars and artists who gave expression to new visions and new thoughtsat the deepest levels of human consciousness. Scholars carrying theTaoist and Confucian traditions would later inspire literary figuressuch as Li Po, Tu Fu, and Po Chu-i in the T'ang period of the eighthcentury. Following the T'ang period the Sung period of the tenththrough fourteenth centuries would bring forth such masterful inter-pretations of traditional Chinese thought as those presented by Chou

10.THE

GREAT

WORK

TheGreat

Work

.11

Tun-iand

ChuHsi.Artists

suchasMaYUanand

Hsia

Kueiofthe

twelfth

centuryand

poetssuch

asSuTung-p'o

would

complete

thiscreative

periodinthe

culturalhistory

ofChina.

Theseare

someofthe

personswhoenabled

theChinese

tosurvive

asapeople

andasacul-

tureand

todiscover

newexpressions

ofthem

selvesafter

thislong

periodofthreats

totheir

survival.

Wemust

considerourselves

inthese

earlyyears

ofthe

twenty-

firstcentury

asalso

experiencingathreatening

historicalsituation,

althoughoursituation

isultim

atelybeyond

comparison

withany

for-merperiod

inEurope

orinAsia.

Forthose

peopleswere

dealingwith

human

adjustment

todisturbances

ofhumanlife

patterns.They

were

notdealingwiththe

disruptionand

eventhe

termination

ofageobio-

logicalperiod

thathad

governedthe

functioningofthe

planetfor

some67million

years.They

were

notdealingwithanything

compara-

bletothe

toxicsinthe

air,thewater,

andthesoil,orw

iththeimmense

volumeofchem

icalsdispersed

throughoutthe

planet.Norwerethey

dealingwiththeextinction

ofspeciesorthe

alteringofthe

climateon

thescale

ofourpresentconcern.

Yetw

ecan

beinspired

bytheir

example,

theircourage,

andeven

bytheir

teachings.For

weare

heirstoanimmense

intellectualher-

itage,tothe

wisdom

traditionswhereby

theywere

abletofulfillthe

Great

Work

oftheir

times.

Thesetraditions

arenot

thetransient

thoughtsorimmediate

insightsofjournalists

concernedwiththe

dailycourse

ofhumanaffairs;

theseareexpressions

inhum

anform

ofthe

principlesguiding

humanlife

within

thevel}'structure

andfunc-

tioningofthe

universeitself.

Wemightobserve

herethat

theGreatW

orkofapeople

isthework

ofallthe

people.Noone

isexem

pt.Each

ofushas

ourindividual

lifepattern

andresponsibilities.

Yetbeyond

theseconcerns

eachperson

inand

throughtheir

personalwork

assistsintheGreat

Work.Personal

work

needstobealigned

withthe

GreatW

ork.Thiscan

beseen

inthe

medieval

periodasthe

basicpatterns

ofpersonallife

andcraftskills

were

alignedwithin

thelarger

work

ofthecivilizational

effort.While

thisalignm

entismore

difficultinthese

times

itmust

remain

anideal

tobesought.Wecannot

doubtthat

wetoo

havebeen

giventhe

intellectualvision,the

spiritualinsight,and

eventhe

physicalresources

weneed

forcarryingoutthe

transitionthatis

demanded

ofthesetimes,transi-

tionfrom

theperiod

when

humans

were

adisruptive

forceonthe

planetEarth

tothe

periodwhen

humans

becomepresent

tothe

planetinamanner

thatismutually

enhancing.

TheMeadow

acrossthe

Creek>13

2Perhaps

itwasnotsim

plythis

moment

thatmade

suchadeep

impression

uponme.Perhaps

itwasasensitivity

thatwasdeveloped

throughoutmychildhood.

Yetas

theyears

passthis

momentreturns

tome,and

whenever

Ithink

aboutmybasic

lifeattitude

andthe

whole

trendofmymind

andthe

causestowhich

Ihave

givenmy

efforts,Iseemtocom

eback

tothis

momentand

theimpact

ithashad

onmyfeeling

forwhatis

realandworthw

hileinlife.

This

earlyexperience,

itseem

s,has

becomenorm

ativefor

me

throughoutthe

entirerange

ofmythinking.

Whatever

preservesand

enhancesthis

meadow

inthe

naturalcycles

ofitstransform

ationis

good;whatever

opposesthis

meadow

ornegatesitis

notgood.Mylife

orientationisthat

simple.Itis

alsothat

pervasive.Itapplies

ineco-

nomics

andpolitical

orientationaswell

asineducation

andreligion.

Thatisgood

ineconom

icswhich

fostersthenatural

processesof

thismeadow

.That

isnotgood

ineconom

icswhich

diminishes

thecapacity

ofthismeadow

torenew

itselfeach

springand

toprovide

asetting

inwhich

cricketscan

singand

birdscan

feed.Suchmeadow

s,Ilater

learned,are

themselves

inacontinuing

processoftransform

a-tion.

Yetthese

evolvingbiosystem

sdeserve

theopportunity

tobe

themselves

andtoexpress

theirowninner

qualities.Asineconom

ics,soinjurisprudence

andlaw

andpolitical

affairs-what

isgood

rec-ognizes

therights

ofthis

meadow

andthe

creekand

thewoodlands

beyondtoexist

andflourish

intheir

ever-renewing

seasonalexpres-

sioneven

while

largerprocesses

shapethe

bioregioninitssequence

oftransformations.

Religion

too,itseemstome,takes

itsoriginhere

inthedeep

mys-

teryofthis

setting.The

moreaperson

thinksofthe

infinitenum

berof

interrelatedactivities

thattakeplace

here,the

moremysterious

itallbecom

es.Themore

meaning

aperson

findsintheMaytim

ebloom

ingofthe

lilies,the

more

awestruck

aperson

mightbe

insimply

lookingoutoverthis

littlepatch

ofmeadow

land.Ithas

noneofthe

majesty

ofthe

Appalachian

orthewestern

mountains,

noneofthe

immensity

orthe

powerofthe

oceans,nor

eventhe

harshmagnificence

ofdesert

The

MEADOW

acrossthe

CREEK

MYOWNUNDERSTA

NDING

OFTHEGREATWORK

BEGANWHEN

I

wasquite

young.Atthe

timeIwassom

eeleven

yearsold.

Myfam

ilywasmoving

fromamore

settledpart

ofasmallsouthern

townoutto

theedge

oftownwhere

thenew

housewasbeing

built.The

house,notyetfinished,

wassituated

onaslight

incline.Downbelow

wasa

small

creekand

thereacross

thecreek

wasa

meadow

.Itwasanearly

after-noon

inlate

Maywhen

Ifirstwandered

downthe

incline,crossed

thecreek,

andlooked

outover

thescene.

Thefield

wascovered

with

white

liliesrising

abovethe

thickgrass.

Amagic

moment,this

experiencegave

tomylife

something

thatseem

stoexplain

mythinking

atamoreprofound

levelthan

almostany

otherexperience

Icanremember.

Itwasnotonly

thelilies.

Itwasthe

singingofthe

cricketsand

thewoodlands

inthe

distanceand

theclouds

inaclear

sky.Itwasnot

something

consciousthat

happenedJust

then.Iwenton

aboutmylife

asany

youngperson

mightdo.

12

I

.1I

14

.THE

GREAT

WORK

TheMeadow

acrossthe

Creek.15

country.Yetinthis

littlemeadow

themagnificence

oflife

ascelebra-

tionISmanifested

inam

rd

dasi

.anner

asproioun

anasimpressive

asany

otherplace

Ihave

knowninthese

pastmany

years.

Itseem

stomemany

peoplehad

suchexperiences

beforewe

enteredinto

anindustrial

wayoflife.

Theuniverse,

asmanifestation

ofsom

eprim

ordialgrandeur,

wasrecognized

asthe

ultimate

referentinany

human

understandingofthe

wonderful

yetfearsom

eworld

aboutus.

Everybeing

achieveditsfull

identityby

itsalignm

entwith

theuniverse

itself.With

indigenouspeoples

ofthe

North

American

continentevery

formalactivity

wasfirst

situatedinrelation

tothe

sixdirections

ofthe

universe,the

fourcardinal

directionscom

binedwith

theheavens

aboveand

theEarth

below.Only

thuscould

anyhum

anactrvrty

befully

validated.

Theuniverse

wasthe

world

ofmeaning

inthese

earliertimes,

thebasic

referentinsocial

ord..

"I'

hhali

f.

1er,Ineconorruc

surviva,Intee

mg0

Illness.Inthat

wide

ambience

theMuses

dwelled

whence

camethe

inspirationofpoetry

andart

andmusic.

Thedrum

,heartbeat

ofthe

umverse

Itself,established

therhythm

ofdance,

whereby

humans

enteredinto

theentrancing

movem

entofthe

naturalworld.

Thenum

inousdi

.fh

'".

rmensm

n0teuniverse

Impressed

Itselfupon

themind

throughthe

vastnessofthe

heavensand

thepow

errevealed

inthe

thunderand

lightning,aswell

asthrough

thespringtim

erenew

alof

lifeafter

thedesol

tiIwi

ThaIon

owinter.

entoo

thegeneral

helplessnessofthe

human

beforeall

thethreats

tosurvival

revealedthe

intimate

dependenceofthe

human

onthe

integralfunctioning

ofthings.

Thatthe

human

hadsuch

iti

.h..

Inrmate

rapportWit

thesurrounding

uruversewas

possibleonly

becauth

..

Ifhd

....

seeuniverse

useaapnor

mtnnate

rapportwith

thehum

anasthe

maternal

sourcefrom

whence

humans

Comeinto

beingand

aresustained

inexistence.

Thisexperience

weob

.h

.di

serveeven

nowInteInigenous

peoplesofthe

world

Theylive

i..

...

tveInalim

verse,Inacosm

ologicalorder,w

hereaswe,the

peoplesofthe

indtrial

IdI

I".

usn

war

,noanger

lyeInauniverse.

WeInNorth

America

liveinapolitical

world,

anation,

abusiness

world,

aneconom

icorder,

acultural

tradition,aDisney

dreamland.

Welive

incities,

inaworld

ofconcreteand

steel,ofw

heelsand

wires,

aworld

ofunending

work.

Weseldom

seethe

starsatnight

orthe

planetsorthe

moon.

Eveninthe

daywedonot

experiencethe

sunin

anyimmediate

ormeaningful

manner.

Summer

andwinter

arethe

sameinside

themall.

Ours

isaworld

ofhighw

ays,parking

lots,shop-

pingcenters.

Weread

bookswritten

with

astrangely

contrivedhum

an

alphabet.Wenolonger

readthe

Book

ofNature.

While

wehave

more

scientificknow

ledgeofthe

universethan

anypeople

everhad,

itisnot

thetype

ofknow

ledgethat

leadstoan

intimate

presencewithin

ameaningful

universe.The

variousphe-

nomena

ofnature

arenot

spiritpresences.

Weno

longerread

thebook

ofthe

universe.Wehave

extensivecontact

with

thenatural

world

throughphotographs

andtelevision

presentations.ButasSaint

Augustine

remarked

longago,

apicture

offood

doesnot

nourishus.

Ourworld

ofhum

anmeaning

isnolonger

coordinatedwiththe

mean-

ingofour

surroundings.Wehave

disengagedfrom

thatprofound

interactionwith

ourenvironm

entthat

isinherent

inour

nature.Our

childrenno

longerlearn

howtoread

thegreat

Book

ofNature

fromtheir

owndirect

experienceorhow

tointeract

creativelywith

thesea-

sonaltransform

ationsofthe

planet.They

seldomlearn

where

theirwater

comes

fromorwhere

itgoes.

Weno

longercoordinate

our

human

celebrationswith

thegreat

liturgyofthe

heavens.Socom

pletelyare

weatodds

with

theplanet

thatbrought

usinto

beingthat

wehave

becomestrange

beingsindeed.

Wededicate

enor-mous

talentand

knowledge

andresearch

indeveloping

ahum

anorder

disengagedfrom

andeven

predatoryonthe

verysources

fromwhence

wecam

eand

uponwhich

wedepend

everymoment

ofour

existence.Weinitiate

ourchildren

intoan

economicorder

basedon

exploitationofthe

naturallife

systemsofthe

planet.Toachieve

thisattitude

wemust

firstmake

ourchildren

unfeelingintheir

relationwith

thenatural

world.

Thisoccurs

quitesimply

sinceweourselves

havebecom

einsensitive

toward

thenatural

world

anddonot

realize

16 . THE GREAT WORK

just what we are doing. Yet if we observe our children closely in theirearly years we see how they are instinctively attracted to profoundexperiences of the natural world. We also see additional stresses,emotional disruptions, and learning disabilities that seem to originatein the toxic environment and processed food that we provide for them.

A primary concern for the peoples of this continent must be torecover an integral relation with the universe, the planet Earth, andthe North American continent. While a new alignment of our govern-ment, our institutions, and our professions with the continent in itsdeep Structure and functioning cannot be achieved immediately, abeginning can be made through our educational programs. Especiallyin the early grades of elementary school, new developments are pos-sible. Such was the insight of the educator Maria Montessori in theearlier part of the twentieth century.

In speaking about the education of the six-year-old child, shenotes in her book, To Educate the Human Potential, that only whenthe child is able to identify its own center with the center of the uni-verse does education really begin. For the universe, she says, "is animposing reality." It is "an answer to all questions." "We shall walktogether on this path of life, for all things are part of the universe, andare connected with each other to form one whole unity." This compre-hensive context enables "the mind of the child to become centered, tostop wandering in an aimless quest for knowledge." She observeshow this experience of the universe creates in children admirationand wonder, how this enables children to unify their thinking. In thismanner children learn how all things are related and how the rela-tionship of things to one another is so close that "no matter what wetouch, an atom, or a cell, we cannot explain it without knowledge ofthe wide universe" (Montessori, p. 6).

The difficulty is that with the rise of the modern sciences webegan to think of the universe as a collection of objects rather than asa communion of subjects. We frequently discuss the loss of the inte-rior spirit world of the human mind with the rise of the modern meeh-

The Meadow across the Creek . 17

anistic sciences. The more significant realization, however, is that wehave lost the universe itself. We have achieved extensive control overthe mechanistic and even the biological functioning of the naturalworld, but this control has not always had beneficial consequences.We have not only controlled the planet in much of its basic function-ing, we have, to an extensive degree, extinguished the life systemsthemselves. We have silenced too many of those wonderful voices ofthe universe that spoke to us of the grand mysteries of existence.

We no longer hear the voice of the rivers, the mountains, or thesea. The trees and meadows are no longer intimate modes of spiritpresence. The world about us has become an "it" rather than a "thou,"as was noted by the distinguished archaeologist Henri Frankfort inBefore Philosophy (p. 26). We continue to make music, write poetry,and do our painting and sculpture and architecture, but these activi-ties easily become aesthetic expressions simply of the human. Theylose the intimacy and radiance and awesome qualities of the uni-verse. We have, in the accepted universe of these times, little capac-ity for participating in the mysteries that were celebrated in theearlier literary and artistic and religious modes of expression. For wecannot live in the universe in which these celebrations took place.We can only look on, as it were, as at something unreal.

Yet the universe is so bound into the aesthetic experience, intopoetry, music, art, and dance, that we cannot entirely avoid the implicitdimensions of the natural world. This is true even when we think ofart as "representational" or "impressionist" or "expressionist" or as"personal statement." However we think of OUl" art or literature, itspower is there in the wonder communicated most directly by themeadow or the mountains, by the sea or by the stars in the night.

Of special significance is our capacity for celebration, whichinevitably brings us into the rituals that provide the coordination ofhuman affairs with the great liturgy of the universe. Our national hol-idays, political events, and heroic human deeds are all quite worthyof celebration, but ultimately, unless they are associated with some

18 . TH E GREAT WO RK

more comprehensive level of meaning, they tend toward the affected,the emotional, and the ephemeral. Here we might note, however,thatin the political and legal orders we have never been able to give upour invocation of the more sublime dimensions of the universe towit-ness the truth of what we say. This we observe in the oaths that weswear in inaugural ceremonies, in official documents, and in courttrials. We still have an instinctive awe and reverence and even a cer-tain fear of the larger world that always Liesoutside the range of ourhuman controls.

Even when we recognize the spirit world beyond the human wemake everything referent to the human as the ultimate source ofmean-ing and of vaLue,although this way of thinking has led to catastrophefor ourselves as well as a multitude of other beings. Yet in recent timeswe begin to recognize that the universe, in the phenomenal order, is theonly self-referent mode of being. All other modes of being, includingthe human, in their existence and in their functioning, are universe-referent. This relation with the universe has been recognized throughthe centuries in the rituals of the various traditions.

From Paleolithic times humans have coordinated their ritual cel-ebrations with the transformation moments of the natural world.Ultimately the universe, throughout its vast extent in space and itssequence of transformations in time, was seen as a single, multiformcelebratory expression. No other explanation seems possible for theworld that we see around us. The birds fly and sing; they build theirnests and raise their young. The flowers blossom. The rains nourishevery living being. The tides flow back and forth. The seasons suc-ceed each other in an entrancing sequence. Each of tbe events in thenatural world is a poem, a painting, a drama, a celebration.

Dawn and sunset are the mystical moments of the diurnal cycle,the moments when the numinous dimension of the universe revealsitself with special intimacy. Individually and in their relations witheach other these are moments when the high mearling of existence isexperienced. Whether in the gatherings of indigenous peoples in

The Meadow across the Creek . 19

their tribal setting or in the more elaborate temples and cathedralsand spiritual centers throughout the Earth these momenLsare cele-brated with special observances. So too in the yearly cycle spring iscelebrated as the time for renewal of the human in a proper alignmentwith the universal order of things.

The proposal has been made that no effective restoration of aviable mode of human presence on the planet wiU take place untilsuch intimate human rapport with the Earth community and the entirefunctioning of the universe is reestablished on an extensive scale.Until this is done the alienation of the human will continue despitethe heroic efforts being made toward a more benign mode of humanactivity in relation to the Earth. The present is not a time for despera-tion but for hopeful activity. This we discover in the firm reassertionof traditional thought and rituals that we can observe with the indige-nous peoples of this continent. This we find in the teachings of BlackElk and in the resurgence of the Sundance ritual with the CrowIndians. In the writings of Scott Momaday, the inspiration of LameDeer, the guidance of Oren Lyons, the poetry of Joy Harjo, the essaysof Linda Hogan, and the insight of Vine Deloria, we find a renewal ofindigenous thought and a critical response to the traditional religiousand scientific modes of Western thought. In each of these we find anintimate presence of the human venture with the great cosmic liturgyof the natural world.

In accord with indigenous modes of thinking throughout theworld we might give a certain emphasis to the need to understand theuniverse primarily as celebration. While the universe celebratesitself in every mode of being, the human might be identified as thatbeing in whom the universe celebrates itself and its numinous originsin a special mode of conscious self-awareness. Spontaneous forms ofcommunity ritual, such as the Council of All Beings inaugurated byJohn Seed, have already been developed. So too the ritual programsof Joanna Macy, the solstice celebrations of Paul Winter, and the sea-sonal festivals of Genesis Farm alI give promise of a future with the

20.THE

GREAT

WORK

understanding,the

power,the

aestheticgrandeur,

andtheemotional

fulfillment

neededtoheal

thedam

agethat

hasalready

beenwrought

onthe

planetand

toshape

forEarth

aviable

future,afuture

withthe

entrancingqualities

neededtoendure

thedifficulties

tobeencoun-

teredand

toevoke

thecreativity

needed.Here

Iwould

suggestthat

thework

beforeusisthe

tasknotsim

-ply

ofourselvesbut

ofthe

entireplanet

andallits

component

mem-

bers.While

thedam

agethat

hasbeen

doneisimmediately

thework

ofhum

ans,the

healingcannot

bethe

work

simply

ofhum

anssny

more

thanthe

illnessofone

organofthe

bodycan

behealed

throughthe

effortsofthat

oneorgan.

Everymember

ofthe

bodymustbring

aboutthe

healing.Sonow

theentire

universeisinvolved

intheheal-

ingofthe

damaged

Earthinthe

lightand

warmthofthe

sun.AsEarth

is,inasense,

amagic

planetinthe

exquisitepresence

ofits

diversemembers

toone

another,sothis

movem

entinto

thefuture

must

insom

emanner

bebrought

aboutinwaysthat

areineffableto

thehum

anmind.W

emightthink

ofaviable

futureforthe

planetlessasthe

resultofsom

escientific

insightorasdependent

onsom

esocioeco-

nomicarrangem

entthan

asparticipation

inasym

phonyorasrenew

edpresence

tosom

enum

inouspresence

manifested

inthe

wonderworldabout

us.Thiswasperhaps

something

Ivaguely

experiencedinthat

firstview

ofthelilies

blooming

inthemeadow

acrossthe

creek.

3

TheEARTHSTO

RY

OUR

GREAT

WORK,

OUR

HISTO

RICAL

ROLE

INITS

DEEPER

significance,has

todowithanew

understandingofthe

planetEarth:

thisradiant

blue-white

planethanging

inthe

sky,twirling

uponits

axisinthe

lightofthe

suneach

day,swinging

initssolar

orbiteach

year.Seven

continentsrise

outofthe

greatworld

ocean.Thepolar

regionsappear

asvaststretches

ofsnow.The

SierraNevada

alongthe

western

edgeofthe

Americas,

theAlps

inEurope,

theHimalayas

inNepal,

theT'ien

ShaninChina,K

ilimanjaro

inAfrica-these

giveto

thecontinents

aforeboding

majesty.

Therivers

flowdow

nfrom

themountains

acrossthe

continentsinto

thesea.

Rain

forestsgirdle

theplanet

initsequatorial

regions.Suchvistas

createanoverw

helming

impression

whether

welook

downfrom

theheavens

oracross

thelandscape

andupatthe

skywithitssun

andclouds

intheday

andits

moon

andstars

inthe

night.Weseldom

thinkaboutthe

Earthitself

initsdistinctive

aspects;weare

enclosedsointim

atelywithin

itsfields

andwoodlands

orlost

amidthe

commercial

frenzyofourcities.

Wedospeak

aboutnature,the

world,

creation,the

environment,

theuniverse,

evenwhen

the

21

22.THE

GREAT

WORK

TheEarth

Story.23

planetEarth

isforem

ost'

hI

-o-In

ourtaug

rts.ret

onlyinrecent

times

haveweexperienced

theEarth

initsfull

sphericalcontours.

Themore

welearn

abotth

EIhi'

ue

art1Lemore

cearly

wesee

itasa

privilegedplanet,

acreation

andthe

homeland

ofamultitude

ofIiv-lIlg

beings.Recently

wehave

cometoknow

theEarth

within

thecon-

textof

amore

comp

h.

kidf

..

reensrve

.nowege

0the

universeItself.

Throughour

observatialsci

b'

,IOn

scienceswe

egmtounderstand

Justhowthe

Earthwasborn

0tfhi'

u0

Learger

processesofthe

universehow

lifeappeared

onthe

land,and

more

recentlyhow

weourselves

emerged

intobeing

Btif

hhsci

•Ulwe

avesue

scientificknow

ledge,weare

oftenlacking

inany

drli

ch

.eep

leelIlg

JOrtemystique

ofthe

Earthorany

depthofunderstanding.

Wethink

ofthe

Earthmore

asthe

back-ground

foreconom

icpurposes

01'asthe

objectofscientific

researchrather

thanasa

·ldf

d'

..

WOI

0won

er,magnificence,

andmystery

forthe

unendingdelight

ofthe

human

mind

andimagination.

EarlIerEarth

wasa

."ali

h"

.'more

mumate

reity

tan

ItISatpresent.

Anim

alsand

humans

were

relatives.This

relationshipfound

visibleexpression

Inthe

tot'inzs

dir

errucca.rvm

gsiscovered

throughoutthe

world.Fhe

powers

ofthe

..

dfth

..

urnvetsewere

granaers

andgrandm

others.A

pervasrvsrapport

wit]

tl.,

I1respm

tpow

ersofthe

naturalworld

was

developed.Ritual

enabledhum

anstoenter

intothe

grandliturgy

ofthe

umverse

itselfS

II

',.

easonarenew

scerem

oniesbrought

humans

intothe

rhythmsofth

J.d1

I'

esoatan

unarcycie.

Architectural

structureswere

setoncoordinates

identifiedwith

theposition

ofthe

heavenlybodies"

something

weseldom

thinkabout

anymore.

Thiswasaperiod

fd

d'.

.0won

eran

creauvitythat

wastoshape

thehum

anproject

untilou

tiW'h

fusi,

,,

'rrmes,

Itout

canuSing

thisearlier

histori-cal

periodwith

amyth'

Idi

tl'

.rca

para15e,

ieredid

existatmoments

aremarkable

contiit

hI

I'

nuiy

troug

routthevanous

realmsofexistence.

Human

activitieswer

.tal'

Ih

I..

e111egr

WIt1tearger

community

andits

functloJlJng.Every

beingpossessed

itsownlife

principle,its

own

mode

ofself-expressio't

'Hn,

1SownVOice..

urnans,anim

als,and

plantsand

aUnatural

pheno'

mena

were

lIltegralcom

ponentsofthe

larger

Earthcom

munity.

AsHenri

Frankfortmentions

inBeyond

Philosophy,"Natural

phenomena

were

regularlyconceived

interm

sofhum

anexperience

andhum

anexperience

wasconceived

interm

sofcosm

ic

events"(Frankfort,

p.12).

Thehum

anand

thecosm

icresponded

toeach

othermost

exten-sively

inthe

Chinese

world.

Human

activitiesthroughout

theyear

were

coordinatedwith

thecycle

ofthe

seasons.Sowefind

inthe

LiChi,

theBook

ofRitual,

prescriptionsindicating

thatthe

robesofthe

emperor,

thepalace

roomsinwhich

helived,

themusic

andthe

cere-monies

were

allcarefully

coordinatedwith

theseasons.

Ifspringtime

music

wasplayed

inthe

autumnthen

thecosm

icorder

wasconsid-

eredtobedisrupted

(quotedinLegge,

p.291).

Asindicated

byWang

Yang-m

inginhis

Questions

onthe

Great

Learning,the

supremeachievem

entofthe

human

personalityinthis

contextwastoexperience

one'sself

as"one

body"with"heaven

andEarth

andthe

myriad

things"(quoted

indeB

aryand

Bloom

,pp.

845--46).Inthe

vastcreative

processesofthe

universethe

human

was"athird

alongwith

heavenand

Earth"asaprim

ordialforce

shap-

ingthe

entireorder

ofthings.

Continuity

ofthe

human

withthe

naturalworld

inasingle

sacredcom

munity

canbe

appreciatedinthe

experienceofBlack

Elk,a

LakotaSioux

Indian,asnarrated

inhis

lifestory,

BlackElk

Speaks.When

hewasnine

yearsold

heexperienced

anelaborate

visioncul-

minating

inavast

cosmicdance

evokedbythe

songofthe

blackstal-

lionseen

inthe

heavens(Neihardt,

chap.2),

Asense

ofthe

sacreddim

ensionofthe

universeisevident

here,atype

ofawareness

ofthe

naturalworld

thatseem

stobe

lessavailable

fromour

modern

Western

religions.Earlier

suchintim

acydid

existinthe

mystical

traditionofpersons

suchasHildegard

ofBingen,

Richard

ofSt.

Victor,

Meister

Eckhart,and

Johnofthe

Cross.

Froman

earlyperiod

Christians

adopteda

liturgythat

carefullyobserved

thecorrespondences

ofhum

anpraise

with

thenum

inousmoments

ofthe

dawnand

sunsetand

with

the

24'THE

GREAT

WORK

TheEarthStory

,25

transitionsofthe

various,rh

',

,seasons

0teyear,

Thisliturgy

wascarried

outmost

faithfullyinth

Bdi

",

eene

icuneand

Eisteroianrnonastenes

ofEurope

upthrough

themedieval

period,The

socialorder

wasitself

governedbythis

basichtl

fl'f

HI

,ryirn0

Ie.0ydays

were

theoriginal

hol-idays,

asthe

words

themselves

indicate,Welose

Ourintim

acith

hal

y\\11

tenatur

world

oncewetake

011a

secularlife

attitudeTh

al.

enatur

world

becomes

vulnerabletoassault

byhum

ansAlthough

tICh'

,,

.le

nsuanworld

didhave

thiscom

mitment

tothe

cosmological

0d

ithd

..

rer,

Ita

aneven

deepercom

mitmenllO

thehistoncal

orderTh"

hi.alori

",

,.

ISrstorrc

onentauonISultim

atelywhat

made

OurWestern

world

so[1"

'"pow

erumItSpolitical

andeconom

icdom

i-nance

throughoutth

ldd

,,

ewor

anyet

sovulnerable

tothe

lossofits

intimate

concernfoth

al1

renatur

word.1t

alsoled

tothe

conceptofthe

naturalworld

asbeing

ther'

'If"

""

.epnman

yor

userather

thanasmaru-

Iestationofso

"menum

inouspresence.

Now,after

thesecentu

.f

"h

nes0expenencm

gteplanet

asbeing

acollection

ofobjects

forientif

'or

SCient]

canalysis

andcom

mercial

use,we

must

ask:where

canwfdh

"...

enteresources

forareevaluation

ofour

activities?How

canw

btaih

',

e0

amtepsychic

energiesneeded

todisen-

gagefrom

ourplunder:

ind'I

.enng

Inustna

economy?

Wemight

beginwith

ourbasic

senseofreality

thi,

,as

ISexists

atpresent.

OUfsense

ofrealitycannot

besimply

thh'

Id,,

emyt

ICWOTSofthe

past,nor

canitbelimited

totraditionj,

thatexist

intial

dh

.aspa

1InO

eofconsciousness.

Whatever

betecase

WIthother

soc'ti

dI

'.

ieleg

anatter

LImeswefunction

throughour

observatIonalsciences'

hh

'In

tecontext

ofadevelopm

entaluniverse

tathas,

within

thephen

alld.j

omen

war

,ItsOwnself-organizing

powers.

Forour

senseofre,

litth

',I.

aJy

reecom

mitments

arebasic:

toobserva-

tronascience,

toadevel

aluni

..

.opm

entuniverse,

toanmner

self-organiz-Ing

capacity.Wecann

td

'h'

.0

0\V1tout

ourearlier

experiencesofUle

flUID]nOllsprese

'f"

d 'nce

mam

estedInthe

greatCosm

icLiturgy,

Wecan-

not0Wlthout

OUTh

"d',

tB

humamstlc

Ira11Ions,O

urartand

poetryand

liter-aure.

uttese

lrd't'

.d

aIIons

cannotthem

selves,simply

withtheir

own

powelS,

0what

needstob

dTh

'e

one.ese

earlIerexperiences

and

accomplishm

entswere

dealingwith

otherissues,

providingguidance

fordifferent

worlds

thanthe

world

ofthe

earlytwenty-first

century,To

meet

thecurrent

environmental

challengethey

tooneed

tobetrans-

formed

within

thecontext

ofanemergent

universe,Norcan

theform

eraccusations

againstthe

materialism

ofOUI"

scientificendeavor

beaccepted,

Ourobservational

sciencespresently

havemoved

beyondthe

mechanistic

understandingofaso-called

objectiveworld

asitw

asknow

ninthe

pastfew

centuriesofN

ewtonian

physics,Weknow

nowthat

thereisasubjectivity

inall

ourknow

l-edge,

thatweourselves,

preciselyasintelligent

beings,activate

oneofthe

deepestdim

ensionsofthe

universe.Ifform

erlyweknew

bydow

nward

reductionprocesses

thatconsidered

theparticle

asthe

realityand

thewholes

asderivative,

wenow

recognizethatit

iseven

more

important

thatweintegrate

upward,

becausewecannot

knowparticles

andtheir

poweruntil

wesee

thewholes

thatthey

bringinto

being,Ifweknow

theelem

entssimply

intheir

isolatedindividual

realitywehave

onlyminim

alknow

ledgeofwhat

theyreally

are.To

understandatom

swemust

seethese

elements

intheir

centralrole

inmolecules,

mega

molecules,

incellular

life,organic

life,even

inintel-

lectualperception,

sinceatom

icstructures

inatransform

edcontext

liveand

functioninthe

wide

displayofall

thegorgeous

plantsand

animals

ofthe

Earthaswell

asinthe

most

profoundintellectual,

emotional,

andspiritual

experiencesofthe

human,

Thereisaspiritual

capacityincarbon

asthere

isacarbon

compo-

nentfunctioning

inour

highestspiritual

experience,Ifsom

escientists

considerthat

a11thisismerely

amaterial

process,then

what

theycall

matter,Icall

mind,

soul,spirit,orconsciousness.

Possiblyitis

aques-

tionofterm

inology,since

scientiststoo

onoccasion

useterm

sthat

expressaweand

mystery,

Mostoften,

perhaps,they

usethe

expressionthat

someofthe

naturalfOImsthey

encounterseem

tobe"telling

them

something."Itseem

sbest

toconsider

thatmind

andmatter

aretwodim

ensionsofthe

singlereality

thatcom

esinto

beinginanimmense

diversityof

III

26 . THE GREAT WORK

expression throughout the universe by some self-organizing process.We begin to appreciate this reality in the wonders of its achievements,although it will remain forever beyond expression in any scientific for-mulation or humanly constructed equation.

The second aspect of our present knowledge is that the universeis revealed to us as irreversible emergent process. We no longer livesimply in a spatial mode of consciousness where time is experiencedas a seasonal renewing sequence of realities that keep their basicidentity in accord with the Platonic archetypal world. We nowlive notso much in a COsmos as in a cosmogenesls; that is, a universe evercoming into being through an irreversible sequence of transforms-tions moving, in the larger arc of its development, from a lesser to agreat order of complexity and from a lesser to great consciousness.

The third foundation for appreciating our own times is to recog-nize that there exists at every level a basic tendency toward self-organization. This we find at the physical level, at the biological level,and at the level of reflexive-consciousness. While the ancients hadmuch more highly developed sensitivities regarding the natural worldin its numinous aspects and in its inner spontaneities, 'we are notwithout OUf Own resources that, properly appreciated, can lead to ourown mode of intimacy with the natural world, and even to a renewal ofthe Earth in the new ecological community. If for a while we lost thepoetry of the universe, this loss was significantly changed when theastronauts came home stunned with the immensity and beauty of whatthey had experienced. Especially overwhelming was their viewof theplanet Earth from the regions of the moon, almost 200,000 miles dis-tant. A new poetic splendor suddenly appeared in their writings.

The astronaut Edgar Mitchell tells us that he had an amazingexperience when he looked out at Earth from outer space and saw"this blue-and-white planet floating there," then saw the sun set "inthe background of the very deep black and velvety cosmos." He wasovercome with immersion in an awareness that there was "a purpose-fulness of !low,of energy, of time, of space in the cosmos" beyond anyprevious experience that he ever had (Kelley, p. 138).

The Earth Story . 2 "{

This sensitive experience of the universe and of the Earth leadsus further back to appreciation of tbe ten billion years required forthe universe to bring the Earth into existence and another 4.6 billionyears for tbe Earth to shape itself in sucb splendor. For our presentEarth is not the Earth as it always was and always will be. It is tbeEarth at a higbly developed phase in its continuing emergence. Weneed to see the Earth in its sequence of transformations as so manymovements in a musical composition. The sequence of events thatemerge in time needs to be understood simultaneously, as in music:the earlier notes are gone when the later notes are played, but themusical phrase, indeed the entire symphony, needs to be heard simul-taneously. We do not fully understand the opening notes until thelater notes are heard. Each new theme alters tbe meaning of the ear-lier themes and the entire composition. The opening theme resonatesthroughout all the later parts of the piece.

So too the origin moment of the universe presents us with an amaz-ing process that we begin to appreciate as a mystery unfolding throughtbe ages. The flaring forth of the primordial energy carried within itselfall that would ever happen in the long series of transformations thatwould bring the universe into its present mode of being. The originmoment of the universe was the implicate form of the present as thepresent is the explicate form of the origin moment. The primordialemergence was the beginning of the Earth story, as well as tbe begin-ning of the personal story of each of us, since tbe storyof the universe isthe story of each individual being in the universe. Indeed the realityinherent in the original flaring Iorth could not be knownuntil the shap-ing forces held in this process had brought forth the galaxies, tbe Earth,the multitude of living species, and the reflection of the universe onitself in human intelligence.

After the origin moment a sequence of other tratlsformationmoments took place, the shaping of the first generations of starswithin their various galaxies, then the collapse of one of these starsinto a vast dispersion of fragments throughout the realms of space.The energy of this supernova moment brought into being the entire

28 . THE GREAT WORK

array of elements. These elements in tum made possible the futuredevelopments on the planet Earth, for indeed the appearance of lifeneeded the broad spectrum of elements for its full expression.

Our Ownsolar system with its nine planets became possible atthis moment. A gravitational center of attraction gathered the scatteredfragments of the fanner star into this new star, our sun, and surroundingthis star with its ninefold anangement of planets. Within this context,the planet Earth began its distinctive self-expression, a groping towardits unknowable future, yet carrying within itself a tendency towardanever greater differentiation, a deepening spontaneity, an ever more inti-mate self-bonding of its component parts. Such a wonderment comesover us as we reflect on E81th finding its proper distance from the sunso that it would be neither too hot nor toocold, shaping its radius so thatit would be neither too large (and thus make Earth more gaseous likeJupiter) nor too small (and thus make E81th more rock-bound likeMars). Then the moon must be situated with such precision, that itwould neither be so close that the tides would overwhelm the conti-nents, nor so distant that the seas would be stagnant.

The radioactive elements within Earth provided the heat for theVOIC81licexplosions leading to the atmosphere and the seas and rais-ing the continents above the waters. Profound mysteries were takingplace all this while, but nothing so mysterious as setting into placethe conditions required for the emergence oflife and the human formof consciousness. The 3.4 billion-year story of life is so integral withthe story of Earth in its basic structure that we cannot properly thinkof the Earth as first taking shape in its full physical form and then lifeemerging somehow within this context.

Earth as we know it came into being through its four great com-ponents: land, water, air, and life, all interacting in the light andenergy of the sun. Although there was a sequence in the formation ofthe land sphere, the atmosphere, the water sphere, and the lifesphere, these have so interacted with one another in the shaping ofthe Earth that we must somehow think of these as all present to oneanother and interacting from the beginning.

The Earth Story . 29

Although there was a primordial atmosphere and sea and land,these were so transformed by life developmenL that we might think ofthe Earth as primarily a life process. We do need to tell in sequencethe story of the physical shaping of the Earth and the primary form ofthe atmosphere and the seas with their chemical components andthen consider the procaryotic cell and invention of photosynthesis,the eucaryotic cell, and respiration, then the more elaborate expres-sion of all these modes of Earth development. We must constantlyrealize that each stage of development was the consequence of a sin-gle process at work, a process that came to a new phase of its devel-opment in the human mode of consciousness. This unity of theuniverse was more easily appreciated in classical times when Plato inhis Timaeus proposes the idea of a world-soul that gives a living unityto the entire universe. This idea of a world-soul, an anima mundi,continued in the European world until the seventeenth century withthe Cambridge Platonists: Henry More, Richard Cumberland, and

Ralph Cudworth.Of more immediate significance to ourselves in this telling the

story of the Earth is the sequence of life developments that hasemerged in these past 600 million years, the time generally presentedin terms of the Paleozoic (from 570 million years before present to240 myp), the Mesozoic (240 myp until 65 myp) and the Cenozoic (65myp). While it would be useful to discuss the earlier biological eras,it is the Cenozoic that is of most interest to us. This is the era whenour world took shape. While many of the distinctive life-forms of theCenozoic were already present in the earlier Mesozoic Era, theyattained their full development in the Cenozoic. This is the era whenthe flowers came forth in all their gorgeous colors and fantasticshapes. It is the period of the great deciduous trees in the temperatezones and of the tropical rain forests in the equatorial region. TheCenozoic is the special time of the birds in all the variety of theirforms and colors and songs and mating rituals. Above all it is the eraof the mammals. The varied multitude of living species, possiblytwenty million, came into their greatest splendor in this era. We will

30 . THE GREAT WORK

never know the e species fully since many have come and gone inthe natural process of evolutionary change. Now we ourselves areextinguishing species in a volume and with a rapidity far beyond anyformer natural process s of extinction since the beginning of theCenozoic Era.

The late Cenozoic was a wildly creative period of inspired fan-tasy and extravagant play. It was a supremely lyrical moment whenhumans emerged on the scene, quietLy, somewhere on the edge of thesavanna in northeast Africa. From here they later spread throughoutAsia and Europe. From early transitional types come our ownmorerecent ancestors, some sixty thousand years ago, with developedspeech, symbolic language, skills in tool-making, extended familycommunities along with the capacity for song and dance, and forelaborate ritual along with visual arts of amazing grandeur. All ofthese are expressions of the late Paleolithic Period.

Then some ten thousand years ago, the human communityemerged into the Neolithic Period with its new social structures, weav-ing and pottery, domestication of wheat and rice, also of sheep, pigs,cattle, horses, chickens, and reindeer. Above all, this was the periodof village beginnings. Out of this village context came the early citiesof the world along the Tigris-Euphrates, the Nile, the Indus, theYellow River, the Mekong. Later came the Maya on the Yucatanpeninsula, the Toltec in Mesoamerica, and the Inca on the highplateaus of Peru. From its beginnings in Sumer, some five tbousandyears ago, the Western civilization story unfolds over the centuries, astory that leads eventually to European civilization.

The various civilizations have given expression to the humanin a variety of geographical settings, with amazing inventiveness inlinguistic creativity, in religious rituals, intellectual insight, socialorganizations, and artistic sensitivity. The Earth, during these fivethousand years, has resounded with music and dance, religious spec-tacles, and the dramatic presentations of peoples everywhere. Allthis emerged as expression not simply of the human but of the Earthitself in its vast range of creativity.

The Earth. Story . 31

YeLamid the splendor there is also the human transformation of theplanet. Much of this, particularly in recenL industrial centuries, hasbeen disrupting to the functional integrity of the planet. Yet if the Earthhas been exploited by cutting the forests, plowing the fields, dammingthe rivers, killing the animals, it has also been adorned by the pyramidsof Egypt, the great temple complex of Borobudur in Indonesia, AngkorWat in Cambodia, the Great Wall of China, the cathedrals of Europe,the Maya, Aztec, and Inca structures in the Americas. These achieve-ments have given expression to the manner in which the peoples of theworld have experienced the great mystery of things and have entered

into communion with these vast cosmic forces.Mostly these traditions have been founded in the peoples' story

traditions, their mythic accounts of how things came to be in the begin-ning, how they came to be as they are, and how we enter with our ownmusic, song, and dance into Ibis unending celebration of the universeand of the planet Earth. So now in our modern scientific age, in a man-ner never known before, we have created our own sacred story, the epicof evolution, telling us, from empirical observation and critical analy-sis, how the universe came to be, the sequence of its transformationsdown through some billions of years, how our solar system carne intobeing, then how the Earth Lookshape and brought us into existence.

With all the inadequacies of any narrative, the epic of evolutiondoes present the story of the universe as this story is now available tous out of our present experience. This is our sacred story. It is our wayof dealing with the ultimate mystery whence all things come intobeing. It is much more than an account of matter and its randomemergence into the visible world about us. For the emergent process,as noted by the geneticist Theodore Dobzhansky, is neither randomnor determined but creative. Just as in the human order, creativity isneither a rational deductive process nor the irrational wandering ofthe undisciplined mind but the emergence of beauty as mysterious as

the blossoming of a field of daisies out of tbe dar-k Earth.To appreciate the numinous aspect of the universe as this is com-

municated in this story we need to understand that we ourselves

32'THE

GREAT

WORK

activateone

ofthe

deetdi

,.

.pes

imensrons

ofthe

universe.Wecan

recog-ruze

mourselves

ours

ialiII

j.

..peel

mte

ectual,emotional,

andimaginative

capacities.That

thesecapacities

haveexisted

asdim

ensionsofthe

uni-verse

fromitsbeginning

'I'

th'

,_.

O'

ISCear

SInce

euruverae

jsever

integralwithItself

inallits

manife

tti

hh

'saIOnstraug

outItsvast

extensioninspace

andthroughout

thesequence

ofitstransform

ationsintimes,

Thehum

anis

neitheranaddendum

'"

,'.

noran

intrusionInto

theuru

verse.Weare

quin-tessentially

integralwith

theuniverse,

Inourselves

theunivers

',

ald

'lf

'eIS[eve

eLauser

asweare

revealedm

th-

Seuruverse,

uchastatem

entcould

bemade

aboutany

aspectofthe

umverse

becauseevery

beiinthe

uni,

.emgIn

eurnverse

articulatessom

especial

qualityofthe

universeinits

entirety,Indeed

nothinginthe

universecould

beitself

apartfrom

eth

beiinth

-very

O'er

elngIn

euniverse,

norcouldany

moment

oftheuniverse

storyexist

apartfrom

alltheother

moments

mthe

storyYetit's

ithibei

'•

i-IWIInOUfow

nemgthat

wehave

ourownunique

experienceofthe

universeand

ofthe

Earthinitsfull

reality,

4

TheNORTH

AMERICAN

CONTINENT

INTHESE

OPEN

ING

YEARSOFTHETWENTY-FIR

STCENTURY

WE

findourselves

hereonthis

continent,know

nearlier

asTurtle

Island,now

knownasNorth

America,

Tolive

hereinany

acceptablemanner,

weshould

knowsom

ethingabout

thiscontinent

anditsdistinctive

features,for

onlyinthis

manner

canweknow

where

weare

orunder-

standour

authenticrole

inthis

context.Weneed

toknow

thestory

ofthis

continent,how

itcam

etobehere

between

theAtlantic

Ocean

onthe

eastand

thePacific

Ocean

onthe

west,

between

theArctic

inthe

northand

theTropics

tothe

south,Weneed

toappreciate

itsrivers

andmountains,

itseastern

forests,itswestern

deserts,itsEverglade

swamps,

itsKansas

prairies,itsCascade

andSiena

mountains.

Here

inthe

eastwefind

ourselvesinthe

foothiIlsofthe

Appa-

lachianMountains,

Among

theoldest

mountains

inthe

world,

olderthan

theRocky

Mountains

orthe

Alps

orthe

Himalayas,

theAppa-

lachiansextend

allthe

waydow

nthe

easternregion

ofthe

continent

33

34.THE

GREAT

WORK

fromthe

Gaspe

PeninsulainCal

d.highland

re.I'

iaathrough

thelong

sequenceof

gionstrat

Includethe

WI.

dVerm

ont011

thh

hlite

anthe

Green

mountains

in,

rougteBerk

hi.

Hudson

ill.

I'srres

InMassachusetts,

acrossthe

verInto

tieCatskills'

NYI

P lateauI'nP

IIn

ework,

thendow

nthe

Allegheny

ennsyvani

.-

hB

.Virginia

andC

I-.a,

Intote

IueRIdge

Mountains

ofWest

aroinas

IntoG'

.E

fh

eorgra,toend

Innorthern

Alabam

aast

0temountains

thal

.Atlantic

shh

ecoast

plainsweeps

downalong

theores

trough

NewJ

MI"

.and

Geo

.th

ersey,ary

and,VIrginia,

theCarolinas

rgia,enon

acrossthe

GIfC

-the

Appal

hiI'

uoast

IntoTexas.

Tothe

west

ofacians

resthe

GtC

alHiver

andittrihutari

:eaentr

Valley

where

theMississippi

Isutanes

drainth

-f

ofC

dd

econtinent

romthe

southernregions

anaaan

allthe

wa

fN

.the

yrom

ewYork

111the

easttoMontana

inwest.

Atmidlatitude

inthis

IIh

.-.

ingI

vaeytePrairie

regionswith

theirflow

er-grasses

roIever-w

eh

·d-

..

SVal

overan

Immense

areaThese

tallgrasses

originall.d.'

.Indiana

andIll-

yeohverethe

regionfrom

Western

Ohio

throughInO

lS,1en

acrossth

M'....

andK.

enssissrppi

intoIow

a,Minnesota

ansas.There

themix

d'

Montana

Wom-

.e

grassesextend

oninto

theDakotas,

short-'y.mg,also

IntoKansas,

Nebraska,

andOklahom

a.The

grasslegIO

nextend

f-.h

-New

M.

S10m

tere

II1tOWestern

Kansas

Texas

exico,and

Cclorad

Th'

,rise

ofthe

Rk

_o.ese

grasslandsend

where

theabrupt

plainsBey

°d cy,M

ountainsextend

theirjagged

peaksfar

abovethe

.on

tiemountains

Lith

d-

with

allth-Iidd

-e

eesert

regionsofthe

Southwest

err11

enadf·

'JJ

t-Id

nJagl

eyet

enduringform

soflife.

ustnan

alongthe

Pif

alongthe

coatal.'

acicshores

themountain

rangesextend

sregion

allthe

waf·

Alk

-north

thb.I

Y10m

asatoCalifornia.

Tothe

eorea

sprucefir

CAlaska

tothe

Atla

_-

.orestsextend

acrosscentral

Canada

fromnne.

Ineastern

Cd

fd

Hills

themost

_ana

awe

nthe

Laurentian,

ancrenrrock

corefthi

.the

Canadian

Shild

0IScontrnent,

alsodesignated

asAJ

.ieio,

sometwobillion

yearsold.

ongwithsuch

adescription

ofh

.--

weneed

toknow

hth'

.tecontm

entmltspresent

fonn,ow

IScontInent

cbh

beeninthe

pastd'.

ameto

eere,

what

itsrole

has,an

Itsappal-ent

destinyinthe

unfoldingfuture.

To

tellthis

storywith

anyrichness

ofdetail

wemight

beginwiththe

time

when

thiscontinent

initsearly

form,som

e250

million

yearsago,cam

etogether

with

theother

landmasses

ofthe

planetasasingle

world

island,Pangaea,

inthe

midst

oftheworld

ocean.Atthe

meeting

ofthe

continentsthe

Appalachian

Mountains

experiencedtheir

finaluplift.

Thensom

e200

million

yearsago

thevarious

continentsrifted

apart.The

North

American

continentswung

awayfrom

theother

conti-

nentstoward

thenorthw

est.While

separatingout

fromthe

bulgeof

what

becameNorth

Africa,

thiscontinent

keptitsclose

relationshipwith

theEurasian

continenttothe

east.Indeed,

Greenland

geologi-cally

ispart

ofthe

North

American

continent.Since

SouthAmerica

laterdrifted

offfrom

theAfrican

continenttothe

southwest

therehas

beennoland

contactbetw

eenNorth

America

andSouth

America

untilrecently.

North

America

keptitscontacts

with

theEurasian

continentuntil

itsmore

complete

separationsom

e100

million

yearsago.

Thatweshare

thepines,

theoaks,

thebeeches,

theelms,and

othertree

speciessoextensively

with

theEuropean

world

isdue

tothe

contin-ued

closeassociation

with

thatcontinent.

AsNorth

America

moved

westw

ard,the

Atlantic

Ocean

begantotake

onitspresent

form.

Inthe

geobiologica!story

ofEarth,the

periodfrom

220million

yearsago

until65

million

yearsago,

knownasthe

Mesozoic

Era,is

theperiod

ofthe

dinosaurs.Atthis

immensely

creativetimethe

How-

eringplants

andtrees,

andalso

thebirds

cameinto

beingintheir

pri-mordial

forms.

Yetitwasonly

afterthe

massive

extinctionsthat

occurredsom

e67

million

yearsago

thatanew

evolutionroymoment

occurredwhen

thetrees,

flowers,birds,

andanim

alsasweknow

themcam

einto

being.This

extinctionwasnecessary

forthe

emergence

ofmany

ofthe

mammals

andofour

ownhum

anmode

ofbeing.

Atthis

timeconnections

with

theAsian

world

alsobegan

asthe

westw

ardmovem

entofthe

North

American

continentbrought

itcloser

tothe

continentofA

siainthe

farnorthw

est.This

periodofseparation

fromthe

Eurasianand

African

worlds

preventedthe

earlierhum

anmigrations

overthe

Earthfrom

reaching

TheNorth

American

Contin.ent

.35

36.THEGREAT

WORK

thiscontinent

untilarather

re.

thelast

fth

PI.

centpen

ad.Only

when

theWisconsin,

ae

eistocenegla

..

dth

I.

crers,movIng

ownfrom

thenorth

foreast

ninetythousand

Id

thhr

years,owere

thewaters

ofthe

seamore

anbeehundred

feetcould

thefirst

human

enteronto

thisconti-

nentycrossm

gover

aland

bid

hStr

.nge,

tearea

nowknow

nasthe

Bering

arts.orth

America

h.I

SI

fb.

sares

with

outhAmerica

andAustralia

theroea

emgthe

lastofthe

.h

greatcontinents

ofthe

world

toexperience

urnan

presenceAfrica

A.

dE

.dh

.,Sla,

anurope

hadlong

sincebeen

occu-pIC

ycontem

poraryh

hI ".

umans

w0apparently

hadoriginated

much

earierinAfrica.

Thefirst

peoplesthi

.fh

W.

onIScontinent

moved

downalong

thevalleys

ateestern

regionsofN

hdh

Tart

antenSouth

America

allthe

wayto

ierradel

Fuegoatthe

th.

hib

souern

trpofSouth

America.

Thiswaspossi-

eecause

bythis

tiixmil.

Pme,som

eSIX

nubon

yearsago

theIsthm

usof

anamnconnecting

North

A'.

'b.

menca

withSouth

America

hadcom

einto

emgand

thedestinies

ftI.

.0.

lesetwocontinents

begantheir

associa-tion.

Atthe

sametimethei

.d e

mcom

mg

peoplesfrom

Asia

moved

east-war

tooccupy

North

A.IIh

Thhi

menca

atewaytothe

Atlantic

coastlands,e

rstorion]and

cultI

I'e

I'uta

accompishm

entsofthe

indigenouspopesofthis

continenta'

lvnow

beaid

.Ieon

ynow

egmnmg

tobe

appreciatedan

acceptedmtoa

I.

I.

generanarrative

ofthe

human

venture.The

peopeswholived

herefit.wihthei

.ti

hrs.wrt

tell'unique

experienceofthis

con-nent,

avemuch

tote,

h"

.conti

hae

usconcerm

ngmnrnate

presencetothis

ment,

owweshould

dIIh

.relation

ithh

Iwe

ereinsom

emutually

enhancingWI

teand

Ifth"

alSouth

A.

h.

eorigin

peoplesliving

inNorth

andmenca

avenot

p.

1th

hrevious

yentered

ourgeneral

accountof

e.um

anventure

theyar

.larger

coursefhi

'enow

recognizedashaving

influencedthe

otstory

economioall

dli

alllectuallyand

..all

yanporue

yaswell

asintel-

spmtu

y.Itwasthe

goldand

silverofC

theeconom

iclife

ofE

entraland

SouthAmerica

thatlifted

ofthese

continents_~ropetoanew

levelofactivity.

Thevegetables

tepotatoes

Corn

bh

alteredthe

dietofth

Id'.'

eans,squas

,tom

atoes-ewor

.Thedisc

fcrui

.overy

0quirnne,

cocaine,and

TheNorth

American

Continent.37

otherhealing

natureproducts

bythe

FirstPeoples

ofthe

Americas

wassoextensive

thatone

writer

hasclaim

ed:"Thiscornucopia

ofnewpharm

aceuticalagents

becamethe

basisfor

modem

medicine

and

pharmacology"

(Weatherford,

p.184).

Inour

appreciationofthe

indigenouspeoples,

wemight

alsonote

theirachievem

entsinthe

creationoflanguages,

intheir

spiritualinti-

macy

with

theland,

andintheir

politicalcom

petence.Intheir

lan-guage

creations,among

themost

sublime

andmost

fundamental

ofall

human

achievements,

wecan

onlymarvel

atthe

linguisticdiver-

sity.Perhaps

overathousand

languageswere

formulated

inthe

earlyperiod,

ofwhich

overfive

hundredsurvived

thisearly

contactperiod.

Theirspiritual

insightinto

thetranshum

anpow

ersfunctioning

through-out

thenatural

world

establishedthe

religionsofN

ativeAmericans

as

among

themost

impressive

spiritualtraditions

weknow

.Their

imaginative

powers

cametoexpression

intheir

arts,litera-

ture,and

dance,but

especiallyintheir

poetryand

theirritual.

Theiremotional

development

becamemanifest

inthose

qualitiesofhum

anaffection

andtheir

heroiccast

ofsoul,som

ethingconsistently

remarked

uponbythe

earliestsettlers.

Intheir

gentilityand

poiseofbearing,

inthe

affectionthey

showed

tothe

arrivingEuropeans,

theymade

a

deepimpression

onthese

firststrangers

fromabroad.

Already

inthe

earlyseventeenth

centurywith

thefounding

ofthe

Englishcolonies

inthe

Virginia

regionofNorth

America,

Arthur

Barlow

,one

ofthe

earliestexplorers

ofthe

Virginia-C

arolinaregion,

wasconvinced

that"amore

kindand

lovingpeople

therecannot

befound

inthe

world"

(Kolodny,

p.10).

Oneofthe

most

touchingevents

inthe

earlyhistory

ofVirginia

wasthe

questionposed

toJohn

Smith

bythe

chiefofthe

Powhatan

confederacyafter

therehad

beensom

eaggressive

actby

thecolonists:

"Why

doyou

takebyforce

what

youmayhave

quietlybylove?

Why

willyou

destroyuswhosupply

youwith

food?What

canyou

getbywar...

?Weare

unarmed

andwill-

ingtogive

youwhat

youask,

ifyoucom

einafriendly

manner

andnot

with

swords

andguns,

asifto

make

warupon

anenem

y"(Jam

estown

38.THE

GREAT

WORK

Voyages,edited

byP.L.B

arbour,p.375

sq.,quoted

inT.C

.McLuhan,

p.66).While

suchbenign

traitswere

experiencedbysom

eofthe

earlysettlers

inthe

easternregion

ofNorth

America,

thesewere

alsothe

heroicqualities

oftheIndian

personality,found

especiallyamong

theirleaders.

Intheeast

wefind

Pontiacthe

Ottaw

a,whonegotiated

exten-sively

withboth

theFrench

andBritish

topreserve

theindependence

ofhispeople.In

theopening

yearsofthe

nineteenthcentury

Tecumseh

theShaw

neetraveled

extensivelyand

spoketomany

tribeseastofthe

Mississippi

toconvince

themthat

nosingle

tribehad

atight

tomakea

separatetreaty

withtheEnglish

becauseallthe

landbelonged

incom

-montoallthe

tribes.Then

thereisLittle

Turtle,the

Miamiwarchief

who

defeatedthe

forcesbrought

againsthim

inthe

Battle

ofMississinew

ain1791

causingthe

greatestnum

berofAmerican

casu-alties

eversuffered

inabattle

withAmerican

Indians.RedJacket

theSeneca

spokewithPresident

Washington

andaddressed

theUnited

StatesSenate.To

themissionaries

heresponded

thathewould

waitto

seehow

theSeneca

whohad

beenconvetted

acted.Hewould

thendecide

concerningacceptance

ofChristianity

byhim

selfand

hispeople.

Thesewereleaders

whospoke

incouncilw

iththeEnglish

with

agrace

andcom

mand

thatgave

evidenceofthe

highcultural

develop-mentofthe

peopleshere

andoftheir

capacityLaaddress

theleaders

ofthe

nationsonanequal

andoften

onasuperior

planeofbasic

culturaldevelopm

ent.Westofthe

Mississippi

thesettlers

were

metby

suchmemorable

leadersasRedCloud

andCrazy

Horse

oftheOglala

Sioux,byBlack

Kettle

andRomanNose

ofthe

southernCheyenne,

byCochise

andGeronim

oofthe

Chiricahua

Apache,

byChief

Josephofthe

Nez

Perce.These

aretheleaders

whotook

theirpeoples

throughthediffi-

culltamesofm

ilitaryconflict

andtransition

toreservation

status.Itis

atragic

andalong

continuingstory

thatenduresinto

thepresent.

Yetthere

isasense

inwhich

theFirstPeoples

ofthiscontinent

inthe

fullrange

oftheirbearing

andintheir

intimacy

withthe

powersof

TheNorth

American

Conuneni:39

thecontinent

haveachieved

something

thatguides

andinstructs

alJthose

whocom

etolive

here.Throughoutthese

centuriesdespite

wars,

culturaloppression,

poverty,andalcoholism

,indigenous

peopleshave

maintained

diversecom

munities

committed

toself-c1etennination,

homelands,

andancestral

traditions.These

qualitiesofm

indregard

thepresence

ofthepow

ersofthe

North

American

continentandtheir

traditionalwisdom

tobeanabiding

sourceofguidance.

Thispresence

ofnative

peoplestothe

numinous

powersofthis

continentexpressed

throughits

naturalphenom

enaexpresses

anancient

spiritualidentity.The

Iroquoispeoples

communed

withthese

powers

underthe

nameofO

renda,the

Algonquian

asManitou,

theSioux

asWakan.

Everynatural

phenomenon

expressedthese

sacredpow

ersinsom

emanner.

Tobeallied

withthese

powers

isprim

aryand

necessaryfor

everysignificant

humanendeavor

onthis

continent.Som

esense

ofindigenousrelation

withtheland

canbegathered

fromtheFirst

Peoples'cerem

onialIives,foritisin

thecelebrations

ofapeople

andthe

designsontheir

dressthat

theyparticipate

most

intimately

inthe

comprehensive

liturgyofthe

universe.This

inti-macy

weobserve

especiallyinthevision

questofthe

PlainsIndians.

Theperson

enteringadulthood

spendsseveral

daysfasting

insom

eisolated

placeinhopes

ofreceivinginner

powersand

avision

thatwould

bethe

main

sourceofpersonal

strengththroughoutlife.

Wealso

observethis

intimate

relationshipwiththe

universein

theOmaha

ceremony

carriedoutat

thetimeofbirth.

Theinfant

istaken

outunderthe

skyand

presentedLathe

universeand

tothe

var-ious

naturalforces

withthe

petitionthat

boththe

universeand

thiscontinent,

with

alltheir

powers,

willprotect

andguide

thechild

toward

itsproper

destiny(Cronyn,

pp.53,

54).Inthis

manner

theinfant

isbonded

withthe

entirenatural

world

asthe

source,guide,

security,andfulfillm

entoflife.

Sotoo,

asprescribed

intheir

Chantw

ays,the

Navabo

throughtheir

sandpaintings

depictthe

entirecosm

osand

summonitspow

erstorestore

imbalances

inthe

individualand

incom

munal

life.The

40.THE

GREAT

WORK

persontobecured

isplaced

atthe

centerofthe

universeassym

bol-ized

inthe

painLing.Thecosm

icpow

ersdepicted

areabsorbed

intothe

personasthe

invocationsare

intonedtoindicate

thehealing

thatissought.

None

ofthese

ceremonies,

however,

ismore

appropriateormore

impressive

thanthe

IroquoisThanksgiving

ceremony.

Thiscerem

onycan

lastfordays

aseach

aspectofthe

naturalworld

isaddressed

andgratitude

isexpressed

forthe

benefitsthat

naturehas

bestowedupon

thepeople,

namely

thesun

andthe

winds

andthe

rain,theland,the

streams,the

growing

things.Ineach

casethe

relationbetw

eenthe

naturalphenom

enaand

thehum

ancom

munity

isexpressed

andthe

gratitudeofthe

peopleisoffered.

Natural

phenomena

areaddressed,

notinsom

eabstract

manner

butintheir

immediate

physicalpres-

ence.Especially

impressive

isthe

finalexhortation

ofgratitude

offeredtoeach

component

ofthe

naturalworld

andthat

thepeople

shouldremember

asanintegral

community

saying"Now

ourminds

areone."

Thefull

significanceofthis

ceremony

canonly

beunder-

stoodifweappreciate

thatthis

celebrationwasthe

bindingritual

whereby

thefive

originaltribes

ofthe

Iroquoisconfederacy

estab-lished

theirunity.

Themomentw

henthe

Europeansarrived

onthe

North

American

continentcould

beconsidered

asone

ofthemore

fatefulmoments

inhistory,

notonlyofthis

continentbutofthe

entireplanet.

Aswelook

backonthis

occasionitbecom

esincreasingly

clearthat

itwasa

moment

ofawesom

esignificance,

notonly[orthe

indigenouspeoples,

butforallthe

variousplants

andanim

alsofthis

continent.Every

liv-ing

beingonthis

continentmight

haveshuddered

withforeboding

when

thatfirsttiny

sailappeared

overtheAtlantic

horizon.The

threateningattitude

shownbythe

incoming

settlerstoward

thiscontinent

asaregion

tobeexploited

inboth

itslands

andits

peoplesisespecially

clearinthe

earlySpanish

expeditionsinthe

southernregions

ofNorth

America

andinSouth

America.

Inthese

regionsconquistadors

suchasDeSoto

inthe

southeast,Coronado

inthe

southcentral

regifN

hA·

..IOns

0ort

menca,

Cortez

1nMeXIC

O,and

TheNorth

American

Continent

.41

PizarroinPeru

were

allonarelentless

questforgold.Efforts

were

made

toenslave

theIndians

intheir

goldand

silvermines

andin

theirplantation

economies.

Thisproject

didnotsucceed

becausethe

Indianscould

notsurviveincaptivity.

When

inthe

seventeenthcentury

theEuropeans

camehere

theymight

haveestablished

anintim

acywith

thiscontinent

andalliLs

manifestations.

Theymighthave

learnedfrom

thepeoples

herehow

toestablish

aviable

relationshipwiththe

forestsand

withthe

forestinhabitants.

Theymighthave

understoodthe

riversand

mountains

intheir

intimate

qualities.They

might

haveseen

thiscontinent

asa

landtoberevered

anddwelton

withalight

andgracious

presence.Instead

itwastothe

colonistsaland

tobeexploited,

athem

edevel-

opedbyAnnette

Kolodny

inher

studyofA

merica

calledThe

Layof

theLand.The

continenthad

itsmoments

ofabundanceand

itsmoments

ofseverity.Y

etthroughnatural

processesthe

landwaskeptfertile.

Thetrees

grewtoimpressive

girthand

soaringheight.

Thestream

sran

clear.Theairwasfreshened

throughthe

seasons.Thehum

anpopula-

tionhad

itsneeded

dwelling

place.Other

livingbeings

hadtheir

appropriatehabitat.

Fromtheir

arrivalthe

colonistswereambivalenL

intheir

understandingofthe

continent.Tosom

etheland

wasseen

ashostile,

aspossessed

ofheathenspirits.

Forothers

theland

neededsimply

tobeconquered

andbrought

underhum

anand

Christian

dis-cipline.

Thatthe

indigenouspeoples

were

more

inLerestedinliving

thaninworking

botheredthe

missionaries

considerably.That

therewasno

tendencyto"use"

theland

interm

sofexploitation;that

therewasnodrive

toward

"progress"wasadecadence

nottobeaccepted.

Neither

landnor

animalsnorhum

anscan

prosperinsuch

condi-tions.

Thefirst

ofthe

creaturestobecom

eextinct

wasthe

auk,a

defenselessbird

inNewfoundland.

Foundinunbelievable

abun-dance

throughoutseveral

centuriesthese

birdshad

nourishedthou-

sandsofsailors

whohad

takenonsupplies

offoodhere,a

supplythat,

properlymanaged,

couldhave

goneonnourishing

themforan

indefi-nite

periodoftim

e.Yetthe

drivetoexploit

beyondwhatnature

could

42.THE

GREAT

WORK

sustainwassuch

thtth

..

.a

egreat

aukhad

disappearedbythe

mid-

nmeteenth

centuryThe

'fbi

I.

passengerpIgeon,the

most

numerous

speciesa

.Iresever

known,washunted

toextinction

by1915.The

buffalo,which

hadonce

number

d'

'II'f

resom

esixty

rmJOn,were

nearextinction

aewyears

afterthe

Civil

War

Evenbefore

allthi

hd

hi.

d.

ISappene

,tISattitude

toward

theland

was

escnbedbyWillia

Strikl

dih

mean

inteaccount

ofhisjourney

upthe

Hudson

River

in1794-1795.

Hewrote

oftheettlers

inthis

areathat

theyseem

edtohave

anutter

abhorrenceforthe

works

ofcreationthat

existontheplace

where

heunfortunately

settleshim

self.Inthe

firstplacehedrives

awayordestroys

the.h

'I5

..

more

umaruzec

avagethe

rightfulpropnetor

ofthesoil·in

thenetI

hh

hJ

,'

xpace

etaug

tessly,andrapaciously

exter-mmates

alllivi.I

h.

ngarum

as,tatcan

affordprofit,or

maintenance

toman,

hethen

extirpatesthe

woods

thatcloath

andornam

entthecountry

andthatt

bhi

,0any

utimself

would

beofgreatest

valueand

finallyheexhausts

d.

hesoi

.',

anwears

out1eSOil,and

With

thedevastation

hehas

thuscom

mitted

II'II'

..

.usua

ymeets

WIll

lISownrum

;for

bythis

trmeheisreduc

dtI'

..al

e0'lIS

or,lgmpoverty;

anditisthen

lefttohim

onlytosally

Iorth,d

kif'

'an

seeon

trerontiers,

anew

countrywhich

hemayagain

devourTh

d'

.u.r.

...e

ayappears

nottoo

distantwhen

Amenca

solately

anbkI,'

.un

1"0en

orest,WIllbe

worse

suppliedwith

timber

thanmost

ftl

ld'

aiea

countnesofEurope.

[Strickland,Journal,

pp.146--47]

Strickland'sdes

riti

.I

.th

CPIon

ISaess

dramatic

versionofthe

assaulton

enatural

worldde

itdIH

fC·

pee)y

ermanMelvillein

Mobv-Dicl«

thestorv

aaptam

Ahab's

.Itl·

"basin

nnireen

esspursuit

oftheGreat

White

Whale

Theasio

attitudeofthe

Euroderi

"h.f

pean-erived

colonistswas

thatthe

continentwas

ereorhum

anTI

..thi

use.rere

waslittle

ofvaluetobelearned

fromIScontm

entthat

the1·

.ing

wasinthe

.coarusts

didnotalready

know.Theil"school-

LatiId

Medltelm

nean-Europeantradition.

TheGreek

andnwarsgave

themtheir

culture.The

biblicalChristian

tradition

TheNorth

American

Coruinent

>43

providedspiritual

meaning

fortheir

lives.Their

jurisprudence,espe-

ciallytheir

senseofprivate

propertyasanabsolute

humanright,cam

efrom

johnLocke.The

naturalworld

itselfhad

norights.N

orcouldthey

evenimagine

thattheir

exploitationofthe

continentmight

eventually

leadtoadisastrous

situationforthe

settlersthem

selves.Only

afew

Europeanscould

seethat

theinvading

peopleswere

disturbingthe

basicstructure

andfunctioning

ofthecontinent.

Thepervasive

idealwastostructure

humansettlem

entstobeoccupied

byagentry

thatwould

enjoythe

countrytoitsfullest.Thus

theyunder-

tooktheestablishm

ent,especially

inthe

upstatearea

ofNewYork,of

estatesunder

royalpatronage.

Thereligious

groupsthatcam

einconsequence

ofpersecutionin

theEuropean

world

recreatedinthe

newworld

much

ofthereligious

antagonismtoward

oneanother

thatexisted

inEurope.Y

ettheconti-

nentwaslarge

enoughand

thevarious

religiousgroups

sufficientlyindependent

thatthey

dideventually

findhere

thefreedom

fromper-

secutionand

theopportunity

forthenew

lifethey

sought.Iftheywere

exiles,they

couldaccept

whatever

hardshipswereinvolved

solong

asthey

couldbring

theirreligion

withthem

.Both

theirinterior

altitudeand

thehistorical

situationindicated

thatnosignificant

religiousexperience

would

originateintheir

newsituation.

Forthis

tohappen

would

beabetrayal

oftheir

Bible-

derivedand

European-developedreligion.

Theycould

notunder-

standthat

theirinability

tocom

mune

withthe

landwould

resultin

thedevastation

ofthecontinent.Their

human-spiritual

[ormation

was

complete

beforethey

came.They

camesupposedly

withthe

finestreligion

ofthe

world,

thehighest

intellectual,aesthetic,

andmoral

development,

thefinestjurisprudence,

Theyneeded

thiscontinent

simply

asapolitical

refugeand

asaregion

tobeexploited.

Laterasthe

incoming

peoplestook

possessionofthe

continentnew

discoverieswere

made.

New

energysources

becameavailable.

Steamships

were

invented.Railw

aylines

were

built.Bythe

mid-

nineteenthcentury

modern

factoriesand

manufacturing

processeswere

functioning.The

number

ofpeoples

coming

fromabroad

was

44.THE

GREAT

WORK

TheNorth

AmericoriC

ontinent.45

increasing.Those

who

camehere

soondiscovered

thewealth

ofthiscontinent

inthe

fertilitfi

'1'.

1IY

0Its

SOl5,

Itstimber,

ironOTe,coal,

petro-leum

,gold,

andthe

othermetals

thatbecam

eavailable

asthe

indus-tnal

world

ofthe

It'h

aemneteent

centurybegan

totake

shape.The

settlerswere

inquest

ofland

andwealth,

atwhatever

costtothe

well-being

ofthe

cti

tiIfThi

.d

..

f.

onInen

itse...

ISattitu

eofexploitation

0the

landand

thedevastation

ofwildlife

foundexpression

much

laterInthe

JournalistCharles

Krautham

mer,

who

inan

editorialessay

in~Lm

emagazine

wrote

concerningthe

controversyover

thepreserva-

lionofthe

spottedI·"N

.d

.ow

.ature

ISour

war

Inotour

master.

It15tobe

respectedand

evencultivated.

Butitisman's

world.

And

when

man

hastochoose

between

hiswell-being

andthat

ofnature,

naturewill

havetoaccom

modate

....Man

shouldaccom

modate

onlywhen

hisfate

andthat

ofnature

areinextricably

boundup.

Inwhatever

situa-lion

theprincipie

isthe

heenvi

b..

same;

protectLeenvironm

entecause

ItIS

man's

environment"

(Time,17June

1991,p.82).

Thisstat

tb.

hemen

nngsout

tetwocontending

attitudestoward

thenatural

world

'to'di

I'

'.

Inigenous

peopesand

tothose

Inthe

foundIngperiod

ofthe

class'I

"1'.

.,

,ICa

civrrzatrons

thenatural

world

wasthe

mani-

festationofanuni

.h

',

IinD

USpresence

tatgave

meanm

gtoallexistence.

Human

societiesat

ht

IIf

1..'

.waever

eve0'eutural

sophisticationfound

theirtrue

significancbvi

ionofh

.,.

.,e

yintegration

0'um

anactivrnes

intothe

greattransform

atio.sof

h'

nmoments

0teseasonal

sequenceand

Inthe

movem

entofthe

dayf'

....

romsunrise

tosunset.

Human

SOCIetiespartici-

patedinthese

unendint.

f.

1'1'I

.,..

gJans

.ormsuons.

leysimpygave

intelli-gent

recognitIOnoftht

'.:'.

aspm

tpresence

pervadingthe

entirenatural

world.

Thenatural

woId

iddb

Ir

provie

ot1the

physicaland

thepsychic

needsofhum

ansTh

'.

.ese

were

inseparablegifts

thatcam

etohum

ansInthe

samemoment

andthrough

thesam

ecauses.

Asseen

bythe

EI'

uropeansthe

contmem

washere

toserve

human

purposesthrough

trd

dimmedj

aean

commerce

aswell

asthrough

themore

rmrne

latepersonal

dh

hh .

..

anouse

oldneeds

ofthe

colonists.They

hadnot

mgspiritual

tolearn

frthi

.th

Id

'.om

IScontinent.

Theirattitude

toward

ean

asprim

arilIo

yoruse

wasthe

crucialissue,

This

attitudewas

notonly

theclash

oftwohum

angroups

with

eachother

oversom

eland

possessionorsom

epolitical

rule,itwasaclash

between

themost

anthropocentricculture

thathistory

hasever

knownwith

oneof

themost

naturecentriccultures

everknow

n.Itw

asthe

clashbetw

eenamonotheistic

personaldeity

perceivedastranscendent

toall

phe-nom

enalmodes

ofbeing

andthe

Great

Spiritperceived

asimmanent

inall

naturalphenom

ena.Itwasthe

clashbetw

eenapeople

drivenby

asense

ofhistorical

destinywith

apeople

livinginan

abidingworld

ofever-renew

ingphenom

ena.Itw

asthe

clashofa

peoplewith

certainimmunities

totuberculosis,

diphtheria,and

measles

witha

peopledevoid

ofsuch

immunities.

Over

thecenturies

itbecam

ethe

clashofan

urbanpeople

highlyskilled

inindustrial

manufacturing

with

atribal

peopleskilled

inhunting

andfarm

ingwhocould

stillappreciate

theintegral

relationsthat

existbetw

eenthe

human

com-

munity

andthe

naturalworld.

Theinsuperable

difficultyinhibiting

anyintim

aterapport

with

thiscontinent

orits

peoplewasthis

European-derivedanthropocen-

trism.Such

orientationofW

esternconsciousness

haditsfourfold

ori-gin

inthe

Greek

culturaltradition,

thebiblical-C

hristianreligious

tradition,the

Englishpolitical-legal

tradition,and

theeconom

ictra-

ditionassociated

with

thenew

vigorofthe

merchant

class.Inreli-

gion,culture,

politics,and

economics

thereexisted

withthe

settlersa

discontinuityofthe

human

with

thenatural

world.

Thehum

an,tran-

scendenttothe

naturalworld,

wasthe

assumed

rulerofthe

land.That

iswhy

theNorth

American

continentbecam

ecom

pletelyvulnerable

tothe

assaultfrom

theEuropean

peoples.To

theEuropean

settlersthe

continenthad

nosacred

dimension.

Ithad

noinherent

rights.Ithad

nowayofescaping

economicexploitation.

Theother

component

members

ofthe

continentcould

notbe

includedwith

humans

inan

integralcontinental

community.

European

pres-

encewasless

occupationthan

predation.The

critiqueofthis

attitudecam

ethrough

thenaturalist

writers,

thepoets

andartists,

andonoccasion

insom

eofthe

writings

andser-

mons

ofministers

suchasJonathan

Edwards

(1703-1758),towhom

46.THE

GREAT

WORK

TheNorth

American

Continent.47

allcreation

manifested

thedivine

glory.Yetthese

critiqueswere

peripheraltothe

basicorientation

ofAmerican

thoughtand

culturethroughout

thisperiod.

Eventhe

transcendentalistessayists

were

lessinspired

bythe

continentthan

issom

etimes

thought.Inthe

fourareas

oflife

enumerated

(religion,culture,

politics,and

economics),

thecultural

commitments

aresodeep

inthe

American

soul,soimprinted

inthe

unconsciousdepths

ofthe

culture,that

untilnow

ithas

notbeen

possibletocritique

theseareas

ofhum

anendeavor

inany

effectivemanner.

Wesaw

ourselvesasthe

envyofthe

ages,as

relievedofsuperstition

andin

thehighest

realms

ofintellectual

enlightenment.

Socom

mitted

were

wetoow'divinely

commissioned

taskofcom

-mercially

exploitingthis

continentthat

wecould

evenexperience

abigh

spiritualexaltation

inwhat

wewere

doing.Even

now,becom

inganentrepreneur

issom

etimes

experiencedasareligious

"riteofpas-

sage."When

onesuccessful

businessman

who

hadpreviously

beentrained

inseveral

differentspiritual

disciplineswasasked,

"Which

ofyour

experiencesgave

youthe

biggestspiritual

charge?"His

answer

was,

"Entrepreneurship.

When

Ibecam

ean

entrepreneurit

became

clearthat

everythingIhad

donebefore

thathad

justbeen

NATO."

Onfurther

inquiryconcerning

themeaning

ofthat

expres-sion,

heansw

ered,"Noaction-talk

only.When

Iput

myself

onthe

linetotally

asanentrepreneur

committing

mymoney

andenergy

andtimetothe

visionIhad-I

sawthe

falsenessofever

doingless

thanthat"

(TheTarr),l.ownLeuer,

May1984,

p.14).

Yetafter

thesepast

fewcenturies

ofEuropean

presencehere,

we

beaintorethi

k..

.'"

I.

oIn

OUIsuuauon.

weoak

aboutusand

seeacontinent

severelydevastated

inits

primordial

forests,its

airpolluted

with

residuefrom

fossilfuel-based

powersystem

s,itssoils

impoverished

bychem

icalfertilizers,

itslivers

dammed

forirrigation

andfor

theirhydroelectric

energy,polluted

byrunoff

fromthe

fertilizersherbi-

cides,and

pesticidesused

inagriculture,

andpoisoned

bythe

mer-

curyused

inpanning

forgold.

InMarch

of1999nine

typesofsalm

on

were

listedunder

theEnvironm

entalProtection

Actasthreatened

with

extinctiondue

topollution

andrunoff

thatincludes

sewage

andchem

icalsfrom

fertilizersand

byconstruction

ofdam

sthat

simply

closedoff

ancientrivers

leadingtothe

breedinggrounds

ofthe

salmon.

Thenthere

arethe

factoryships

thatscoop

lipenorm

ousquantities

ofsalm

onontheir

returnjourney

tothe

riversoftheir

ori-gin.

Immense

shoalsoffish

inthe

North

Atlantic

arealso

disappear-ing.

Inits

surveyofthe

globalsituation

asregarding

thefisheries

ofthe

globe,World

Resources

Institutein

itspublication

World

Resources1998-1999

tellsus"World

fisheriesface

agrim

forecast.Forty-five

yearsofincreasing

fishingpressure

haveleft

many

major

fishstocks

depletedorindecline"

(p.195).

"Theharvest

ofoverex-

ploitedfish

stockshas

dropped40%

inonly

9years."

Also

notedin

thatsam

esource

isthe

factthat

theAtlantic

cod,haddock,

andbluefin

tunawere

listedbythe

World

Conservation

Union

in1966

"as

specieswhose

survivalistosom

eextent

endangered"(p.196).

Thissituation

with

thefishing

industryissimply

oneinstance

ofamore

encompassing

issuethat

wemust

dealwithinthese

emerging

yearsofthe

twenty-first

century.Yetapervasive

awareness

ofthe

damage

wehave

donebegins

tosweep

overthe

land.Wehave

takenpossession

ofthe

continentbut

findourselves

becoming

deprivedof

thoseluxuriant

lifesources

thatonce

surroundedus.

Prairielands

with

fertilesoils

deepinto

theEarth

havelost

athird

ofthesoils

theyonce

had.The

streamsthat

onceflow

edfresh

andpure

andlife-giving

arenow

pollutedand

poisonoustoall

formsoflife.

Theaquifers

beneaththe

western

plainsare

beingdrained

toexhaustion.

Wemight

well

broodover

thesescenes

untilwecom

etosom

edepth

awareness

ofwhat

hashappened

andbegin

todream

again,this

timeamore

coherentdream

ofan

integralcom

munity

ofthe

human

andall

thoseother-than-hum

ancom

ponentmembers

ofthe

North

American

continent.

5

TheWILD

andthe

SACRED

TOUNDERSTA

ND

Tth

EHE

HUMAN

ROLE

INTHE

FUNCTIO

NING

OF

earth

weneed

Loa.

hfexi

ppreciatetesponLaneities

foundinevery

formoeXIstence

inthe

natal

ld..

thild

urwor

,spontaneltJeSthat

weassociate

with

eWI-that

which

i11

'.suncontro

edbyhum

andom

inance.We

rruscorrcerveour

roleif'

.".T

,."

weconsider

thatOUfhistorical

mission

isto

oiviize

ortodom

estict"h

1thi

d.

aetepanet,as

thoughwildness

issom

e-ng

estrucuv«rather

thhi'

ff

anteutimate

creativemodality

ofany

orm0earthly

beinW

.b

.g.

eale

nOLhere

tocontrol.

Weare

hereto

ecomeIntegral

withth

1.

itselfand

hIi

earger

Earthcom

mumty.

Thecom

munity

eac0Itsmemb

h1.

creative.

ersas

Utimately

awild

component

aspontaneity

thatisits

d"

'mystery.

eepestreality,

Itsmost

profound

Wemightreflecton

thithe

dawnappears

thhIShsense

ofthewildand

thecivilized

when

rougtemornm

g.tA

hti

pervadesthe

world-

broodimtst.

tsuetimesastillness

arooding

sense.

..

.aquiet

trartsttronfrom

night

48

TheWildand

theSacred

.49

intoday.

Thisexperience

isdeepened

when

eveningresponds

tomorning,

asday

fadesaway,and

nightcomesinthedepth

ofitsmys-

tery.Weare

most

aware

atsuchmoments

oftransitionthatthe

world

aboutusisbeyond

humancontrol.So

toointhe

transitionphases

ofhum

anlife;

atbirth,maturity,and

deathwebrood

overourpresenceinaworld

ofmystery

fargreaterthan

ourselves.Ibring

allthis

tomind

becauseweare

discoveringour

human

roleinadifferent

orderofm

agnitude.Weare

experiencingadisinte-

grationofthe

lifesystem

softhe

planetJUSLw

henthe

Earthinthe

diversityand

resplendenceofits

self-expressionhad

attainedaunique

grandeur.This

moment

deservesspecial

attentiononthe

partof

humans

whoare

themselves

bringingabouL

thisdisintegraLion

ina

manner

thaLhas

neverhappened

previouslyintheentire

4.6billion

yearsofEarth

history.Wenever

thoughtofourselves

ascapable

ofdoingharm

tothe

verystructure

oftheplanet

Earthorofextinguishing

theliving

forms

thaLgivetothe

planeLitsunique

grandeill'.Inoureffortsto

reducethe

planettohum

ancontrol

weare,

inreality,

terminating

theCenozoic

Era,thelyric

periodoflife

development

onthe

Earth.Ifsuch

moments

asdaw

nand

dusk,birth

anddeath,and

thesea-

sonsofthe

yearare

suchsignificant

moments,

howawesom

e,then,

must

bethe

presentmomentw

henwewitness

thedying

oftheEarth

initsCenozoic

expressionand

thelife

renewalofthe

Earthinan

emerging

EcozoicEra.

Suchreflection

hasaspecial

urgencyifweare

evertorenew

oursense

ofthesacred

inany

sphereofhum

anactivity.

Forwewillrecover

oursense

ofwonder

andoursense

ofthesacred

onlyifweappreciate

theuniverse

beyondourselves

asarevelatory

experienceofthaL

numinous

presencewhence

allthingscom

einto

being.Indeed,

theuniverse

istheprim

arysacred

reality.Webecom

esacred

byour

participationinthis

more

sublimedim

ensionofthe

world

aboutus.The

universecarries

initself

thenorm

ofauthenticity

ofevery

spiritualaswellas

everyphysicalactivity

within

it.Thespiritual

and

\50

.THE

GREAT

WORK

thephysical

aretwodim

ensionofthe

singlereality

thatistheuni-

verseitself.

Thereisanultim

atewildness

inallthis,

fortheuniverse,

aexistence

itself,isaterrifying

aswellas

abenign

mode

ofbeing.Ifitgrants

usamazing

powers

overmuch

ofits

functioningwemust

always

remember

thatany

arroganceonour

partwillultim

atelybe

calledtoaccount.

Thebeginning

ofwisdom

inany

humanactivityisa

certainreverence

beforethe

primordial

mystery

ofexistence,forthe

world

aboutusisafearsom

emode

ofbeing.Wedonotjudge

theuni-

verse.The

universeiseven

nowjudging

us.Thisjudgm

entweexperi-

enceLI1what

werefer

toas

the"wild."

\Verecognize

thispresence

when

weare

aloneinthe

forest,especially

inthe

darkofnight,or

when

weare

atsea

inasmall

craftout

ofsight

ofland

andfora

moment

loseour

senseofdirection.

Thewildisexperienced

inthe

earthquakesthat

shakethe

continentsinsuch

violence,sotoo

inthe

hurricanesthat

riseupout

ofthe

Caribbean

Seaand

sweep

overthe

land.

Wehave

attimesthought

thatwecould

domesticate

theworld,

foritsom

etimes

appearspossible,

asinour

capacitytoevoke

thevast

energieshidden

inthe

nucleusofthe

tinyatom

.Yetw

henweinvade

thisdeepest,

most

mysterious

dimension

ofmatter,

naturethrow

sat

usitsmostdeadly

forces,wildforces

thatwecannot

dealwith,forces

thatcause

ustofear

lestweberendering

theplanet

abarren

placefor

thevastrange

oflivingbeings.

Ispeakofthe

wilddim

ensionofexistence

andthe

reverenceand

fearassociated

withthe

wild,

sinceprecisely

hereiswhere

lifeand

existenceand

artitselfbegin.

When

Thoreauinhisessay

onwalking

said"I

W'ld

.ln

Iness

ISthe

Preservationofthe

World"

hemade

astate-

ment

ofunsurpassed"fi.h

..'f

81gmcance

111umanaffairs.

Iknow

0nomore

comprehensive

critifci'1·'

hiff

hI

que0civi

izauon,tISImmense

eort

tat

'lasbeen

made

overthe

th

d.

sepas

tentousan

yearstobrm

gthe

naturalworld

underhum

antrol.S

hcc

.con

ro.ue

anertort

would

eventam

ethe

innerwildness

ofthehum

itU'I

ld.

anIse.

twou

endbyreducing

thosevast

ere-alive

possibilitiesofth

h.ial

euman

totnvr

modes

ofexpression.

TheWildand

theSacred

.51

Wildness

wemight

considerasthe

rootofthe

authntic

spon-taneities

ofanybeing.

Itisthat

wellpring

ofrativity

whence

comthe

instinctiveactivities

thatenable

allliving

beings10obtain

theirfood,to

findshelter,

tobring

rrththeir

young;10sing

anddance

andflythrough

theairand

swimthrough

thedepths

ofthesea.This

isthe

sameinner

tendencythat

evokesth

insightofthe

poet,theskill

ofthe

artist,and

thepow

erofthe

shaman.

omething

inthewilddepth

ofthehum

ansoul

findsitsfulfillm

enlinthe

experienceofnature'

violentmoments.

Asone

womantold

agroup

assembled

inFlorida

afterHurricane

Andrew

shedid

notconsiderherself

avictim

butapalticipanl

inthis

wildevent

inallitscreative

aswellas

itsdealruelive

aspeIS.The

hurricane,she

insisted,wastelling

usomething.

Itwastiling

uhow

tobuild

ourhouses

ifwewished

10dwell

inthis

region.Itw

astellinz

ustoconsider

wellthe

winds

andthe

sea.10mark

wIIthe

factb

thatifwelive

herewemust

obeythe

deeperlawsofthe

place.law

thatcannot

beoverridden

byany

tpeofhum

anzoning.

Wemight

livehere

ifwewish

butonterm

sditated

bypow

ersother

thanhum

an.The

hurricanehas

itowninner

diipline.

Itiitself

aresponse

totheneeds

oftheregion.This

wenedtoknow

:~,owtopar-

ticipatecreatively

inthe

wildness

oftheworld

aboutus..tor

ItISout

ofthe

wild

depthsofthe

universeand

ofour

ownbeing

thatthe

greatervisions

must

come.

..

Wemistake

thewildifw

ethink

ofitamere

randomacuvity

orsimply

asturbulence.

Throughouttheentire

world

there~xistsa

disci-pline

thatholds

theenergies

oftheuniverse

inthe

creativepattern

~ftheir

activities,although

thisdiscipline

maynot

beimmediately

eVI-

denttohum

anperception.

Theemergent

universeappears

as.some

wild,

senselessdeed

thatwells

upfrom

someinfinite

abyss111the

expansivedifferentiating

processofthose

first~om

entswhen

allthe

energythatw

ouldever

existflared

forthinaradiation

toomy~tenous

forhumans

tofully

comprehend.

Yetas

thisenergy

articulatedItself

111

theform

ofmatter

thegravitational

attractionthat

eachbeing

hasfor

52.THE

GREAT

WORK

everyother

beingproduced

thebasic

orderingprocess,

gravitation,th

primary

disipline

inthe

large-scalestructure

oftheuniverse.

Thismutual

attractionand

mutual

limitation

ofgravitation

is,perhaps,

thefirstexpression

andthe

primordial

model

ofartisticdis-cipline.

Itgave

tothe

universeitsinitial

senseofbeing

athomewith

itselfand

yetcaught

upinaprofound

discontentwithany

finalexpression

ofitself.

Wemight

considerthen

thatthe

wildand

the,

,disciplined

arethe

twoconstituent

forcesofthe

universe,theexpan-

siveforce

andthe

containingforce

boundinto

asingle

universeandexpressed

inevery

beinginthe

universe,This

tooisthe

ultimate

secretofthe

planetEarth.

When

firstthesolar

systemgathered

itselftogether

withthe

sunasthe

centersur-

roundedbythe

ninefragm

entsofmatter

shapedinto

planets,the

planetsthat

weobserve

inthe

skyeach

night,these

were

allcom-

posedofthe

samematter;

yetMars

turnedinto

rocksofirm

thatnoth-ing

fluidcan

existthere,

andJupiter

remained

afiery

massofgasesso

thatnothing

firmcan

existthere.

Only

Earthbecam

ealiving

planetfilled

withthose

innumerable

formsofgeological

structureand

biologicalexpression

thatwe

observethroughout

thenatural

world,

OnlyEarth

heldacreative

bal-ance

between

theturbulence

andthediscipline

thatare

necessaryfor

creativity.The

excessofdiscipline

suppressedthe

wildness

ofMars.

The.excessofw

ildnessovercam

ethediscipline

ofJupiter.Their

ere-atrvtty

waslostby

anexcess

ofoneoverthe

other.Yetan

equilibriumofthese

forceswould

havebrought

aboutanotherbarrier

tocreativity,

forequilibriumwould

P''d

fix"I'h

..

ldb

.0uce

aanon

InWHe

creativityWOll

e

lost.Theuniverse

soldit

blb

ablishi.di

veISpro

emyest

ishingacreative

1.8e-quilibrium

expressdih

eIntecurvature

ofspace

thatwassufficiently

closedtoestablish

bidideri

anaI1I1gor

ermthe

universeand

sufficientlyopen

toenable

thewild

creativeprocess

tocontinue.

.Weperceive

thisere

ti'.

..

aivepow

erpnmarily

mthe

intelligibleorder

weobserve

inthe

universS

hih

th.

e.uc

IStewayofthe

philosopher.Suchis

ewayofSaintJoh

.h

.nInteoperung

prologuetohis

gospel,"In

the

TheWildand

theSacred

.53

beginningwasthe

Word,"

theprinciple

oforderand

intelligibility.Or

wecan

perceivethe

originatingpow

eritselfinthedisequilibrium

oftheuniverse,

inthe

spiritworld,in

thewildness

ofthings,inthedream

sthat

comeinto

oursouls

inthedepths

ofthenight,dream

sthatcorre-

spondinthe

human

soultothe

opennessofthe

curvethatholds

theuniverse

togetherand

yetenablesitto

continueitsinfinitecreativity.

Artists

havesom

ethinginthem

thatiswild,

something

guidedand

inspiredultim

atelybyimagination.

"Divine

imagination"

inthe

words

ofWilliam

Blake.

Theartist

revelsinthe

ultimatedisequilib-

riumofthings.

Thephilosopher

iscontrolled

ultimately

bythe

bal-ance

andharm

onyofthings,

byreasoning

intelligence.Both

arevalid,

bothare

needed.The

universefrom

thebeginning,

andeven

now,ispoised

between

theexpanding

andthe

containingforces,and

noone

knowsjust

when

orifthiscreative

balancewillcollapse

orwill

continueonindefinitely.

Sothe

philosopherand

theartist

areboth

poisedbetw

eenthe

twopossibilities.

Inthis

mysterious

balancetheuniverse

andallitsgrandeur

andall

itsloveliness

becomepossible.Exactly

herethe

presenceofthe

sacredreveals

itself.Here

isthe

exuberancethat

couldfling

thestars

acrossthe

heavenswithsuch

abandonand

yetwithsuch

exquisitepoise,each

inrelation

tothe

untoldbillions

ofothershining

fragmentsofprim

or-dial

existence.Musicians

wholisten

tothe

wildrhythm

sandmelodies

thatarise

within

themexperience

thepow

erforces

ofthe

universe.Such

wefind

withJohann

SebastianBach

inhisToccataand

Fuguein

DMinor,w

ithLudw

igvon

Beethoven

inhis

EroicaSym

phony;with

VanGogh

inhis

StarryNight.

Suchtooisthemagic

ofClaude

Monetin

hisevocation

ofthemysticalqualities

ofwaterlilies

floatingonasmall

darkpond.The

architectwholooked

outoverthefields

southofParis

andsaw,through

themistofthe

future,the

Chartres

Cathedral

must

haveexperienced

amoment

when

thewild

andthe

sacredcam

etogether

inasingle

moment

ofvision.Asimilar

experienceofthe

wildwonders

oftheuniverse

canbe

seemonasmaller

scaleinthe

dreampaintings

oftheAborigines

of

54

.THE

GREAT

WORK

Australia.

Here

inthe

d.

fhi

..esert

regions0

tIS

vastcontm

entInthe

outhemseas

ara

1ho

exneri.

peopew0expenence

theuniverse

aroundthem

espcially

thtopography

ofthe

land,asexpressions

ofthose

preter-natural

beingsorpow

ersreferred

toasDrearnings.

Theirpaintings,

omposed

oflines

anddot

inan

endlessvariety

ofpatterns

incolor

anddesign

areunirn

.able

iWi

d·.

I.

.'

agme

111our

esterntra

ruons,Tlese

pamt-

mgs

portraythe

Dream

ingsasthe

creativeforces

producingthe

land-scape

andexpressive

ofthe

deepestspirit

ofthe

universe.The

indigenouspeoples

ofAustralia

were

oncethought

tobe

totallylacking

intellectualorcultural

achievements

associatedwith

eventhe

t...

rnospnm

ltlvepeoples

knownelsew

here.They

hadfood

onlyfor

theday,

noperm

anentdwellm

asno

clothesonly

afew

implem

entsVetwe

nfid

.hi:,

.hei

.•~I

ow11

amazing

acievernents

In1elfcapacity

forunderstanding

andresponding

toboth

thephysical

andthe

spiri-tual

dynamics

ofthe

world

aboutthem

.Most

significantofall

isthe

factthat

theylive

inauniverse.

Toemphasize

thismight

seemneedless,

sinceeveryone

livesin

theumverse·

butld

dh

...

,se

om0we

aveany

realsense

of[iving

Ina

world

ofsunshi

bd

dI

..

me

yayan

uneerthe

starsatnight.

Seldomdowe

listentothe

wind0,·Feel

thof'

hinerai

..

ereres

109ram

exceptasmconveruences

toescape

fromasqui

klibl

Iheci

.II.

..

c_yas

POSSI

e.ntecity,

SIlOWina

Itspunty

qUlckJybecom

esad··tthi

.hall

h..

-11Y

mgWIt

tedrifting

particlesofhum

an-caused

exhaustand

residuethat

settleupon

it.The

world

ofmeh

.h

1·carusm

asaienated

usfrom

thewild

beautyof

theworld

aboutus

Shi

h.lie

IStepow

erofart,

however,

thatitcan

endoweven

thetrivi

[itidh

13lies

antemechanism

sofour

worldwith

apseudo

mystical

fasci.

S.

matron.

upposedlythis

enablesour

world

toavoid

theepithet

ofb."

hli

.IddR'

.emocaug

L10anImitative

Classicism

orina

ae

omanucrsm

ThI.

fb.

eresu

tIStochallenge

anytraditional

norms

oeauty

byareversion

tth

ildsi

bI

.0

eWISim

plythrough

undisciplinedtur-

uence,

atlimeswith

1I

·thh

aneaoorate

presentationofthe

trivialoreven

WI

watis

fd

'Th

reerre

toasapersonal

statement.

elandscape

thatenclo

I.

thatAowd

fses

tieAppalachian

region,the

riversownrom

the010

taih

unains

totesea,

thetrees

thatblossom

TheWildand

theSacred

.55

inthese

surroundings,the

birdsthat

singthroughout

thisvalley,

allthese

were

broughtinto

beingduring

thispast

65million

years.Ifthishas

beenaperiod

ofwildness

beyondcom

pare,ithas

alsobeen

thelyric

periodinthe

storyofEarth.

Thehum

an,perhaps,

couldonly

haveappeared

insuch

aperiod

ofgrandeur;

forthe

innerlife

ofthe

human

dependsimmediately

onthe

outerworld

ofnature.

Onlyifthe

human

imagination

isactivated

bythe

flightofthe

greatsoaring

birdsinthe

heavens,by

theblossom

ingflow

ersofEarth,

bythe

sightof

thesea,

bythe

lightningand

thunderofthe

greatstorm

sthat

breakthrough

theheat

ofsum

mer,

onlythen

will

thedeep

innerexperi-

encesbeevoked

within

thehum

ansoul.

Anthese

phenomena

ofthenatural

world

flingforth

tothe

human

achallenge

toberesponded

toinliterature,

inarchitecture,

ritual,and

art,inmusic

anddance

andpoetry.

Thenatural

world

demands

aresponse

beyondthat

ofrational

calculation,beyond

philosophicalreasoning,

beyondscientific

insight.The

naturalworld

demands

aresponse

thatrises

fromthe

wild

unconsciousdepths

ofthe

human

soul.Aresponse

thatartists

seektoprovide

incolor

andmusic

and

movem

ent.Theresponse

thatwegive

must

haveasuprem

ecreative

power,

forthe

Cenozoic

Erainthe

storyofEarth

isfading

asthe

sunsets

inthe

western

sky.Ourhope

forthe

futureisfor

anew

dawn,anEcozoic

Era,when

humans

willbepresent

tothe

Earthinamutually

enhanc-

ingmanner.

6

TheVIABLE

HUMAN

WENEED

TOMOVEFROM

OURHUMAN-CENTER

EDTO

ANEARTH-

centerednorm

ofreality

andvalue.

Only

inthis

waycan

wefulfill

ourhum

anI

ithinth

..roewt

intefunctioning

ofthe

planetwelive

on.Earth,

within

thesolar

syt

.h'

di.

,sem,ISteimmelate

contextofour

existence.Beyond

thesu

'al.

.nISour

Owngaxy

andbeyond

thatthe

universeof

galacticsystem

sthat

di

bei',

emerge

intoeing

somefifteen

billionyears

agothrough

some

.:.

.E

'.o.ngm

atmg

sourcebeyond

human

comprehension

..stahlishing

thiscom

prehensivecontext

ofour

thinkingisimpor-

tantmany

considerti

fh

aff'

'.aIOn0

uman

airs,for

onlyinthis

waycan

we

Identifyany

sat'f'

f'

ISymgreerent

mOUfquest

foraviable

presenceof

thehum

anwithin

thI

d'

.If'

earger

ynarnrcsofthe

universe.Theuniverse

rtseISthe

endurinali

dfid

gre

rtyan

theenduring

valueeven

while

itnsexpression

ina

ti.

B'.

conmumgsequence

oftransformations.

ybnngm

gforth

theI

tEh'

,..1lli

paneart,

ItsLIvm

gform

sand

itshum

anIne

gence,the

universehf

df

'1

"as

Dun

,soarasweknow

,itsmostelab-

oraeexpression

andmanif

..

humd

.estauon

ofItSdeepest

mystery.

Here,

inits

anrna

e,the

Universe

reflt

dmode

f'ec

5onan

celebratesitself

inaunique

oconscious

self-awar

nO'

eess.

urearliest

documents

reveala

56

TheViable

Human

.57

specialsensitivity

inhum

anintellectual,

emotional,

andaesthetic

responsestothis

largercontext

ofsurvival.

TheUniverse,

theEarth,

theHuman

arecentered

inone

another.The

laterrealm

sofbeing

aredependent

onthe

earlierfor

survivalwhile

theearlier

realmsare

dependenton

thelater

fortheir

more

elaboratemanifestation,

Themore

complex

aredependent

onthe

more

simple;

themore

simple

are

revealedinthe

more

elaborate.Instinctively,

humans

perceivedthem

selvesasamode

ofbeingof

theuniverse

aswell

asdistinctive

beingsinthe

universe.This

was

thebeginning.

Theemergence

ofthe

human

wasatransform

ationmoment

forthe

Earthaswellasforthe

human.

Aswithevery

species,there

wasaneed

forhum

anstoestablish

theirniche,

asustainable

positioninthe

largercom

munity

oflife,

awayofobtaining

food,shel-

ter,and

clothing.There

wasneed

forsecurity,

theneed

forfamily

andcom

munity

context,This

needforcom

munity

wasquite

specialinthe

caseofhum

anssince

humans

articulateacapacity

forthought

andspeech,

aestheticappreciation,

emotional

sensitivities,and

moral

judgment,

noneofwhich

canfunction

without

acom

munity

context.Ifwespeak

theremust

besom

eonetoteach

us,som

eonetolisten.

Tosing

ormake

music

isapersonal

fulfillment,

butitismost

satisfyingifw

eare

sharingwith

othersorcom

municating

somedeep

feelingto

others.There

isonly

community

thinkingand

poetryand

dancing,a

community

withhistorical

continuityover

aseries

ofgenerations.

Thesecom

bineinacultural

shapingthat

establishesthe

human

with

identifyingqualities,

ashaping

thatiscom

municated

tosucceeding

generationsbyfamily

nurturingand

byform

alteaching.

Whatever

thecultural

elaborationofthe

human,

basicphysical

aswell

aspsychic

nourishment

andsupport

comefrom

thenatural

environment.

When

wespeak

ofthe

naturalworld

weare

notspeak-

ingsimply

ofthe

physicalworld

butofthe

psychic-physicalmode

ofbeing

foundinevery

articulatedentity

ofthe

phenomenal

world.

Human

societyinits

beginningswould

nothave

survivedifithad

nothad

somebasic

roletofulfill

within

thelarger

Emthcom

munity

\I

58.THE

GREAT

WORK

compo

edofallits

I'I

f'

.geo

ogicaaswellasitsbiological

elements,If

romIts

earliestperiod

tIh

'.

reuman

puLacertain

stressupon

otherform

soflife

thisisuit

h'

,qUIeco

erentwiththeorder

ofthingssincesuch

stressoccurs

within

thal

fi'

egener

norms0interrelation

ofspecies.Once

werecogniz

tht

II

E.e

aaClange

romahum

an-centeredtoan

arLh-centeredno'

fI'

h"

rm0rea

ityand

valueisneeded,

wemightask

owthis

IStobeachi

ddhowi

,b

',

ievean

owItw

ouldfunction,

Wemightbegin

yrecogruzlng

thatth

I"'h

"eue

commumty,lecom

munity

ofalllivingspecies,

Includingth

histh

euman,

ISegreater

realityand

thegreater

value,The

primary

fhh

concern0

te

uman

community

must

bethe

preservationand

hfhi

'en

ancement

0lIScom

prehensivecom

munity,

evenforthe

sakeofits

ownsurvival.

While

humans

doha

eth'

distiali

I'v

elfown

isuncnvere

ityanc

uniquevalue,

thesemust

bti

Id

ith;ear

ICUate

WIt.inamore

comprehensive

con-text.

Ultim

atelyh

fidh'

,',''

umans

nten'

ownbeing

WIthin

thiscom

muruty

context.Toconsider

tht

'I

dI

."'

''.

aone

ISenlance

iydim

inishingthe

otherISanIllU

SIOnlnde

d't'

h"

.e,I

ISlegreat

illusionofthe

presentindustrial

age,which

seekst

dh

',,

0avance

uman

well-being

byplundering

theplanet

InItsgeol

icalIhi

I'·.'

ogicanc

10ogical

structureand

functioning.Opposed

tothis

exI't·ti

fh

''

pOJaIon

0tenatural

world

ISthe

ecologICal

movem

ent,which

seekstocreate

amoreviable

contextforhumandevel-

opment

within

thepl

t,

aneary

process,Wemustclearly

understand,how

-ever,thatthisquestio

fiabili

noVIIityISnotan

issuethatcan

beresolved

inany

permanent

manner

It'llb

'"fu

.WI

eacontinuing

Issueforthe

indefiniteture.

Indeedweare

tth'

IIdh

"a

epresent

timeparticipating

inanunparal-

eecangem

thehE

hsi

,dir

Iuman-

artsituation.The

planetthat

ruleditself

ectyoverthese

past'II

'.the

hh

mlenO

laISnow

determining

itsfuture

largelyoug

umandecision

Sh'

h'..

h.'

UCISteresponsiblhty

assumedbythe

uman

commumtyonce

dences

andth'

,weventure

ontothepath

oftheempiricalsci-

elrassO

CIatedtechnol'

Ih'

benefitsd

ogles.ntIs

process,whatever

the,ween

angeredau

1d

..

Wealtered

thr

rseves

aneveryhvm

gbeing

ontheplanet.

IfIeenIfem

odeoffunctioning

oftheplanet

weook

backover

thetotal

.find

thatthere

was

'COurseofEarth

development,

we

aconSistent

floresfhI'

cence0

teIfe

processinthe

TheViable

Human.'59

largerarc

ofthe

planet'sdevelopm

entover

somebillions

ofyears,

Innumerable

catastrophicevents

occurredinboth

thegeologicaland

biologicalrealm

sbut

noneofthese

couldcause

theforebodings

suchaswemightexperience

atpresent.Thereisnoquestion

oftheextinc-

tionoflife

inany

totalsense,even

thoughmany

ofthemoreelaborate

formsoflife

expressioncan

beelim

inatedinaperm

anentmanner,

What

isabsolutely

threatenedjust

nowisthe

degradationofthe

planet.This

degradationinvolves

extensivedistortion

andaperva-

siveweakening

throughouttheentire

lifesystem

oftheplanet.

Because

suchdeterioration

resultsfrom

arejection

oftheinher-

entlimitations

ofhumanexistence

andfrom

aneffortto

alterthe

nat-ural

functioningofthe

planetinfavor

ofahum

anlyconstructed

wonderw

orld,resistance

tothis

destructiveprocess

must

turnits

effortstoward

livingcreatively

within

theorganic

functioningofthe

naturalworld.Earth

asabiospiritual

planetmustbecom

eforusthe

basicreferent

inidentifying

ourownfuture.

Atpresent

wehave

theecologistand

alarge

numberofecological

organizationsstanding

overagainst

theindustrial,

commercial,

andfinancial

corporationsindefense

ofaviable

mode

ofhumanfunc-

tioningwithin

theplanetary

process.This

oppositionbetw

eentile

industrial-commercial

entrepreneurand

theecologistcan

beconsid-

eredasboth

thecentral

humanissue

andthe

centralEarth

issueof

thetwenty-first

century,Itseem

squite

clearthatafterthese

centuriesofindustrial

effortstocreate

awondenvorld

weare

infact

creatingwastew

orld,anonviable

situationforthe

humanmode

ofbeing,The

truewonderw

orldofnature,

whatever

itsownafflictions,is

availableasthe

contextforaviable

humansituation.

Thedifficulty

justnow

isthat

thefinancial

andindustrial

establishments

havesuch

extensivecontrol

overthe

planetthat

changesobasic

asthat

suggestedhere

would

beextrem

elydifficult.

After

identifyingthe

orderofm

agnitudeofthe

difficultybefore

us,weneed

toestablish

amore

specificanalysis

ofthe

problems

themselves.

Thenweneed

toprovide

specificprogram

sleading

toward

aviable

humansituation

onaviable

planet.Forthis

purposeI

60.THE

GREAT

WORK

offerthe

following

analysisofthe

presentsituation

asitexistsunder

thecontrolling

powerofthe

industrialentrepreneur

andthen

offeralternative

proposalsforaviable

humansituation.

Asconcerns

naturalresources,

theindustrial,

commercial,

andfinancial

corporationsare

inpossession

oftheplanet;

eitherdirectly

orindirectly,

withthe

supportofgovernm

entssubservient

totheVMi-

ouscorporation

enterprises.This

possessionisofcourse

within

lim-

.'

,ItS.Fragm

entaryregions

ofthe

planethave

beensetaside

orwillhe

setaside

asareas

tobe

preservedintheir

naturalstate

ortobe

exploitedatalater

time.Yetthese

regionsthem

selves,frequently

enough,survive

byconsent

ofthecontrolling

corporations.Tothe

ecologist,reducing

theplanet

toaresource

baseforcon-

sumeruse

inanindustrial

societyisalready

anunacceptable

situa-bon.

Theplanet

andallitscom

ponentsare

reducedtocom

modities

whose

verypurpose

ofexistenceistobeexploited

bythe

human.O

urmore.hum

anexperience

oftheworld

ofmeaning

hasbeen

diminished

mdirect

proportionasmoney

andutilitarian

valueshave

takenprecedence

overthe

numinous,

aesthetic,and

emotional

values.Ina

correspondingway,any

recoveryofthe

naturalworld

initsfullsplen-

dorwillrequire

tI

..

noonyanew

economic

systembut

aconversion

experiencedeep

inthe

psychicstructure

ofthehum

an.Ourpresent

situationisthe

consequenceofa

culturalfixation,

anaddiction

anemoti

I.

...

Iwhi

hd'd

,rena

msensitivtty,

none0WllC

canbefem

eie

byany

quicklycontrived

adjustment.

Nature

hasbeen

severely,andmmany

casesirreversibly,

damaged.

Ahealing

isoften

availableand

newlife

cansorneti

bkdb'

.rmes

eevo

e,utthis

cannotbe

withoutan

intensityofconce

d.d.

man

sustame

vigorofaction

suchasthatw

hichb~ought

aboutthedam

ageinthe

firstplace.Without

thishealing,

theviability

ofhumans

atabl

.any

acceptelevel

offulfillment

remains

inquestion.

Asregards

lawth

basi.

..

'eaBleortentatron

ofAmerican

jurisprudenceIStoward

personalh

.h

..f

uman

ngtsand

toward

thenatural

world

asexisting

orhum

a.

npossession

anduse.

Tothe

industrial-commercial

TheViable

Human

.61

world

thenatural

world

hasnoinherent

rightstoexistence,habitat,

orfreedom

tofulfillits

roleinthevastcom

munity

ofexistence.Yetthere

canbenosustainable

future,even

forthe

modern

industrialworld,

unlessthese

inherentrights

ofthe

naturalworld

arerecognized

ashaving

legalstatus.

Theentire

questionofpossession

anduse

oftheEarth,

eitherbyindividuals

orbyestablishm

ents,needs

tobeconsid-

eredinamore

profoundmanner

thanWestern

societyhas

everdone

previously.The

naiveassum

ptionthat

thenatural

world

isthere

tobepos-

sessedand

usedbyhum

ansfortheir

advantageand

inanunlim

itedmanner

cannotbeaccepted.

TheEarth

belongstoitselfand

toallthe

component

members

oftheEarth

community.The

Earthisthere

asan

entrancingcelebration

ofexistenceinallitsalluring

qualities.Each

earthlybeing

participatesinthis

cosmiccelebration

astheproper

ful-fillm

entofitspow

ersofexpression.R

eductionofthe

Earthtoanobject

primarily

forhuman

possessionand

useisunthinkable

inmosttradi-

tionalcultures.

Yetto

PeterDrucker,author

oflnnouatiotiand

Entre-preneurship,

theentrepreneur

createsresources

andvalues.

Before

itispossessed

andused,

"everyplantis

aweed

andevery

mineral

isjustanother

rock"(Drucker,

p.38).Inthis

context,hum

anpossession

anduse

iswhatactivates

thetrue

nobilityofany

naturalobject.

Toachieve

aviable

human-Earth

situationanew

jurisprudencemust

envisageitsprim

arytask

asthat

ofarticulatingtheconditions

fortheintegral

functioningofthe

Earthprocess,

withspecial

refer-ence

toamutually

enhancinghum

an-Earthrelationship.

Within

thiscontext

thevarious

components

ofthe

Earth-theland,

thewater,

theair,and

thecom

plexoflife

systems-would

eachbeacom

mons.

Togetherthey

would

constitutethe

integralexpression

oftheGreat

Commons

ofthe

planetEarth

tobeshared

inproportion

toneed

among

allmembers

oftheEarth

community.

Inthis

contexteach

individualbeing

issupported

byevery

otherbeing

inthe

Earthcom

munity.In

turn,each

beingcontributes

tothe

well-being

ofeveryother

beinginthecom

munity.Justice

would

consist

\i

62.THE

GREAT

WORK

incarrying

outthis

complex

ofcreative

relationships.Within

thehum

ancom

munity

therewould

beaneed

forarticulating

patternsof

socialrelationships

inwhich

individualand

grouprights

would

berec-

ognizedand

defended.The

basicelem

entsofpersonal

securityand

personalproperty

would

beprotected,

althoughthe

senseofow

nershipwould

bealimited

personalrelation

toproperty,

which

would

demand

useaccording

tothe

well-being

ofthe

propertyand

thewell-being

ofthe

community,

alongwith

thewell-being

ofthe

individualowner.The

entirecom

plexofpolitical

andsocial

institutionswould

beneeded.

Economic

organizationswould

alsobeneeded.

Butthese

would

allbe

sointegral

with

thelarger

Eartheconom

ythat

theywould

enhance

ratherthan

obstructone

another.Another

significantaspect

ofcontem

porarylife,

wherein

theentrepreneur

hasadom

inantposition,

isinlanguage.

Sinceweare

enclosedinanindustrial

cultureand

aconsum

ereconom

y,the

words

weuse

havetheir

significanceand

validationwithin

thisculture.

Acentral

valueword

usedbyour

societyisthat

ofprogress.This

word

hasawide

rangeofsignificance

asregards

ourincreasing

scientificunder-

standingofthe

universe,our

increaseinpersonal

andsocial

develop-ment,

ourattainm

entofbetter

healthand

longerlife.

Throughour

modern

teohnolomrn

ec100

ogles,wecan

manufacture

greaterquantities

ofprod-ucts

with

greaterfacility.

Wecan

travelfaster

andwith

greaterease.

Sowecontinue

toprogress

endlesslywithafeeling

thatallis

well.

Butthen

wesee

thatour

human

progresshas

beencarried

outby

desolatingthe

naturalworld.

This"degradation"

ofthe

Earthisseen

asthe

conditionfor

""fhum

ans.Tnhi

...

.progress

0umans.

nhis

openmgstatem

entgIVIng

anoverview

ofthe

world

situationLester

BrowninVital

Signstells

us"The

world

tod.

d'

ayLSwarm

er,more

crowed

more

urbaneco-

nomically

richerand

.11

',

environrnentaypoorer

thanever

before"(Brown,

p.15).

TheEarth

iki

df

if.1

...

ISa

In0sacn

CIa

offenng.Within

thehum

ancom

munity

hoh

·1·.

'wever,

tere

ISittle

awareness

thatthe

integralsurvival

ofthe

planet!.

b..

InItsseasona

Jerhythmsofrenew

alisitself

acondition

notsimply

fho

uman

progressbut

ofhum

ansurvival.

Often

TheViable

Human.63

theecologist

isataloss

astohow

toproceed;

thelanguage

inwhich

ourvalues

areexpressed

hasbeen

co-optedbythe

industrialestab-

Iishment

andisused

with

themost

extravagantmodes

ofcommercial

advertisingtocreate

theillusory

world

inwhich

modern

industrial

peoplesnow

live.One

ofthe

most

essentialroles

ofthe

ecologististocreate

thelanguage

inwhich

atrue

senseofreality,

ofvalue,

andofprogress

canbecom

municated

tooUTsociety.

Thisneed

forrectification

oflan-

guageinrelation

toreality

wasrecognized

earlybythe

Chinese

asthe

firsttask

ofany

acceptableguidance

forthe

society(Analects

XXII:

II).Just

now,arectification

isneeded

inthe

termprogress.

Thereisa

senseinwhich

progressisneeded

inrelieving

humans

fromsom

eof

theage-old

afflictionsthat

humans

haveborne.

Yetthis

senseof

progressisbeing

usedasanexcuse

forimposing

awesom

edestruc-

tionon

theplanet

forthe

purposeofmonetary

profit,even

when

theconsequences

involvenew

typesofhum

anpsychic

andphysical

misery.The

termprofit

needstobe

rectified.Profit

accordingtowhat

normsand

forwhom

?The

profItofthe

corporationisthe

deficitofthe

Earth.The

profitofthe

industrialenterprise,

whatever

itsadvantages,

canalso

beconsidered

asadeficit

inthe

qualityoflife.

Weneed

to

reexamine

theentire

rangeofour

language.There

arequestions

concerning"gender"

thatneed

considera-

tion.The

.industrialestablishm

entisthe

extremeexpression

ofapatri-

archaltradition

with

itsall-pervasive

senseofdom

inance,whether

ofrulers

overpeople,

ofmenover

women,

ofhum

ansover

nature.Only

with

enormous

psychicand

socialeffort

andrevolutionary

processeshas

thispatriarchal

controlbeen

mitigated

asregards

therights

ofwomen.

Therights

ofthe

naturalworld

ofliving

beingsisstill

atthe

mercy

ofthe

modem

industrialcorporation

asthe

ultimate

expression

ofpatriarchaldom

inanceover

theentire

planetaryprocess.

Thentoo

webegin

torecognize

therights

ofethnic

groupsand

ofthe

impoverished

classesofour

society.For

theecologist,

thegreat

64 . TH E GREAT WORK

model of all existence is the natural ecosystem, which is self-ruled asa community in which each component has its unique rights and itscomprehensive inAuence. The ecologist, with a greater sense of thehuman as a nurturing presence within the larger community of thegeological and biological modes of Earth being, is sponsoring a modeof human activity much closer to the feminine than to the masculinemodes of being and of activity.

As concerns education; it purpose as presently envisaged, is toenable persons to be "productive" within the context of the industrialsociety. A person needs to become literate in order to fulliJl somefunction within the system, whether in acquisition or processing ofraw materials, manufacturing, distributing the product in a commer-cially profitable manner, managing the process or the finances, or,finally, spending the net earnings in acquisition and enjoyment ofpossessions. A total life process is envisaged within the industrialprocess. All profes ional careers now function within the industrial-commercial establishment, even education, medicine, and law.

In this new context of a viable human mode of being, the primaryeducator as well as the primary lawgiver and the primary healer wouldbe the natural world itself. The integral E81th community would be aself-educating community within the context of a self-educating uni-verse. Education at the human level would be the sensitizing of thehuman to those profound communications made by the universe aboutus, by the sun and moon and stars, the clouds and rain, the contours ofthe Earth and all its living forms.

The music and poetry of the universe would flow into the student;also a sense of the deep mystery of existence as well as insight intothe architecture of the continents and the engineering skills wherebythe great hydrological cycles function in moderating the temperatureof the Earth, in providing habitat, and in nourishing the multitudes ofliving creatures.

This orientation toward the natural world should be understoodin relation to all human activities. The Earth would be our primary

The Viable HIIInfl1l • 65

teacher in industry and conomics. It wuuld It"~u'h 1I.t hom 111

which we would create a minimum of Plllrtll)". n , 11..'''' HI 1m"there would be a minimum of unusable or un(nillftil ".1 n-, ut.hithe system of waste treatment evolved bl Jnhn um! Ill,", I,.M "'their design of "living machines" thai r~(·\dt. ,"0""" \\Illt"t l1u 1

done by means of artificial wetlands" he,,' 'planl ...1.,- II". In II Iments from the waste. Air ady such wt'llulld!'o:un" fUIH:IH11t1f1 11l t •

eral New England cities.In this context \ e need to appreciate 61....0 tlu- '\Or~ flf \llUnm

Therese MacGillis at Genesis Farm. This ill\oh "d a 1.0,"mulll' IIIported Agriculture project that has cSlablislwd un ,nll'llr I ,,· ',"oll ..fthe local community with the region it ()I'('up'" ami ",Ih Ill. I... III"nings of a subsistence e anomy. ~ e nti~hl ul....o IlWIl\WIl till urt..tilgardening project of Paul and Julie Mallk, ..wicz m •." , ..fl. I""large-scale organic agricultural project of Fn-d 1\.'r-<:h'· '"lIO"" 11I1"northern Great Plains region . the teachinjl ami (. mpl, 01" ,w •able energy projects of Amory and Hunter Lm 10' ut th R...Mountain Institute in the nowmass area of olorudn. \l11on 1.0 In •Soft Energy Paths is somelhing of a cla".c r fen·lll. Ioor . II Ihexample of his farm and the leaching- in hi, honk. Th- I rur/,I"'1f nfAmerica: Culture and Agriculture, Wendell B"IT) p1'll\.d. • UI"'"'illustration of what can be done by st'ltling on II,.. 1"",Jm .....". ",,,.

gral manner.In the realm of city architecture Richard n..",'I,·r h.. ,I ....

remarkable work in his sponsoring of four inlt'mallonaJ, onfrrroon this subject. His Eco-City Berkeley pro' ides ",m intllr ", n ofthe possibililies lhat are availalle. lhe"". such 0' PN"r Ikrfl·n IIIwritings, have provided the inilialive and guidance forthl ren,· lofurban life. One of the besl modern example» of a III tropnhlall nlthat has recovered ilS inlegrily as a communily inlo lh.. I -nl·f. Icentury is Curitiba, a city of ome lWOmillion peopl .. 10 JU,h•."..Brazil, inland sevenly miles from lhe coast. By r 0' · ,inl': th. 100'"city as a living place where celebralion could prmide the d h"lll 10

64 ' THE GREAT WORK

model of a!l exi t is thX1Sence IS t e natural ecosystem, which is self-ruled asa community in whi h h has its uniIC eac component as its umque fights and itscomprehensive influence, The ecologist, with a greater sense of thehuman as a nurturing' ' I· he Iaraercommuni ., presence WItlin t e arger community of thegeological and biological modes of Earth being, is sponsoring a modeof human activity much closer to the feminine than to the masculinemodes of being and of activity,

As concerns education, its purpose as presently envisaged, is toenable persons to be "productive" within the context of the industrialsociety, A person needs to become literate in order to fulfill somefunction within the s st h heri , , . ine ofy em, w et er In acqursinon or proceSSIng 0r~w materials, manufacturing, distributing the product in a cornmer-cially profitable manner, managing the process or the finances, or,finally, spending the net earnings in acquisition and enjoyment ofpossessions, A total Life process is envisaged within the industrialprocess, All professional careers now function within the industrial-commercial establishment, even education, medicine, and law.

In this new context of a viable human mode of being, the primaryeducator as well as th .: 1 ' d he ori ulde pllmary awglver an t e pnmary healer wobe the natura! world 't If Th' IE h '1 se. e Integra rot commumty would be aself-educating com ., h' hmumty WIt In t e context of a self-educating uni-verse, Education at the h I I ld b h " , , human eve wou e t e senSItIZIng of t ehuman to those prof d ".oun commUnicatIOns made by the universe aboutus, by the Sunand moon d t' h L d d ' fan s a18, tee ou s an ram the contow's 0the Earth and all its living forms, '

The music and poet f th' ld'ry 0 e Universe wou flow Into the student;also a sense of the d f' ,h

eep mystery 0 eXistence as well as insight intot e architecture of the t' d h 'Con Ineots an t e engmeering skills wherebythe great hydroLogical I f· . "f h

' cyc es unctIOn 111moderating the temperatureo. t e Earth 111 provid' I b'. .Ii ' ' 111g1a Itat, and 111nourishing the multitudes ofvmg creatures.

. ~his orientation toward the natural world should be understood111 re atlOn to all human activities, The Earth would be our primary

The Viable llumnn • 65

teacher in industry and conomic-, II ,,,'ul.l h',n'hwhich we would create a minimum of (.'n1rnl". H Itm an hit Iethere would be a minimum of unusable nr unlruitful ", u h Ithe system of waste treatment volved hl J"hn .111.1 'K 1•• 1.1Intheir design of "living machine!'." that n'ne·le· '" , .' "lit t lb. •done by means of artificial wetland, "I\{',,' planl I' • tI,. I'" r"

ments from the waste, Already su -h ""tl"nd an 111111 110"11 IIIeral New England cities,

In this context we need to appre,'",te "I.... Ih,' '''It "I \Ill "Therese MacGillis at Gen sis Farm. TllIlIIIIH,I",,1 ,"111111111111 ",.

ported Agriculture project that has e.l"hll,h I 1I1,nl'IlIlI .. I \I ""Ithe local community with the region it occupu: .11,,1 "'Ib II.. I.......nings of a subsisten e econ Ill)· . \'re nll~hl l""ft 1111'nt1OI1 ttl1 11ft ,

gardening project of Paul and Julie lank "." 11l e,,)n • II,large-scale organic agricultural project of f " 1"'," I" nn nn IIIlhnorthern Great Plains regions. the teadllnll amI," "111,,1 nf ,able energy projects of Amory und l lunur !,,,,, III 01 Ib It •Mountain Institute in the nowma..... area pf olorudo. "10" 1InInSoft Energy Paths is something of a clu."" n'f,'r.'n'. "nf lh II>example of his farm and the teaching.' in h,- hook, Ih .. ( rill.America: Culture and Agriculture, \'Iel1l"'11 Bl,tT) pm\lll "Iillustration of what can be done by ,ellJinll on Ih" I..nellll _nr ""

gral manner,In the realm of city architecture R"'hanl R"Il,-t. r b •

remarkable work in his spans ring of four Inkmalllln I ....nl....on this subject. His Eco-City Berkel y pn" iell" ....m 'IIId, lion ofthe possibilities that are available, Othe"', ,ul'h 3.- Peler I~ 111 ,n h'writings, have provided the initiative and guidanl'l" for Ihe ....". 1urban life, One of the best modem example, of a Ill ......,!",),tan .1

, 't ' 10Ih.' I ""I,·f, Ithat has recovered its integnty as a commUni y Incentury is Curitiba, a city of orne two million """flle. III ..... tl...mBrazil inland seventy miles from lhe coas\. By rl"Co\ nn~ Ih mll-r

, l b' uld pro\"ide the eleht:hl IIIcity as a living place where ce e rallOn co

66 ' THE GREAT WORK

life that i, needed by an) communit). Curiliba ha since developedimo a \ iabl modem Cil), MOl significant i the sense of a sharedway of life that identif s Curitiba. Pllblic expense per person is esti-mat d at ene-temh of the expense per person in Detroit.

Mo t irnpres ive in thi general context is the small country ofLadakh. Helena Norberg-Hodge, one of the few outsiders whoknowsthe language well enough to enter into their way of life in some inti-mate manner, has written a remarkable account of these peoplein Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh. Ladakh lies easlof Kashmir high in the Himalayas on the border of China, and hasa Tibetan Buddhist religious orientation. It has a severe climate ofeight months of winter with temperatures of 40 degrees below freez-ing, little rainfall, and a meager soil-all indicating as harsh a nat-ural condition as a person might imagine. Yet the people of Ladakhhave educated themselves in a sustainable way of life, a grace anddelight in living, a sense of community, and thus have created a worldof meaning in its deepest sense. All this provides convincingevidence that education in direct relation with the natural environ-ment and the use of basic technologies can supply the needs oflife ina context that leads to a high level of personal fulfillment. Success orfailure as human communities has no absolute need of such technolo-gies or conveniences as we imagine are needed for a proper lifefulfillment.

Much more could be said concerning Ourrelations with the sur-rounding environment and the need to live integrally with the natural.world. But this may be sufficient to suggest a context for thinkingabout the SU'l'ounding world within an ecologicaJly sound system ofeducation, an education that would be available to everyone from thebeginning to the end of life when the Earth that brought us into beingdraws us back into itself to enter the deepest of all mysteries.

In OUI' view of a viable future, a new context would exist also forthe medical profession. The problems of human illness are not onlyincreasing but are being altered in their very nature by the industrial

The Viable Human . 67

context of life. In prior centuries, human illness was experiencedwithinthewell-beingof the natural world with its abundance of air and~ater, andfoodsgrown in fertile soil. Even city dwellers with their dele-noratednaturalsurroundings could depend on the purifying processes ofthe naturalelements. The polluting material ulem elves were subjectto natural decomposition and reabsorption into the ever-renewingcycles of the life process. Bul this is no longer true. The purifyingprocesseshavebeen overwhelmed by the volume, the composition, andthe universalextent of the toxic or nonbiodegradable materials. Beyond~ this, the biorhythms of the natural world are suppressed by the

Impositionofmechanistic patterns on natural processes.The profession of medicine must now consider its role, not only

within the context of human society, but in the context of the Earthprocess. Ahealing of the Earth is a prerequisite for the healing ofthehuman. Adjustment of the human to the conditions and restraints ofthe natural world constitutes the primary medical prescription forhuman well-being. The medical profession needs to establish a wayof sustaining the species as well as the individual if the human is tobe viable as a species within the community of species.

Behind the long disruption of the Earth process is the refusal ofWestern industrial society to accept needed restraints upon its questfor release, not simply from the normal ills to which we are subject,but release from the human condition itself. There exists in our tradi-tion a hidden rage against those inner as well as outer forces that cre-

ate limits on our activities.Some ancient force in the Western psyche seems to perceive lim-

italian as a demonic obstacle to be eliminated, ralher than as astrengthening discipline. Acceptance of the challenging aspect ofthe natural world is a primary condition for creative intimacy with thenatural world. Without this opaque or even threatening aspect ofthe universe we would lose our greatest source of creative energy.This opposing element is as necessary for us as is the weight of theatmosphere that sUITounds us. This containing element, even the

68 . THE GREAT WORK

liirtl\';latlun that hind, II. 10 the Earth, should be experienced as liber-ating and t'ncrglling, ratjrer than confining. ,

trangel) enough, it is our efforts 10 establish a thoroughlysaru-tj z d world that hav I d to Our toxic world. Our quest for wonder-world is making wasleworld. Our quest for energy is creating entropyon a cale never befor witnes ed in the historical process. Wehaveinvented a COUnlerproduclive society that i now caught in the loopthai f eds back inlo itself in what can pre ently be considered a run-away siluation.

The 01 dia and advertising are particularly responsible forplac-ing the entire lif process of the human in a ituation wherein pro-ducer and consumer feed back into each other in an ever-acceleratedprocess. PresenLly we experience on a world scale an enormous glutin many basic products, along with unmatched deprivation in the vastnumbers of peoples gathered in the shantytowns of the world.

Few of OUf most prominent newspapers, newsweeklies, or period-icals writlen for the general public have a consistently designatedspace for the ecological situation, a1Lboughenvironmental concernsare being mentioned more frequently. While there are regular sec-tions for politics, economics, sports, arts, science, education, food,enteltainment, and a number of other areas of life, only on rare occa-sions do significant articles appear concerned with what is happeningto the planet.

These periodicals are of Course supported by the great industrialestablishments. Media attention to the disturbed life systems of theEarth is considered as Lbreatening or limiting to the industrial enter-prise. In this situation Lbecommercial-industrial control of the mediacan be considered among the most effective forces thwarting anyremedial action to save the disintegrating planet.

There are efforts to mitigate the problematic consequences of thisindustrial-commercial process by modifying the manner in which Lbeseestablishments function, efforts such as the reduction in the amOuntoftoJOCwaste produced, as well as more efficient modes of storing ordetoxifymg waste. Yetall of this is trivial in relation to the magnitude of

The Viable Human . 69

the issues. So too are the regulatory efforts of governments. These haveconsistentlybeen microphase solutions for macrophase problems.

Wewitness also the pathos of present efforts at preserving habitatfor wildlife in some countries while the tropical rain forests are beingdestroyed each year in other counu·ies. Among the other efforts ataltering our present destructive activities are the confrontationalgroups such as Greenpeace, Sea Shepherd, and Earth First!' Theseare daring ventures that dramatize the situation in its stark reality.That such tactics are needed to force a deeper reflection on what weare doing is itself evidence of how profound a change is needed in

human consciousness.Beyond such mitigating efforts and such confrontational tactics is

the clarification ofmore creative modes of functioning in all our institu-tions and professions. This clarification is already taking place throughmovements such as those concerned with reinhabiting the variousbioregions of the world. All of these new and mutually enhancing pat-terns of human-Earth relationships are being developed on a functionalas well as a critical-intellectual basis. This orientation begins to findexpression in politics, in economics, in education, in healing, and inspiritual reorientation. Together these movements, oriented toward amore benign human relationship with the environment, indicate a per-vasive change in consciousness that presently is our best hope for

developing a sustainable future.Meanwhile, in the obscure regions of the unconscious where the

primordial archetypal symbols function as ultimate controlling factorsin human thought, emotion, and in practical decision-making, a pro-found reorientation toward this integral human-Earth relationship isgradually taking place. The archetypal journey of the universe can nowbe experienced as the journey of each individual, since the entire uni-verse has been involved in shaping our individual psychic as well asour physical being from that first awesome moment when the universe

emerged.Wemight now recover our sense of the maternal aspect of the uni-

verse in the symbol of the Great Mother, especially in the Earth as that

70 . THE CREAT WORK

malt'Olal prin"iplp out uf which we are born and by which wearesus-Iu;n.-d. On.'(- thi-, smhol is recovered the dominion of the patriarchalprin'· ;pl .. thaI has broughluch awe sive attitudes into ouractivities"ill 1)<>mili/(ated. ffthis is achieved then Ourrelationship withthenal-ural "orld would undergo one of its most radical readjustments sincethe origins of ourciviJization in clas ical antiquity.

We might also recover Our ar h typal sense of the CosmicTreeand the Tree of Life. The tree symbol gives expression to the org~1Cunity of the univers , but especially of the Earth in its integral realityObviou [y any damag done to the tree wi1Jbe experienced through-out the entire organism. This could be one of Our most effective waysof creating not simply conscious decisions against industrial devasta-tion of the Earth but a deep instinctive repulsion to any such activity.This instinct should be as immediate as the instinct for survival itself.

A foUlth symbol of great significance in this context is the Death-Rebirth symbol. This symbol is especially relevant to the cosmicprocess of continuing transfolmation. The industrial age came about byappeal to transfonnation symbolism, a passing from the old, the anti-quated, the Oppressive, the confining, into the new, the vital, the vision-ary, the Jiberating. Death-Rebirth symbolism as used by the modernindustrial movement must now be turned from its destructive orienta-tion toward a more integrating role.

These four symbols-the Journey, the Great Mother, the CosmicTree, and the Death-Rebirth SYmbol-experienced now in a time-deveJopmental rather than a spatial mode of consciousness, consti-tute a psychic resource of enormous import for establishing ourselvesas a viable species in a viable Jife system on the planet Earth.

Among the controlling professions in America, the educationaland the religious professions should be especially sensitive in dis-cerning what is happening to the planet and the value of these sym-bols III restonng a certain integrity to the human process. Theseprofessions present themseJves as guiding Our sense of reality andvalue at Its uJllmate level of significance They provide 0 l'£'

. ur I e mter-

The Viable Human . '2'l

pretation. Education and religion, especially, should awaken in theyoungan awareness of the world in which they live, how it functions,howthe human fits into the larger community of life, the role that thehuman fulfills in the great story of the universe, and the historicalsequence of developments that have shaped our physical and cul-turallandscape. Along with this awareness of the past and present,education and religion should communicate some guidance concern-

ing the future.The pathos of these times, however, is precisely the impasse that

wewitness in our educational and religious programs. Both are livingin a past fundamentalist tradition or venturing into New Age pro-grams that are often trivial in their consequences, unable to supportor 10 guide the transformalion that is needed in its proper order ofmagnitude. We must recognize that the only effective program avail-able as our primary guide toward a viable human mode of being is the

program offered by the Earth itself.Both education and religion need to ground themselves within

the story of the universe as we now know it through our empiricalways of knowing. Within this functional cosmology we can overcomeour alienation and begin the renewal of life on a sustainable basis.This story is a numinous revelatory story that could evoke not onlythe vision but also the energies needed for bringing ourselves and the

entire planet into a new order of survival.

7

The

UNIVERSITY

THE UNIVERSITY HAS A CENTRAL ROLE IN THE DIRECTION AND

fulfillment of the Great Work. It seems appropriate, then, that we gIve

. h . . h xperienced l Ilsome thought to the difficultIes t e uruversrty as e .recent times and the directions it might take in fulfilling its role m thetwenty-first century.

The university can be considered as one of the four basic estab-lishments that determine human life in its more significant function-ing: the government, the religious traditions, the university, and thecommercial-industrial corporations.

All four-the political, religious, intellectual, and economicestablishments_are failing in their basic purposes for the same rea-son. They all presume a radical discontinuity between the nonhumanand the human modes of being, with all the rights and all inherentvalues given to the human. The olher-than-human world is not recog-nized as having any inherent rights or values. All basic realities andvalues are identified with human values. The other-than-humanmodes of being attain their realily and value only through their use bythe human. This attitude has brought about a devastating assault onthe nonhuman world by the human.

"2"2

The University . 73

Earlier human traditions experienced a profound intimacy with thenatural world in all its living forms and even a deep spiritual exaltationin the religious-spiritual experience of natural phenomena. We havemovedfrom this intimacy of earlier peoples with the natural world tothe alienation of modem civilization. If some aesthetic appreciationremains, this seldom has the depth of meaning experienced earlier. Yetthis presence to the natural world does occur with extTaordinarypowerand understanding in persons such as Hem)' David Thoreau and JohnMuirand in many of the nature writers of the twentieth century, such asAldo Leopold, Loren Eiseley, Edward Abbey, Edward Hoagland,Brenda Peterson, Ban)' Lopez, TelTYTempest Williams, Gary Snyder,David Rains Wallace, Annie Dillard, David Suzuki, Farley Mowat, andothers lao numerous to mention. Yet these writers have no role in form-ing the basic orientation of the contemporaJ)' university.

As now functioning, the university pTepares students for theirrole in extending human dominion over the natural world, not fOT inti-mate presence to the natural world. Use of this power in a deleteriousmanner has devastated the planet. We suddenly discover that we arelosing some of our most exalted human experiences that come to usthrough our participation in the natural world. So awesome is the dev-astation we are bringing about that we can only conclude that we arecaught in a severe cultural disorientation, a disorientation that is sus-tained intellectually by the university, economically by the corpora-tion, legally by the Constitution, spiritually by religious institutions.

The universities might well consider their own involvement inour present difficulties. Some of our most competent biologists intheir comprehensive understanding of the biosystems of the planet,such as E. O. Wilson, Niles Eldredge, and Norman Myers, tell us thatno devastation at this level has happened to the life systems of Earthsince the termination of the Mesozoic Era some 65 million years ago(Wilson, Biodiversity). The present, then, is beyond comparison withother historical changes or a cultural transition, such as that from theclassical Mediterranean period to the medieval period or from there

- ------

'i'i THf GREAT WORK

10 II.. EIIJi/:hll-IIIllI'fll in Eurol e. Even the transiuon from theP"I,'olllhi,' to 11ll' \('nllthic \ge in human cultural development can-

nul I", l'ullIpan'd 10 whut i, hUPI ening now. For we are changing not

IInpll Ihe human world, "I' Or changing the chemistry of the planet,'en the (("01 gi al structur and functioning of the planet, Wearedi lurbing th atmosphere, the hydro phere, and the geosphere, all 10a mann r thai i undoing the work of nature over some hundreds, of'11' h ' , have extin-nu 'On , even billion of year. T e genetic strains we

guished will n ver return.

Ju t what is involved in any fuJI assessment of the disturbance of

h . thatthe planet need not be Our concern here. Yet we mig t mentionin economics, the separation of the human economy from the Earth

A . . s humaneconomy has been disastrous beyond measure. f1smg grosproduct with a declining gross Earth product is surely a contradic-lion. To preserve the integrity of the Earth economy should be thefirst purpose of any human economic program. Yet it would be diffi-cult, until recently, to find a university where this first principle ofeconomics is being taught. It is a strange thing to witness humansmoving from suicide, homicide, and genocide to biocide and geocideunder the illusion that they are improving the human situation.

Not only is this devastation of the natural world due to an industrialeconomy that is willing to wreck the entire planet for financial gain orsome so-called improvement in the human condition. It is due also tothe American Constitution, which guarantees to humans participatorygovernance, individual freedoms, and rights to own and dispose ofpropelty_all with no legal protection for the natural world. ThejUrisPIlJdence suppotting such a constitution is profoundly deficient. ItprOVIdes no basis for the functioning of the planet as an integral com-mU/llly that would include aU its human and other-than-human compo-nents. Only a jurisprudence based on concern for an integral EarthcommunIty IScapable of Suslajning a viable planet.

This legal status of rights for natura/modes of being is especiallyneeded now when the human has auained such extensive pov e _LI r '. v roverre UllCl10lling of the planet it POssesses. So long as th A _

e mencan

The University . 75

Constitution in its present form and interpretation remains our ulti-mate referent in legal affairs, any equitable consideration of the nat-ural modes of being of this continent will never be achieved. In thelarger community of nations several steps have been taken to remedythis situation. The most impressive of these is the World Charter forNature passed in the United Nations Assembly in 1982. This charterstates quite clearly that "Every form of life is unique, warrantingrespect regardless of its worth to man, and, to accord other organismssuch recognition, man must be guided by a moral code of action." Asimilar attitude is expressed in the Earth Charter that is being pre-pared for presentation to the United Nations in the year 2002. This isa comprehensive document seeking to bring together social justiceand sustainable development issues with environmental concerns.

The religious establishments are also seriously deficient in notteaching more effectively that the natural world is our primary revela-tory experience. Emphasis on verbal revelation to neglect of the man-ifestation of the divine in the natural world is to mistake the entirerevelatory process. Added to this is the excessive emphasis in Westernreligious traditions on redemption processes to the neglect of cre-ation processes. This emphasis leaves us unable to benefit religiouslyfrom that primary and most profound mode of experiencing the divine

in the immediacies of life.A consciousness of this need for greater religious interest in the

ecology issue led to a series of ten conferences held from 1996 to1999 at Harvard University on the various religious traditions in theirrelation to the enviroment. This remarkable series of conferencesbrought together some eight hundred scholars and practitioners ofthe world's religions for reflection on the practical and theoreticalresources of these traditions for mutually enhancing human-Earthrelations. The papers from the conference are being published by

Harvard University Press.I mention economics, jurisprudence, and religion because these

are among the subjects that are taught in our colleges and universi-ties. An integral presentation of these subjects has not been given

76 . THE GREAT WORK

becau-, f their commitment to the view that the nonhumanworldi, there fundamentally for the us of humans; whether economically,ahth,·tically, recreationally. or piritually. For this reason the univer-sities rna) be one of the prin ipal supports of the pathology that is soruinou to the planet.

Be aus of this ba sic attitude we con ider that the moreexten-sively we use the world about u , the more progress we are makingtoward some higher state of being. The vision of a transearthly statusto he a hiev d by e ploiting the natural world has driven us to evermore violent e(forts toward this end. The ideal is to take the greatestpo ible amount of natural re ources, process these resources, put

them through the consumer economy as quickly as possible, then onto the waste heap. This we consider as progress-even though theimmense accumulation of junk is overwhelming the landscape, satu-rating the skies, and lilling the oceans.

It is importanlto note, however, four significant movements thathave arisen to counter the e directions. In the field of economicsthere is the Society for Ecological Economics established by HermanDaly and Roben Costanza. In jurisprudence is the emergence of theEarth Charter as a basis for recognition of the comprehensive Earthcommunity. In the area of religion the Forum on Religion andEcology arose from the three-year conference series at Harvardexamining the various views of nature in the world's religious tradi-lions. In education the greenjng of the university around theTailloires Declaration is encouraging universit.ies and their leaders toembody Sustainable practices.

Yet there is still a deeper Source of difficulty in the university. Itlies in what are caUed the humanities, or liberal studies, as they areknown. These supposedly, as humanist scholars tell us, provide forthe expansIon of the truly human quality of life. Yet this centering ofvalue so extenSively On the human distorts the place and role of thehuman in the structure and functioning of the universe. We fail torecognize thaLalthough the various COlTI(lOnentsof the u . .

nJverse exist

The University . 7'l

for each other, each exists primarily for the integrity of the universe.The human also, however noble in itself, exists for the integrity ofthe universe and for the Earth more than these exist for the human.Indeed the human depends upon the larger universe for its existence,its functioning, and its fulfillment. Within the order of the universethe planet Earth provides the efficient, final, material, and formalcauses that bring the human into being, support the human in being,

and lead the human to fulfillment.The primacy of the universe over any part of the universe, and of

Earth over any component of Earth, has been maintained earlier inour Western religious and cosmological traditions. The sacred com-munity is primarily the universe community, not the human commu-nity. Whatever the deficiencies of medieval theological thinking itwas clear that the entire universe is the primary value. The humanbelongs completely within the created order as a part of a more inte-gral whole. As indicated by Thomas Aquinas, the most renowned ofmedieval theologians, "The order of the universe is the ultimate andnoblest perfection in things" (Aquinas, SCG, bk. 2, chap. 46).

Even within the traditional theological context it could be saidthat what is done by the divine within the created order has for itssupreme purpose the resplendence of the whole, not the resplendenceof any single component of the whole. Only the whole has any integralmeaning. Even the incarnation and redemption as these are presentedwithin the Christian tradition must be considered as primarily for thegood of the universe even though these have a certain immediate ref-erence to the human. As was said at the time: "The whole universetogether participates in the divine goodness and represents it betterthan any single being whatsoever" (Aquinas, ST,Q. 47, Art. 1).

Historically the break with this tradition took place at the time ofthe Great Plague that struck Europe in 1347-1349. This was a trau-matic moment for the Western world. The deep aversion to the naturalworld that resulted has profoundly conditioned the Western cultural

tradition ever since.

-- --

,.

18 . THE CREAT WORK

d .. finil;',· 'Iu/(· HI thi-, a\ ersion cam with Rene Descartes inIh,· .... r!) .. ·\<·nl.... nth century. III a very real sense he desouled the

E nh \\ ith hi, IIi, ision of realil) berw en mind and extension. In this

P<''''''''''liH' th .. nonhuman world was seen simply as mechanism. It\\0." how e ver, a nH'chnni'm that could be, and even must be, exploitedfor human be nefit,

For six cenlurie. from the Crear Plague and for more than threeceJ1lurie" from the time of Descan s. the aversion of the human fromany intimacy with the natural world has increa ed in Western society,with the exception of the period of Romanticism horn the late eigh-teenth century through the early nineteenth century. Scientists haveinsist d with ever-greater vehemence until recently that the uruversecan only be understood as the random action of minute particles withneither direction nor meaning. That we should have resisted such aninterpretation given by scientisu, to their own discoveries is quiteproper. That we should have permitted scientists to evoke in us adeep suspicion of the natural world is a matter of extreme regrel.

. ftheWe should have been able to provide Our own interpretation 0

scientific discoveries. 11 should have been obvious that our empiricalinquiry into the slruClUJ"e and functioning of the universe was reveal-ing a magnificent world beyond anything that we could have thoughtor dreamed. Any reasonable response is admiration, awe, and even acertain foreboding at the deeper mysteries presented in such an over-whelming reaLity. We m.ight even consider that the emergent universe,in the sequence of its unfolding, is providing us with a new revelatoryexperience of whatever is tJle origin from which it emerges.

For this experience we do not need telescope, microscope, orscientific analysis. Yet with these instruments of intimacy with theuniverse we do have a new understanding of the sequence of trans-formations through which the evolutionary process has passed inbecoming what we observe in the present. If the religious experiencewere SImply some naive impression of the uninfonned it would nothave resulted in such inteUectuai insight, such spiritual eXaltation

,

The University . '2'9

such spectacular religious ritual, or in the immense volume of songand poetry and literature and dance that humans have produced.

Few indeed, it seems, are those whose vision of the stars, theocean, the song and flight of birds, the exquisite form and activities ofthe various animal species, or the awesome views of the mountainsand rivers and valleys does not evoke some sense of an inner spon-taneity, a guiding principle, a consciousness, a transmaterial pres-ence manifested throughout the material embodiment, an orderingprinciple observed in any living being that enables the complexity ofthe DNA in the genetic process to function in some coherent fashion.While no sense faculty can experience it directly and no equationcan be written to express it, our immediate perception tells us thatthere is a unifying principle in the acorn that enables the complexcomponents of the genetic coding of the oak tree to function as aunity-send down roots, raise the trunk, extend the branches and putforth leaves and fashion its seeds, then to nourish all this by drawingup tons of water and minerals from the Earth and distributing themthroughout the entire life system. That such a vast complexity offunctioning should have some unifying principle, known traditionallyas the "soul" of the organism, is immediately evident to human intel-

ligence.Since this is not the occasion to argue the case for the psychic or

the spirit or the soul dimension of living organisms, I will only indicatethat my generation has been an autistic generation in its inability toestablish any intimate rapport with the natural world. This mentaldeficiency has brought us into the terminal phase of the Cenozoic Erain the geobiological story ofEarth development. Our present need is toknow just how to move out of this alienation of the human into a more

viable mode of presence to the natural world.Here I propose that the religions are too pious, the corporations

too plundering, the government too subservient to provide anyadequate remedy. The universities, however, should have the insightand the freedom to provide the guidance needed by the human

80 • THE GREAT WORK

(·ommunit). The uni"e""itie, should also have the critical capacity,the influence over Ih other professions and the other activitiesofsociety, In a special manner the universities have the contact with theyounger generation needed to reorient the human community towarda gr ater awarenes~ that the human exists, survives, and becomeswhole only within the single great community of the planet Earth.

. . f theIf the .entral pathology that has led to the termmauon 0Cenozoic i the radical discontinuity established between the humanand the nonhuman then the renewal of life on the planet must bebased on the contin~ity between the human and the other than humanas a single integral community. Once this continuity is recognizedandaccepted, then we will have fulfilled the basic condition thai willenable the human to become present to the E811h in a mutuallyenhancing manner.

In this new context every component of the Earth communitywould have its rights in accord with the proper mode of its being andits functional role. In each ca e the basic rights would be for habitatand the opportunity of each being to fulfill its role in the natural sys-tems to which it belongs. Humans would be obliged to respect theserights. If such concerns were not under discussion in the eighteenthcentury when the American Const.itution was being written, they mustbe the central issue in any present discussion of the legal context ofour society. The critical mission of the university law schools is toaddress these issues in a depth that has not yet manifested. A moreexpanded basis for jurisprudence seems to be indicated. A beginninghas been made by Justice William O. Douglas in A Wilderness Bill ofRights, published as long ago as 1965. There we find a remarkableaffirmation of the need to establish legal status for the natural world.

Even beyond the Earth, the sense of community would extendthroughout the enlire universe seen as a single coherent communitythat has emerged into being with a total dependence of each compo-nent Onall the others. Indeed, we need to think of the universe as theSupreme norm of reality and value, with all component members of

The University . 81

the universe participating in this context, each in accord with its own

proper role.In this setting the universe would become the primary university,

just as the universe is the primary lawgiver, the primary economiccorporation, the primary scientist, the primary technologist, the pri-mary healer, the primary revelation of the divine, the primary artist,the primary teacher, and indeed the primary source, model, and ulti-mate destiny in all earthly affairs. Throughout our human intellectualdevelopment we are totally dependent on what the universe commu-nicates to us in an earlier stage through immediate observation and inthis later stage through all those instruments of observation that wehave devised. Through these instruments of observation we enter pro-foundly into the most hidden realms of phenomenal existence itselfwhile at the same time these hidden realms enter into our own minds.It is a reciprocal relationship. We are touched by what we touch. Weare shaped by what we shape. We are enhanced by what we enhance.

The human university would be the context in which the universereflects on itself in human intelligence and communicates itself to thehuman community. The university would have the universe as itsoriginating, validating, and unifying referent. Since the universe is anemergent reality the universe would be understood primarily throughits story. Education at all levels would be understood as knowing theuniverse story and the human role in the story. The basic course inany college or university would be the story of the universe.

This story can fulfill its role only if the universe is understood ashaving a psychic-spiritual as well as a physical-material aspect fromthe beginning. This should not be difficult since we knowwhat some-thing is by its appearance and by what it does. Weknowa mockingbirdby the variety of its songs, by its size, by the slate gray color of its feath-ers and by the white patch on its wings and the white feathers in its tail.Since the universe brings us into being with all our knowledge and ourartistic and cullural achievements, then the universe must be an intel-lect-producing, aesthetic-producing, and intimacy-producing process.

82 . THE GREAT WORK

Thes .. qualitl« that we identify with the human are also qualitiesthat WI' ob"'l"\e Ihroughoul the natural world. Even at the level of the

elements we ob'l'l"\ self-organizing capacities. also the capacityfor intimatl' re Iationships. Thes reveal astounding psychic abilities.

These are so impressive that we must consider that modes of con-s iousness exislthroughout the univer e in a vast number of qualita-lively di'erse manifestations. Above all we discover that every beinghas its own Sponlaneities that arise from the depths of its own being.Th se Sponlaneities express the inner value of each being in snch a

h .. union ofmanner that we must say of the universe t at It IS a commsubjects. not a collection of objects.

Precisely in thi intimate relation hip with the entire universe weh J f . f' . ed in the radicalovercome 1 e menta rxauon 0 our limes express

division we make between the human and the other-than-human. Thisfixation that I have described as an unfeeling relation of the human tothe natural world is healed in its deepest roots as soon as we perceivethai the entire universe is composed of subjects to be communed with,not primarily of objects to be exploited. This communion experienceis, Ibelieve, universal. It can be observed in the immediate reaction ofalmost anyone who simply looks at the ocean at dawn or sunset or atthe heavens at night with ali the stars ablaze, or who enters a wilder-ness area with its foreboding as well as its entrancing aspecls.

In every phase of OUI imaginative, aesthetic, and emotional liveswe are profoundly dependent on this larger context of the surround-ing world. There is no inner life without outer experience. Thetragedy in the elimination of the primordial forests is not the eco-nomic but the soul-loss that is involved. For we are depriving ourimagination, our emotions, and even OUf intellect of that overwhelm-ing experience communicated by the wilderness. For children to liveonly in contact with concrete and steel and wires and wheels andmachines and computers and plastics, to seldom experience any pri-mordial realIty or even to see the stars at night, is a soul deprivationthat dImInIshes the deepest of their human experiences.

The Universa,y . 83

Here I propose that the universities need to teach the story of theuniverse as this is now available to us. For the universe story is ourown story. We cannot know ourselves in any adequate manner exceptthrough an account of the transformations of the universe and of theplanet Earth through which we came into being. This new story of theuniverse is our personal story as well as our community story.

Wehave moved from a sense of time in which the universe revolvessimply in evelcrenewing seasonal cycles into a universe that hasemerged into being through a sequence of irreversible transformations,even while it is also revolving in an ever-renewing sequence of sea-sonal changes. Our greatest single need is to accept this story of theuniverse as we now know this as our sacred story. It could be consid-ered as the most magnificent of alJ creation stories. This story does notdiminish, it rather enhances the earlier story that we have through theBook of Genesis. That story was related to the ancient Mesopotamianstories of the universe. Our new story is attained in a more empiI"icalmanner and with new insb.'uments of observation.

We now know ourselves as genetically related to every other liv-ing being in the universe. Only through this story are we able in anyintegral manner to overcome our alienation from the natural worldabout us. We are finally able to understand just why our own well-being is dependent on the well-being of Earth, Yet even when weknow this with such depth of understanding we still find it difficult torethink economics, law, religion, and education within this scientificcontext. Our universities seem caught in a fixation from which theycannot escape even when these prior cultural forms are proving unable

to prevent the devastation of the planet.Such fixation on our existing cultural forms remains, apparently,

the only context for survival that the universities can appreciate. Thedifficulty is not exactly in the cultural forms but in the inability toexpand understanding of how these cultural forms function in thisnew context. The difficulty is also in a misunderstanding or exces-sive emphasis on some phases of these cultural forms-such as, for

84 . THE GREAT WORK

m-tam-e, th e r 'Iigious emphasis on redemption to the neglect of ere-

arion. So 100 Our inability to understand that these prior culturalConn, will enter am re expansive phase of their existence within thisnew context than th ') ever had in previous times.

Th urg ncy r moving into the new situation would not be sogr at if the devastation of the planet were not so overwhelming. Aslong as we live and have Our values and do our educating within thisprior context we will not be able to e tablish a deeper understandingwith those who have.

While our universities have gone through many transitions sincethey forst came into bing in the early medieval period, they havenever experienced anything like the transition that is being asked ofthem just now. The difficulty cannot be resolved simply by establish-ing a course or a program in ecology, for ecology is not a course or aprogram. Rathel' it is the foundation of all courses, all programs, andall professions because ecology is a functional cosmology. Ecology isnot a part of medicine; medicine is an extension of ecology. Ecologyis not a part of law; law is an extension of ecology. So too, in their ownway, the same can be said of economics and even the humanities.

There have been stages when the Western university was domi-nated by theology as the queen of the sciences. There have been peri-ods when the un'iversities were dominated by humanistic concerns.There have been limes when the university was dominated by mecha-nistic science, engineering, or business. The new situation requiresthat the university find its primary concern in a functional cosmology.Such a functionaJ cosmology can exist, however, only within a univer-sity where the spirit dimension of the universe as well as its physicaldjmension is recognized.

The transformation of human life indicated in this transition fromthe Cenozoic to the Ecozoic Era affects ow' sense of reality and valuesat such a profound level that it can be compared only to the great clas-sical religious movements of the past. It affects OUr perce ti f th" d . '. p on 0 eongm an meanlllg of existence itself It might po ibl b .

551 Y e conSIdered

The University . 85

as a metareligious movement since it involves not simply a single seg-ment of the human community but the entire human community. Evenbeyond the human order, the entire geobiologica] order of the planet is

involved.At this opening period of the third millennium of our times there

are choices to be made in every phase of human life. The immediatedecision is whether any of our basic institutions-government, reli-gious establishments, universities, or corporations-can mitigatetheir attachment to the terminal phase of the Cenozoic, or whetheranyone of these or all these might make this change in its full order

of magnitude.The universities must decide whether they will continue training

persons [or temporary survival in the declining Cenozoic Era orwhether they will begin educating students for the emerging Ecozoic.Already the planet is so damaged and the future so challenged by itsrising human population that the terms of survival will be severebeyond anything we have known in the past. We have not thoughtclearly or behaved properly in the twentieth century. We are nowcaught in a mind-tormenting ambivalence. We have such vast under-standing of the universe and how it functions, and yet we manifestsuch inability to use this knowledge beneficially either for ourselvesor for any other mode of earthly being. While this is not the time forcontinued denial by the universities or for attributing blame to theuniversities, it is the time for universities to rethink themselves and

what they are doing.

8

ECOLOGICALGEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY IS AN INTEGRATING STUDY OF THE EARTH IN ITS

comprehensive extent as well as in its various regional integrations. Itdoes, however, need the other sciences [or the specific data that theysupply. Geography needs geology [or understanding the structure ofthe land and the formation of the mountains and the rivers; biology[orthe study of life-[orms; meteorology [or understanding the weather ofregions that make a region suitable for particular forms of vegetation;hydrology for understanding the rivers, lakes, and aquifers, andforestry for the study of the wooded areas.

While geography provides a comprehensive context for under-standing the functioning of the Earth in its larger structure, it is evenmore useful in appreciating the integral functioning of the variousregions into which the pLanet is divided. In this manner it providesthe context for ecological understanding.

Earth, we might say, is a single reality Composed of a diversitybeyond all understanding or description. This diversity in its arcticand tropical regions, its Oceans and its continents, in its mountains

86

Ecological Geography . 87

and valleys, its forests and deserts, its rivers and their floodplains, allgive to Earth both its endless wonder and its functional integrity.These landscape features and these living forms have come into beingas some self-woven tapestry or some self-composed symphony or someself-designed painting. To experience this wonder and to enter intointimate relations with the various life communities of these regions

seems to be the high purpose of human presence on the Earth.Prior to the emergence of humans the Earth, with the rise and fall

of continents, their coming together and their drifting apart, with thesequence of geological layers in the formation of the continents, withtheir volcanic eruptions, forests, and wildlife, with all these appar-ently destructive experiences, has remained coherent and creative

throughout the vast period of its development.That the geological structure of Earth and the number of life

species should be so vast, so diverse, and their interaction so inti-mate is the wonder of the known universe. No other planet has, so faras we can determine, anything beyond minimal indications of anypossible life, much less such magnificent [arms 01' such diversity ofspecies. Even after all these years of scientific inquiry into the struc-ture of the planet and its life systems, our knowledge of the forcescreating the physical contours of the planets, the sequences of cli-mate change, and the disposition of species inhabiting this planet isstill quite limited. While we know more than a million and a halfspecies we estimate that there are at least ten to twenty million oreven more species occupying the Earth. The interaction of thesespecies with their geographical location constitutes a major phase of

land [ormation.Then came the human, a being with a genetic mandate to shape

a cultural mode of being of its own design but with a dependence onall the other forces shaping the continents. This power of self-shapingis possessed by all living beings, but in relation to other modes o[being and within controlled limits, which have come to be designatedas the species "niche." Geographical context is among the most

88 . THE GREAT WORK

powerful determinants in enabling the human to establish itsplaceinthe community.

The variety of regions where a single species might dwellwasvastly expanded by the type of intelligence granted to humans.Whileintelligence enabled human to adapt more extensively to the outerworld, this same intelligen e gave to humans the capacity tofashionforthemselves a variety of inner cultural worlds. These cultural realmswould constitute not only the inner determination of the human,theywould also determine the relation of humans to the other modesofbeing. In a special manner humans, in their adaptation to geographicalenvironment, would require a conscious understanding of the placeoftheir dwelling.

Several million years were needed before humans could fullyshape their identity within the geographical context in which theyIcund themselves. Then it required another long period of time forhumans to relate effectively to the other members of the surroundingcommunity. This capacity took its most significant step with the culti-vation of the land and the confining of animals. From that beginningsome ten thousand years ago this capacity increased, at first gradu-aJJy, then with ever-accelerating impact on the biosystems of thecommunity. Eventually the achievement of a truly human wayof lifecame to be judged by the extent of control over the geological struc-ture, the vegetation, and the wildlife-forms in the region and their usefor human purposes.

What also distinguished the human mode of being was the senseof spirit powers present throughout the geographical region. Therivers and moutains were not simply physical forms, they were spiritpowers to be reckoned with. The sense of relating to spirit powersidentical with the topography of the region established one of the spe-cific differences in the human adaptation to regional context and toother life-forms. It also provided the intense emotional attachment forhuman communit.ies to the place of their dwelling.

In recent times what industrial civilizations have failed to realize

Ecological Geography . 89

is that in the particular place of their dwelling the well-being of theEarth was a necessity for their own well-being and fulfillment. Theattitude that the Earth existed for utilitarian human purposes becameprogressively severe as commitments to the individual rights ofhumans were enacted into political constitutions with no correspond-ing rights being recognized for the other components of the naturallife community. Legal enactments gave to humans what were desig-nated as "property rights" over land and whatever existed on theland. Such enactments provided the basis for occupation and unre-strained exploitation of the land. Western civilization, dominated by acultural arrogance, could not accept the fact that the human, as everyspecies, is bound by limits in relation to the other members of the

Earth community.While refusal of any other members of the Earth community to

accept limits might quickly lead to extinction of the disturbingspecies, humans found that they could, for a period of time, subveltthe forces that might normally lead to their own extinction. Whathumans could not do was to avoid the degradation in their own modeof being that occurs as soon as they prevent the other members of tbecommunity from fulfilling their role in the larger Earth commun ity.Only gradually have modern humans in the Western cultural traditionbegun to realize that we have a profound need for the well-being ofother species if we are to experience any well-being or [ulf-Jlmen't in

ourselves.In these opening years of the twenty-first century we need to renew

our intimacy with our local bioregion and with the North Americancontinent but also with the planet Earth itself, in its comprehensiveextent and in the diversity of its component regions. Toaccomplish thisintimacy in some integral manner we require a study that would fulfillthe ideal of a "total earth science" that was spoken of so frequently byRobert Muller, a former adviser to several secretaries-general of theUnited Nations from the 1950. until the 1970s. This phrase, total earthscience, seems to have the comprehensive extent and the precision in

90 . THE GREAT WORK

'lall'menl ne..ded in designating an area of understanding that hasnever been gi\en iI, proper identity or its proper place in our educa-tional program.

This lack of attention to an integral Earth study is one reasonforthe difficulty humans experience in finding their place within thedynamic of the Earth. Some beginnings in understanding havebeenmad in studies of the Earth in terms of the Gaia hypothesis. Thisrefers to th Earth a having the capacity for homeostasis; that is, forcomprehensive inner adju tment and self-regulation in response tochanges in the outer world. This concept has led to macrophase bIO-logical studies of the landsphere, the watersphere, the airsphere, thelife sphere, and the mindsphere as the five macrophase componentsof the Earth.

This way of thinking about the planet provides an integratingcontext for all Ourparticular studies. It provides a way of understand-ing and managing the complexity and tensions that exist amid thevast array of forces that enable the Earth to be the wonder planet thatit i . It enables the human community 1.0 begin thinking more ade-quately of its Own role. In recent times our human role has been pro-foundly altered due to the powers attained by the human communitythrough the sciences and technologies that have been developed inthe twentieth century. Humans are now altering the planet on a scalethat can be compared with the glacial periods in the influence thatthey are now having on the planet. Our capacity to extinguish life-forms has even been compared with the forces that terminated theMesozoic and introduced the Cenozoic eras in Earth history some 65million years ago.

It is difficult to appreciate the full extent of the power possessedby industrial civilizations to disrupt the integral functioning of the lifesystems of the Earth. A new geobiological age has been introduced.This requires new perspectives in those studies that are concernedwith the integral functioning of the Earth: geology, chemislIy, biology,and those other studies of the Earth and its manner of run II' . I

11 C orung. n

Ecological Geography . 91

all these areas the natural systems have been profoundly affected by

the new powers of the human community.Here wemust once again refer to the fact that humans are different

fromother species in establishing their self-identity and in identifyingtheir role in relation to the other components of the Earth community.To some extent this entire book can be considered an effort to identifythe role of the human community in relation to the other components ofthe planet. While this effort can be understood as the search for theproper niche of the human, it is a special form of niche. The othex-than-human species, through their genetic endowment, discover their sur-vival context with only limited disturbance of the larger complex of lifesystems. They find their niche quickly, or else they perish. A certainstability eventuates. A new equilibrium comes into being, a function-

ing relation of things with one another.The difficulty with humans is that we are genetically coded

toward a further transgenetic cultural coding whereby we establishourselves in our specific mode of being, a cultural mode of being thatwe hand on to succeeding generations by education. Through thiscultural mode of being we also establish our niche in the Earth com-munity. Our place in the community is more extensive in its habitatregion than is the case with other modes of being. Whereas other life-forms generally survive only within a limited bioregion, we can estab-lish our human presence almost anywhere on the planet.

In some sense the human refuses to accept any p31ticular niche,for the basic function of a niche is to set limits to the activity of aspecies. In this sense the human refuses to accept limits imposedfrom without or even from within its own being. By bringing humansinto existence the Earth has created a supreme danger to all othercomponents of the Earth community because the human can invade

the region of other species with a unique range of freedom.Survival of any group of living beings in relation to other groupS

depends on the recognition of limits in the actions of each group. Thislaw oflimits is among the most basic of all cosmological, geological, or

92 . THE GREAT WORK

biological law . It is parti ularly clear in the case of biologicalforms,In the Ilindu world this law of limits is recognized as rita in the cos-mological order or as dharma in the moral order. In the Chineseworldit i lao in an earlier pha e or li in the later nee-Confucian period.Inth Greek world it is dike a the order of justice or logos establishingthe intelligible order of the universe. Yet in the modem worldthissen e of limit imposed by the natural functioning of the universehasto some xtent been overridden, at least in a temporary manner,byindustrial processes created by humans. .

The general law is that every specie should have opposed speciesor conditions that limit them 0 that no single species or group ofpecies would overwhelm the others-something that would assuredlyhappen if even a bacterium were permitted to reproduce withoutlimi-LationOvera period of time. The law of limits is what makes the func-tional rapport between the various life-forms an urgenLnecessity.

ThaL is the difl-iculty for humans. Wemust self-limit. Wehave suchan extensive range of abi lities in relation to the other components oftheplanet that we seem not Lo know where to place the limits on ouractions. Or perhaps we are simply unwilling to limit ourselves by delib-erate decision. To Some extent thi derives from our partial emergenceout of the controls of instinct when weacquired the capacity for intelli-gent thought. In the twentieth century we have been so entranced withour evolutionary origins and the long series of transformations thathave brought us into being that we are more attracted to cosmogenesisthan to cosmos. Even as regards Earth we are more committed to his-tory than to geography, more commilled Lotime than to space. Historyis endless. Place is limited.

We are so impatient with Our given place in the universe thatsome persons are totally committed to discovering how we can getbeyond Earth. We have indeed been out in space, but Some are underthe illusion that we have been off Earth. In reality humans have neverbeen off Earth. We have always been on a piece of Earth in space. Wesurvive only as long as we can breathe the air of Earth drink it

v un IS

Ecological Geography . 93

waters, and be nourished by its foods. There is no indication that ashumans we will ever live anywhere else in the universe. Place, too, iscontinuously being transformed but only within its own possibilities.

Our entire industrial system can be considered as an effort toescape from the constraints of the natural world. We have created anartificial context for our existence through mechanical invention andthe extravagant use of energy. In this process we have so violated thenorms of limitation, so upset the chemical balance of the atmosphere,the soil, and the oceans, so exploited the Earth in our use of fossilfuels, that we Me devastating the fertility of the planet and extinguish-ing many species of wildlife. We no longer live within the organic,ever-renewing world that is the natural context of our existence.

When we awaken to a realization that the induSIJ-iaiworld, as nowfunctioning, can exist for only a brief historical period, wemight beginto consider just how we can establish a more sustllinable setting forour physical survival and personal fulfillment. We must, obviously,turn from our exploi tation of the natural world to consider once againjust how the planet functions and where we belong in relation to theother components of the planet. Since we do not function primarily byinstinct, we can do very little until we have some idea of how the lifesystems of the Earth function in producing the food and shelter andthe energies we need. In some sense this is a recovery process, sincein our agricultural phase we had an abundance of knowledge of how

the Earth functions in its various bioregions.Now, however, we need a much more comprehensive type of

understanding and a more extensive human adaptation to the variousbioregional contexts of our dwelling. While we need this intimateacquaintance with the organic functioning of our local region, we alsoneed a larger sense of the Earth. We have become so conscious of theplanetary context of our lives that we cannot completely withdraw

into the local region.However resistant to the restraints inherent in their nature,

humans in the natural order of things belong to, are possessed by, and

94 . THE GREAT WORK

are subject to the geographical place where they reside. Yetthroughtechnological skills humans have become less dependent on theirimmediate geographical region. We have come to consider that webecome mere human the more extensively we withdraw from anydependency on our bioregion. Our pre ent alienation is such that wehave little concern for where our food comes from-whether it isgrown in North America, Africa, Australia, or South America. Ourclothing could be made from raw materials grown in one country,shipped to another to be tailored, anelthen shipped abroad to be soldsomewhere, anywhere. There is little or no relation to the fields thatgrow our food, to the streams that provide our water, to the woodlandsthat surround us, or to the regional flowers or fau na. Moreover, thereis frequently exploitation of the labor of those who grow our foodandmake Our clothes.

This psychic world of no aUachment, no intimacy, is also theworld of no fulfillment. There is effectively no feel ing of intimacy withour place. While we expect Our place to give itself to us, we have nosense of giving ourselves to our place. Regional feeling or under-standing has become an irrelevant intellectual discipline. It is givenlittle altention in the education of children. If geography is included,it is political or economic geography for human purposes, not for thepurposes of the larger Earth community. Yet as population increasesand available space on the planet becomes more limited, the study ofEarth and its regions becomes more critical. Economic geographyneeds to discover where the living resources of the Earth are locatedin each bioregion, how abundant are these resources, how they arebest sustained in their capacity for unlimited renewal.

The founder and most distinguished of the modern geographers,the one who designed new ways of thinking about and recording thestructure and functioning of the planet, wasAlexander von Humboldt(1769-1859). Based on his studies in South America he provided anoverview of the geological structure, the climatic conditions, and thevegetation or that region. Then he ventured into wider studies of the

Ecological Geography . 95

geological structure and functioning of the European, Central Asian,and American worlds. These studies he published in twenty-two vol-umes. His best-known work, however, is Cosmos, published in En-glish in five volumes (1845-1862), the first great treatise on modern

geography.Humboldt was followed by the French geographer Jean-Jacques-

Elisee Reclus (1830-1905) with his central work La Terre (1868-1869). Eduard Suess (1831-1914), a contemporary of Reclus, WTOteas his principal work, Dos Anlitz der Erde (The Face of the Earth) infive volumes published in English in 1883-1909. These early geog-raphers were followed by such scholars as Friederich Ratzel(1844-1904) and by a series of French scholars who were mostly

interested in regional geographies.These are the sources from which geographical studies emerged

in America at the end of the nineteenth century. Isaiab Bowman(1878-1950), director of the American Geographical Society for twentyyears, had a primary interest in geography in its relation to the socialsciences. Among his special interests were the Andes regions ofsouthern Peru and northern Chile. Carl Sauer (1880-1975) did spe-cial studies of the desert regions of the southwestern areas of theNorth American continent. His studies included the human geogra-phy of the American Indian and also the early agriculture of Mexico.These terms, ecology and geography, were brought together as earlyas 1923 in H. H. Burrows'S presidential address to the Association ofAmerican Geographers, which was entitled "Geography as HumanEcology." Ellsworth Huntington (1876--1947) did a comprehensivestudy of the Earth and its influence on human formation in his monu-mental study Climate and Civilization, which was published in 1915.

Since this last part of the nineteenth century and the first half ofthe twentieth was the high period in the imperial dominance over theEarth by the Western powers, it was also the time when support forpolitical-military dominance of the world was sought in geographicalconsiderations. This led to the views of the American naval officer

96 . THE GREAT WORK

Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914) concerning sea power,set forthinhi tudy of The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783.Global trategie based on the land came into being throughSirHalford John Mackinder (1861-1947). He established geographicalstudies in England as an academic discipline at the LondonSchoolofEconomics while developing his theory of the land basis of powerinEurasia as the geographical heartland of the Earth and of humanhis-tory, a thesis that he presented in an essay in 1904.

Although these uses of geographical data are immensely impor-tant in understanding past history and the forces that have broughtusto our present world situation, we must move on La other concerns. Weare now more concerned with the influence of human civilizations onthe climate than with the climate's influence on human civilizations.

While cultural geography, economic geography, political geogra-phy, and military geography have served the purposes of humanexploitation of the planet, the time has come to study the Earth forthepurposes of the Earth. The well-being of the Earth depends to anextensive degree on our understanding of the planet in its globalextension, in its bioregional diversity, and in the intimacy of the com-ponent parts in the whole. We depend on this understanding of theEarth in all its diversity if we are to know how humans are to be pre-sent to the planet in some mutually enhancing manner. Such under-standing is the proper role of ecological geography. If this study wereproperly developed then a great advance will have been made towardachieving a viable planetary community.

Our present concern for the human venture in its relation to thenatural systems of the planet is sometimes referred to as the "humanproblematique" or as the "global problematique." In either case theissue is the same. For we have a comprehensive Earth issue as well asa vast diversity of human issues with which to deal. In both instancessome sense of the planet Earth as the intimate place of our dwellingneeds to be fostered. The phrase "world problematique" has beenextensively used in discussions such as those begun in the 19605 by

Ecological Geography . 97

the Club of Rome in the first extensive survey of our human future inlight of the extreme demands we are making on the resources of theplanet. This was the issue dealt with in the Limits to Growth (Meadowset al., eds., 1972), a study of the resources of North America and of thelarger planet for purposes of long-term planning for a futme humaneconomy.Even the title of this book amused antagonism throughoutthe commercial world as well as in the academic world. Its thesis-that we are imposing burdens on the Earth that are beyond Earth'scarrying capacity-remains a powerlul critique of the industrial-commercial-financial world of the twentieth century. Another suchstudy, Global 2000: A Report to the President, was requested byPresident Carter in 1979, the last year of his presidency, for guidancein establishing long-term economic strategies for this country. Thereport came to the same conclusion and evoked similar resentment.While President Carter was aware that human intrusion into theplanet's functioning was reaching the Earth's limits of sustainability,the succeeding president, Ronald Reagan, objected to the report andsuppressed its pxinting by the Government Printing Office.

In resolving our present impasse, ecological studies are provid-ing much-needed guidance. Indeed the term ecology is becoming aprefix that can be attached to almost any science or to any humanactivity. Sowe find ecological studies in their relation to law, econom-ics, education, literature, ethics, and a large diversity of other aspectsof the human project. In the future none of these activities will beable to proceed without a better geographical context of understand-

ing the planet.The more humanistic realms of poetry and the natural history

essay are important to establish the emotional-aesthetic feeling forthe wonders of the natural world and to awaken the psychic ener-gies needed for dismantling our present destructive technolog

ical-

industrial-commercial structures and creating a more benign mode ofeconomic survival for the entire Earth community. But these human-istic insights are themselves ineffective unless they are enhanced by

98 . TH E GREAT WORK

a more thorough unde",tanding of the identifying features and inti-mate mode, of funct ioning of bioregional communities.

The underslanding of the Earth that we are indicating needs tobesomething more than a compo ite of these multiple ways of viewingthe planet. For the pre ent thi idea of a total or integral Earth studyeerns implicit in what we presently designate as ecology. Anotherterm coming into use is Earth literacy, as a basic context for educa-tional program from the earlie t years through professional levels.Earth literacy is being fostered especialJy by educators such as DavidOrr of Oberlin College and Chet Bowers of Portland State.

Each of these terms has its own special value. My own expecta-tion is that the study of ecological geography will have a significantrole to play in the future as one of the most effective disciplines lead-ing to an integral human presence to the larger Earth community.This presence will Occur, however, only when the study of the Earthgives rise to an appreciation such as that given expression by [ohnMuir in his writings on the Yosemite Valley in California.

What is needed is geography as an intimate study. Just as there isan affection between animals and humans, so there is an affectionthat passes between the region and human appreciation. Nothingescapes the role of intimacy. There is such a thing as considering thecurvature of space as an intimacy of the universe with every being inthe universe. So with the bioregion, there is an intimacy that bringsto fulfillment both the region and its human presence. The regionresponds to the attention it receives [rom the various members of thecommunity.

This feeling relationship with the Earth intensifies as we grow infamiliarity with the region. As described by Bany Lopez in his essayon American geographjcs, "The more superficial a society's knowl-edge of the real dimensions of the land it occupies becomes, the morevulnerable the land is to exploitation, to manipulation for short-termgain. The land, virtually powerless before poJiticaJ and commercialentities, finds itself finaJly with no defenders. It finds itself bereft of

Ecological Geography . 99

intimates with indispensable, concrete knowledge" (Lopez, About

This Life, p. 137).Indigenous peoples know their region. They must know where

the food is, where water is available, where firewood is found, wherethe medicinal plants are, where the trees grow that furnish the polesfor their tents or the wood for their fires. Our studies in what we callecologymust lead to such intimacy with our natural surroundings. Onlyintimacy can save us from our present commitment to a plundering

industrial economy.

IIIII

1[1

9

ETHICSand

ECOLOGY

IN APRIL OF THE YEAR 1912 THE TITANIC, ON HER MAIDEN

voyage across the Atlantic, struck an iceberg and went down at sea.Long before the collision those in command had abundant evidencethat icebergs lay ahead. The course had been set, however, and no onewished to alter its direction. Confidence in the survival capacities ofthe ship was unbounded. Already there were a multitude of concernsin carrying out the normal routine of a voyage. What happened to that"unsinkable" ship is a kind of parable for us, since only in the mostdire situations do we have the psychic energy needed to examine ourway of acting on the scale that is now required. The daily concernsover the Careof the ship and its passengers needed to be set aside for amore urgent concern, the well-being of the ship itself. Here is wheremacrophase concerns in one context become microphase concerns inanother context. Passenger concerns in the situation of the Titanicneeded to give way to a macrophase decision about the ship itself.

Now our concerns for the human community can only be fulJi1ledby a concern [or the integrity of the natural world. The planet cannot

100

Ethics and Ecology . 101

support its human presence unless there is a reciprocal human sup-port for the life systems of the planet. This more comprehensive per-spective wemight identify as macrophase ethics. This is something farbeyond our ordinary ethical judgments involving individual actions,the actions of communities, or even of nations. We are presently con-cerned with ethical judgments on an entirely different order of magni-tude. Indeed, the human community has never previously been forcedto etbical judgments on this scale because we never before had thecapacity for deleterious action with such consequences.

As indicated by Brian Swimme in The Hidden Heart of the Cosmos,humans, through our scientific insight and our technological skills,have become a macrophase power, something on the level of the glacia-tions or the forces that caused the great extinctions of the past. Yet wehave only a microphase sense of responsibility or ethical judgment. Weneed to develop a completely different range of responsibility.It is not easy for us to move beyond those basic points of refer-

ence that have guided OUl" way or life in former times, for these havegiven us our human identity and directed our religious and culturaltraditions over the past millennia. These traditions have determinedour language, our intellectual insights, our spiritual ideals, our rangeof 'imagination, our emotional sensitivities. Yet these classical tradi-tions of the Eurasian and American worlds are all proving inadequatein dealing with the disintegrating influence we are now having on thelife systems of the Earth. Yet we experience a kind of paralysis in ourcritical judgment of what is happening and what we need to do at thistime to avoid an extensive crash of the biosystems of the planet.Much of the wisdom of the past becomes inadequate in the present.

One of the difficulties is in our language. Our traditional Europeanlanguages express the anthropocentrism of our past orientation. OurWestern imagination is filled with images derived from these samesources. Our traditional spiritual values are disorienting by theirinsistence on the unsatisfactory nature of the existing order of thingsand the need for relief by reference to some transearthly experience.

102 . THE GREAT WORK

Religious pers ns are constantly asserting the high spiritual natureofthe human against the lack f any spiritual dimension of the naturalworld. All earthly affairs are considered microphase concerns rela-tiv to the spiritual oncerns thai determine our destiny in someothertran cend nt world.

ln rec nt times as Our religious traditions have diminished intheir inJIuence Over Our lives. it is the human that dominates thescene. Nothing is c n idered uperior to individual or community val-u s. Our legal system fosters a ense of human rights, with other-than-human beings having no inherent rights. Our economics is based onOurmechanistic exploitation of the Earth in all of its geobiological sys-tems. Commercial rights to profit prevail over urgent needs of naturalsystems [or survival. Oi engagement from such exclusive commit-ments to human exploitation requires an ethical stance and a courageof execution seldom found in contemporary human societies.

In evaluating our present situation, E. O. Wilson of HarvardUniversity tells us: "In the end it will all come down to a decision ofethics, how we value the natural world in which we have evolved andnow-increasingly_how we regard our status as individuals" (Wilson,Biodiversity, p. 16). Paul Ehrlich, professor of biological sciences atStanford University, has suggested that "scientific analysis points,curiously, toward the need [or a quasi-religious transformation ofcontemporary cultures" (in Wilson, Biodiversity, p. 26).

The traditional religious orientation of Western society has madeus vulnerable to superficial altitudes toward the difficulties we expe-rience. When in a position of great danger we are prone to believe wewill be saved by SOmetransearthly intervention within the function-ing of the planet. Such intervention wiJl provide a remedy in the pre-sent as it has, supposedly, done on so many occasions in the past. Themost glowi ng presentation of such a future is to be found in the apoc-alyptic literature of the Bible with its vision of the thousand-yearperiod at SOmefuture time when the blessed will attain the gloryof the first resurrection (Revelations 20:2). Such a transfonnation

Ethics and Ecology . 103

implies a glorious existence when sorrow will be eliminated, justice

will reign, and peace will pervade the land.Even when the religious dimension of the millennial search gave

way to a humanistic life attitude, the sense of living in a radically·unsatisfactory world remained a central fact in our Western conscious-ness. Wehave rarely felt at ease amid the spontaneities of the naturalworld.Wefeel we deserve a better world. We must find our fulfillmentin some transformed earthly condition. We find increasing difficultiesin accepting life within the conditions that life has granted us.

The means of dealing with this situation over the greater part ofour Western history was through some inner discipline that wouldenable us to absorb the stress inherent in our eat1hly existence. Then,under the guidance of Francis Bacon in the seventeenth century, webegan to envisage the possibility of understanding and controllingthe processes of nature and thereby bringing about relief from thehuman condition through our own efforts. Nature began to be lookedat both as an obstacle to be overcome and as a resource to beexploited. The ideal of a transformed society continued to be ener-gized by a vision of the millennium. Only now the millennial experi-ence was to be sought not through divine intervention but throughscientific insight, technological skills, and commercial negotiation.

We know the story of the formation of the modern world, the dom-inant intellectual framework and its beginnings in the seventeenthcentury when Descartes established an absolute separation of thespiritual and the material worlds. Later in the seventeenth centuryNewton provided a view of the physical universe that came to domi-nate the Western mind until the time of Albert Einstein and MaxPlanck at the beginning of the twentieth century. This mechanisticview of the world encouraged the growth of technological inventionand indusn.ial plundering, culminating in the 1880s when the elec-tronic and chemical research centers were established, scientifictechnologies were advanced, and the first modern commercial andindustrial corporations were formed. The objective was to make human

104 . THE GREAT WORK

. ocieries us independent as possible from the natural world and to

make th natural world as subservient a possible 10 human deci-sions. othing "as 10 b len in its natural stale.

f h' fj; rt 10Onl) now can we appreciare the consequences 0 t 15 I' 0achi ve human well-being in a consumer society by subduing thepontaneities of the natural world with human manipulation. Webeginto realize that the d vastation taking place cannot be critiqued effec-tively from within the traditional religions or humanist ethics. Nor can

it be dealt with from within the perspectives of the industrial societythat brought it about. .

We find ourselves ethically destitute just when, for the first tirue,we are faced with ultimacy, the irreversible closing down of theE h' f '. " . I if to, ethical traditionsart s unCllOmng In Its major I e sys ems. Ul

know how to deal with suicide, homicide, and even genocide; butthese traditions collapse entirely when confronted with biocide, theextinction of the vulnerable life systems of the Earth, and geocide,the devastation of the Earth itself.

We have a radically new problema.tique. To appreciate this fullywe must understand that the misuse of our scientific-technologicalpowers has not itself Come ultimately from the scientific tradition,although this is the general accusation made against the empiricalinquiry into the functioning of the natural world. The danger and themisuse have come ultimately from the deficiencies of the spiritualand humanist traditions of Western cultural development. These tra-ditions themselves have alienating emphases. Both our religious andOur humanist traditions are primarily committed to an anthropocen-tric exaltation of the human.

Consistently we have difficulty in accepting the human as an inte-gral part of the Earth community. We see ow'Selves as a transcendentmode of being. We don't really belong here. But if we are here by somestrange destiny then we are the SOurce of all rights and all values. Allother earthly beings are instruments to be used or resources to beexploited for human benefit. Now, after centuries of plundering the

Ethics and Ecology . 105

Earth for our own advantage, we begin to reflect on who we are andwhat has happened both to the planet and to ourselves. A sudden rever-sal is taking place even while our bright, new, antiseptic, mechanicalworld is finding its fulfillment in the global range of its activities. Theinescapable question arises: what is gained and what is lost? It is now a

question of gain or loss on an absolute scale.The present urgency is to begin thinking within the context of

the whole planet, the integral Earth community with all its humanand other-than-human components. When we discuss ethics we mustunderstand it to mean the principles and values that govern that com-prehensive community. Human ethics concerns the manner wherebywe give expression at the rational level to the ordering principles of

that larger community.The ecological community is not subordinate to the human com-

munity.Nor is the ecological imperative derivative from human ethics.Rather, our human ethics are derivative from the ecological imperative.The basic ethical norm is the well-being of the comprehensive commu-nity and the attainment of human well-being within that community.

Here we find that we are dealing with a profound reversal in ourperspective on ourselves and on the universe about us. This is not achange simply in some specific aspect of our ethical conduct. Nor is itmerely a modification of our existing cultural context. What isdemanded of us now is to change attitudes that are so deeply boundinto our basic cultural patterns that they seem to us as an imperative ofthe very nature of our being, a dictate of our genetic coding as a species.This reference to our genetic constitution is indeed the issue.

OUf genetic coding is more comprehensive than our cultural cod-ing. Human genetic coding is integral with the whole complex ofspecies codings whereby the Earth system remains coherent withinitself and capable of continuing the evolutionary process. For aspecies to remain viable it must establish a niche that is beneficialboth for itself and for the larger community. The species coding of thehuman carries within itself all those deeper physical and spiritual

106 . THE CREAT WORK

spontane'h s that are ·on ciously activated into cultural patlernsbyth geniu of human intellect, imagination, and emotion. Thesecul-tural pattern are handed down as traditions, which form the sub-stance of the initiation ritual, educational systems, and lifestylesofthe variou civilizations.

Our cultural traditions are constantly groping toward their appro-priate realization within the context of an emerging universe. Asthing change, the traditions are forced into new expressions or intoan impasse that demands a new beginning. The norm for radicallyrestructuring Our cultural codings forces us back to the more funda-mental species coding, which ties us into the larger complex ofEarthcodings. In this larger context we find the imperative to make thebasic changes now required of us. We cannot obliterate the continu-ities of history, nor can we move into the future without guidance fromexisting cultural forms. Yet, somehow we must reach even further back,to where Our human genetic coding connects with the other speciescodings of the larger Earth community. Only then can we overcomethe limitations of the anthropocentrism that binds us.

Perhaps a new revelatory experience is taking place, an experi-ence wherein human consciousness awakens to the grandeur andsacred quality of the Earth process. Humanity has seldom partici-pated in such a vision since sharnanin times, but in such a renewallies our hope for the future for ourselves and for the entire planet onwhich we live.

10

TheNEW POLITICALALIGNMENT

THE OLDER TENSION IN HUMAN AFFAIRS BETWEEN CONSERV-

ative and liberal based on social orientation is being replaced withthe tension between developers and ecologists based on orientationtoward the natural world. This new tension is becoming the primary

tension in human affairs.So too the political tension between the empires and the colonies

is being replaced by an economic tension between village peoples ofthe world with their organic modes of agriculture and the transna-

tional corporations with their industrial agriculture.This new alignment should not be taken as if the ecology move-

ment were a New Left movement or a new liberalism. For the ecologymovement has moved the entire basis of the division into a new con-text. lt is no longer a division based on political party or social classor ethnic group. It is a division based on the human as one of thecomponents within the larger community of the planet Earth.

In this new alignment those committed to industrial-commercialdevelopment of natural areas see this development as inherently

107

108 . THE GREAT WORK

progressive. Those committed to the integrity of the natural worldandtheir indigenous peoples see this development as degradation, sincethe intrusion of the human into the life systems of the planet hasalready gone beyond any acceptable limits.

To the one group th human is considered primary in terms ofreality and value while the larger, more integral Earth communityis asecondary consideration. In the other group the integral Earth com-munity (including the human) is seen as primary while human well-being in itself is seen as derivative. The one insists that the naturallife systems must adapt primarily to human purposes. The otherinsists that the human mu t adapt to the priority of natural life systems.Ultimately there must be a mutual adaptation of the human and thenatural life systems.

Reconciliation of these tensions is especially difficult becausethe commercial-industrial powers have so overwhelmed the naturalworld in these past two centuries that there is, to the ecologist, seri-ous difficulty in further adaptation of natural systems to the human.Oppression of the natural world by the industrial powers has so inter-fered with the functioning of natural forces that we are already into anextensive disruption of the biosysterns of the planet at the expense ofthe health and well-being of both humans and the natural world.

We cannot mediate the present situation as though there weresome minimal baLance already existing that could be slightly modi-fied on both sides to bring into being a general balance. The violencealready done to the Earth is on a scale beyond acceptability. It canonly be considered as the consequence of a severe cultural disorien-tation. The change required by the ecologist is a drastic reduction inthe plundering processes of the commerciaJ-industrial economy. Untilthis is recognized there can be no way in which an acceptable recon-ciliation can be attained.

Yet we are so deeply committed to the exploitative mode of relat-ing to the natural world that those in control of the great Corporationscan hardly think albout modifying the exploitation in any significantmanner. Even official movements toward "sustainable development"

The New PoliticolAlignment . 109

must be recognized as efforts to avoid the basic issue. Our sense ofreality and of value has been so fully committed to the nOllTISgovernedby the industrial process that such an abrupt shift is too difficult forserious consideration. These industrial norms of procedure are nowfunctioning on a global basis through the transnational corporations.

These corporations, in alliance with the governments of the world,are now related to or organized into such establishments as the WorldBank, the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization,the International Chamber of Commerce the World Business Council,for Sustainable Development, and the International Organization forStandardization. Bonding of common interests has become so coonli-nated that it is increasingly difficult to escape not only their influencebut their control over the various nations and cultures of the world.

So influenLial is the present commercial-industJ'ial order that ourdominant professions and institutions are functioning in this context;not merely our economic system, but government, jurisprudence, the

medical profession, religion, and education. Every aspect of life hasbeen absorbed into the commercial-industrial context. Weseem not toknow how Lalive in any other way. In the industrialized nations theautomobile, the highways, parking lots, shopping malls, all seem to benecessary for survival at any acceptable level of human well-being.

Through the Internet a more extensive range of human transactionswill be carried on without travel or physical presence, yet this will notremedy or remove the waste heaps, polluted waters, sterile and erodedsoils, forests devastated by dear-cutting, toxic chemicals, radioactivewaste, the thinning ozone layer. We see all this, yet we continue creatingthese chemical.s, clear-cutting the forests, polluting the waters, piling upenormous waste heaps, destroyingwetlands. Wedo this even though theindustrial bubble is already dissolving. The end ofthe petroleum-basedeconomy is in sight. Yet even now the commercial-industrial world

insists that this is the onlyway to survive.The tendency is to insist that ecologically oriented persons will

accept the existing situation with some slight modifications. The sys-tem itself must continue in the existing pattern of its functioning. The

110 . THE GREAT WORK

alternative, the radical transformations suggested by the ecologists-organic farming, community-supported agriculture, solar-hydrogenenergy sy tern, redesign of our cities, elimination of the automobileinits present form, re toration of local village economies, education fora post-petroleum way of life, and a jurisprudence that recognizestherights of natural modes of being-all these are too unsettling. Eventhough such books as Rachel Carson's Silent Spring are provingtobevalid statements of the future that awaits us, they are still consideredas too extreme to be accepted.

Never before has the human community been confronted withasituation that required such sudden and radical change in lifestyleunder the threat of a comprehensive degradation of the planet andits major life systems. The difficulty can only increase. Tensionsbetween capitalism and socialism, between liberalism and conser-vatism, are disputes Over minor differences in comparison with theissues now before us. Both capitalist and socialist regimes are com-mitted to ever-increasing commerciaJ-industrial exploitation of theresources of the planet. Neither is acceptable to the ecologist.

Fixation on the primacy of industry in the well-being of I.he humanis producing a recession of the basic resources of Earth which is nowa permanent condition. This recession is not a temporary economicrecession of anyone nation, nor the recession of some financial orcommercial arrangement, it is an irreversible recession of the planetitself in many of the most basic aspects of its functioning. The Earthsimply cannot sustain the burden imposed upon it. The air in manyplaces has become polluted. The water of the planet is toxic for anindefinn- period of time. The soils of the Earth are saturated withchemicals. We have only the slightest idea of the consequences forthe physical and psychic life of the human community, especially forthe children who have lived in this chemically saturated environmentsince the day of their conception.

Physical degradation of the natural world is also the degradationof the interior world of the human. To cut the old-growth Co ts i

[I res s IS not

The New Political Alignment . 111

simply to destroy the last 5 percent of the primordial forests left inthis country. It is to lose the wonder and majesty, the poetry, music,and spiritual exaltation evoked by such awesome experience of thedeep mysteries of existence. It is a loss of soul even more than a lossof lumber or a loss of money. Loss of spiritual, imaginative, intellec-tual, or aesthetic experience is considered irrelevant by the develop-ers as soon as a territory is identified as a place where money is tobe made. In North America, even after taking 95 percent of theseforests, developers insist on the right to cut the few timberlands thatsurvive, while speaking of the extreme demands of the ecologists.

The severity of the tension between the developers and the ecolo-gists can only be fully realized if, in addition to what has already beenindicated, we understand that the exploiters have been in control ofthe North American continent since the beginning of its settlementby Europeans in the seventeenth century. Americans have neverknown any other way of life. The original settlers came here for reli-gious freedoms but also for a "better" life than was available in theEuropean world. The spaciousness of the continent, the luxuriance ofits coastlands, its woodlands, its fertile soils, the beaver and deerand buffalo-all these seemed, in their abundance, to be beyond thecapacity of any human force to diminish in any significant manner.The attrition of most life forms has been severe in these past few

centuries.Then came the capacity to exploit the coal deposits, the gold

fields, the copper and iron ores; the skills to build the canals, the rail-roads, the highways; the ability to dam the rivers for irrigation and forpower at a thousand different places. All this was done with a certainarrogance of the settlers, from the beginning. The rights of the indige-nous peoples, the rights of living species, the rights of natural modesof being to exist, none of this evoked from the settlers any adequatesense of responsibility for their actions. When the chemical and elec-tronics industries were established, when the power systems were putinto place, when automobiles began to spread their exhaust over the

. I

I I

112 ' THE GREAT WORK

('llunll') ,idl', even these vents caused no adequate reflectionoreveninren-s in "hailla, happening. Wasle was simply poured intotheailOrdumpl"d into rh rivers or used as fill for wetlands.

Only the bright side of all this developmenlwas seen. The darkside, the toxic waste, was denied, ignored, hidden from sight,buried.ow, when the immense amount of such waste can no longerbe hid-den, when th poisons begin to af~ct the health of the populations,wh n the lead in the air and in the paints begins to affect the brainfunction of children when the "Love Canals" are identified, when,the people of Louisiana begin to realize how extensively the country-side along the Mis issippi has become saturated with chemicals, thenthe new alignment of fore s begins to lake shape.

The assault of developers on the ecologists has already increasedin its pervasiveness and intensity. A person need only read The WarAgainst the Greens by David Helvarg to understand the extenl of thisopposition. [nsensitivity toward the devastation of the natural worldled to disregard of the environmenlal issue throughout both the 1992and the 1996 campaigns for the United States presidency. The mostacute antagonisms of the past have seldom evoked such deep feelingsof being threatened. Yet a polarity has evolved that now finds expres-sion in every aspect of contemporary life, in our social and politicaland economic institutions, in Our professions of medicine and law, inOUf educational programs, in our religious traditions. This polarity inlife attitude pervades the public and private order of our society,

There will, naturally, be an infinite number of variations in theemphasis that will be given to various plans of action. But the mainoutlines of the tension are clearly evident. The tensions created willultimately be even more severe than the capitalist-Communist ten-sion that dominated political-social activities of the human commu-nity from the publication of The Communist Manifesto in 1848 until1991, when the Soviet collapse Occurred and left the capitalist worldand Its market economy in control.

In understanding these new tensions a person need I df onyrea aew surveys, such as the attack on the ecologists in The 1) S

rue tate of the

The New political Alignment . 113

Planet, a book edited in 1996 by Ronald Bailey, or Dreams: ImperialCorporations and the New World Order, which identifies the controllingpowerof the corporations, by Richard Barnett and John Cavanaugh. Inaddition to these a person might read The Ultimate Resource by JulianSimon, someone who argues that there is no real resource problem,

population problem, or soil problem.Yet there is still a tendency to think of ecologists as radical,

romantic, or trivial New Age types. 1£ by clear-cutting the last 5 per-cent of the surviving old-growth forests we provide jobs for the pre-sent, then clear-cutting is justified. This is the realist position. Forestsare seen as so many board feet of lumber whose primary value is to becut down for human use. The sense of meaning, of entry into the mys-teries of existence, the grandeur experienced in their presence, allthese are marginal to the essential thing of life, which is to exploit theIorests for their passing human use and their monetary value.

Such issues require a reorientalion of all the professions, espe-cially the legal profession, which is still preoccupied with individual"human" rights, especially with the limitless freedom to acquireproperty and exploit the land. The number of lawyers hired by singlecorporations to defend themselves against any limitation of their per-ceived rights to exploit the natural world is evidence of the strangeprinciples of jurisprudence that allow the devastation of the planet toproceed. Universities are still prepaI·ing students for professionalcareers in the industrial-commercial world even as this world contin-ues its planetary destruction. The medical profession is only begin-ning to recognize that no amount of medical technology will enable us

to have healthy humans on a sick planet.A new awareness is emerging, however, throughout every realm

of human activity. The term sustainable development is now the singlemost significant phrase in any discussion of these issues. This phraseobtained cur'rency in the 1987 report (Our Common Future) of theWorld Commission on Environment and Development. It was laterused to indicate the central concern of the United Nations Conferenceon Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. So

114 . THE GREAT WORK

central is this phrase at th present time that it could be said thatwhoe\'er owns it conlrols much of the discussion concerning thefuture.

Indeed. at the pre 'entlime few persons would directly confronttheProposal that d velopment can no longer be as unlimited as it hasbeenin the past. prevalent i this phrase, sustainable development,andsowidespread the ·Iaim 10 be acting with regard 10 the environment,thatthe deeper que tion has now become the question of authenticityin ful-filling its demands. Are contemporary commitments to safeguardingtheenvironment merely up-fronl appearances with little substantial regardfor the natural world, or i there a true commitment to limit industrialactivily so that no real harm is done to the ecosystems of the planet?

The more realislic response to this phrase is that development issimply not sustainable. What is needed is a sustainable way oflife.Paul Hawken goes further than sustainability with his proposal that a"restorative economy" is already in process. This view is presentedin h is book on The Ecology of Commerce (1993) and carried out in itsbasic principles through the movement known as "The Natural Step."Another more rigorous critique of the corporations is presented byDavid Korten, When Corporations Rule the World (1995). Both areworking toward a depth understanding of the present situation withsuggestions as to a viable way into the future.

David Korten makes proposals for the sequence of intermediatesteps needed ifWeare to move into a sustainable mode of human pres-ence on the planet in a later book, The Post-Corporate World:LifeAfterCapitalism. A further observation might be made that a sustainablemode of survival at our present level of economic well-being in theindustrialized countries is hardly possible as a universal attainment.It is estimated that to support our present Earth population at the levelenjoyed in North America would require two or three planets.

The more ultimate question has to do with the "soul" of the futureas this finds expression in the single life principle of the planet Earth.There IS much consideration of the physical and biological modes ofsurvIVal with relatively little comment on the soul of th s: H

e ruture. ere

The New Political Alignment . 115

we are mainly concerned with the "soul" as the shaping spirit withinany vital process. These, the inner spirit and the outer form, are twodistinctive aspects of a single mode of being. In conside,;ng the soulof the future, I am concerned with the inner vision that we need if weare to make the intellectual, social, economic, and religious adjust-

ments required for a viable future.That the human and other components of Ealth form a single

community of life, is the central issue of the Great Work. We canhardly repeat too often that every mode of being has inherent rights totheir place in this community, rights that come by existence itself.The intimacy of humans with the other components of the planet isthe fulfillment of each in the other and all within the single Earthcommunity. It is a spiritual fulfillment as well as a mutual support. Itis a commitment, not imply a way of survival. Anything less, to mymind, will not work. The difficulty we confront is too great. The futureis too foreboding. We need to think of twice the present human popu-lation facing the future with half the resources. The next generationsneed a truly inspiring vision of the wonder and grandeur of life, alongwith the beginnings of the new technologies they will need.

The profoundly degraded ecological situation of the presentreveals a deadening or paralysis of some parts of human intelligenceand also a suppression of human sensitivities. That exploitation ofthe Earth is an economic loss should at least be evident, especiallywhen we observe such extinctions as have occurred in the seas. Therewe can observe that some species of fish have become commerciallyextinct because humans would not limit their take to the reproductionrate of the fish, even though this reproduction rate was almost astro-nomical in the abundance of its production, as was the case with

salmon in the Pacific and cod in the Atlantic.When the proposal is made that we must continue what we are

doing "in order to provide jobs" it must be considered as anunacceptable solution when a much greater abundance of jobs isavailable for repairing the already damaged environment. In all of

116 . THE GREAT WORK

Ihese instan e we can see a disposition toward biocide, the destruc-ti n of the life-system of the planet. and geocide, the devastationofthe planet itself, not only in its living creatures but in the integrityofthe nonliving processes on which the Jiving world depends.

Read the publication of the business world-Fortune, TheEconomist, or the Wall Street [oumal-s-us observe the abandonmentof any discipline thai would limit the moneymaking concern of ourindustrial society, for it is precisely by this grasping after greaterwealth to su lain a "better life" that we perceive "progress." Thepathology of thi altitude i the limitless straining after what cannotbe attained by any level of consumerism. As with any addiction, theaddiction itself is seen as the way to life. The authentic remedy, theonly valid way to life, is perceived as too painfulfor acceptance.

What we propose here is not a solution of the issue but a clarifi-cation of the fact that the real issue before us is no longer findingexpression in terms of liberal and conservative but rather in terms ofthe ecologist or environmentali t on the one hand and the commer-cial-industrial establishment on the other. A new alignment offorcesis taking place throughout every institution and every profession inOUf society.

Tt is important Launderstand this new situation, the inherent dif-ficulties of reconciliation, and the new language that has come intobeing. Only in this manner can we appreciate the true nature of theissues under discussion and the magnitude of change required inshaping a viable mode of human presence on the planet Earth for thefuture. All our professions and institutions need to be reinvented inthis new context. We must in a manner reinvent the human itself as amode of being. Eventually this implies rethinking the planet and ourrole within the planetary process.

11

TheCORPORATION

STORY

AMONG THE MORE SIGNIFICANT CONCERNS OF THIS TRANSITION

period into the twenty-first century must be the modem industrial,commercial, and financial corporations. We need to understand thelarger significance of these corporations in American society, in the

human community, and in the functioning of the planet Earth.The corporations, in their ambivalent commitment to financial

profit while making progress in human affairs and providing comfortand security for people, are among the principal instruments for devas-tating the planet. There are other historical and cultural causes founddeep in the course of Western civilization, yet these other causes havefound their most effective expression in the structure and functioning

of the modem corporation.The term corporation is being used here in reference to the indus-

trial, commercial, and financial corporations as these have existed inthe last few centuries in the economic life of American society. Thesecorporations are the organizing centers directing the discovery anduse of modem science and technology in the quest for human benefit

II?

118 . THE GREAT WORK

und financial gain by exploiting rhe living and nonliving resonrcesofthe planet.

As long as Ihese COrporations continue in their relentless exploita-tion of the planet through their oil wells, their automobile manulactur-ing, their chemical compounds, logging projects, road building, andtheir assault on the marine IiI" of the seas, then the biosystems of theplanet will continue to be extinguished. The entire range of life devel-opment for the past 65 million years will be threatened. Life will beunable to provide the high level of intellectual, imaginative, emotional,and spiritual ful.filiment demanded by the very nature nf our humanmode of being.

Accomplishment of a program of integral survival of the planet,and of the human community, requires that the dominant profitmoti-vation of the corporation endeavor be replaced with a dominant con-cern lor the integral life community. 'Ib seek benefit for humans bydevastating the planet is not an acceptable project. The ruin broughtabout on this planet over the past two centuries causes a certain fore-boding concerning the possibiJity of the corporation, as we haveknown it in the past, reforming itself so that it will be a support ratherthan an Obstacle in achieving a viable future. Yet this is the challengethat is before us. We will change or we will die in a major part of ourinner being.

Although the corporations are constantly developing, absorbingand striving against one another, there is a unity to the corporationendeavor. The tension among the corporations drives each to greaterintensity of activity as they rival, threaten, and support one another.This mutual support amid the stress of their diversity is what consti-tutes the "market economy." They are dependent on the sameresource base, the same citizenry, the same media technologies. Theyare served by each other. They are committed to the same marketeconomy. They have the same opposition to a ti al .. ny na Ion or interna-tional governmental regulation. They are vepecial] .. .' '. . . I Y resrstanj to anyI estl811lts 011 thell' acu VILJes based on protection f th .

o e enVironment.

The Corporation Story . 119

The corporations have accomplished much by bringing aboutimprovements in human well-being through the increase in availablefood, clothing, and housing, as well as making available mechanicalenergy for burdensome and repetitious labor, ease in travel and trans-portation, and increasing medical technologies. The corporations havealleviated human misery in many ways. Yet they have also caused vastareas of social disarray within the human community and the loss of

genetic variety in the sources of our food supply.A person needs only to read the writings of Vandana Shiva, the

economist-social critic from India concerning the deleterious conse-quences of the so-called Green Revolution, a program that has beenextensively praised for its accomplishments by increasing the foodsupply throughout the world.As we are told by Vandana Shiva, "Since1970 the Green Revolution experiment has ruined land that couldhave produced much more food. A thi rd of India has become waste-land. Half the Punjab, once known as India's wheat basket, now liesunproductive. Malnourishment haunts 60 percent oflndia's children"

(quoted in Breton, p. 214).We are beginning to ask about the real quality of life achieved,

the environmental and social costs, also about the more lasting con-sequences of these so-called improvements in human Lifeand in theintegral functioning of the natural life systems of the planet. India,Indonesia, and the Philippines are three countries that need to be

studied in this context.There are several basic critiques to be made of the corporations

as they exist in the United States. They have obt.ained the naturalrights of individual citizens without assuming responsibility in pro-portion to their influence on public concerns. They have devastatedthe natural endowment of the North American continent. They haveconrupted the government. They have relentlessly harassed the pub-lic through newspapers, mail, and magazines, through signs and bill-boards on the highways, through telephone and television, throughsponsorship of sports and cultural events, through exploitation of the

120 . THE GREAT WORK

wonder of childr n, of the female form, of the sacred seasonsoftheyear. They hav even used the sky as a billboard for advertising.Inthe social ord r they have not given the working people their shareofthe profit, earn d thr ugh the effort of these same people.

Through all these impositions the corporations have takenposses-sion of human consciou ne in order to evoke the deepest of psychiccompul ions toward limitless consumption. This invasion of humanconsciousness has brought about deleterious effects throughoutthemoral and cultural life of the ociety as well as the impoverishmentofthe Earth. Yet the corporation are so basic to contemporary life thatacentral purpose of contemporary education from high school throughcollege, and even through professional training, is to prepare youngerpersons for jobs within the corporation context.

That the corporations are the dominant powers on the national,and now on the global scale, is clear. In the United States they haveextensive controls over city, state, and federal governments and agen-cies. The less developed cities and states compete in offeringbenefitsto the COrporations to settle there in the form of tax abatements, roadbuilding, public utilities, and various easements in local ordinances.The less industrialized states offer extravagant incentives from pub-lic funds to private corporations willing to relocate in the region. Thishas become a common practice even in the more advanced states.

Even beyond their national context, the modem corporations intheir transnational activities might now be considered as the mostinfluential human institutions functioning on the planet Earth. Whilethe state and federal governments have some control over the corpora-tions through the charters granted and the regulations imposed, theseCOrporations, by virtue of their status as citizens under the Consti-tution, have all the inherent freedoms and rights and privilegesgranted to individuals by the Constitution. In this manner they escapecontrol over lh~ir activities and are responsible to no one except them-selves and their stockholders. None of the political empires of pastages had anything like the control over land and peoples now held by

The Corporation Story . 121

the more powerful corporations of the twentieth century, nor has anyeconomic system had such effective technologies for exploiting theresources of the planet. The great transnational corporations individu-ally have assets far beyond the combined assets of half the nations of

the world.These corporations nowown or control the natural resources of the

entire planet directly or indirectly. They provide the jobs and pay thesalaries ofmany peoples of the world. They make and sell the products.They set the prices. They extract the various ores from Earth, fashionand sell the products. Yet they have no proportionate responsibility forthe public welfare. Indeed they insist on being recipients of govern-ment grants and exemptions-"corporate welfare," as it is now called.

This control by the corporations had its beginning in the periodwhen the colonial powers of the European world assumed the right toinvade, possess, and exploit the entire planet for the benefit of the reli-gious, political, and economic powers then in control of the nations ofEurope. Of these regions of the world occupied by European powers,the foremost in its influence over the modern world has been the cen-tral region of the North American continent in the territory occupied

by the English beginning in 1606.This region was settled by groups that were chartered by the king

of England in the manner of corporations to occupy and develop avaguely defined area for the primary benefit of England but also forwhatever benefit colonists sought in their own ambitions. To under-stand the sequence of events leading from this early period to the pre-sent we will take a brief look at the history of the corporation in what

became the United States.The early phase of the corporation here began with the land cor-

porations, such as the Virginia Company (1606) and the PlymouthCompany, chartered in 1606 and then rechartered as the New En-gland Company in 1620. Later settlements were made by proprietarygrants made to individual persons, to William Penn in the region nowknown as Pennsylvania in 1681, to Lord Calvert in Maryland in

122 . THE GREAT WORK

16:32, and 10 th eight proprietors in the Carolinas in 1663. In the. ew York area ext nsive land grants were made to particular propri-elorsuch as Rens ela r, founder of the Dutch West India Company.When he di d in 1644 he owned property that now includes thecom-plet counties of Albany, Columbia, and Rensselaer in the stateofNew York. In Virginia in the eighteenth century William ByrdIIwned 100,000 acre . Robert Carter left an estate of SOO,(J()() acres.George Washington and many oth rs constituted a landed eliIewithposses ions that foreshadowed the corporation wealth to be attainedin later time. This class of elite proprietors was the forerunneroftheCorporation personnel that would later take control of the economiclife of the continent.

In 1812, when the Land Grant Office was established, the federalgovernment possessed 756 million acres of land. To get the land intothe possession of the people and to finance government expenses, theland was offered to the public at minimal cost. This opportunity led tothe rise of land speculators who bought large areas and later sold themfor extensive profit. This attitude tOW81·dland as a commodity to befreely bought and sold for financial profit by individual entrepreneurswas a further development of the general altitude toward land that hadbeen developing in Europe throughout previous centuries. Progres-sively, reverence for the sacred dimension of the natural world, evenfor the sense of land as a commons, which had so f81·survived deep inEuropean consciousness, was further diminished.

The settlers found difficulty in relating to this continent in any cre-ative manner. Some ancient fear of the wilderness in Western civiliza-tion led either to a direct assault on the various Me-forms of thecontinent or to subjugation for Some utilitarian purpose. Land was forsettlement and possession. Soil was for cultivation. Forests were for tim-ber. Rivers were for travel, for irrigation of the fields, and for power.Animals such as the wolf, the bear, and the snake were for killing.A.nimals such as the beaver. the deer, the rabbit, and the passengerpigeon were for the fur or the food they could provide. Fish, so abundant

The Corporation Story . 123

throughout the streams and rivers and along the shores, were [or catch-ing. North America was indeed a luxuriant continent awaiting humanexploitation under the title of "progress" or "development."

There was a latent appreciation of the continent [or its wonderand inspiration that would later appear in the naturalist writers, thescholars, the artists, the poets, and a few religious persons who couldunderstand the need that humans had for the natural world to activatethe inner life of imagination, emotion, and understanding and to con-vey a sense of the sacred. For the most part, however, the settlersbrought their Bibles with them. That was all they needed [or spiritualinspiration. They were hesitant to experience the deep spiritual com-munication provided by this continent. It might bring them to judg-

ment for heresy.There were persons with a scientific interest such as Cadwallader

Colden (1688-1776), a physician who classified the plants in the NewYork region and who was in extensive communication with Linnaeus,the Swedish botanist who invented the scientific scheme of classifica-tion that is still used in botanical studies. Then there were other per-sons such as John Bartram (1699-1777), who collected plant speciesand founded a botanical garden in Philadelphia. His son, WilliamBartram (1739-1823), traveled thl'ough the southeastem states andcollected both plant and animal species. John Lawson (d.1711) trav-eled through the Carolina region while taking extensive notes on thevarious forms of plant and animal life he discovered on the way.Thesewere some of the persons whodeveloped the scientific background forthe later natW"alists such as Henry Thoreau (1817-1862) and JohnMuir (1838-1914), who established a more intimate association withthe natural life systems of the North American continent.

Such is the context [or the later tension between the utilitarianapproach to the natural world on which the later corporations basedthemselves and the more aesthetic and cultural intimacy with thiscontinent that gave rise to the environmental movements throughoutthe nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Later, in the last half of the

124 . THE GREAT WORK

nineteenth century, there developed in thi country a realizationthatome natural areas should be pre erved, although this was, in themind f uch men as Gifford Pinchot (1865-1946), chief of theFor st ervice (1898-1910), primarily to save areas for use by latergenerations. Pinchors sen of the dominant utility value of the landcaused the evere break in his relations with John Muir, whoseappre-ciation of the land had a much more profound basis in the spiritual,aesthetic, and cultural needs of humans that the wilderness provided.

The second phase of th corporation in America might be identi-fied as the canal and railroad phase. The canal phase began in 1817when New York State decided to build a canal 363 miles long fromthe Hudson River to Lake Erie, a project that was completed in 1825.Such projects were carried out by corporations chartered by statesand given rights of eminent domain, a right justified for the publicbenefit derived from it. In this manner the interior of the continent,with all its natural resources and with its vast possibilities for agri-cultural production, was joined to the city of New York, which thenbecame the most advanced of the five leading commercial cities ofthe Atlantic coastal region: Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Balti-more, and Charleston. The early success of the Erie Canalled to theconstruction of numerous other canals joi ning the Atlantic side of theAppalachian Mountains to the interior of the continent, also joiningsuch waterways as the Chesapeake and the Delaware. Farther in theinterior, canals joined Lake Erie with the Wabash River, and LakeMichigan with the lUinois River.

Although they were owned by private corporations, the canalswere subsidized by the state governments. Such financially profitableprojects were developed with an enthusiasm that rose to almost afrenzy. Yet this period of canal-based commercial-economic expan-sion lasted, in its full intensity, for only some thirty years, untilaround 1850 when the railroads began to take Over the transportationactivity of the country.

The first railroads began operations in 1830 with the Baltimore andOhio from Baltimore to Wheeling, the first commercial rail li .

way fie In

The Corporation Story . 125

America.This dominant canal-railroad period extends from 1817 untilafter the CivilWar. The land grants made by the government to fund therailroad venture in the West was the vast sum of over 130 million acres.Such was the size of government grants to private corporations. Out ofthe immense grant to the Northern Pacific Railroad came the great tim-ber corporations: Weyerhauser, Potlach, and Boise Cascade.

Later more extensive areas were made available in the western

section of the country. The full story of the grants made to the NorthernPacific Railroad in 1864 is told in Railroads and Clearcuts byDerrick Jensen and George Draffan with John Osborn. They describethe deterioration of the biosystems of the region consequent to these

land grants (p. 56).While the first impressive fortune made in America was that of

John Jacob Astor (1763-1848) through the American Fur Companyfounded in 1808, the fortunes made by railroading were even greater.These fortunes include those of Cornelius Vanderbilt, the New YorkCentral; James Hill, the Northern Pacific; Edward Henry Harriman,the Union Pacific; Leland Stanford, the Central Pacific; Collis P.Huntington, the Southern Pacific; and a long list of others whofounded and controlled the corporations that built the railroadsthroughout this continent. The facility in travel and transportationoffered by the railroads made the entire continent available for inten-

sive indusu·ial and commercial development.The third phase, the truly formative phase of the modern corpora-

tion, began after the Civil War with the ever-increasing discovery ofoil and the invention of the electrical, the petrochemical, and auto-motive indusu·ies. The technological achievements of the post-CivilWar period provided the energy and engineering skills needed for anew type of control over the continent. It was in this post-Civil Warperiod that the United States became an urban industrial societydependent on wage earnings for fulfillment of the basic needs of per-

sonal and family life.Twosignificant movements consequent to the corporation advance

occurred at this time. The first was the early awareness of the harm

126 . THE GREAT WORK

being done to the natural world by the new industries and the begin-ning of the conservation movement. The other was the social protestagainst th exploitation of the working people who did the difficultand hazardous work in the mines, in construction jobs, in buildingand repairing the roads and bridges, in digging the sewers,firing theteel furnaces, and in the multitude of other exhaustingjobs that menhave been called to do in building OUl' industrial world. It was apainful experience to realize that they were excluded from a propor-tionate share of the benefits derived from their work.

The inequality in the distribution of income from the variouscor-poration ventures led almost immediately to a simmering resentmentthroughout the nineteenth century that has been referred to as "theother Civil War" by Howard Zinn in his A People's History of theUnited States (1980). These tensions between the workers and theindustrial establishments culminated in the strike in Chicago at theMcCormick Harvester plant in 1886 and the strike near Pittsburgh atthe Homestead Steel Mill of Andrew Carnegie in 1892. At Homesteada number of workmen were killed and others were wounded by thePinkerton Detective Agency hired to repress the strike.

The more significant writings in protest against what was hap-pening in the industrial development of the country appeared at thistime: Henry George's Progress and Poverty, in 1879; Henry DemarestLloyd's Wealth versus Commonwealth in 1894. Andrew Carnegiedefended the exaggerated accumulation of personal fortunes with hisEssay on Wealth in 1889, an essay that carne to be referred to as TheGospel of Wealth. Here he proposed that it was necessary for somepersons to become extremely wealthy in order to carry out greatenterprises 011 behalf of the community. His own personal sponsor-ship of cultural and educational projects beneficial to the people wasevidence of the sincerity of his proposal.

The intense dedication of the American people to individualism,noted by Alexis de Tocqueville inDemocracy in America (1836), whencombined with intense attachment to private property was exactly

The Corporation Story . 127

suited to the evolutionary theory based on natural selection proposedby Charles Darwin in the Origin of Species (1859). This teaching pop-ularized by Herbert Spencer in the ph,.ase "the survival of the fittest,"was advanced in America by William Graham Sumner (1840--1910)who began his teaching at Yale in 1872. Sumner communicated to hisstudents a thorough conviction that progress in the human venture wasbrought about by the relentless struggle for existence.

In the view of Sumner, population increase, combined with thelaw of diminishing returns, constituted "the iron spur which hasdriven the race on to all which it has ever achieved .... " (Smithp. 141). The laws of evolutionary development were merciless. "Thestrong survived, the weak went down. Through this process of naturalselection the race survived and improved. To aid the weak was to con-taminate the gene pool and produce a negative effect on the evolu-tionary process .... The higher the organization of society, the moremischievous legislative regulation is sure to be" (Smith, p. 142).Against such teaching the Constitution was of little avail, and the Billof Rights favored persons with extensive property possessions.

That the corporation could be so severe with its working peopleand so devastating to the natural world was not simply because of per-sonal drive for power and possession but also because of a mythicsense that the industrial process under corporation control, driven bythe doctrine of the survi val of the fittest, was the predestined means forfulfillment of the historical destiny of humans. This destiny was theattainment of a kind of industrial-technological wondeIWorld,a stateof profound human fulfillment, a vision of the future that appearedever closer with the achievements of the new age of plastics, electron-ics, and computers that came after World War II. Such an achievementwas considered ample justification for all the oppression to beimposed and aU the devastation to be wrought on the way.The senseof progress as "control over nature" attained by human talents wasmanifested in economic competition in a realm of free enterprise.These two attitudes, derived from Darwinism, can be considered as

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128 . THE GREAT WORK

the background of the industrial and Corporate controlofAmerica.Intheir larger consequences these attitudes have led to the exploitationof the continent, and of the planet itself.

The entire American society was caught up in the transformationtaking place. From its beginning until the present, the corporationhas proclaimed that the public well-being could only be attainedthrough a prosperous industrial, commercial, and financialestablish-ment whose benefits were freely appropriated by the managerialandownership class, with minimal payment to those who provided thelabor and the skills needed for the process. Any governmentregula-tion of these establ ishments was considered an intrusion into the nat-

d· dural laws of the market economy governing the pro uction andistribution of the goods.

Government, concerned with "establishing justice," insuring

Ie ""domestic tranquillity," and "promoting the general weuare asannounced in the preamble to the Constitution, and the corporations,dedicated to limitless increase in personal profit, have seldom relatedto one another effectively except by sacrificing "establishing justice"and the "general welfare" for the appearances of "domestic tranquil-lity." When the government was challenged in its role of keepingpublic order in those years of struggle between the workers and theowners, the government consistently sided with the corporations inpreserving the existing order against the workers whose energieswere exploited.

Because the corporations had such power to resist any regulationby the government, they prospered through the legal and iJJega!use ofpublic funds and public properties, such as the forests for Jogging, therivers for damming, the mountains for mining, the grasslands for graz-ing. Much of this was through using influence on the legislatures of theCountry and by direct and indirect pressures exerted on the judiciaryand the administration, largely through manipulation of the media.

Since the corporations controlled the instruments of productionand since neither the states nor the federal government had any ade-quate legal structures to deal with the abuses of people, of public

The Corporation Story , 1Z 9

properties, or the despoliation of the natural environment, the corpo-rations developed with little restraint through the nineteenth centuryand the greater part of the twentieth, Neither the Interstate CommerceCommissionestablished in 1887 nor the Sherman Antitrust Act wasable to prevent continued exploitation of the land, Even after theEnvironmental Protection Agency was founded in 1970, Congresswaswilling to support the Agency only in exceptional cases and only

in a limited manner.In A History of American Law by Lawrence Friedman we read

that in the nineteenth century "the investment market was totallyunregulated; no SEC kept it honest, and the level of promoter moral-ity was painfully low, It was the age of vultures, In this period menlike Vanderbilt, Jay Gould, and Jim Fisk fought tawdry battles overthe stock market, the economy, the corpses of railroad corporations,The investing public was unmercifully fleeced" (Friedman, p, 513), Itcan be noted also that the Supreme Court formally recognized thecorporation as a person before the law in 1886 in the case betweenSanta Clara and the Southern Pacific, Since this time corporation lawhas been among the most significant issues in transforming the mood

and meaning of American law,The corporation story of the twentieth century up toWorld War II

is the story of continued expansion by appropriating the wealth of thecontinent and the labor of the people for private gain and limitlesspossessions, The biggest gains were through appropriation of publicland and resources by mining, irrigation, grazing privileges, timbercutting, oil wells, and agricultural and transportation subsidies, Fewindustries in this country have come into being or prospered exceptthrough public subsidy, This is especially true of the great dams thatcame under corporate control and private benefit, built at publicexpense to provide energy, irrigation, and drinking water for the west-ern part of the country. The story is thoroughly presented by Marc

Reisner in Cadillac Desert(1986).A fourth phase of the corporation began with the ending of World

War n in 1945. Whatever the other consequences of the war, the

130 . THE GREAT WORK

t"len,inn of human ron .ems beyond national boundaries wasamongIhe most significant The main instrument of this widerconcernwasthe eSlablishmenl of the United Nations in 1945 with its associateds 'ial and economic organization and related institutions, theWorldBank and the Internalional Monetary Fund. In this manner the largercontext "a' establi hed in which human affairs have been conductedever sinee.

Thr 1'1 rms have evolved in recent times to describe the workofIhe corporations in the United States: corporate libertarianism, cor-porate welfare, an I corporate colonialism. These terms have all beendealt with in extensive detail by David Korten in When CorporationsRule the World (1994).

The term corporale libertarianism refers to the insistence of thecorporation on the freedom to carryon its work as seems best in anymanner not explicitly forbidden by law. This lack of any adequatecontrols over the corporations enables them to use the resources ofthe continent to extract their benefit and then to leave the waste-disposal problem as a public responsibility. Any pollution of thepublic domain i considered among the externalities, aspects of cor-porats functioning for which the public must bear the consequencesOnhealth as well as the financial costs. The agricultural corporationsparticularly show little concern for the disruption of the biosystems ofthe continent resulting from their use of chemical fertilizers, pesti-cides, and herbicides. When later they are required to absorb theexpense of cleaning up the residue, they insisr that this is a respon-sibility of the government, to be paid for by public funds derivedfrom taxes.

The term corporate welfare means that the government bestserves itself, the people, and the well-being of society by using publicresources in support of the industrial or commercial corporauons.There IS to be minimal Or no regulation by the government, eventhough almost every industry has Come into belOng d - ith

an SUTvlves W1support from public lands and public funds This is cert inl f• cu Y true 0

The Corporation Story . 131

the nuclear industry, also of the communications industries. Theseindustries, along with such other industries as transpOltation, con-struction, and foreign commerce, were developed with heavy expen-diture of public funds and appropriation of public lands. Much of thisdevelopment, especially in the nuclear field, has been carried out byfunds provided by the military with its almost limitless budget. Eventhe interstate highway system, begun in the 1950s in the regime ofPresident Eisenhower, was 90 percent funded for defense purposes.

The present tendency, fostered by the corporation endeavor, is tosee government as the source of financial funding. Yet as regards anycontrols or regulations government is seen as corrupting rather thanprotecting, as the enemy rather than the protector of the people, as anoppressive bureaucracy rather than as the primary source of public

order and well-being in the community.There seems to be little awareness that government, independent

of corporation pressure, is the most powerful force the people have tooffset the immense size of the corporations individually and in theircombined influence over a nation's affairs. Big corporations requirebig government-unless the people are willing to accept the corpora-tions as the government. This identification of the welfare of the cor-poration with the welfare of the people and of the government as theguardian of the people leads to absolute insistence that all benefits ofthe society be given first to the corporations. Yet their first obligationis considered to be not to the community but to their stockholders.

Now a new phase in the economy of the nations is developing, thenational economy is becoming inadequate. All effective elements ofthe production or consumption of goods are passing into a global econ-omy. One of its main achievements in the period after World War IIhad been to return political independence to the various peoples of theworld in countries that had been taken over as political colonies by themore industrial countries of the world. Now, however, through newfree trade policies the former political colonies have become eco-nomic colonies controlled largely by the transnational corporations

132 . THE GREAT WORK

through the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. This

new situation is designated as corporate colonialism.m what earlier in We tern history the supreme human institu-

tion was the nation-state. This was the mystical reality of the nine-teenth century, th ultimate referent in human affairs, the sovereignauthority beyond which there was no appeal to any earthly power.Thi is still the a cepted definition of the "nation," although thenewly develop d interdependence of nations has profoundly compro-mised the reality of absolute national sovereignty. Yet beyond thequestion of political interdependence is the reality that the corpora-tions have now become the primary power centers both within nations

and in the larger community of nations.The nation-states have become subservient to the economic cor-

porations. The corporations now function on a scale beyond anynational boundaries. They have drawn the entire human communityand the entire Earth into their control, The globalization of the humanproject as well as the globalization of the Earth economy is nowreaching limits that will define the future in a new and decisive man-ner, for beyond the Earth no further expansion is possible in anyeffective manner.

Tn most discussion of the corporate world and its consequences,the main concern has been on social issues. Until recently, little con-sideration was given to the disastrous effects that the advancingindustrial, commercial, and financial establishments were having onthe life-systems of the planet.

This situation leads us to our present situation, the fifth phase ofcorporation history. This phase can be identified as the period of tran-siuon from a devastating phase of corporation economics to theperiod when the Corporations recognize that a human economy canonly exist as a subsystem of the Earth economy. While any compre-hensive ~hange just now would be beyond expectations, the existingcorporations are finally beginning to recognize that th I. " ey can on y sur-vive within the limited resources of the natural world.

The Corporation Story . 133

The first occasion when some public recognition was given of thecoming impasse between human demands and Earth resourcesoccurred at the Stockholm Conference of the United Nations in 1972.After this conference the nations' representatives returned home andset up the first environmental protection agencies, with some reluc-tance on the part of the corporations. Then in 1980 the United NationsCharter for Nature was proposed by Zaire. After discussions in 1981the Charter was passed in 1982. This could be considered as thefinest official statement of human-Earth relations that has yet been

given sanction by the world community.Later, in 1983, the United Nations appointed a WorldCommission

on Environment and Development. A report from that commission wassubmitted by its chairperson Gro Harlem Brundtland in 1987 underthe title Our Common Future. Its basic message was that the humancommunity must enter the future united among themselves and withcareful consideration of the economic limitations of the Earth.

The enduring phrase that emerged from this report was that of sus-tainable development. This phrase became the subject for the UnitedNations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) heldin 1992 where, in Agenda 21, an elaborate agenda was worked out insupport of this project, an agenda that accomplished little in the reali-ties of the corporation. While the phrase sustainable development issomething of a contradiction, it has been modified into "sust.unable

future," a more acceptable phrase.The difficulty is that until now the corporations have remained

unconvinced of the need to align their own functioning and the limitsof their activities to the possibilities of the Earth. Yet even now thereis something of a growing commitment to sust.unable development.The issue is there for the enduring future. It will not go away. lnevit-ably it will be modified into the hope for a viable future, even thoughCEOs and other corporate officials still insist that they know how todirect the destinies of the planet and its human community betterthan the natural forces that have until now controlled the functioning

134 • THE GREAT WORK

am] lilt' d"'lin~ nf both the planet and its human presence. They

.n"'t in a 'p<'!'inl manner that only large-scale programs such as the\\urld Flank. th,- International Monetary Fund, and the WorldTradeOrganizalinn ..an "ulT) this nut. They suggest this must be donewithtilt' support nf th lnternational Chamber of Commerce, the World

Bu. in e" Council ~ r ustainable Development, the InternationalOrgunizution for tandardization, and the World Industry Council forthe Environment.

Oppcsed to this vi ware a multitude of competent persons com-mitte I to the view of the British economist Edward Schumacher that" mall is beautiful," m aning that the deepest answers and the mostviable economic programs into the future are those that have an mu-mate relation with Ihe land. Only among a limited range of personsCan true intimacy exist. So too only in limited sections of land canabundant and sustained cultivation be maintained. As indicated byDavid Ehrenfeld, the conservation biologist at Rutgers University,we have lost immense areas of intimate knowledge carried in tradi-tional craft and in farming skills, knowledge that provides a relation-ship between the human community and the natural world that isimmensely mare bountiful and less destructive than that of large-scale business projects. Mass production and distribution is moreexpensive and less productive than we have recognized, especially inthe field of agriculture.

What can be said of th is fifth phase of the corporation in Americais that since 1972 the issue has been progressi vely on the mind of themost significant public and private persons throughout the humancommunity as the stark reality that must be dealt with in this comingcentury. Just how it evolves will detennine the larger destinies of thehuman community as we venture into the twenty-first century.

When we hear corpcrationg speak of "feeding the world" as aglobal enterprise, we can only rellect that feeding themselves belongsto each local community. It belongs to any people to b '. IIe mtrmate yre ated La the region of their dwelling. This inclUde

. h· s a mutual nour-IS menlo The land and all its Ijving components nouri h h

IS eac other

The Corporation Story . 135

under the all-sustaining guidance of natural forces that bring ustogether, sustain us in being, and guide us to fulfillment of ourdiverse roles in the larger pattern of the planet on which we live.

As we reflect on this imposition of immense global corporationstrying to take over responsibility (or "feeding the world," we can onlywonder at the reduction of the peoples of Earth to a condition of beingnurse-maided by some few corporation enterprises. We might con-clude that Mother Monsanto with her sterile seeds wishes to take overthe role of Mother Nature herself. The people of the world need theassistance of each other, but only such assistance that enables themto fulfill their own responsibility for doing the essential things them-selves. Village peoples everywhere, indeed all of us, need assistancewithin the pattern of our own inventive genius, not being reduced to a

franchise of some distant corporation.

I II

12

TheEXTRACTIVEECONOMY

WHEN WE CONSIDER WHERE WE ARE IN THE COURSE OF OUR

historical destiny we might observe three events that could be. . t the end ofconsidered as defining moment leading to our srtuation a

the twentieth century. . .

The first of these events occurred when the biblical-Christianemphasis on the spirituality of the human joined with the traditions ofGreek humanism to create an anthropocentric view of the universe.At this time a certain discontinuity became possible between thehuman and the nonhuman components of the planet Earth. Through-out the earlier centuries of Christianity the integral relation of thehuman with the other components of the natural world was preserved.The natural world was considered as manifestation of the divine andthe locus [or the meeting of the divine and the human. Yet the senseof the Earth as a single integral community, with every being havinginherent value and corresponding lights according to its mode of being,and with the human as one of the component members of this greatcommun.ity, was in the COurse of centuries diminished by excessive

136

The Extractive Econoavr . 131

emphasis on the human as a spiritual being aloof [rom the physical

universe.A second historical moment occurred when this spiritual and

humanist alienation was deepened into a feeling that the naturalworld was an actual threat to both the physical and spiritual well-being of the human. This feeling arose when the Black Death occurredin Europe from 1347-1349, a period when at least a third of thehuman population of Europe died. An even greater proportion ofcommunity leaders died. ln the summer of 1348 [ewer than 45,000persons survived in Florence, ltaly, out of 90,000 who were thereat the beginning of the year. In Sienna, of 42,000 inhabitants only

15,000 survived (Meiss, p. 65).Since the peoples of Europe knew nothing of germs, they had no

way of understanding what was happening. They could only concludethat humans had become so depraved that God was punishing theworld. The best thi ng to do was to intensify devotion and seek redemp-tion out of the world. Along with a celtain amount of moral dissolutioncaused by desperation a new intensity of spiritual dedication devel-oped. A spiritual suspicion toward the world developed that has con-tinued throughout the intervening centuries until our own times.

The division between the secular and the spiritual was intensi-fied. Each was disengaged from and in a sense abandoned by tbeother. Thus, disengaged from any restraint imposed by spiritual con-cerns, industry and commerce, with the assistance of science andtechnology, seized control of the natural world and forced it, withgreat profit to themselves, into subservience to human convenience.Once we understand this background of our present situation we canproceed with our understanding of just what has happened. We mightalso recognize, with some clarity, just how we should proceed to bring

about a remedy.A third historical moment occurred in the last two decades of thenineteenth century when an even more severe situation arose. Thesewere the critical years. In some sense the modern destiny of America,

138 . THE GREAT WORK

of the human community. and the planet Earth was determined at thistime. These Were the years of transition from an organic economytoan extractive conomy, Modern technologies and the industrial estab-lishmeru under the control of the modern corporation seemed to have

effected an unqualified human conquest of the forces of nature.Indeed, they had achi ved a control over nature never known previ-ously in human hi tory. The integral functioning of the geobiologicalystem of Earth that had governed the functioning of the planet forsome 4.6 billion years came under the assault of humans determinedto use the resources of Earth and the infinitely subtle functioning ofnature in a manner immediately beneficial for humans, withoutregard for the consequences for the natural systems of the planet.

Only now do we understand that this was the time when we setforces into motion that would disturb the chemical composition oftheair, water, and soil to an extent that would affect the entire network oforganic life on the planet. The ozone layer protecting the organicforms of Earth from the ultraviolet rays of the sun would be weak-ened. The tropical rain forests would become largely destroyed. Theresidue of burning fossil fuels would lead to an excessive amount ofcarbon dioxide in the atmosphere and possibly cause a change in theglobal climate. Some of Our most competent biologists in their knowl-edge of the biosystems of the planet would tell us that nothing at thislevel of species extinction has occurred in the 65 million years fromthe end of the Mesozoic Era uruil rhs present.

Little attention has been given to the consequences of basing theentire functioning of the human community on an extractive econ-omy. An organic economy is by its very nature an ever-renewingeconomy. An eXlractive economy is by its nature a terminal economy.It is also a biologically disruptive economy. As long as we lived withinthe bounty of the seasonal renewing productions of the biosystems ofthe planet we could, apparently, continue into the indefinite future.But as soon as we established a way of life depend I' t tracti

. n on ex actJngnonrenewll1g substances from Earth, then we could . n1

SurvIVe 0 y so

long as these endured; or so long as the organic functioning of theplanet was not overwhelmed by the violent intrusion involved inextracting and transforming these substances. A further difficultycame about from the contaminants that resulted, especially from the

chemical industry.Metals come generally in the form of ores which must undergo

smelting processes. These processes give off pollutants which foul theenvironment. Liquids such as petroleum must be extensively trans-formed in order to supply fuel to be used by uucks. automobiles, air-craft, and generators, or by other machines capable of internalcombustion. Petroleum can be used for the creation of fibers for themaking offabrics, also for making plastics. In all these cases there aretoxic residues for which there are, at present, no adequate methods ofdisposal. These contaminants are dispersed into the air, water, and Isoil, resulting in the dispersion of toxic residue throughout the planet.Even as regards the benefits from petroleum, little attention is given to 'Ithe fact that within another forty years, we will have consumed over 80percent of the available supplies. By the close of the twenty-first cen-tury we will see the absolute end of petroleum as we have known it.The conditions of its production will never occur again.

Another difficulty with an extracti ve economy has been its use ofengineering technologies to tum renewing resources into nonrenewingresources. This occurs when we exploit the soils of the Earth throughchemical fertilizers, pesticides, or herbicides, to such a degree that weexhaust these soils or make them toxic. Even in the fishing industry,through our electronic instruments, our drift nets, and use of factoryfishing vessels, we are able to exhaust the marine resources of the seasand rivers of the world in a manner that terminates their capacity for

self-renewal.Transition into an extractive economy had been long in prepara-

tion. It required the earlier centuries of dedication to useful knowl-edge as the only worthwhile knowledge. While a humanistic educationbased on the classical traditions o£literature and thought was the main

The Extractive Economy . 139

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140 . THE CREAT WORK

..flort in eduearion throughout the arlier period of Americanhistory,th • quest for u-eful kn "I dge through the ciences graduallyinsertedil'df into the curriculum from the high school years on throughthecullege yean; and the years of professional training in graduateschool.~ e-ful knowledge ~ the id al of edu .ation goes back to the purposesof the America» Philosophical Society when it was foundedunderth lead rship of Benjamin Franklin in 1754. Useful knowledgewasthought of as knowledge that enabled humans to use the normalproc-esses of nature to procure spe ial benefits for humans.

A psychic compulsion developed, even perhaps a kind ofmysti-cism of progress. that drove the commercial and industrial entrepre-neurs as well as the scientists and engineers in their work.Somescientists indeed were attracted by the quest for knowledge.Animmense number, however, were driven by the quest for control over

the awesome powers in the world about them. Suddenly commercialentrepreneurs became aware of the possibility of financial profitstobe made by using these powers to release the human communityfromage-old alAictions; this awareness combined with the attractions ofalife filled with an abundance of Earth's delights. These were attrac-tions not to be refused.

Many of these benefits were nowavailable on a widespread scaleif only we saw the Earth as a collection of natural resources rather thanas a mystical entity to be revered, Or as that larger community in whichhumans found the fullness of their life experience. The final need wasfor a properly organized human effort to assemble all the human abili-ties required to engineer this new mode of functioning to the planet.

The establishment needed to coordinate this entire process cameinto being at this time in the form of the modern corporation, financedby an abundance of capital, guided and controlled by boards of direc-tors, and led by chief executive officers convinced that they couldre~rganize the planet in a much better way than nature was capable ofdoj ng, Their mission was to exploit this continent and then to exploitthe planet as extensively as could be achieved within the limits of theconsumer economy. The phrase used for this compulsion " A .

n menoa

The Extractive Economy . 141

toward exploitation of the Earth through territorial acquisition and

exploitationwas Manifest Destiny.Until the end of the nineteenth centw)' there wa neither the learn-

ing nor the scientific technologies to move the entire economic struc-ture of the country out of its rural agricultural basis into an urbanindustrial setting. Only in the 1880s and the 1890s did the awesomepowersof science find expression in the realm of mechanical, electri-cal, and chemical technologies. A vast complex of engineering endeav-orswas required, guided by extensive scientific research and inventive

imagination.The Bessemer eonverter for making steel had been invented in

1856. The high-speed internal combustion engine was invented in1883. Methods for creation and control of electricity were discovered.Most significant was Thomas Edison's invention in 1876 of the firstresearch laboratory dedicated to producing new inventions throughscientific observation and experiment. The most spectacular of hisearly achievements was the invention of the incandescent electriclight bulb in 1879. In 1880 the first electric generating station wasbuilt in London to power street lighting. In 1881 a similar generating

station was built in New York.When we look back on this period at the end of the nineteenth

century, we see how many of today's dominant corporations in the oil,electricity, telephone, steel, chemical, pharmaceutical, paper, andautomobile industries came into being then and in the decadesimmediately following. Because no other event in human historybears any propOltionate consequence in the disruption of the plane-tal)' process, it might be helpful to list a few of these corporations andobserve how many of these still have control over both human affairs

and the planetal)' process.In oil:Standard Oil Companyof Ohio was formed in 1870, Atlantic

RichfieJd in 1870, Exxon (as Standard Oil of New Jersey) in 1882,Mobil in 1882, Amoco in 1889, Royal Dutch in 1890, Texaco in 1902.

In utilities: American Telephone and Telegraph was incorporatedin 1885, Westinghouse in 1886, General Electric in 1892.

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I

142 . THE CREAT WORK

In chemicals: Dupont, begun in 11802was later incorporatedinew Jersey in 1903, th n in Delaware in 1915. Dow Chemicalwasinc rporated in 1897, Abbott Laboratories in 1914. It wasonlywhenthe German pal nt were seized after World War I that the chemicalindustry rose to its full expansion in America. Union Carbidewasfounded in 1917, Allied Chemical in 1920.

In pharmaceuticals: Johnson & Johnson was incorporated in1887. Clinton Pharmaceutical Company, formed in 1887, becameBristol Myers in 1900.

In paper and lumber: Scou Paper Company was incorporatedin1879, International Paper in 1898, Wi.yerhauser in 1900.

In steel: Carnegie Steel was inc rporated in 1873, Jones andLoughlin in 1889, U.S. Steel in 1901.

In automobiles: Ford Motor was incorporated in 1903, GeneralMOlars in 1908.

These corporalions, most of whicHstill survive after a century ofdominant influence, look control not only of the human communitybut in some sense intruded into the functioning of Earth itself. In thehuman communily they established themselves first in the economicrealm, then in the political and educational realms. These and theother COrporationsfounded in the European and Asian worlds havetaken control of the entire human community and are even in posses-sion of vast areas of the natural world.

The entrepreneurs directing the corporations became the domi-nant powers in all those basic establishments that have directed theCOurseof human affairs through the twentieth century, The universityestablishments in their scientific research projects became increas-ingly dedicated to the service of the corporation: in its schools ofbusiness administration, its law schools, its training in communica-tion skills, in its schools of political sciences. In the post-World WarII period, the power of the corporations can be seen especially in thechemical and communications industries and in space exploration.

In the chemicalindusLry, the great expansion Occurred afterWorld War II when new possibilities for the chemical " d tm

n uS~J were

The Extractive Economy . 143

seen. In 1940 in America we were making half a million tons of indus-trial chemicals each year. In the 1990s we were, according to the lat-estNortonHistory of Chemistry, making 200 million tons of industrialchemicals each year (p. 654). These are chemicals that nature cannot,forthe most part, absorb into its normal organic processes.

An indispensable factor in this entire sequence has been thelegal profession and the judiciary. From the beginning of the nine-teenth century the legal profession and the judiciary in America hadbonded with the entrepreneurs and their commercial ventures, evenof this early period, against the ordinal)' citizen, the workers, and thefarmers. As MOlton Horowitz, who occupies the chair of History ofLaw at Harvard University, tells us in his study, The Transformationof American Law: 1780-1860, "By the middle of the nineteenthcentury the legal system had been reshaped to the advantage of menof commerce and industry at the expense of farmers, workers, con-sumers, and other less powerful groupe within the society" (Horowitz,

pp. 253, 254).The well-being of the commercial-industrial enterprise came to

be identified with the prosperity of the nation in all its aspects as wellas the well-being of the people. This identity of the corporate goodwith the welfare of the people has become so extreme that govern-ments have come to consider their primary obligation as the support,without any effective control over the manner of their procedures, ofthe industrial, commercial, and financial corporations. Any effort ofgovernments to regulate industrial, commercial, or financial estab-lishments was considered interference with the proper functioning ofthe economic order. Governments had a primary purpose to subsi-dize, with public funds and resources, the predation on the natural

world by the private corporations.With the intellectual tradition of useful knowledge; with the sci-

entific tradition and the research laboratory all dedicated to discover-ing new ways of human dominance over the natural world; with therise of technological schools of engineering; with schools of econom-ics and business administration preparing a multitude of students for

144 THE GREAT WORK

position within the corporation structure; with the news media,n w papers and periodicals, radio and television, billboards andports event , all supported by and subservient to the commercial-indu trial Corporations; with the organizing of the legal professionand the structuring of government in support of the commercial-indu trial enterprise; with the distant unconcern of religion; withspiritualities of withdrawal from the distractions of the marketplace;with the alliance of all these forces and conditions, it is little wonderthat the natural world has been assaulted in an unrestrained fashionthroughout the twentieth century.

There was only one further step to take in the mid-twentieth cen-tury: the move from the many national economies to a comprehensiveglobal economy, an economy in which the corporations would beexempt from control by any government and not be bound by alle-giance to any government in the world. Transnational organizationswould function without restraint and with accountability only tothemselves. The idea of being truly global corporations, which mighthave been thought unreal in an earlier period of nationalist economicdevelopment, became a kind of urgency during the last phases ofWorld War II. At the 1944 Brellon Woods Conference, an economicorganization of the entire planet was envisaged by the creation of aWorld Bank and an International Monetary Fund.

Through these organizations the less industrialized nations couldbe brought into the orbit of the industrialized nations, ostensibly forthe benefit of everyone but effectively for the benefit of the existingfinancial powers. The less industrialized nations especially would beencouraged to borrow money for development of their natural resourcesto be shipped overseas to the industrialized nations. These nationswould then be able to process these materials with extensive profit. Inthis manner the third world would enter into the world economy.

Even though the original intentions may have been to benefit allnations, such organization of the world economy would bring the less-industrialized nations into a global economic arrangement dominated

The Extractive Economy . 145

by the more industrialized nations. Inadequate attention was givento the effect these arrangements would have on indigenouS peoplesthrougbout the world. Traditional cultures would come under newforms of stress, their agricultural economies would be disrupted,their resources would be plundered. Meanwhile they would end upwith extensive debts they could never repay. They were, indeed,unskilled in the functioning of a money-based exploitative economy.

Later these transnational corporations would press on to establisha bordcrless world through a General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(1967) to be accepted by the nations. This agreement would transforminto the WorldTrade Organization (1995), an arrangement whereby thecorporations could exploit the Earth freely with responsibility to nonation but with extensive power over the entire community of nations.The WorldTrade Organization, the World Bank, and the InternationalMonetaryFund would, in turn, come under the influence of such orga-nizations as the World Business Council for Sustainable Development(1995), an organization originally composed of forty-eight transnationalcorporations to develop a global economy under their overall direction,supposedly with all peoples benefIting but in fact with themselves the

chief beneficialies.Among the ostensible purposes of the new economic organiza-

tions is the fostering of support throughout the businesS communityfor sustainable relations between the human economy and the geo-biological functioning of the planet. Any reforms can only be appar-ent since we would still live in a world invented and sustained by theindustrial way of life with its vast array of technological controls overthe natural world. The planet and all human affairs would still begoverned by a sense of the Earth as commodity, only we would sup-posedly be more cautious in our manner of using the Earth and its

resources.Since the dominant corporations would exist beyond the control ofany nation, they would be self-referent in their structure, their func-tioning, and in their objectives. The good of the corporation becomes

I

IIII

III

III

II

146 . THE GREAT WORK

identified with the well-being of the community since it providesthejobs. pays the salaries. and produces the goods that people buywithth ..ir salari s. A kind of global company village comes intobeing.Thepolitical order become a subsidiary function of the corporation.

It i difficult to realize the dimensions of the consequent controlover Our lives. The corporation control our minds throughtheir own-ership Or influence Over the public media. They dominate govern-ments by their financial support of selected candidates for politicaloffice and by the constant pressures they exert on legislation throughlobbying. In this manner they oppose legislation to restrict corpora-tion and support legi Jation that provides subsidies forcorporations,funds now referred to as "corporate welfare." The extent of such cor-porate welfare, on a global scale, is sometimes estimated at well over$100 billion annually,

These activities lead to an attitude among the people that corpo-rations are their protection and government their enemy. A so-calleddemocratic-based market economy controlled by corporations withbases of operations in most of the nations of the world is presented asthe new way to peace, prosperity, and all good things. Education ofthe young is largeJy to prepare students for their role in the world ofindustry, commerce, and communication. The private universitiesespecially and many of the research institutes in state universitiesare suppotted by money that comes ultimately from the corporationsfor purposes that eventually enhance their own status.

We are into a new historical situation. The forces that we are con-cerned with have control not simply over the human component ofthe planet but over the planet itself, considered as an assemblage ofnatural resources available to whatever human establishment provesitself capable of possession and exploitation. The intellectual, cultural,and moral conditions sanctioning this process have already beenworked out. The truly remarkable aspect of all this is that what is hap-pemn~ IS not being done in violation of anything in Western culturalcommitments, but in fulfillment of those cornmitm t h

en s as t eyare now

The Extractive Economy . 147

understood.Thus any critique or quest for bellerment cannol be sup-ported simply on the claim that the present situation is in violation ofWestemcultural or moral commitments. OUJ· Westel11cui lure long agoabandoned its integral relation with the planet on which we live.

Obviously the universe, the solar system, and the planet Earthare the primary given in any discussion of human affairs. We awakento a universe. We have no immediate access to anytlling intellectuallyor physically prior to or beyond the universe. The universe is its ownevidence since there is no further context in the phenomenal worldfor explaining the universe. Every particular mode of being in thephenomenal order is universe-referent. While this was clearly under-stood by former peoples. it is also evident in our times, since our sci-entific endeavors do not provide us with any explanation ofthe universe except the universe itseU. This acceptance by sciencemerely confirms what we know from simple observation. The uni-verse, in the phenomenal world, is the primary value, the primarysource of existence, the primary destiny of whatever exists.

A second observation to be made conceTning the universe is that

it does not exist as a vastly extended sameness. The universe exists inhighly differentiated forms of expression. So too the planet Earthexists as a highly differentiated complex of life systems. The onlysecurity of any life expression on Earth is in the diversity of the com-prehensive community of life. As soon as diversity diminishes thensecurity for each life-form is weakened. This has become abundantlyclear in recent studies of the biosystems of Earth, such as Bio-diversity, edited by E. O.Wilson in 1988, and Wilson's own book, The

Diversity of Life, in 1992.A third observation might be that these various forms of expres-

sion are so intimately related that nothing is itself without everythingelse. Nothing exists in isolation. Any being can benefit only if thelarger context of its existence benefits. This law can be seen in thehoneybee and the flower. Both benefit when the bee comes to drinkthe nectar of the flower: the flower is fertilized, the bee obtains what it

148 . THE GREAT WORK

ne ..d. for making its honey. The tree is nourished by the soil;thetreenourishe, the soil with its I ave. It is the ancient lawof reciprocity.Whoe,.er r""ei, • must aJ '0 give.

The. aspe t of the universe constitute what Iwouldrefertoasthe ontological covenant of the universe. I would also note that theplan t Earth fulfills this ovenant with special brilliance of expres-sion by the manner in which its hundred-some elements are shapedinto the five pheres of which it is composed; namely, the landsphere,watersphere, airsphere, lifesphere, and the mindsphere Each ofthese is further differentiated into the innumerable forms in whicheach finds expression. The wonder, of course, is the bonding into asingle community of existence.

Especially in the realm ofJiving beings there is an absolute inter-dependence. No living being nourishes itself. There exists asequence of dissolution and renewal, a death-life sequence that hascontinued on Earth for some billions of years. This capacity for self-renewal through seeds that bond one generation of life to a successorgeneration is especially precious to the animal world, which feeds onthe excess of plant life produced each year.

Every animal form depends ultimately on plant forms that alonecan transform the energy of the sun and the minerals ofEarth into theliving substance needed for life nourishment of the entire animalworld, including the human community. The well-being of the soiland the plants growing there must be a primary concern for humans.To disrupt this process is to break the Covenant of the Earth and toimperil life.

Disruption of the biological integrity of the planet is the indict-ment that must be brought . II' I.' '. . against ie extractive economy. On y arestoration of the bIOlogICalintegrity of th I . hi' .. . . e p anet wit n rts vanousbioregions can assure the integral survi al f Earth . h fO . IV 0 rnto t e uture,UT pnmary concern must be to resto th .'. re e organic economy of the

enure planet. ThIS means to foster the tih len tre range of life-systems oft e panel. All are needed. Itmeans also th

at we must establish our

The Extractive Economy . 149

basic source of food and energy in the sun, which supplies the energyfor the transformation of inanimate matter into living substance capa-

ble of nourishing the larger bio ystems of Earth.Among the primary evils of contemporary industry is that it is

founded on uniform, standardized processes. Thi is especially dev-astating in agribusiness, which demands uniformity in its products.Nature abhors uniformity. Nature not only produces species diversitybut also individual diversity. Nature produces individuals. No twodays are the same, no two snowflakes, no lwo flowers, trees, or anyother of the infinite number of life-forms. Since monocultw'e andstandardization are violations of both the universe covenant and theEarth covenant, we need to foster a new sense of the organic world

over the merely mechanical world.Our concern for space exploration, in the expectation that we will

have used up Earth and will need to move the human venture out ontoother planets, is to waste irreplaceable resources and to neglect much-needed research into the organic world of this planet. Our excitementover the possibility of colonizing Mars is something of a childlikedelight. We imagine something strange and exciting in some farawayplace while we remain insuffICiently interested in the wonders in ourimmediate surroundings and their well-being in the future. It's like theancient fable by Aesop about the dog with the bone seeing his imagein the water, then diving in to get the bone imaged there-a fablereenacted in our times with similar consequences.

Even as regards this planet we need to esteem this planet and itsfunctioning in the depths of their mystery. The greatest of human dis-coveries in the future will be the discovery of human intimacy with allthose other modes of being that live with us on this planet, inspire ourart and literature, reveal that numinous world whence all things comeinto being, and with which we exchange the very substance of life.

I',

13

ThePETROLEUMINTERVAL

THE ENTIRETHE STORY OF THE LATE NINETEENTH AND

. f I its discoverytwentieth century has been largely the story 0 petro eum, .

. dull sequences IIIand use by humans, and the SOClaJ an c lura con. ill be the storyhuman society, The story of the twenty-first century WJ

f h . he i . f ew patternso t e term mal phase of pet.roleum and t e mvention 0 n

of human living in relation to Earth's resources in the post-pelrole~mperiod. From its beginning in the mid-nineteenth century to itsterminal phase, the role of petroleum in human affairs will havelasted two hundred years, from the mid-nineteenth until the mid-twenty-first century. These years, the glory years of the industrialperiod and the devastating years of the Earth, might be designated asthe Petroleum Interval.

The consequences of these years in extinct species, toxic residue,and disturbed ecosystems will remain into the indefinite future. Theconsequences of scientific discoveries, technological skilJs, and newenergy technologies in health benefits originating in this period willalso remain. But even as we recall these benefits we must also be

150

The Petroleum Interval . 151

conscious that the story is still in process- Inventions that we thoughtwere pure benefits in earlier days come with associated difficultiesmuch greater than we realized. Our hybrid grains, our in'igation pro-jects, our automobiles-all these have negative consequences weseem never to have suspected. Our antibiotics and our sprays againstinsects are, in many instances, evoking even stronger germs and more

vigorous insects.Asweseek the far-reaching adjustments needed [or a more viable

way of life, we are finding that we are now so conditioned by ourdependence on petroleum and its benefits that we can hardly imaginelife without these benefits. To discover how we will move [rom a non-sustainable petroleum-based economy into some alternative form ofsustainable economy is the problem. Just now, in this transition periodinto the twenty-first century, no comprehensive program seems to beavailable. Our efforts in every field of human activity, in economics,social structures, legal enactments, education, scientific research, inspiritual and religious life all need to be directed toward this restruc-turing of human life in a more integral relationship with the planet.This relationship will enable us to survive in a state of well-being in

the post-petroleum period.We might expect that the twenty-first century will also be the

period when we will recover many of the valuable insights and skillsin the art of living that were lost during the period when we were fas-cinated with new areas of knowledge. The craft skills associated withvillage life need to be recovered. A good example of achievement inthis regard can be found in the village of Gaviotas, east of the Andesin Colombia. With the assistance of trained engineers and technicalexperts, the founder of the village, Paolo Lugari, has led the village indevising an energy syslem using solar and water power. He has alsodeveloped an agriculture program suited to the soil, a forestry pro-gram, a way of increasing the fish in the rivers, and a way of feedingthe caltle on specially growngrasses. The people of Gaviotas believetheir achievement can be adapted for third world people everywhere.

152 . THE GREAT WORK

The have attain dar mark able self- ufficiency within their localsituation (\\ei man, 1998). Bill M Kibben in Hope, Human and Wild(1995) tells th story of Kerala, a state on the southwestern coast ofIndia. wh r in the midst of poverty and minimal resources the peoplehave developed a way of life that in its sense of human fulfillmentmatch s in many ways and may even be more humanly satisfying

than life in more afflu nt circumstances.But while we begin our programs [or renewal in a post-petroleum

period in America, we need to understand its historical influenceOver our lives and the difficulties we must deal with as the petroleumdiminishes and then is gone forever, Much of what has been happen-ing here and how we might re pond to it in a post-petroleum penodwas outlined some years ago by Amory Lovins in his presentation ofSoft Energy Paths in 1977.

But first the story itself. Petroleum has been used [or thousands ofyears, not only in the classical civilizations throughout the Eurasianand North African worlds, but also by the indigenous peoples of theworld. Although petroleum is for the most part contained in vast poolsheld within the rock formations deep within the Earth, it has built upsuch pressures that it seeps through to the surface, where it has beenavailable for a variety of purposes: to caulk Aoating vessels [or travelover water, for sealing baskets to carry liquids, for healing injuries.

The sheer volume of petroleum contained in the Earth is amaz-ing. Estimates of the amount yet to be discovered are constantlyfound to be too low, even in the later years ofthe twentieth century. Sotoo the places where petroleum is located are more widespread thanwe realized. We find it in North Africa and Nigeria, in the countriesalong the Persian Gulf, in Central Eurasia in Indonesia in SouthAmerica, along the shores of Colombia and Venezuela i~the Gulfregion o~ Mexico, in the Southwest and in the offshore ~aci.ficregionof the United States, in Alaska, in Canada, in the North Sea.

Yet, although the volume of petroleum present th I .. ". . . . on e p anet ISImmense, It ISultimately Iimited. From the extr

avagant rate of its use

The Petroleum inuroa! . 153

in the late twentieth century it seems that few people in positions ofeconomic or political power have been seriously concerned with theproblem of adjustment to the period when the supply of petroleumwill be first diminished and then exhau ted. ow. at the beginning ofthe twenty-first century. there is widespread agreement that by themid-century some 80 percent of the petroleum on the planet will beexhausted. leaving a planet unable to support the way of life devel-oped during its period of abundance. Such is the conclusion of C. J.Campbell from a vast amount of data and extensive consultation (TheComing Oil Crisis, 1997). A related difficulty will be the toxic residuethat is even now saturating the biosystems of the planet, a residuethat is devastating the forests of the planet and adversely affectingorganic life everywhere. All this is in addition to the manner in whichthe toxic residue is affecting the drinking water of our urban centers.

North America has had a major role to play in the discovery anduse of petroleum in the immense variety of its possibilities. Afterthe first of the modern commercial oil wells was struck in the mid-nineteenth century in Pennsylvania. wells began to be sunk in otherstates. mostly along the Gulf ofMexico and across into California. Wequickly learned that a great variety of products could be derived byrefining the oil from its crude form as it came from the well. By theend of the cenlury petroleum was being produced by countries inEastern Europe as well as in Southeast Asia. The great oil fields of

the Middle East were discovered in the late 1930s.Throughout the twentieth century, the economic fortunes to be

made from petroleum evoked a kind of frenzy for its discovery anduse. especially after the automobile was invented and the roads werepaved. Transportation has been the main use of the petroleum through-out the century. although petroleum derivatives soon began to beused for a vast number of petrochemicals as well as for manufactur-

ing electricity.Other sources of physical energy exist in the sunshine, thewind. the rivers, the tides, the forests. Yet in petroleum we have a

154 . THE GREAT WORK

mllnu~cable -ub,tance. easily transported, available ondemand.that"an pro, ide tbe energ) for the \'aSI network of transportationfacilitiesrequired by Our mo lem e ·onomy. Petroleum can be storedforpro·I nged periods f time. It can fu I automobiles and aircraft.It canbetransformed into fertilizers, pesticides. and herbicides for growingfood. it can be spun into fibers for clothing. transformed intorubberfor tire. made int asphalt for paving roads. shaped into numberlessform as pia tics. It can provide the film and chemicals neededforphotography. Thousands of products are now being made of petro-leum and its derivalives. Thousands more are possible.

Considering all these uses, it is not surprising that the petroleumindustry became the world's most profitable industry. supportingavast number of other industrial establishments. Even agriculture,aforemost industry for its economic value, came to depend on peh"o-leum for its fertilizer and for the machinery needed for sowing.culti-vating, irrigating, harvesting, and marketing. Success in wardependedheavily on the availability of petroleum and its products. Amongthemost lucrative of American corporations throughout the twentiethcentury have been the oil companies. The petroleum industry soonbecame the central feature of the world economy. Over a trillion dol-Jars in business transactions concerned with petroleum were takingplace annually by the 1980s. In 1998 when Exxon and Mobil Oilmerged they formed the company with the largest assets of any exist-ing industrial corporation.

The term petrochemical arises from the fact that petroleum is thebasic resource from which the greater part of the chemicals now inuse are produced. The invention of nylon from petroleum by DuPonttn 1938 was the beginning of a new age in the weaving of fabrics andthe fashlOnrngof clothing. After 1909. plastics from petroleum cameIOtamodern industrial use. This was the beginning of the real magicof the petrochemical industry. Clear plastic could b h d I t

. . e 5 ape 10 0somethll1g 0 delicate as eyeglasses. Plastics could readily be shapedII1totoys for children. Its use for packaging has beco . Ih " me Pervasive. nat ei contexts plastics could be given a hardness th .

at Wouldmake It

The Petroleum rnterval . 155

suitable for items formerly made of aluminum or steel. Petroleum wasmade into preservatives of many kinds as well as inlOvarnishes andinto dyes. In the form of glue it is used for making parlicleboards from

woodchips.Plastics have become so importanl to the medical profession that

it would be difficult without plastics to carry out any of the remark-able procedures now performed by the medical profession. From theimmense number of disposable gloves and gowns used by the profes-sion each day, to the instruments it uses, to the lubes used in surgery,the medical profession is dependent on plastics. There are substitute

materials to make plastics but none so easily available.50 many things came logether in the last few decades of the nine-

teenth century to make the petroleum industry possible. The transi-tion from craft technologies to scientific technologies was takingplace, especially in the electrical and chemical industries. All of thiarequired new developments in the sciences, especially in the fields ofelectrical and chemical engineering. The Rensselaer PolytechnicalInstitute, founded in 1837, was thefirsl private institute in Americato give a scientific engineering degree. Both physical and organicchemistry advanced in their understanding of the atomic structure ofmatter. The geological sciences advanced by the work of Sir Charles

Lyell in 1833 and by Louis Agassiz in the 1850s.Progress of the petroleum industry depended on all these devel-

opments in both the pure and in the applied sciences. Discovery ofpetroleum depended on geological studies. Bringing the crude oil tothe surface required engineering skills. To refine crude oil intousable forms depended on the chemical and physical sciences and on

the corresponding engineering skills.At this time the automobile was still in the fUlure. Itwas not long,

however, before the modern world began to restrUcture itself underthe influence of gasoline-powered automobiles and airplanes. Citieswere transformed by the movement of people out into the once spa-cious suburbs. The inner cities began to decline as shopping centersand malls with their vast parking areas arose with access only by

156 . THE GREAT WORK

automobile. Developers made fortunes buying up land and thenext nding citie by building housing and shopping centers through-out the suburban areas.

After th main sources of petroleum obtained by presenlmethodshave been xhausted by the mid-twenty-first century, other sourcesmore diffi ultto obtain and process, the oil sands and shale oil,couldb exploited so that dwindling supplies could be available foranotherfew decade. Yet exhaustion is inevitable. The proposal is beingmad that w can replace petroleum with hydrogen as an energysup-ply. This will certainly be at a significant economic cost. Even if wecould supply ourselves with the energy needed, we would still bewithout easy replacements for the other uses to which petroleumisput. We can indeed make plastics, fabrics, and even fertilizers fromchemicals available from coal or from other organic sources, bUIwithmuch more difficulty and with greater pollution. It must always beremembered thai in the dispositions of nature, petroleum will neveragain be made in any volume. The geobiological conditions by whichpetroleum came into being will never exist again.

Weare urgently in need of a more sustainable setting for life hereon the planet Earth, for even as the petroleum basis of life in theindustrial world is declining, the developing nations are demandinga greater share in the resources of the world and all those products thatconstitute the distinctive way oflife of industrial societies. Meanwhilein allOurthinking about the future we must be conscious of the prob-able increase in the human population of the Earth from six billion topossibly eight to ten billion persons by the year 2050. Leaming a wayoflife independent of petroleum for such a population may well be themost critical issue before the human community at the present time,because we cannot afford to wait until the crisis is upon us.

The difficulty of the petroleum period was that the well-being ofthe human was the final referent as regards reality and value. We coulddo so many things with petroleum that we began to h illusi

. ave I usions con-CernIng ourselves and our freedom to shape a world f h

o our own t at

The Petroleum Interval . 157

would challenge our dependence on nature. Everything on Earth, itseemed, gotits value (rom its relation to the human. In reality the origi-nal design (or Earth was (or a planet that would be a triumph of diver-sity interacting with itself in a vast range of relationships. Thewell-beingof each component P81t would be intimately related to thewell-beingof the other parts and to the well-being of the whole.

More than any other mode of being on the planet, humans wereprivileged to design themselves and their relationship with the otherspecies through their cultural shaping. Other beings also would havea measure of self-shaping power, but to a somewhat lesser degree andin a somewhat different mode. Only humans seem to have the capac-ity to override the wide range of natural systems with their own self-devised systems. Evidence for this special ability is the amount ofdevastation that humans are bringing upon the planet at the present

time.This urgency of the need for a less toxic source for the benefits

that chemistry now fashions out of a petroleum base is evident fromthe threat of a rising temperature of Earth, also from the threat of athinning ozone layer above Earth, a layer that filters out some of theultraviolet radiation from the sun that can cause significant damageto organisms if it reaches Earth in its unfiltered form. The order ofmagnitude of this planetary disturbance can be appreciated only ifwe consider the immense amount of time it has taken the universe toestablish the physical conditions for the emergence of life in the vari-

ety of its present modes of expressions.Here is where the modern industrial world reveals itself as fail-

ing in its larger purposes even while it seems to accomplish so much.It has failed to align its own functioning with the functioning of theplanetary forces on which it depends. The intrusion of the chemicalprofession into the physics of the universe has enabled this profes-sion to enter so profoundly into the hidden forces of the biologicaland the physical world that it can turn the most benign substances

into the most deadly forms.

158 . THE GREAT WORK

Fundamental to this attitude is the feeling that humanshavetheright and even the obligation to intrude upon the natural worldasextensively as they are able. A person can only marvel that scientistsgenerally seem never to have reflected on or explained to the commu-nity why the petroleum is buried in the Earth in the first place.Eventhe slighte t reflection would reveal that nature has taken greatcareto bury the vast amounts of carbon in the coal and petroleum in thedepths of the Earth and in the forests so that the chemistry oftheatmos-phere, the water, and the soil could be worked out with the properprecision. This needs to be thoroughly understood and respected lestanyone intrude into this del icate balance by extracting and usingthepetroleum or the coal or by cutting down and using the great forestsofthe planet without consideration of what will happen when theseforces will no longer be able to fulfill their role in the integral func-tioning of the planet.

The petroleum interval is coming to its termination within thelifetime of persons living in the present. Yet there are still severaldecades when we can prepare for a future without petroleum. O[sin-gular importance is the need to develop new forms of energy that arewithin the limits and restraints of nature's cycles. Some of these alter-native sources, such as solar energy. radiant heat, and wind and waterpower have been identified by Amory and Hunter Lovins, John andNancy Todd, and the Union of Concerned Scientists (Cole andSkerrett, 1995). Their research and writing are invaluable in pointingthe way to a Pest-petroleum period. In the meantime, the best use forthe available petroleum may be to use it carefully as we discover ourway back 10 the Earth and learn howbest to integrate a human way ofJiIe within the larger life community.

14

REINVENTINGth e

HUMAN

WE MIGHT DESCRIBE THE CHALLENGE BEFORE US BY TIlE

following sentence. The historical mission of our times is to reinventthe human-at the species level, with critical reflection, within thecommunity o£life-systems, in a time_developmental context, by means

of story and shared dream experience.I say reinvenllhe human because humans, more than any other liv-

ing form, invent themselves. Other species receive their basic lifeinstructions at the time of their birth. With this endowment they knowhow to obtain their food, how to defend themselves, howto obtain shel-ter, how to carry on their mating rituals, how to care for their young.Some species, especially the mammalian species, do need some teach-ing and guidance from an older generation. Young bears need to betaught how to fish. Manyanimal species need to be taught how to hunt.Yet this is minimal if compared to the extent of teaching and accultura-tion that humans need to anive at maturity. That acculturation processis the purpose of the long childhood distinctive of humans. With theirgenetic endowment the other life-forms are, from an earlier age, much

159

I

160 . THE GREAT WORK

mon- fUll) quipped than humans to carry out their basic patternsofsun ivai and propagation.

We need to reinv nt the human at the species level because theissues "e are Concerned with seem to be beyond the competenceofOUr present cultural traditions. either individually or collectively.What i needed is something beyond existing traditions to bringusba k to the most fundamental aspect of the human: giving shape toourselve . The human is at a ultural impasse. In our effortstoreducethe other-than-human components of the planet to subservience toOur Western cultural expression, we have brought the entire set oflife-systems of the planet, including the human, to an extremelydan-gerous situation. Radical new cultural forms am needed. These newcultural forms would place the human within the dynamics of theplanet rather than place the planet within the dynamics of the human.

Wemust find our primary SOurceof guidance in the inherent ten-dencies of Ourgenetic coding. These tendencies are derived fromthelarger community of the .Earth and eventually from the universeitself. In Jungian terms, these tendencies identify with those psychicenergy constellations that take shape as the primary archetypal formsdeep in the unconscious realms of the human. Such forms findexpression in the symbols of the Heroic Journey, Death-Rebirth, theSacred Center, the Great Mother, the Tree of Life. Although thesesymbolic forms are broadly the same in their general meaning, theyeach take on various modes of expression in the different religiousand cultural traditions, modes that are analogously the same in theiressential meaning.

The necessity of rethinking our situation at the species level isclear in every aspect of the human. As regards economics we neednot simply a national or a global economy but local subsistencee~onomies where the variety of human groups become acquaintedwith the other species in the local bioregion.

Our schools of business administration at the present time teachthe shUs whereby the greatest possible amOunt of n t I

a ura resources

Reinventing the Human . 161

is processed as quickly as possille, put through the consumer con-amy, and then passed on to the junk heap, where the remains are use-less at best and at worst toxic to every living being. OW there is needfor humans to develop reciprocal economic relationships with otherlife-forms providing a sustaining pattern of mutual support, as i the

case with natural life-systems generally.Especially as regards law, we need a jurisprudence that would

provide for the legal rights of geological and biological as well ashuman components of the Earth community. A legal system exclu-sively forhumans is not realistic. Habitat of all species, for instance,

must be given legal status as sacred and inviolable.Thirdly, I say with critical reflection because this reinventing of

the human needs to be done with critical competence. Originallythere was a certain instinctive, spontaneous process whereby theearly cultural formations were established. Now we need all our sci-entific insight and technological skills. We must, however, see thatour sciences and technologies are coherent with the technologies ofthe natural world. Our knowledge needs to be in harmony w~th thenatural world rather than a domination of the natural world. We needthe art of intimate communion with, as well as technical knowledge

of, the various components of the natural world.We insist on the need for critical reflection as we enter the eco-

logical age in order to avoid a romantic attraction to the natural worldthat would not meet the urgencies of what we are about. The naturalworld is violent and dangerouS as well as serene and benign. Our inti-macies with the natural world must not conceal the fact that we areengaged in a constant strUgglewith natural forces. Life has its bitterand burdensome aspects at all levels. Yet its total effect is to strengthenthe inner substance of the living world and provide the never-ending

excitement of a grand adventure. .Fourth, we need to reinvent the human within the communtty of

l

:f. Th·s is the central phrase, the primarYcondition for rein-lje systems. 1. h h nan Because the Earth is not adequately understoodventIng l e UI .

162 . THE GREAT WORK

"ilher b~ our spiritual or by our scientific traditions, the humanhasbecome an addendum Oran intru ion. We have found this situationtoour Iikingince it enabl u to avoid the problem of integralpres-enc to the Earth. Thi attitude prevents us from consideringtheEarth a a single community with ethical relations determinedpri-marily by the w It-being of the total Earth community.

While the Earth i a single community, it is not a global same-ness. Earth is highly differentiated into arctic as well as tropicalregions, into mountain, valleys, plains, and coastlands. These geo-graphical regions are also bioregions. Such areas can be describeda identifiable geographical regions of interacting life-systems thatare relatively self-sustaining in the ever-renewing processes ofnature. As the functional units of the planet, these bioregions can bedescribed as self-propagating, self-nourishing, self-educating, self-governing, self-healing, and self-fulfilling communities. Human pop-ulation levels, Our economic activities, OUf educational processes.our governance, our healing, our fulfillment must be envisaged asintegral with this community process.

There are great di.fficulties in identifying just how to establish aviable context for a flourishing and sustainable human mode of being.Of one thing we can be sure, however: our own future is inseparablefrom the future of the larger community that brought us into beingand sustains us in every expression of our hwnan quality of life. inOUr aesthetic and emotional sensitivities. our intellectual percep-tions, OUf sense of the divine, as well. as in OUf physical nourishmentand Our bodily healing.

Fifll . .1, remvent.lng the human must take place in a time-develop-

merunl Context. This constitutes what might be called the cosmologi-cal-historical dirnensio-, of th . J u·· h 0

e program am ou mmg ere. ur senseof ~ho we are and what Our role is must begin where the universebegins. Not only does our physical shaping and our spiritual percep-tion begl~l wI~h the ongm of the universe, so too does the [onnation ofevel)' being In the universe. This human fonnatio . d bI . .... . " n IS goveme yt rree baSIC prinCiples: dl.([erenl.latlOn, subjectivity d .

, an communIOn.

Reinventing the Human . 163

Our present course is a violation of each of these three principlesin their most primordial expression. Whereas the basic direction ofthe evolutionary process is toward constant differentiation within afunctionalorder of things, our modern world is directed toward mono-cultures. This is the inherent direction of the entire industrial age.Industry requires a standardization, an invariant process of multipli-cationwith no enrichment of meaning. In an acceptable cultural con-text, we would recognize that the unique properties of each realitydetermine its value both for the individual and for the community.These are fulfilled in each other. Violation of the individual is an

assault on the community.As a second imperative derived from the cosmological process,

we find that each individual is not only different from every otherbeing in the universe but also has its own inner articulation, itsunique spontaneities. Each being in its subjective depths carries thatnuminous mystery whence the universe emerges into being. This we

might identify as the sacred depth of the indi vidual.The third cosmological imperative indicates that the entire uni-

verse is bonded together in such a way that the presence of each indi-vidual is felt throughout its entire spatial and temporal range. Thiscapacity for bonding the components of the universe with one anotherenables the vast variety of beings to come into existence in that gor-geous profusion and yet comprehensive unity we observe about us.

From this we can appreciate the directing and energizing roleplayed by the story of the universe. This story that we know throughempirical observation of the world is our most valuable resource inestablishing a viable mode of being for the human species as well asfor all those stupendous life-systems wherebY the Earth achieves itsgrandeur, its fertility, and its capacity for endless self-renewal. .

This story, as told in its galactic expansion, its Earth formatIOn,its life emergence, and its self-reflexive consciousness, fulfills in ourtimes the role of the mythiC aCCounts of the universe that existedin earlier times, when human awareness was dominated by aspatial mode of consciousness. We have moved from cosmos to

164 . THE GREAT WORK

co m g nesis, from the mandala journey toward the center of anabiding world to the irreversible journey of the universe itself,as theprimary acred journey. This journey of the universe is thejourneyofea h individual being in the universe. So this story of the greatjour-ney is an exciting tory that gives us our macrophase identitywiththe larger dirnen ions of meaning that we need. To identify thernicrophase of our being with the macrophase mode of our beingisthe quintessence of human fulfillment.

The present imperative of the human is that this journey con-tinue on into the future in the integrity of the unfolding life-systemsofthe Earth, which presently are threatened in their survival. Ourgreatfailure is the termination of the journey for so many of the mostbril-liant species of the life community. The horrendous fact is that weare, as the Cambridge University biologist Norman Myers has indi-cated, in an extinction spasm that is likely to produce "the greatestsingle setback to life's abundance and diversity since the first flicker-ings of life almost four billion years ago" (quoted in Biodiversity,p. 34). The labor and care expended over some billions of years anduntold billions of experiments to bring forth such a gorgeous Earth isall being negated within less than a century for what we consider"progress" toward a better life in a better world.

The final aspect of our statement concerning the ethical impera-tive of our times is by means of the shared dream experience. The cre-ative process, whether in the human or the cosmological order, is toomysterious for easy explanation. Yet we all have experience of cre-ative activity. Since human processes involve much trial and errorwith only occasional success at any high level of distinction, we maywell believe that the cosmological process has also passed through avast period of experimentation in order to achieve the orderedprocesses of Ourpresent universe. In both instances something isperceived in a dim and uncertain manner, something radiant withmeaning that draws us on to a further clari'fication of OUf understand-ing and our activity. This process can be described 'in many ways, as

a gropingor as a feeling or imaginative process. The most appropriatewayof describing this process seems to be that of dream realization.The universe seems to be the fulfillment of something so highly imag-inative and so overwhelming that it must have been dreamed into

existence.But if the dream is creative we must also recognize that few things

are so destructive as a dream or entrancement that has lost the integrityof its meaning and entered an exaggerated and destructive manifesta-bon. This has happened often enough with political ideologies and reli-gious visionaries. Yet there is no dream or entrancement in the historyof the Earth that has wrought the destruction that is taking place in theentrancement with industrial civilization. Such entrancement must be Iconsidered as a profound cultural disorientation. It can be dealt with

only by a corresponding deep cultural therapy. ISuch is our present situation. We are involved not simply with an

ethical issue but with a disturbance sanctioned by the very structures I Iof the culture itself in its present phase. The governing dream of thetwentieth century appears as a kind of ultimate manifestation of that I 1.

1

deep inner rage of Western society against its earthly condition as avital member of the life community. As with the gOOSethat laid the Igolden egg, so the Earth is assaulted in a vain effort to possess notsimply the magnificent fruits of the Earth but the power itself whereby

these splendors have emerged. I

At such a moment a new revelatory experience is needed, anexperience wherein human consciousness awakens to the grandeur I

and sacred quality of the Earth process. This awakening is our humanparticipation in the dream of the Earth, the dream that is carried in itsintegrity not in any of Earth's cultural expressions but in the depths ofour genetic coding. Therein the Earth functions at a depth beyond ourcapacity for active thought. Wecan only be sensitized to what is beingrevealed to us. We probably have not had such participation in thedream of the Earth since earlier shamanic times, but therein lies ourhope for the future forourselves and for the entire Earth community.

Reinventing the Human . 165

15

TheDYNAMICS

oj theFUTURE

AS WE ENTER THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY WE OBSERVE A

widespread awakening to the wonder of the Earth. This we can ob-serve in the writings of naturalists and the environmental organ-izations dedicated to preserving the integrity of the planet. There arealso those in the scientific world who give expression to the wonder ofthings, such as Peter Raven, Norman Myers, Lynn Margulis, EricChaisson, Ursula Goodenough, Brian Swimme, and others who arerevealing to us the larger pattern as well as the intricate details of thevisible world about us.

The human venture depends absolutely on this quality of aweand reverence and joy in the Earth and all that lives and grows uponthe Earth. As Soon as we isolate ourselves from these currents of lifeand from the profound mood that these engender within us, then ourbasic life-satisfactions are diminished. None of our machine-madeproducts, none of OUI computer-based achievements can evoke that

166

The Dynamics oj the Future . 167

total commitment to life from the subconsciou regions of our beingthat is needed to sustain the Earth and carry both ourselves and theintegral Earth community into the hazardous future.

Howwefeel about ourselves and about the EaJth proceSs are ques-tions of utmost urgency, especially when we are pr sented with thenotion ofEarth as a collection of commodities to be bought and sold.The very meaning of the Earth is involved in this question, as are thehuman energies needed to assist in shaping a desirable future. In ourquest for understanding, we might begin with the observation that theEarth is the manifestation of a vast amount of energy caught up in adiversity of designs for which there is no accounting in terms of humaJllunderstanding or imagination. In a sequence of mutations great storesof energy were deposited within the Earth, not only as fossil fuels but

also as life forces within the very structure of matter.Our present peril is not the first that the Earth and living things

upon it have endured. The Earth found its way into being amid anamazing sequence of both creative and destructive experiences. Along sequence of cataclysmic events has shaped the continents andthe various forms of life that have themselves engaged in a continuingstruggle for survival. But the present danger to the planet is the firstconscious intrusion on this scale into the natural rhythms of the Earthprocess. This is something radically different from the seismic con-vulsions, the glacial advances, the earlier emergence and disappear-ance of species. It is the exploitation of energies in a definitive form.It is a turn from the storing of energies to the burning off of energiesin a manner and in a volume such that they cannot be replaced in anyconceivable per.iod of human historical existence. Because of ourneed to fuel the industrial world, we have created a technosphere

incompatible with the biosphere.In the late Paleolithic and the Neolithic periods, also in the ear-

lier stages of the classical civilizations, we lived in an ocean of energy·physical and psychic formsof energy were intimately related. Wefoundthe meani ng of existence as we responded to the energies about us.

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168 . THE GREAT WORK

Th e we perceived ultimately as spirit forces. During this periodther source of arth wer little diminished. Although humansputstressupon the plan t, they lived n e sarily in a certain harmnnywiththeEarth proces . The natural rhythms were only slightly disturbed.Fromthe unconscious depths of the human psyche came the greatvisions.Afeeling of identity with the Earth was at its height. Earth wastheGreatMother, heaven a comprehensive Providence. The ultimate mysteryofthings was celebrated in ritual worship. This was "the AgeoftheGods,"as Giambaui ta Vico termed it in the early eighteenth century.Zeuswas a presiding presence. Poseidon ruled the seas. Athena inspiredwisdom, Dionysus promoted wine-drinking, music, and festivals,Venus excited love, Mars gave courage in war; Demeter broughtabun-dant harvest, Diana and the nymphs gave spirit presence to the wood-lands. The constellations in the night sky gave meaning to the night.The universe was the expression of such personal and spirit powers.

Human p ychic energies as well as Earth's physical energieswerestored up in such abundance that all later ages have found in thisperiod their primordial cultural SUPPOlt. Despite all the changes thathave taken place in later times, this age still holds many of our norma-tive values. We feel the support of these mythic values, althoughthe historical realism of Western civilization and our later scientificempiricism have weakened the conscious presence to the natural worldthat once guided and supported the psychic dimension of our lives.

In more recent times we have replaced these earlier myt.hic struc-tures first with the myth of continuing and inevitable progress, thenwith the myth of evolution. While this sense of necessary andinevitable progress originated in the millennial promises of the Book ofRevelations it was developed and expanded in the modem period withthe new sciences that came into being. Originally it was the progress ofthe human mind that dominated the early modern period. In the NovumOrganum (1620), The New Method of Learning, Francis Bacon pro-posed the empirical mode of reasoning to replace the deductive methodof the medieval period. What Bacon proposed Galileo Galilei carried

out in his experiments with motion and in his observation of the heav-ens. These were accompanied with development of the new technolo-giesof the telescope and microscope. In The New Science of the Natureof the Nations (1725), Giambattista Vico proposed a new way of under-standing the historical unfolding of the social and cultural orders oflife. Bernard Fontinelle and George Buffon, in this same period, fos-tered a recognition that the Earth was much older than the five thou-sand years indicated by biblical reckoning. In their estimate it must beat least eighty thousand years old. Denis Diderot and Jean d'Alernbeltedited the great French Encyclopedie that appeared between 1752-1772 in twenty-eight volumes, the first of the comprehensive modemencyclopedias. This encyclopedia became the main referent for exposi-tion of the new rationalism and the doctrine of progress.

This myth of progress supplanted the earlier myths of personalpresences manifested th.roughout the natural world. At this same timewe lost the world of meaning in an evolutionaty world governed bychance without direction or higher significance, a world of emergentprocess that would eventually come to be spoken of as the work of a I"blind watchmaker," as in Richard Dawkins's book The Blind Watch-maker. Yet a different interpretation of the data of evolution is avail- IIable. We need merely understand that the evolutionary process isneither random nor determined but creative. It follows the generalpattern of all creativity. While there is no way of fully understanding Ithe origin moment of the universe we can appreciate the direction of Ievolution in its larger arc of development as moving from lesser togreat complexity in structure and from lesser to greater modes of con-sciousness. We can also understand the governing principles of eve-lution in terms of its three movements toward differentiation, inner

spontaneity, and comprehensive bonding.With this understanding it would be difficult to overemphasize

the magnificence of this evolutionary doctrine. Itprovides a grandeurin our view of the universe and our human role in it that is over-whelming. Indeed, in its human expression the universe is able to

The Dynamics 0/ the Future . 169

170 . THE GREAT WORK

reflect on itself and enjoy its grandeur in a special mode ofconsciouself-awareness. The evolutionary vision provide the mostprofoundmystique of the universe.

Our main source of psychic energy in the future will dependonour ability to understand this symbol of evolution in an acceptablecontext of interpretation. Only in the context of an emergent universewill the human project come to an integral understanding ofitself.Wemust, however, come to experience the universe in its psychic as wellas in its physical aspect. We need to experience the sequence ofevo-lutionary transformations as moments of grace, and also as celebre-tion moments in our new experience of the sacred.

As physical resources become less available, psychic energymust support the human project in a special manner. This situationbrings us to a new reliance on powers within the universe and also toexperience of the deeper self. The universe must be experienced asthe Great Self. Each is fulfilled in the other: the Great Self is fulfilledin the individual self, the individual self is fulfilled in the Great Self.Alienation is overcome as soon as we experience this surge of energyfrom the Source that has brought the universe through the centuries.New fields of energy become available to support the human venture.These new energies find expression and support in celebration. Forin the end the universe can only be explained in terms of celebration.It is all an exuberant expression of existence itself.

This sense of celebration brings us back to the earlier pages ofthis book, where Imentioned the manner in which indigenous peoplesand the peoples who shaped the earlier civilizations sought to coordi-nate every human activity with the seasonal renewal moments of thenatural world, Every phase of life found validation in this larger con-text. But while in former times we celebrated the moments of seasonalrenewal, now we must also celebrate the sequential transformation~oments in an emergent universe. This story of the emergent universe'IS now our dominant sacred story.

The Sundance of the Lakota Sioux trihe in North A .. . menoa pro-vides an instance of celebration and renewal founded' h al

In t e season

l'o4,.,...~="'-'t~ _

The Dynamics of the Fuw.re . 1n

renewal experience. This dance is one of the most dramatic forms ofcosmological integration of the human with the universe. The centerpole is seen as a place for the intersection of the numinous, the cos-mic, and the human worlds. Through this ceremony the dancersattaina heroic consciousness combined with a sense of having ren-dered a debt of gratitude for the gift of life granted the individual andthe tribe. A certain psychic energy is developed both within the indi-vidual and within the tribe, an interior energy that enables the com-munity to accept the difficulties of life with an endurance and anequanimity that has ever amazed the Euro_Americans. While weneed to continue such seasonal-based liturgies like those of indige-nous peoples and of the classical u'aditions, we need to create new Iliturgies based on the transformation episodes of the evolutionary , Isequence in the physical, geological, and biological stages of devel-opment. In both cases the inner psychic resources of the human ven-

ture are restored and increased.There is a significant difference between physical energy and

psychic energy. Physical energy is diminished by use. Once used, weare left with lifeless matter and waste products that are often danger-ous to the life-process. In contrast, psychic energies are increased byuse and by the numbers of those who participate in their activity.Material things are diminished as more people share them while non-material realities are enhanced as more people share them. If a pieceof food is shared by four people each gets much more than the samefood shared by ten people. Understanding, joy, spiritual insight,music, and the arts, however, are augmented as the audience isincreased or as they are communicated from one person to another. Acompletely individual emotion is hardly of the human order. It needsto be shared. In the sharing, the resonance is increased and a greater

range of human experience is established.Along with a new appreciation of the psychic dimension of life,

we now see a strengthening of the ancient symbols of the humancommunity, which lead to a deeper experience of the self. Throughthe archetypal symbols of the unconscious, the symbols of the Great

172 . THE GREAT WORK

Journey, Death-Rebirth, the Cosmic Tree, and the SacredCenterwetablish vital contact with those underlying energies thatguideandustain the human soul. The e energies find expression especiallyinour dream, for it is those larger dream of a civilization that guideand drive the actions of a people. The symbols of the past nowhavearange of meaning that they never had previously, for nowthe well·being and the urvival of the planet, and all the other modesofbeingon the planet, are involved in our human actions.

Previously our actions were of critical concern only for somephase of the human venture. Through these symbols interior energiesthat sustain the human venture and the entire civilizational processare renewed. Ultimately these symbols reflect the powers of the Earthboth in their ever-renewing seasonal significance and in their irre-versible evolutionary transformations. Both of these make it possiblefor human understanding and intuition to be fully responsive to thecosmological processes that brought us into being and sustain us inexistence.

Each of the symbols we have mentioned has a new richness ofinterpretation. The journey symbol is no longer simply the journeyfrom the circumference to the center within the context of the man-dala where the divine, the human, and the cosmos become present toeach other. The journey must now be understood also as the greatjourney that the universe has made from its primordiallJaring forthuntil the present. This journey is carried out through a new mode ofpresence of these three to one another.

So too the Death-Rebirth symbol is not simply the death-rebirth ofOur traditional initiation symbolism whereby we move from a profane to

a sacred form of life. The Death-Rebirth symbol must now be under-s~oo~in relation to the moments when the universe undergoes somes,g",f,~ant transfonnation whereby one geolOgical or biological periodmoves Intoa greater manifestation of the numinous mystery whence allphenomena come into being. A similar twofold significance must heunderstood of the other archetypal symbols that govern h ..

uman aCUVl-

The Dynamics of the Future . 173

ties fromdeep within the unconscious depths of the human soul. Allformer symbolsmust acquire a new depth of meaning without dimin-

ishingtheir prior meaning.The other force that needs to be mentioned, wherein we might

place our hopes for the future, is the force of will. Although thissubject of will was the principal concern of Arthur Schopenhauer(1788-1860) in the nineteenth century, it has not been adequatelydealt with either speculatively or practically in recent times. Yet sel-dom have such demands been made on the will as are being made atthe present time. A concern for will does appear in the work of PierreTeilhard de Chardin, particularly in Human Energy. He saw quiteclearly that we must consciously will the further stages of the evolu-tionary process. Almost immediately this responsibility became toomuch for us to carry. We live nOWin a moment of indecision, carryingthe world in our hands, afraid of tripping over our own feet and letting

it fall to its destruction.But while this peril is a cause for concern, it is also a cause for

advancing consciousness. Responsible people no longer think of theworld simply as a collection of natural resources. We have begun torealize that the Earth is an awesome mystery, ultimately as fragileas we ourselves are fragile. But our responsibility \0 the Earth isnot simply to preserve it, it is to be present to the Earth in its nextsequence of transformations. While we were unknowingly carriedthrough the evolutionary process in former centuries, the time hascome when we must in some sense guide and energize the process

ourselves.To succeed in this task of shaping the future, the will of the morecomprehensive self must be functioning. The individual will canfunction in this capacity only through an acknowledged union withthe deeper structures of reality. Even beyond union with the humancommunity must be union with the Earth, with the universe itself inthe full wonder of its being. Only the Earth can adequately will theEalth. If we wilJ the future effectively it will be because the guidance

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174 • THE GREAT WORK

and the powers of the Earth have been communicated to us, notbe -au-,e we have detennin d the future of the Earth simplywithsomerational fa ulty.

e ntral to this process i our contact with the sacred and thevastrung of Earth's psychi dynami 111. While our sense of the sacredan never be recov red precisely as it existed in former centuries,itcan be recover d in the mystique of the Earth, in the epic of evolu·tion, pirituaJ disciplines are once again being renewed throughoutthe world. For some the ultimate mystery of things is experiencedinthe depth of the inn r self, for others in the human community,forstill others in the Earth process itself. Yet in each instance the fullsense of communion eerns to be pre ent. A way is opening for eachperson to receive the total spiritual heritage of the human communityas well as the total spiritual heritage of the universe. Within thiscontext the religious antagonisms of the past can be overcome, theparticular traditions can be vitalized, and the feeling of presenceto a sacred universe can appear once more to dynamize and sustainhuman affairs.

We must feel that we are supported by that same power thatbrought the Earth into being, that power that spun the galaxies intospace, that lit the sun and brought the moon into its orbit. That is thepower by which living forms grew up out of the Earth and came to aspecial mode of reflexive consciousness in the human. This is theforce that brought us through more than a mil.lion years of wanderingas hunters and gatherers; this is that same vitality that led to theestablishment of Our cities and inspired the thinkers. artists, andp~ets of the ages. Those same forces are still present; indeed, wemIght feel their impact at this time and understand that we are notisolated in the chill of space with the burden of the future upon usand WIthout the aid of any other power.

We are a .pervasive presence. By definition we are that reality inwhom the entire Earth Comes to a special mode fA' .

o re exrve conscious-ness. We are ourselves a mystical quality of the Earth if .

, a un ylng

The Dynamics of the Future . 175

principle, an integration of the various polarities of the material andthe spiritual, the physical and the psychic, the natural and the artis-tic, the intuitive and the scientific. We are the unity in which all theseinhere and achieve a special mode of functioning. In this way thehuman acts as a pervading logos. U the human is microcosmos, thecosmos is macroanthropos. We are each the cosmic person, theMahapurusha, the Great Person of Hindu India, expressed in the uni-

verse itself.This being so, there is need to be sensitive to the Earth, for the

destiny of the Earth identifies with our own destiny, exploitation ofthe Earth is exploitation of the human, elimination of the aestheticsplendors of the Earth is diminishment of existence. We do not servethe human by blasting the mountains apart for mineral resources, forin losing the wonder and awesome qualities of the mountains we

destroy an urgent dimension of our own reality.Ancient rituals through which we communicated with the Earth

and fostered its productivity may no longer seem fully effective. Yetthey do express a profound respect for the mystery of the Earth. Itwould be philosophically unrealistic, historically inaccurate, and sci-entifically unwarranted to say that the human and the Ealth no longerhave an intimate and reciprocal emotional relationship.

We are not lacking in the dynamic forces needed to create thefuture. We live immersed in a sea of energy beyond all comprehen-sion. But this energy, in an ultimate sense, is ours not by domination

but by invocation.

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16

TheFOURFOLDWISDOM

IN THESE OPENING YEARS OF THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY, AS

the human community experiences a rather difficult situation in itsrelation with the natural world, wemight reflect that a fourfoldwisdomis available to guide us into the future: the wisdom of indigenouspeoples, the wisdom of women, the wisdom of the classical traditions,and the wisdom of science. We need to consider these wisdomtraditions in terms of their distinctive functioning, in the historicalperiods of their florescence, and in their common support for theemerging age when humans will be a mutually enhancing presence onthe Earth.

Indigenous wisdom, whicb extends far back into the PaleolithicPeriod, survives even into the present among the 200 million indige-nous peoples. The wisdom ofwomen, which flourished throughout theNeolithic Period, is now experiencing a reassertion of itself in a newform. The wisdom of the urban classical literate traditions had itsbeginning some five thousand years ago and was the most power-ful force in human cultural formation until it Waschallenged by the

176

INDIGENOUS WISDOM is distinguished by its intimacy with andparticipation in the functioning of the natural world. The dawn andsunset are moments when the numinous somce of all existence isexperienced with special sensitivity. In springtime the floweringworld sets forth its blossoms. The birds appear in the briUial1ce oftheir coloring, in the ease and skill of their flight, and in the beauty oftheir song. Then there are the fearsome moments when thunder rollsacross the heavens and the lightning shatters both the sky and theEarth. In the Northern Hemisphere when autumn comes the fruitsappear, the birds depart, the leaves fall, darkness settles over theland. In the various tropical regions the rains come more fully in theil'seasonal sequence. Living things come into being, flourish, then fadefrom the scene. This ever-renewing sequence of sunrise and sunset, , Iof seasonal succession, constitutes a pattern of life, a great liturgy, a

celebration of existence.In this context early humans discovered their food and sheltered i

themselves from the elements. Above all they developed an interpre-tation of life and pain and suffering and death, along with a feeling 1

of security and joy in existence. A native wisdom was passed down] I Ithrough the generations, a wisdom carried in the lives of the people, .in their thoughts and speech; in their customs, songs, and rituals; intheir arts, their poetry; and in their stories not in any written form. In 11

a special manner this wisdom is carried by the sacred personalities:the elders-both men and women, the chiefs, the shamans.

One of the primary accomplishments of humans in the early mil-lennia of their existence was the occupation of the various continentsof the world. With amazing geniUSthey developed spoken language.During this late Paleolithic and throughout the Neolithic periods

The Fou101d Wisdom . 117

scientific tradition of more recent times. cience as a wisdom tradi-tion is only in its beginning phase, even though cientiflc kn wledghas advanced with amazing success ever since the sixteenth century·

178 . THE GREAT WORK

thousand of languages were invented. In Africa and in SouthAmericaalon several thou and languages have existed into recent times.Theprimary technologies were invented. Indigenous peoples learned theart of making fire, fashioned elementary weapons, identifiedplantsand animals, especially tho e plants associated with food and withhealing. They shaped stone instruments needed in their huntingcul-ture. Such creative relationships with the natural world resulted froman intimacy with that world.

The art, music, and literature were also developed in this earlyperiod, especially in the late Paleolithic and into the Neolithic.Whilewe are acquainted with these mainly in their later more highly articu-lated form, as we find them in their early Neolithic phases, we canrecognize that these later forms are themselves the consequence of along period of development, In many of their accomplishments, suchas the wood carvings of African peoples and in the bark paintings ofthe Aborigines of Australia, we experience a powerful spirit pres-ence. Wealso experience the vast range of thought, history, and spiri-tual insight contained in these forms.

Such sensitivity to the powers of the universe resulted from theexperience of benign and fearsome forces surrounding the humancommunity. In America the pervasive spirit presence was experiencedas essentially benign. This sense of a benign universe found expres-sion in the Navaho expression to "go in beauty." Beauty is a way ofexpressing that numinous presence that is pervasive throughout theuniverse. It expresses one of the ways in which this spirit presence isgiven identity. Awareness of this spirit presence is evident throughoutthe ceremonial lives of tribal peoples throughout the world.

These powers in back of all natural phenomena are seen as per-sonal in nature. They are named and addressed as modes of con-scious presence presiding over the functioning of the universe both in~ts.comprehensive extent and in its individual intimacy. We see thismtrmate way of relating to the world in the Bushmen of Mrica. Asindicated by Laurens van der Post inA Far-Off Place, the teacher of a

The Four/old Wisdom . 119

youngboy insists on reverence [or the forest: "One is never alone in

the forest. One is never unobserved" (p. 79).The great advantage in the modern European contact with the

indigenous peoples of the world is the perspective that it ha pro-vided peoples of Westem European civilization with an occasion toreflect on the inherent consequences of the civilizational processitself. For the first time, in the beginning of the colonial period,Western civilization could be seen as being weakened, both physi-cally and morally, precisely through the civilization process itself.The primordial vigor, the fundamental heroic virtues, tend to surviveonly in diminished form. So too we tend to see other peoples either ina situation of savage primitivity or of a romantic primordialness.

In more recent times we have come to know the way of life ofthe indigenous peoples of the world in more extensive detail. Yet wesomehow remain estranged from the deeper realms of their con-sciousness. As the years pass, however, we have begun to recognizeboth how little we really understand these peoples and how much weneed the wisdom of their traditions. We have been instructed by anever-increasing number of native persons fully capable of speakingthe wisdom of their heritage as this comes down from earlier times

into the present.There is, correspondingly, a greater willingness and a greater

ahility to understand which is manifested by peoples of other tradi-tions now living on this continent. We might hope that a capacity forcommunication is also developing. Awareness of past dispossessionof the Indian lands is increasing. Yet, if devastation of their formerway of life by hunting and fishing and gathering and destrUction oftheir more elaborate cultural achievements has taken place in what issometimes an irreversible manner, the Indian peoples of this conti-nent do possess, it seems, an indestructible psychic formation thatwill remain into the indefinite future. They have held on to dImen-sions of their ancient wisdom traditions of which European

Americans have had little or no knowledge.

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180 . THE GREAT WORK

A th years pas it become ever more clear that dialoguewithnative peoples here and throughout the world is urgently neededtoprovid the human community with models of a more integralhumanpres nc to the Earth.

THE WISDOM of women is to join the knowing of the body to that ofmind, to join souJ to spirit, intuition to reasoning, feeling conscious-ne s to intellectual analysis, intimacy to detachment, subjectivepresence to objective distance. When these functions become sepa-rated in carrying out the human project then the way into the future ISto bring them together.

The human project belongs to both women and men. It cannot becarried ouL effectively unless both are presenL throughout the fullrange of human activities: with each other and with the family,in gov-ernment, in the economic enterprise, in university education, in thereligious establishment, in the artistic and literary worlds. Whereverthe human enterprise is taking place women belong there as well asmen. Each brings distinctive abilities to the single project.

Because men in Western civilization have isolated women in thehome and in a narrow band of service activities, and have appropri-ated forthemselves both the reality and value of the adult human out-side the home, the human project in its Western manifestation hasbecome a patriarchal establishment in quest for unlimited domi-nance, a dominance unsettled in itself and a disturbance to the largerhuman community. In a corresponding way, because men have appro-priated the reality and value of the Earth for their own purposes, theEarth is becoming dysfunctional. Again it is a quest for dominance.

The only acceptable attitude of any mode of being is to recognizethat existence is a mutual dependence of a diversity of components.The human is a single enterprise that brings together women andmen, elders and eh ildren, the farmer and the merchant, the foreignerand the native. So too the Earth is a single enterprise, composed of

The Fou1old Wisdom . 181

land and sea, rain and wind, plants and animals and humans, and thewholemagnificent universe. Nothing is itself without everything el e.This centering of men on themselves, to the detriment of women, thehome, and the family as well as the Earth and everything on the

Earth, is identified as androcenJrism.Among the greatest of terrors that women have encountered as a

consequence of androcentrism is when they are considered the resultof a genetic deficiency, are thought of as intel1ectually deficient, areseen as inherently seductive in their moral influence, are persecutedas malevolent spirits. In some societies women are required toundergo physical mutilation, are sold or forced into prostitution, orare traded off in arranged marriages. An endless list could be com-piled of abuses and suppressions imposed upon women in the pastand that continue even in the present, especially in the [orm of sexualexploitation. Women were thought to exist for the purposes of men.

By asserting their place in every aspect of the social and culturallife of the human community, women are bringing their own resolutionto this attitude of men. While women are thus fulfil1inga duty they oweto themselves, they are also revealing to men the reality of the patriar-chal dominance that men have been imposing on the human commu-nity. Women are also revealing Western civilization to itself. Withoutthis newly assertive consciousness of women, Western civilizationmight have continued indefinitely on its destructive path without evercoming to a realization of just what has been happening in the exclu-sion of women from full participation in the human project.

This revelation of men to themselves and of Western civilizationto itself might be considered the first most dramatic manifestation ofthe wisdom of women. The transformation of men and ofWestern CIV-ilization is a primary condition for every other change that is neededin shaping a future worthy of either men or women. Androcenrnsmand patriarchY bring down in ruins the nnest ~spirations of the reli-gious and humanist traditions of Western c,vll~zatJon-and also, It

stother civilizations of the EurasIan world that have

seems, rno

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182 . THE GREAT WORK

dominat d the first several thousand years of the modern human pro-

jeer. II might even b indicated that the foundations of our culturaltradition hare from the beginning tended in this direction. A trulyr alistic insight into the situation might reveal that the distortionswe mention might be Ie a deviation than the fulfillment of certaina pe ts of th Western tradition. This new interpretation of Westernhistory, a dominated by its patriarchal establishments, can be con-sidered the m st profound contribution to historical understandingmade in recent centuries.

The first concern just now is for men to accept the transformationin Western civilization indicated by abandoning their androcentrismand their patriarchal dominance. This transformation is a historicaltask forced upon the society by women. Men can best assist by wel-coming the transformation being effected and by recognizing theirresponsibility for the burden that women have endured tbrough thesepast centuries, and by understanding what women are communicat-ing to them.

One of the first steps for women now is assertion of their rolewithin the larger realm of human affairs. Assertion of their personaldjgnily and their personal rights in the socioeconomic order is an ele-mentary first step that needs to be taken. Distinguished women inevery sphere of life and in all the professions can be identifiedthroughout history, but especially in the nineteenth and twentiethcenturies. With Madame Marie Curie (1867-1934), women attaineddistinction in the scientific realm. She was followed by many otherwomen who entered the scientific as weil as the various professionaloccupations: Maria Montessori in pedagogy (1870-1952), RachelCarson (1907-1964) in biology, Barbara McClintock (1902-1992)In understanding the genetic process.

While there are innumerable stories of women in their publiccareers and in their professional achievements, there exists also,throughout the twentieth century, a long list of worn it d. . . en \VTI erg anacuvrsts more directly concerned with foste.ring th I the persona, e

The Fourfold Wisdom . 183

social, and the professional well-being of women. Th nature and thextent ofchange that women will initiate in th coming ears through-out the social and cultural context of contemporary life is beyondimagining.Already, though, Mary joy Breton has list d the contribu-tions that women are making to the environmental renewal f theEarth in her book, Women Pioneers/or the Enviroll1nell.J..Until recentlymen seemto have attained more prominence in nature wriling, womenseem to be more prominant in active doing, especially in the immedi-ate workof preserving a viable planet for future generations.

Out of their historical experience an immense store of wisdom isavailable towomen [or influencing the course of the future in its everyaspect, [rom its social and cultural through its religious institutions,its educational establishments, and its economic functioning. Yetthere is, it seems, a deeper background to the identity of woman, abackground that reaches far back in time to the Neolithic Period, abackground that is of special significance in relation to the task ofmoving the human project into a period when humans would be pre-

sent to the Earth in a mutually enhancing manner.The earliest and most profound human experience of woman in

these Connercenturies of human development is found in identifyingmaternal nurturance as the primordial creating, sustaining, and ful-filling power of the universe. Mutual nuIlurance is presented as theprimary bonding of each component of the universe with the othercomponents. This experience of the universe as originating in andsustained by a primordial originating and nurturing principle immi-nent in the universe itself finds expression in the figure of theGoddess in the late paleolithic Period and in the Neolithic Period in

the Near East.This Goddess figure presided over this period as a world of mean-ing, of security, of creativity in all its forms. This wa~ not a matri-archy, nor was it a social program. 11was a comprehenSive cosmologyof a creative and nurturing principle independent of any aSSOCI-ated male figure. This is difficult for us to envisage, a world WItha

164 . THE GREAT WORK

compr hen ive cosmology of woman with a derivative sociology. lt isa tribute to contemporary women that they are developing both a

so iology and a cosmology of woman.The records of this early period come down to us in archaeological

remains with an immense number of figurines and symbolic impres-sions in clay. The e have finally been excavated and interpreted for usby Marija Gimbutas. Although we now know this period more thor-oughly than we have ever known it previously, the historical studieshave, until recenLly, been overwhelmed by both the archaeological andthe historical studies of the next period, the period dominated by themale warrior deities that presided over the religious life of the periodfrom 3000 BeE. Only now have these earlier sources from the NeolithicPeriod been fully studied by a woman. Gimbutas has found and inter-preted what, it seems, no one else has been able to fully appreciate.

From these archaeological studies of the Neolithic Period, alsofrom historical references of the succeeding age, we can concludethat this period of the Goddess was a relatively peaceful time, of inti-mate human presence to the Earth and to the entire natural world.The first permanent villages were established. The first domesticationof plants and animals took place in these settled communities. Weare just beginning to appreciate how creative a time it was when theGoddess culture had a pervasive presence throughout human affairs.So far scholars have been mainly concerned with this period for whatit meant in terms of human capacity to shape village communitiesand to exploit the land by growing crops.

The male deities did not rise out of this context. These frequentlywarrior deities arose from without and became dominant throughoutthe Eurasian landmass as Zeus, Yahweh, Indra, and Thor. All of thiswas the beginning of the urban, literate, patriarchal civilizations. withthe subordination of feminine deities in the Greek world and thedenunciation of feminine deities in the biblical world. Once this dom-inant position of men as divine rulers or as rulers with divine sanctionwas established, a fixation developed that could not be successfully

The Fourfold Wisdom . 185

altered until the religious traditions of Western civilization and theirassociated deity came to be challenged in their basic meaning.

THE WISDOM of the classical traditions is based on revelal ry experi-ences ofa spiritual realm both tran cendent to and imminent in the vis-ible worldaboul us and in the capacity of humans 10 participate in thatworld to achieve the fullness of their own mode of being. The Hindutradition of India is founded on the revelation of the unity of the deep-est self of the universe, the Alman, with the inner self of the human, arevelation received by the ancient rishis in the Upanishadic medita-tions. Expressed in the phrase "Thou art That" the individual self findsits identity in the Great Self. The Buddhist u·adition is founded on theenlightenment experience of Gautama Buddha, for whom the universewas revealed as transient, sorrowful, and unreal. The immediate con-elusion is expressed in the teaching of universal compassion. In theirfinal fulfillment every being participates in the primordial reality of theBuddha. The Chinese experience moves less toward the transcendentworld than to the spontaneities and the inner rhythms of the cosmos.The supreme experience is that of unity with the "One Body" of all the

components of the universe, "the ten thousand things."The elassical wisdom of the Western world is a wisdom focused

on the existence of a monotheistic personal male deity, creator of theuniverse clearly distinct from himself, a deity communicating hisdirections for the human community to a small pastoral tribe in thePalestinian region of the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea.The personalities in communication with this deity were considered

as prophetic personalities, persons who speak for the deity.The main characteristic of this primordial wisdom of the Western

world is its direct communication from this supreme personal deity,who later appeared in human form as teacher and as savior. The reve-lation communicated for all the peoples of the world mclud

esa pat-

tern of historical achievement to be accomplished by a chosen group

186 . TH E GREAT WORK

of belieren;. The hi torical dynamism of this tradition has driventhec urs of the Western world down through the centuries withthecon-I' iction that it i leading the entire human community to fulJillmentina divin kingd m, a king 10111with a millennial fulfillment onEarthiohistorical time and a posthi torical fulfillment in an eternal transcen-dentaL 1110deof being.

Another major comp nenL of Western tradition is the Greekhumanist tradition as expressed in their literary and artistic accom-plishments; also as expres ed in the tragedies of Aeschylus andSophocles, in the teachings of the philosophers, especially of Platoand Aristotle, and in the architecture and sculptures of theParthenon. When the biblical tradition and the Greek humanist tra-ditions carne together, the full power of the thought and spiritualtra-dition of the Western world began to take shape.

In the early fourth century the Roman Empire became officiallyChristian. Yet it required a long period of assimilation and long cen-turies of internal and external strife before components of Westerncivilization couJd come together in a coherent cultural expressionthat eventually gave rise to medieval Europe.

When these three traditions-the biblical, the Greek humanist,and the Roman imperial-carne together and the conversion of thebarbarian tribes began to occur, the tradition that would become thedominanj power in Iuture world history was assembled in all its basiccomponents. It might even be said that a force was assembled thatone day would pass beyond the merely human world and seek toimpose its technological dominion upon the natural world, with theconsequence of disrupting the geological and biological systems ofthe Earth. Even though the religious tradition would be rejected inthis later scientific age, the deep mind formation of the scientist, aswell as the driving quest of Western civilization, would be derivedfrom the original religious vision and by the intellectual tradition pre-served and developed within that tradition.

. The outward movement of Western civilization in taking posses-ston of the planet began in the ninth and tenth centuries when the

I

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The Fou1old Wisdom· 187

Frankish Empire integrated by Charlemagne began its d fen eagainst the incoming powers of the ormans from the north, theMagyars from the east, and the Muslims from the southwest. Thismovement of resistance turned outward with the Crusades, a move-ment continued by the later exploration and colonization of the greater

part of the entire planet.Meanwhile the other classical traditions were developing their

own wisdom tmditions. Immense collections of scriptures and com-mentaries and expository treatises were compiled through the cen-turies for understan(Eng the numinous forces moving throughout theuniverse and their guidance of human affairs in allbfe circumstances.These traditions governed social life and individual ethical conduct,political authority, family traditions, and childhood fomlation. Theyshaped the language of the various societies, their thought patterns,their rituals, their sense of social responsibility, their ruling authority.

This was the wisdom that found expression in the great templesand monuments, the arts, the great literature of the world, as well asin the dances and music traditions. Among these accomplishmentswe find the rock-hewn temples of India, the shrines and carving ofAngkor Wat in Cambodia, the Great Stupa of Borobudur in Indonesia,the Pyramids of Egypt, and of the Mayan and Aztec peoples of Meso-America. So too there appeared the Parthenon of Greece; the Forum,the Pantheon, and the Colosseum of Rome; the Gothic cathedrals of

medieval Europe.Most powerful in shaping the mind ofWestern civilization were theuniversities that were founded in the medieval period. Among thesewere the universities of Paris, Oxford and Cambridge, Prague andVienna, Salamanca and Bologna. These and other centers of learninghave been among the most powerful institutions that have come downinto our own times. They provided the context in which later scientificlearning could develop and be communicated to our owntimes ....

To list .lIthe achievements of this period in the vanous

CIVIliza-tions or even in the Western world would be an overwhelming task.These are only fragments of what might be listed to indicate some of

188 . THE GREAT WORK

th a complishm nt of these civilizations that have establishedthelif interpretation of the e peoples. Those with any knowledgeofthisexpansive vi w of the pa t several thousand years can appreciatethemanner in which the contemporary world is still guided by the under-standing of the universe and the life interpretation provided by thisimmense heritage.

Wh n we look ba k over ail these achievements a certain poignantfeeLng arises in the human soul as we reAect on what had to beendured in Western civilization by the people of these times. A harshand bitter aspect of the entire period endured by the peasantry waslater depicted in T. S. Eliot's play Murder in the Cathedral, the storyof Thomas a Becket. There was indeed the feeling of participation inSome Great Work and yet there was also frequent starvation, minimalprotection from the chill of winter, the oppression by those in power,the hardships of women, the severity used against those considered tohave deviated from the prescribed beliefs, the needless wars. Thesegave to the period an ambivalence that it would C81TY throughout latertimes when social cri tics such as Karl Marx and Peter Kropotkinwould identify the harshness endured by the populace for thegrandeur experienced by the elite.

Yet, however betrayed, throughout ail the traditions there weretruly noble ideals, enduring insights, valid directions for the humanproject. There was compassion for the oppressed, the suffering, eventhe willingness to endure vicarious suffering for others, as withVimalakirti and Shantideva in the early centuries of MahayanaBuddhism. Ideals of gentleness were expressed in the Taoist tradi-tions of China. Confucianism proclaimed that if the emperor sawsomeone afflicted on the roadside he should feel responsible for hiscondition. Chang Tsai in the twelfth century, taught that affectionshould be shown toward everyone: "Even those who are tired andinfirm, crippled or sick, those who have no brothers or childrenwives or husbands, are all my brothers who are in distress and haveno one to turn to" (quoted in deBary and Lufran I 2

0, vo. • pp.683--{)84).So too in Western tradition are the example f F . fso rancis 0

Assisi in his intimacy with the natural world and in his commitment

to the poor.Among the contributions of We tern civilization to the human

project and to the destinies of the planet might be listed not only thehistorical realism but also the emphasis on human intelligence. Toappreciate this confidence in the powers of the human mind devel-oped in the medieval European world, we need to reflect on the situa-tion in Europe in the twelfth and thit1eenth centuries. This was theculminating period in the philosophical and cultural development ofIslamic society in Spain. There were situated the great schools of phi-losophy based on the heritage of Greek thought, especially that ofAristotle. At this time the thought of Aristotle passed over fromIslamic Spain into the Christian world of medieval Europe. The crisisconcerning faith and reason and how these were related to each otherthat had arisen in twelfth century Muslim Spain developed also in theChristian world. To deal with this question and to develoP an authen-tic Christian intellectual tradition, Thomas Aquinas was brought toRome from the University of Paris in 1259. From that time until his :Ideath in 1274 he dedicated himself to the interpretation of biblical

revelation within the context of the Aristotelian cosmology.Mainly through his work the Christian world developed a confi-

dence in the reasoning processes of the human mind, accepting theview of Thomas that no authentic truth known by the human mindcould be opposed to any revealed uuth. This confidence in the powers Iof human reason in medieval Europe and in the other civilizations is acentral feature of the wisdomof the traditions. This commitment in theEuropean world is what made the succeeding age of science possiblef, i\although the difference between the mainly deductive reasoning 0 :1

Aristotle and the mainly empirical inquiry of modern science created.a tension that has continued throughout recent centuries.

The Fourfold Wisdom . 189

TliE WISDOM: of science, as this exists in the Western world atthe beginning of the twenty-first century, lies in its discovery that the

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190 . THE GREAT WORK

universe has orne into being by a sequence of evolutionarytransfor-mations over an immen e period of time. Through these transforma-tion pisod s the universe ha pas ed from a lesser to a greatercomplexity in Structure and from a lesser to a greater modeof con-s iou ness. We might say that the universe, in the phenomenalorder,is If-em rgent, elf- ustaining, and self-fulfilling. The universeisth only self-referent mode of being in the phenomenal world.Everyther being is universe-referent in itself and in its every activity.Awarene s that the universe is 1110re cosmogenesis than cosmos mightbe the greatest change in human consciousness that has taken placesince the awakening of the human mind in the Paleolithic Period.

This earlier awakening of the human mind took place in a spatialmode of underst.anding. The universe, as originally experienced bythe human mind, moved in all ever-renewing sequence of changesthat easily coordinated with the changes in the natural world,withthedaily cycle of dawn and dusk, with the yearly cycle of the seasons. Inthis context the great journey toward life fulfillment is the journeyportrayed in the mandala symbol where the human journey towardfulfillment is toward the center where the divine, the cosmic, and thehuman worlds become present to each other in mutual fulfillment.The small self of the individual reaches its completion in the GreatSelf of the universe.

A constant awareness of this spatial context of life gives to humanlife a deep Security, for this ever-renewing world is both an abidingand a sacred world. To live consciously within this sacred world is forthe personal self of the individual to be integral with the Great Self ofthe universe. To move from this abiding spatial context of personalidentity to a sense of identity with an emergent universe is a transi-tion that has, even now, not been accomplished in any comprehensivemanner by any of the world's spiritual Lraditions.. This change in. human consciousness had its beginning in thesixteenth century With Copernicus. At this time both the value andthe difficulty in the work of Thomas Aquinas be

came apparent.

The Fourfold Wisdom . 191

Copernicus and his followers uch as Kepler an I Galileo could nothave done their work with such confidence unless Thomas hadauthenticated the reasoning function of the human mind in Westemtradition. The difficulty was that Thomas had done his work too weU,for he had established Christian revelation so fully within the scien-tific perspective of Aristotle that it nOWappeared that any discoveriesmade that opposed the view of the universe as described by Aristotlemust necessarily be false. If they were false then they could not becoherent with revealed teaching, since one of the perspectives ofThomas was that any error concerning the natmal world would endan-

ger the authentic understanding of the world of faith.Because the religious commitment to Aristotle was so intense it

was unavoidable that a conflict should occm once such new develop-ments in science began to take place. It was not simply a commitmentto the science of Aristotle, it was a commitment also to the deductiveprocesses of reason that tended to dominate all such earlier thinking.Only very late in the history of human thinking did the full apprecia-tion of empirical research science come into being. When it did comeinto being it reacted with understandable intensity against traditionaldeductive processes. The reaction was not only to the mode of think-ing and to the structure of the world presented, but it was extended

even to the denial of the spiritual realm.For the first time in human history the spirit world, the world of

soul, was considered an unreal emotional or aesthetic experience ofthe human psyche. As a subjective illusion, without acceptable evi-dence it had no objective validity. Scientists took over both the intel-lectual and moral guidance of the society through their control overthe human mind in the educational program. By its inventive geniusscience also brought forth an endless number of new technologiesthat gave to humans amazing power over the phenomenal world.

Francis Bacon, in the early seventeenth century, proposed thatthrough experiments with nature, we could learn more about just hownature functions and through this knowledge we could control nature

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192 . THE GREAT WORK

rather than be controlled by natur . While this was a profoundencourag ment t th idea of experimentation, it was not FrancisBacon but Calileo Galilei who first performed thoroughly controlledand mathematically measured experiments. His work, togetherwiththat of Johannes Kepler, who had first observed that the planets movein elliptical rather than circular orbits, set the background for thework of Isaac Newton who came to understand the laws ofgravitationin relation to the movement of the heavenly bodies. His descriptionprovided the dominant Western concept of the universe until the timeof Albert Einstein and Max Planck in the twentieth century.

Newton, however, had no idea of the evolutionary nature of the uni-verse. This insight came later through continued studies of the uni-verse, I ut also of the geological structure and biological systems ofEarth. These studies eventually led to an awareness that notonlyEarthbut the entire universe had come into being through a long sequence ofevolutionary transformations over an immensely long period of time.The impOl1ant thing about all these discoveries is that they led to anawareness of the unity of the universe within itself and with each of itscomponents. It also led to a realization that each component of the uni-verse is immediately in contact with each of the other components ofthe universe. In this manner it could be said that in a scientific as wellas a religious sense the small self of the individual finds its Great Selfin the universe. These somehow exist for each other.

Because this story is a single story and the components of theuniverse are so intimately related, the story must account for humanintelligence. If we consider that human intelligence is a psychic fac-ulty, then the universe from the beginning must be a psychic-produc-ing process. To find a place for the human is the difficulty of thosewho wouJd maintain that the universe is simply a material mode ofbeing without an intelligent dimension.

If the unity of the universe is one aspect of the wisdom of science,another aspect is the emergent nature of the universe. The third is theexistence or human. intelligence as an integral component of the uni-

The Fourfold Wisdom . 193

verse.The story of the universe becomes th pi tory of our times.It narrates something thal can be considered in analogy with theepic of the Odyssey and with the other epi tories such a theMahabharata and the Ra17laya,na of india, or the Niebelungelied of

the Germanic world.

AFTER CONSIDERING the wisdom of indigenous peoples, the wisdomofwomen,the wisdom of the traditions, and the wisdom of science, itseemsquite clear that these all agree in the intimacy of humans with thenatural world in a single community of existence. The human emergesfrom the larger universe and discovers itself in this universe. This wefind expressed throughoulthe life and thought and ritual of indigenouSpeoples. In the wisdom of women it is found in the description of theuniverse as a mutually nourishing presence of all things with eachother. Such is the view of the universe presented in the Goddess figureand other symbolisms. After being excluded from somuch of the humanworldover the centuries, women are revealing the disaster of androc

en-

trism to our society for the first time in Westem history. ISo too in the classical traditions, the basic teaching in all of the ,

traditions is the fulfillment of the human in the larger functioning of I

the universe. This we find in Hinduism in the unity of the individual I' I

self with the Atman, the Great Self of the universe. This is also pre-sent in the Buddhist teaching that every mode of being participateS in ' ! Ithe Buddha Nature. In the Chinese expression of the "One Body" weare told by Wang Yang-ming in the sixteenth century: "Everythingfrom ruler, minister, husband, wife, and friends to mountains, rivers,heavenly and earthly spirits, birds, animals, and plants, all shouldbe truly loved in order to realize my humanity that forms a unity, andthen my clear character will be completely manifested, and I willreally form one body with Heaven Earth, and the myriad things."

In the Westem

world the unity of humans with the other com-

tsof the universe in a single integral-entity universe finds

ponen

194 . THE GREAT WORK

expres ion most I arly in the cosmology of Plato as expressed in the1imeaeu.s (par. 36e), "Now when the creator had framed the soulaccording to hi will, he formed within her the corporeal universe,and brought the two together and united them, center to center."Yetit wa the Stoic philo opher, Chrysippus, with his idea of the greatcity of the universe, the Cosmopolis, that most clearly expressed thisWestern sense of onenes of the universe within a single communityof being by a poLitical analogy. Throughout the medieval period theunity of humans with the larger universe was founded more on thecreation story of Genesis and on the cosmic dimension of the Christpresence in the universe as expressed by Saint Paul in his Epistletothe Colossians where he indicates that in the mystical Christ "allthings hold together."

A new basis for the unity of humans with the larger earth commu-nity is found in the discoveries of modern science. The more clearlywe understand the sciences and their perceptions of the universe, themore clearly we appreciate the intimate presence of each componentof the universe with every other component. This unity is realizedboth in our studies of the large-scale structure and functioning of theuniverse and in the geobiological systems of the Earth.

A similar unity is found in the science traditions of the Westernworld. The more clearly we understand the sciences and their percep-tions of the universe, the more clearly we understand the intimate pres-ence of each component of the universe with every other component.This unity is realized in a unique manner in the geobiological systemsof the Earth.

It becomes increasingly evident that in our present situation no oneof these traditions is sufficient. Weneed aJJ of the traditions. Each has itsown distinctive achievements, limitations, distortions, its own specialcontribution toward an integral wisdom tradition that seems to be tilingshape in the emerging twenty-first century.Each of the traditional modesof understanding seems to be experiencing a renewal. For the first timethe indigenous trad.itions are accepted as setting the basic model for

humanpresence to the universe. We need such intimacy with the naturalworld as that presented in the Great Thanksgiving Ceremony of theIroquoisindians as they made fonnal recognition of their existence as thegiftof the various powers of the universe. The Harvard-based Forum onReligionand Ecology, which grew out of a three-year senes of confer-ences on the world's religions and their views of nature, is an importantnew direction for examining the wisdom of the religious traditions for

guidanceinto the next century.For the first time also we begin to understand that the human pro-

ject belongs in the care and under the direction of both women andmen. This was a movement out of a patriarchal society into a trulyintegral human order. So too the traditional Western civilization mustwithdraw from its efforts at dominion over the E81·th.This will be oneof the most severe disciplines in the future, for the Western addictionto economic dominance is even more powerful than the drive toward

political dominance. I

Then, finally, there is the epic of evolution, the contribution dofsCIli-

l IIence toward the future. The universe story is our story, indivi ua yand as the human community. In this context we can feel secure in ourefforts to fulfill the Great Work before us. The guidance, the inspira- 1

tion and the energy we need is available. The accomplishment of theGreat Work is the task not simply of the human community but ofthe entire planet Earth. Even beyond Earth, it is the Great Work of the

universe itself.

The Fourfold Wisdom . 195

17

MOMENTSoj

GRACE

AS WE ENTER THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY, WE ARE EXPERI-

. il d omentsencing a moment of grace. Such moments are priv ege m .The great transformations of the universe occur at such times. Thefuture is defined in some enduring pattern of its functioning.

There are cosmological and historical moments of grace as wellas religious moments of grace. The present is one of those moments oflransformation that can be considered as a cosmological, as well as ahistorical and a religious moment of grace.

Such a moment occurred when the star out of which our solar sys-tem was born collapsed in enormous heat, scattering itself as fragmentsin the vast realms of space. In the center of this star the elements hadbeen forming through a vast period of time until in the final heat of thisexplosion the hundred-some elements were present. Only then couldthe sun, our star, give shape to itself by gathering these fragmentstogether with gravitational power and then leaving some nine sphericalshapes sailing in elliptical paths around itself as planetary forms. At

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Moments of Grace . 191

this momentEarth too could take shape; life could be evoked; intelli-

gence in its human form became possible.This supernova event of a first or second generation star could be

considered a cosmological moment of grace, a moment that deter-mined the future possibilities of the solar system, Earth, and of every

formof life that would ever appear on the Earth.For the more evolved multicellular organic forms of life to appear

there then had to appear the first living cell: a procaryotic cell capa-ble, by the energy of the sun, the carbon of the atmosphere, and thehydrogen of the sea, of a metabolic process never known previously.This original moment of transition from the nonliving to the livingworld, was fostered by the fierce lightning of these early times. Then,at a critical moment in the evolution of the original cell, another cellcapable of using the oxygen of the atmosphere with its immense ener-gies appeared. Photosynthesis was completed by respiration.

At this moment the living world as we know it began to flourishuntil it shaped the Earth anew. Daisies in the meadows, the song ofthe mockingbird, the graceful movement of dolphins through the sea,all these became possible at this moment. We ourselves became pos-sible. New modes of music, poetry, and painting, all these came intobeing in new forms against the background of the music and poetryand painting of the celestial forms circling through the heavens.

In human history there have also been such moments of grace.Such was the occasion in northeast Africa some 2.5 million years agowhen the first humans stood erect and a cascade of consequences wasbegun that eventuated in our present mode of being. Whatever talentexists in the human order, whatever genius, whatever capacity forecstatic joy, whatever physical strength or skin, an this has come tous through these earlier peoples. Itwas a determining moment.

There were other moments too in the cultural-historical orderwhen the future was determined in some comprehensive and benefi-cial manner. Such a moment was experienced when humans firstwere able to control fire; when spoken language was invented; when

198 ' THE GREAT WORK

th first gar I ns were cultivated; when weaving and the shapingandfiring of pottery were practiced; when writing and the alphabet wereinv nted. Then there were the moments when the great visionarieswere born who gave to the peoples of the world their unique senseofth sacred, when the great revelation occurred, So too there werethetimes when the great torytellers appeared-Homer and Valmikiandother composer who gave to the world its great epic tales, Therewasalso the time of the great historians-Ssu-ma Ch'ien in China,Thucydides in Greece, Ibn Khaldun in the Arab world,

So now in this transition period into the twenty-first century,weareexperiencing a moment of grace, but a moment in its significancethatis different from any previous moment. For the first time the planet isbeing disturbed by humans in its geological structure and its biologicalfunctioning in a manner like the great cosmic forces that alter the geo-logical and biological structures of the planet or like the glaciations,

We are also altering the great classical civilizations as well as theindigenous tribal cultures that have dominated the spiritual andintellectual development of vast numbers of persons throughout thesepast five thousand years, These civilizations and cultures that havegoverned our sense of the sacred and established our basic norms ofreality and value and designed the life disciplines of the peoples ofEarth are terminating a major phase of their historical mission, Theteaching and the energy they communicate are unequal to the task ofguiding and inspiring the future, They cannot guide the great workthat is before us, We will never be able to function without these tra-ditions. But these older traditions alone cannot fulfill the needs of themoment. That they have been unable to prevent and have not yetproperly critiqued the present situation is evident. Something new ishappening. A new vision and a new energy are coming into being.

After some four centuries of empirical observation and experi-ment we are having a new experience of the deepest mysteries of the~nivers~.We see the universe both as a developmental sequence ofirreversible transformations and as an ever-renewl'ng s fequence 0seasonal cycles. We find ourselves living both as cosmos d

an as cos-

Moment.sofGrace . 199

mogenesis. In this context we ourselves have become omething ofa cosmic force. If formerly we lived in a thoroughly understood ever-renewing sequence of seasonal change, we now see ourselves both asthe consequence of a long series of irreversible transformations andas a determining force in the pre nttran formation that the Earth is

experiencing.As happened at the moment when the amount of free oxygen in

the atmosphere threatened to rise beyond its proper proportion and sodestroy all living beings, so now awesome forces are letlon

seover the

Earth. This time, however, the cause is from an industrial economythat is disturbing the geological structure and life-systems of the

I .p anet In a manner and to an extent that the Earth has never knownpreviously.Many of the most elaborate expressions of life and grandeurand beauty that the planet has known are nOWthreatened in their sur-

vival. All this is a consequence of human activity.So severe and so irreversible is this deterioration that we might

well believe those who tell us that we have only a brief period in whichto reverse the devastation that is settling over the Earth· Only recentlyhas the deep pathos of the Earth situation begun to a sink into ourconsciousness. While we might exult in our scientific and technolog-ical achievements in our journey to the moon we must also experi- I[ence some foreboding lest, through our industrial uses of these same 'scientific and technological processes, we reduce the wonder and IIbeauty as well as the nourishing capacities of the Earth. We mightlose the finest experiences that come to us through all those wondrousforms of life expression as well as the sources of the food and clothing

and shelter that we depend on for our survival.It is tragic to see all those entrancing forms of life expressions

imperiled so wantonly, forms that came into being during the past 65million years, the lyric moment of Earth development. Yet as so oftenin the past, the catastrophic moments are also creative moments. Wecome to appreciate the gifts that the Earth has given us.

Such is the context in which we must view this transition periodinto the twenty-first century as a moment of grace. A unique opportu-

200 . THE GREAT WORK

nity ari es. For if th challenge is so absolute, the possibilitiesarequa.lJy comprehen ive. We have identified the difficulties but alsotheopportunities of what is before u . A comprehensive change of con-ciou ness is coming over the human community, especially in theindustrial nati ns of the world. For the first time since the industrialage began we have a profound critique of its devastation, a certainwithdrawal in dismay at what is happening, along with an enticingviewof the po sibilities before us.

Much of this is n w. Yet ali during the last few decades of thetwentieth century studies were made that give us precise informationon what we must do. A long list of persons, projects, institutions,research programs, and publications could be drawn up iodieatingthat something vital is happening. A younger generation is growingup with greater awareness of the need for a mutually enhancing modeof human presence to the Earth. Wehave even been told that concernfor the environment must become "the central organizing principle ofcivilization" (Gore, p. 269).

The story of the universe is now being told as the epic story ofevolution by scientists. We begin Launderstand our human identitywith all the other modes of existence that constitute with us the singleuniverse community. The one story includes us all. We are, everyone,cousins to one another. Every being is intimately present to andimmediately influencing every other being.

We see quite clearly that what happens to the nonhuman happensto the human. WhaLhappens to the outer world happens to the innerworld. If the outer world is diminlshed in its grandeur then the emo-tional, imaginative, intellectual, and spiritual life of the human isdiminished or extinguished. WiLhout the soaring birds, the greatforests, the sounds and coloration of the insects. the free-flowingstreams, the flowering fields, the sight of the clouds by day and thestars at night, we become impoverished in all that makes us human.

There is nowdeveloping a profound mystique of the natural world.Beyond the technical comprehension of what is happening and the

Moments of Grace . 201

directions in which we need to change, we now experience the de pmysteriesofexistence through the wonders of the world about us. Thisexperience has been considerably advanced through the writings ofnatural-history essayists. Our full entran ement with various naturalphenomena is presented with the literary skill and interpretativedepth appropriate to the subject. We experience this especially in thewritings ofLoren Eiseley, who recovered for u in this century the fullwonder of the natural world about us. He has continued the vision ofthe universe as this was presented to us in the nineteenth century byRalph WaldoEmerson, Henry David Thoreau, Emily Dickenson, and

John Muir.We are now experiencing a moment of significance far beyond

what any of us can imagine. What can be said is that the foundationsof a new historical period, the Ecozoic Era, have been established inevery realm of human affairs. The mythic vision has been set intoplace. The distorted dream of an industrial technological paradise isheing replaced by the more viable dream of a mutually enhancinghuman presence within an ever-renewing organic-based Earth com-munity. The dream drives the action. In the larger cultural context the "IIdream becomes the myth that both guides and drives the action.

But even as we make our transition into this new century we must I'note that moments of grace are transient moments. The transforma-tion must take place within a brief period. Otherwise it is gone for-ever. In the immense story of the universe, that so many of thesedangerous moments have been navigated successfully is some indi-cation that the universe is for us rather than against us. We need onlysummon these forces to our support in order to succeed. It is difficultto believe that the purposes of the universe or of the planet Earth willultimately be thwarted, although the human challenge to these pur-

poses must never be underestimated.

THIS BIBLIOGRAPHY INCLUDES A WIDE RANCE OF SOURCE MATERIALS.

Such extensive materials are required because of the comprehensive natureofthe issues dealt with in this study. Here we are dealing with the wide rangeofhuman affairs in relation La the planet Earth. I have given a brief explanation

of each item so that the reader will be acquainted with the issues presented.lhave included writings from points of view diverse from my own. While the

greater number of books are readily available, some were published earlierand may be difficult to locate. Yet these books are of special value for theircontribution to the subject under discussion. Still, as long as this bibliographyis, it is entirely inadequate in relation to the immense amount of material thatdeserves to be included. JJ some of the best materials are missing, I can onlysay that the books listed can at least be taken as a beginning.

Abram, David. The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-

Than-Human World. New York: Pantheon Books, 1996. A presentation ofthe manner in which humans symbolize their experience of the worldabout them, with special attention to what happens when this symboliza-tion lind~expression in language and in writing. Written with a new depthof insight into human-Earth relations.

Allen, Paula Cunn. The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in AmericanIndian Tradition. Boston: Beacon Press, 1986. A scholar of AmericanIndian history and literature, a poet, and an essayist. Allen, with herLaguna Pueblo heritage, presents a rich and varied collection of essaysdealing largely with the role of the feminine in the life and literature ofthe indigenous peoples of the North American continent.

Anderson, Rebert O. Fundamentals of the Petroleum Industry. Norman, OK:University of Oklahoma Press, 1984. A valuable survey of the petroleumindustry in its many aspects. Much of this data is not readily availableelsewhere.

202

Bibliography . 203

Anderson,William. GreenMan: The Archetype oj Our Ollelless with the Eonb-Photographyby Clyde Hicks. San Francis 0: HarperColl

ins• 1990. That

the human had a certain identity with the Earth finds expression in theartistic form throughout Western history. The work of medieval artists is

especially impressive.Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Contra Gentiles. Translat I by Anton C. p gls.

NotreDame. IN: University of Notre Dame Press. 1955. The most ignifi-cant work of Thomas Aquinas, written for those who do not accept the

Christian scriptures. (Abbreviated as SCC.) References are cited as thebook and the appropriate chapter. There are four books in this work;the chapters are the equivalent of extended paragraphS in contemporary

wntmgs.__ . Summa Theologica. Translated by English Dominicans. New York:Benziger Brothers. 1946. The thirteenth-century masterwork of ThomasAquinas explaining Christian belief within the context of Aristoteliancosmology.(Abbreviated as ST.)The work is written in tenllS of questionsproposed and responses given. References are cited as one of the threeparts of the work. then the number of the question, then the number of the

article answering the question.Ayers, Harvard, et al., ede. An Appalachian Tragedy: Air pollution and Tree

Death in the Eastern Forestso/North America. San Francisco: Sierra ClubBooks, 1998. The text of this photographic volume is by Charles Little,someone with a comprehensive acquaintance with the forests of the NorthAmerican continent. The photographs are rendered with the perfection

that is now possible.Bailey, Ronald, ed. The True State of the Planet: Ten of the Worlds PremierEnvironmental Researchers in a Major Challenge to the EnvironmentalMovement. New York: The Free PresS. 1995. A work by ten scholars invarious fields of expertise, all claiming that the industrial venture is notruining the planet but is rather assisting efforts to maintain the well-beingof the planet. this is a direct assault on the environmental movement,sponsored by the Competitive Enterprise Institute. It is of value to knowhow prevalent the antagonism to the environmental movement is:

Baring, Anne. and Jules Cashford. The Myth of the Goddess:Eoolutton

of anImage. London and NewYork:Penguin Books, 1991. A monumental sur-vey of Goddess worship in various cultural traditions with abundant

I I

204 . THE GREAT WORK

literary references and impressive illustrations. Written with clarity andgra e of expres ion.

Barlow, Connie. ed. Evolution Extended: Biological Debates on the Meaning ofLife. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1994. An extensive collection and inter-

pretation of data on recent biological studies concerning the evolutionary

story and the meaning that it has for the human story. Barlow is a writerand editor with both scientific insight and expository skills.

Barnet, Richard J., and John Cavanaugh. Dreams: Imperial Corporations andthe New World Order. New York: Simon and Schuster/Touchstone Books,1994. A vast amount of information on the functioning of the corpora-

tions, their control of human affairs, and the consequences in every phase

of human social and cultural development.Barney, Gerald 0., ed. The Global 2000 Report to the President, Entering the

Twenty-first Century. "Commissioned by Carter, Disregarded by Reagan,

Published Here in an Unabridged Edition." New York: Penguin Books,

1982. This volume has special significance as the first effort sponsored bythe American political establishment to make a comprehensive survey of

the economic-politicaJ problems that will surely arise as the industrialorder finds itself in a world of ever-diminishing natural resources.

Berger, John J. Restoring the Earth: HowAmericans Are Working to Renew OUT

Damaged Environment. New York: Doubleday, 1987. An impressive seriesof grassroots programs for restoring the Earth are presented here in fulldetail.

Berry, Wendell. The Unsettling of America: Culture and Agriculture. New York:Weatherhill Press, 1986. A classic treatise by an active American fanneron the relationship between the culture of a people and the cultivation ofthe land. Berry describes how all the basic values in this way of lifebecome distorted by industrial agriculture.

Bertell, Rosalie. No Immediate Danger: Prognosisfor a Radioactive Earth.Toronto, Canada: Women's Educational Press, 1985. A careful anddetailed examination of the consequences of nuclear radiation on thebiosystems or the natural world, with special attention lo the conse-quences on the human population.

Billington, Ray Allen. Land of Savagery, Land of Promise: The EuropeanImage of the American Frontier in the Nineteenth Century. New York:W. W. Norton, 1981. An impressive collection of data from the writings of

Bibliography . 205

Europeans,mostly of the nineteenth century, but with extensi"e dow remthe eighteenth. Author is concemed with the arioue iut "reto

tivecon-

texts of the writers, from romantic id al ism to ext ferne realism.Boff,Leonardo.Cry o/t/I.CEarth, Cry a/IAe Poor. Maryknoll, Y:Orbi. Books,

1997.An impressive insight into the relation bet we nth social issue andthe ecologyissue from a Latin Ameri an liberation theologian with inti-mate experience of both issues. He shov..5 how neither ecological improve-ment norsocial well-being will function separate from each other.

Bohm, David. Wholeness ,Utd the Implicate Order. London: Roul1cdge andKeganPaul, 1980. This philosopher ha gi"en his allention especiaUy tothe immediate relationship between the smallest particle and the larger

community of existence- Bohm provides a way of understanding how theuniverse can be integral with itself throughout its vast extent in space and

its sequence of transformations in time.Bookchin,Murray. The Ecology 0/ Freedom: The Emergence and Dissolution of

Hierarchy.Palo Alto, CA: Cheshire Books, 1982.___ . Remaking Society. MOlltreal:Black Rose Books, 1989. The earliest of

our American social ecologists, Murray Bookchin is profoundly dedicatedto the elimination of hierarchical controls in human societies. He is alsoconcerned with the harm done by the dominion of humans over nature.

Bourdon, David. Designing the Earu« The Human Impulse 1.0 Shape Nawre.

New York: HalTYN. Abrams Press, 1995. A presentation of the large-scale work of humans in monumental architectural strUctures imposed on

the Earth and in the carving of the Earth itself.Bowers, C. A. The Culw.re o/Denial: Why the Environmental Movement Needs

a Strategy for Reforming Universil.ies an.d Public Schools. Albany, NY:State University of New York Press, 1997. One of the most competenteducators outlines what must be done to evoke a sense of the unIverseand the role of the human in the universe within educational programs at

al1levets._. Educal.ingforan Ecologically SustaillOble C"lture:Relhinking Moral

Education, Creativity, Intelligence, ond Other Modern Ques.tions.Albany,NY: State University of New York Press, 1995. An extenstve const

dera-

. f the deeper cultural forces that brought about the ecologIcal cnS15tiona . . 'iliand the cultural changes needed to remedy our present stlUaU

on, WI

special a.ttention to education.

II'IIIIIIII

I

206 . THE GREAT WORK

Breton, Mary Joy. Women Pioneers/or the Environment. Boston: Northeasternniv rsity Press, 1998. A book that deserves reading by everyone with

concern for both the role of women in our society and for healing the eco-

logical disruption caused by modern industry. Until recently men have

been better known in nature writing, women have been doing the work

of revealing the pollution taking place and working to stop the devasta-

tion of the natural world. More than forty of these women are identifiedhere.

Brock, William H. The Norton History oj Chemistry. New York: Iv. Iv. Norton,1992. A reliable and well-written survey of the long sequence of develop-

ments that have ted to OUf present competence in the field of chemistry.

Since an immense volume of chemical toxins is disturbing the life-systemsof the planet, some acquaintance with the backgrounds of the chemicalindustry is helpful.

Brower, David, with Steve Chapple. Let the Mountains Talk, Let the Rivers Run:A Call to Those Wh.o Would Save 'he Earth .. New York: HmperCoJlinsWest,1995. David Brower is a person of rare dedication and efficacy in his lead-ership in guiding environmentaJ organizations and saving the natural

regions of North America. He is perhaps the person in these times to beconsidered as successor to John Muir or Henry Thoreau. This is a book ofreflections in his later years with all the insight and inspiration that we areaccustomed to receiving from him.

Brown, Lester R., and Hal Kane. Full House: Reassessing the Earths Popu-lation Carrying Capacity. New York: W. W Norton WorldWatch Series,

1994. A well-documented account of the projected population increaseand expected food consumption in relation to the resources for growingthe food needed for an acceptable level of survival. Brown has been themoving power in the WoddWatch Institute and in the annual publicationof The State oj the World.

Brown, Lester, et al., eds. Vital Signs. New York: W W Norton. An annualpublication of the World Walch Institute since 1992. A survey of thehealth of the Earth in its basic components such as air: water: and food, "supply.

Buell, Lawrence. The Environmental lmaginauon: Thoreau, Nature Writing,Nature Writing and the Formation of Am.erican Culture. Cambridge:Harvard University Press, 1995. The environmental consciousness has a

Bibliograpl,y . 201

longhistoryof literary expression in poetry and peciall in the naluralhistoryessay.This study of environmental conscio""ess is an import

anl

contribution to understanding our contemporary mencan cuhure.Burdick, Donald L., and William L. Lerner. Petroclo.emi£alJ in antechnical

Language. Tulsa, OK: PennWell Publishing, ) 990. clear and authenlipresenlation of the petrochemical industry, on of the entral industriesin its immediate effect on the planet Earth and its air, wa! r, soil, and bi -

logical organisms.Burger,Julian. The Gaia Atlos oj First Peoples: A Fut.ureJor the IndigenoUS

World. NewYork: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1990. An eXlremely usefulcomprehensive survey of the tribal peoples of the world in alllheir diver-

sity, with basic information on their presenls1alUs.Cajete, Gregory.Look to the Mountain. Durango, CO.: Kivaki Press, 1994. A

Pueblo Indian perspective on Native American worldviewsand ecology.

Callicott, J. Baird. Earth's Insights: A Multi.culwral Survey oj Ecologi£al EthicsJrom the Mediterranean Boso» to 'he Australian Oul.back. Berkeley:University of California Press, 1994. Baird Callicott has long been dedi-cated to the basic cultural need for a land ethic supporling an inlim

ate

rapport with the natural world about us. Here he surveys many of theworld's religious traditions in support of environmental elhics.

Campbell, Colin J. The Coming Oi.1 Crisis. BrentwOod, Essex, England:Multiscience Publishing and Petroconsultants, 1997. The author has fol-lowed the petroleum industry in minute detail throughout his professionallife. He documents: the discovery, the amount of petroleum available, therate of use, with careful mathematical measurements as regards its future

th.' . tho field before

availability. He has also consulted other au onues In rs

making the final calculations recorded here.Carson, Rachel. The Sense oj Wonder. Photographs by Charles praU.

andoth-

ers. NewYork: Harper and Row,1956. Here we are presenled with a pr~-. f d 'thin children at their

found appreciation of the awakening 0 won er WI .

I ld d thnderful discovenes that

first experiences of the nature wor an e we

can be made, especially at the seashore. . .h M

''''· 1962 ThIS ie the work of a_ Silent Spring. Boston: Houg ton u"IO,' h . I

res~arch biologist sensilive to rhe consequences of the use of c .:;;a s. effo"" to suppress pests and weeds in agriculture, with spec'. er-in d b DDT This stlldy evoked an Intense

ence

to the damage one Y .

208 . THE GREAT WORK

opposition 10 Carson's work in scientific circles, in the media and, ofcourse, in the industrial world.

Chung. Hyun Kyung. Struggle to 8e the Sun Again: Introducing Asian Wamen\Theology: Maryknoll, NY; Orbis Books, 1990. This book is written withsuperb insight into the inherent nobility of women amid the oppressions

that women have endured. Some sense of the grace and understanding of

the author's writing can be seen in her summary statement that theology

for Asian women is a language of "hope. dreams, and poetry."

CLinebelJ, Howard. Ecotherapy: Healing Ourselves, Healing the Earth-Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1996. The author is one of the most

competent of contemporary writers on the healing relations between theindividual, society, and the natural world.

Cobb, John 8., Jr. Sustainability: Economics. Ecology and Justice. Maryknoll,NY; Orbis Books, 1992. A foremost theologian who is also knowledgeablein the field of economics brings these disciplines into their proper rela-tion with ecology.

Colburn, Thea, et a1. Our Stolen. Future. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1996. Adetailed and extensively researched study of the insidious influence ofchemicals on the biological development and functioning of humans,especially during the period when the fetus is in the womb as well aswhen children in their early years are most vulnerable.

Cole, Nancy, and P. 1. Skerrett. Re,;ewables Are Ready: People CreatingRenewable Energy Solutions. White River Junction, NY: Chelsea GreenPublishing, 1995. A proposal sponsored by the Union of ConcernedScientists that the technologies for using renewable energies includingphotovoltaics, solar heating devices, wind and hydroelectric turbines,and biomass generators, are now available for shifting from nonsustain-able fossil fuel energies to sustainable energies.

Costanza, Robert, et al. An Introduction to Ecological Economics. A publicationof the International Society for Ecological Economics. Boca Raton, FL: St.Lucie Press, 1997. This author, together with Helman Daly and RichardNorgaard, has been a leading influence in introducing the ecologicaldimension into the study and application of economics. Tills is a first vol-ume available for institutions of economics and business administration.

Crevecceur, J. Hector St. John de. Lettersfrom an American Farmer. NewYork:E. P. Dutton, 1957. First published in 1782. "Letters" here is a literary

Bibliography . 209

fonnforexpressing the personal experienc of the author in fannin in theeasternregionof the North American conlinenl in th ighll'Cn.h nlury·

Critchfield,Richard. Village,. ew York: Doubl 'day Anchor BookB, 1981.surveyofvillage life based on personal experien e of villages through utAsia,Africa,South America, Mexico. ince humans arose inlo Ih ir moredevelopedmodes of cultural expre sian in the viUag conlex

t, we are. in 8

manner, village beings. The village remains our prop r onlext. Both 8deterioration and a renewal of village life is under way throughout the

world.Cronon,William,Jr. Change, in the Land: /tulians, Colonists, and the Ecology itt

New Englarul.. NewYork: Hill and Wang. 1983. This story of ew Englandbased on the geography and the ecology of the land has, in my view, es,a1 -lished what might b. considered as a new genre of hislory, a history basedon the integral relation of human communities with the larger communi'y ofthe natural world. A valuable addition to the usual political, economic.

social, and religiously based historical interpretations.Cronyn, George W., ed. American indion Poetry: Att Anthology of Song' and

Ctvuvs. New York: Liveright, 1934. An excellent collec,ionof Indian

poetry with ritual chants. The introduction is by Mary Austin. a well-

known native fiction writer of the Soulhwesl.Crosby,AlfredW. Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expa",ion of Europe

900-1900. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986.ltis a startling

realization that the biological species that have been transplanted fromEurope to other regions of the world have been so severe a disruption of

the native biosysterns.Daily, Gretchen C., ed. Nawre', Services: Societal DependeTl£e on NaturalEcosystems. Washington, D.C., and Covelo, CA: Island pre'" 1997.,A

h b fit fthe integral funcllonlOg

collection of essays on how umans erie . romdo • se that occurs to the

of the natural world and the correspon mg [mpaefi dirni .shed or eliminated.human venture when these bene LS are 101101, S Francisco· W H. Freeman

Daly Herillan E. Steady Sta,e Econom"'" an .... .• b f t f r its stgmficance m

P 1977 A book that should never e org

oten 0ress , . . Daly's work

intrOducing a new period in our understanding ofecononuchs., kRan With t elf wor we

d d that of Nicko1aus GeorgesCU- oeg .suecee

e 'U 1 ys be a subsystembegin to understand that any human economy W1 a wa

of the Earth economy.

210 . THE GREAT WORK

Daly, Herman E., and John B. Cobb, Jr. For the Common Good. Boston:Beacon Press, 1989. A significant study of the present by a theologianand an economi t concerned with both the social well-being in the humanworld and ecological well-being in the natural world.

Dawkins. Richard. The Blind: Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of EvolulionReveals a Universe WithoUlDesign. New York: W W Norton, 1987. A highlypraised presentation of evolution considered from a rigorous empiricalpoint of view.

Dawson, Christopher. The Making of Europe: An Introduction to the Historyof European Unily. New York: World Publishing, 1932. A classic in thecultural history of the European world that has kept its value over theyears. Required reading for anyone whowishes to understand the culturalexperience out of which both Europe and America were born and whichstill determines the deeper structures of Western civil izaLion.

deBary, Wm. Theodore, Richard Lufrano, and Irene Bloom, eds. Sources ojChinese Tnuluicn: Two volumes. New York: Columbia University Press,1999. An indispensa.ble collection of basic sources in Chinese thought

and literature from earliest times until the late twentieth century. Firstpublished in 1959, this new edition greatly expands the first edition.

Deloria, Vine. For This Land: Writings on. Religion in America. New York:

RoutJedge, 1998. A collection of writings done over the past threedecades by a foremost American Indian intellectual and cultural critic.

Delvlaillie, Raymond 1., ed. The Sixlh GraruJ.father:Black Elk, TeachingsGiven to John G. Neihardt. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press,1984. This is a more recent study of the notes of John Neihardt, which hetook from the verbal narrative of Black Elk as he narrated his life story inthe 19305. DeMailJie is an accomplished and recognized scholar of thePlains Indians.

Devall, William, and George Sessions. Deep Ecology: Living as if EarthMatters. Salt Lake City, UT: Peregrine Smith Press, 1985. These twoauthors are the principal scholars in America committed to the teachingsof Arnie Naess, who asserts the continuity between humans and otherlife-forms in a single interrelated community.

Dickason, Olive Patricia, ed. The Native Imprint; The Contribution of First

Peoples to Canada's Character. Vol. 1. Alberta, Canada: Athabasca Uni-versity Press, 1995. A basic source for understanding the native infiu-

Bibliography . 211

ence on the European culture that moved into onh meriea. (rom theyearsof the original discoveries lInti11815, th date of th conclus

in (

the NapoleonicWars and the convening of Ihe ongres. of Vienna, which

had consequences especially in the Fr nch.Canudian world.Douglas,WilliamO. A Wil.ckrness BiLLoj Rights. Boston: Lillie, Bro,vn, 1 65.

One of the few books written in defense of the inherent rights of naturalmodesof being, claiming nature should not be degrad d simply for utili-lanan purposes by humans. Douglas was an Associale Justice of theSupremeCourt of the United State. from 1939 until 1975. He was also a

naturalist of some competence.Dowie,Mark. Losing Ground: American Environmentalism 01 tlie Close oj the

11 . hwenttet Century. Cambridge: M IT Press. 1995. A supporter and yet 8

severe critic of the functioning of the environmental movement. He is espe-cially critical of the larger environmental organizations for lack of socialemphasis, depending too much on official political processes and acceptingtoo much support from the fOllndations and sources that are themselvescausing the environmental disruptions. He wants the environmental move-ment to be more a sociat moverneru and less an ecology movement

Drucker, Peter E. Innovation and Entrepreneurship: Pract.ice and principles.NewYork:Harper and Row,1985. This is one of the more influential writ-ings of the dean, and to some extent the [ollnder, of humanistic manage-ment as is widely taught in the colleges and universities of America. Hissense of management, [or all its deficiencies, was a decided improvementon the managerial style of Frederick Winslow Taylor, based on the engi-neering model, with its insistence on elaborate time studies in evaluatingthe efficacy of any production process or the value of any employee.

Dubos, Rent. Celebrations of Life. New York: McGraw Hill, 1981. A Frenchresearch physician and biologist, whose primary study waSsoil biology,Dubas came to America early in his professional life. He taught atRockefeller University, assisted in developing drugs for fighting bacterialinfections, and isolated the antibiotic that formed the basis for fulu

re

chemotherapy. He wrote extensively on ecological issues.Earley, Jay. Transforming Human Culture: Social ElJOlutio

nand the Planetary

Crisis. Albany, NY,State University of NewYorkPress, 1997. The autbor,a careful and leamed scholar in the history of social and cultural evolu-tion, proposes that we must take charge of history and the evoluuonary

212 . THE GREAT WORK

process. Wecan do this now, he proposes, in the general pattern outlinedearlier by Duane Elgin and Ken Wilber. The basic emphasis is on attain-ing a new level of consciousness.

Ehrenfeld, David. The Arrogance o[ Humanism. ew York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1981. The thesis of this book indicates that a basic flawin Westerncivilization leads to the devastation of the natural world and the incompe-tence of religious establishments in dealing with the ecological issues.Arrogance must be listed along with androcentrism and patriarchy as abasic flaw in Western civilization; perhaps it is both a cause and a conse-quence of these other oppressive attitudes.

Ehrlich, Paul R., and John P. Holdren, eels. The Cassandra Coriference:Resources and the Human Predicament. College Station, TX: TexasA&MUniversity Press, 1988. A conference of scientists called to discuss thehuman predicament, it was named Cassandra because of its concern forthe devastating future awaiting the human community if the assault onthe integral functioning of the natural world continues.

Ehrlich, Paul and Anne. The Population Explosion. New York: Simon andSchuster, 1991. Paul and Anne Ehrlich are among the earliest, most per-ceptive, and most consistent observers of the inherent difficulties thatwould inevitably follow in both the human community and the naturalworld fromunlimited population increase.

Eiseley, Loren. The Unexpected Universe. New York: Harcourt BraceJovanovich, 1969. Dean of the school of anthropology at the University ofPennsylvania and member of the American Academy of Literature, thisauthor was among the most profound of American naturalists in the twen-tieth century. He wrote extensively in both prose and poetry,

---. The Night Country. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971. Herewe have a confrontation with the darker sources at work in the humanpsyche and in the social process. The value of this author's work is pre-cisely in his clarity in writing about the dark and the daylight worlds inwhich our human destinies are worked out.

Eisler, Riane. The Chalice and the Blade; Our History, Our Future. SanFrancisco: Harper San Francisco, 1987, 1995. A full and forceful presen-tation of the early Goddess culture of the Neolithic Period and the rise ofpatriarchy in association with the rise of the god cultures in the beginningperiod of the classical civilizations.

Bibliography . 213

Eldredge N'I R' ', 1 es. etnventLng Dr",,,in: The Creal Debale 01 Ihe lIigh Table of

Eoolulianol)' Theory. New York: John Wiley & ns, 1995. Evolutionary

explanation has cha d id bl' .' ., nge const era Y mce Darwin pubhshed hrs book

In 1859. To understa d i t I . d ., . n JU lOWwe arnve at Our pre ent e"lanatlon.

this 1S the book to read.__ . life in the Balance: Humanity and the Biocliversil . Crisis. Princeton.

NJ: Princeton Uni . P 998 .iversity ress, 1 . An 1I1lportanll.realment of the role

of humans in the current si I .' .urren srxtn exllncllOn period, along with suggestions

fOThowto halttl ' I ..'us current ass ofhlOcliVerslly.

__ . The Patl.em 01''' I t' v k W" ",va u IOn. ew ronc: . H. Freeman, 1999. A further

study of evclutio d I ' .El nan tne pattern 111 us sequence of developments.

lul, Jacques The 7i I l . I 5 .. ec mo ogrca oCLety. New York: Alfred Knopf/Vintage

Books, 1964. Original French edition, 1954. For a critique of modern

Industrial lechn loei d hei . I .'o ogies an tell' 1I11erent del -tenous Influence on the

human and spiritual cultures of the Western ,vorld this presentationremains unique [or the depth of its analysis of what has happened in thetwentieth century and the profound consequences of technological civi-

.Iizarion on the human mode of being.Fagin, Dan, Marianne Lavelle, and the Center for public Integrity. Toxic

Deception: How the Chemical Industry Manipulate' Science, Bends theLaw, and Endangers Your Health. SecauCus, NJ: Birch Lane Press, 1996,A comprehensive study of the commeIcial imposition of a multitude of

toxic chemicals on the American public.Flannery, Timothy Fridtjof. Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the

Austral,",ian Lands and People. New York: George Braziller

, 1994. Aunique study of the species extinction that occurred under the influence ofearlier peoples based on thorough research and careful interpretation of theinfluence on other species by the early human inhabilants of Australasia. Itis something of a revelation to those who consider that indigenoUSpeoplesare consistently benign in their relation with other formsof life on Earth.

Fletcher, W.Wendell, and Charles E. LiltJe. The American Cropland Crisis: WhyU.S. Farml,,"rl

l, Beillg Los: and How Citizens "nd Goliernrn

enlSAre Trying

to Save Whot Is Left. Bethesda, MO:American LandForum, 1982. A usefulstudy of the need to appreciate the agricultural land of the NorthAmericancontinent as the greatest body of cropland on the planet. The lack of anyetTecti

veprogram '0 preserve this land in its integrity is a profound failure

214 . THE GREAT WORK

of the administration, the Congress. and the people. The study presentedhere i one of the finest statements of what needs to he done.

Frankfort, Henri, el aJ. Before Philosophy: The Intellectual AdventureojAncient Man. Baltimore: Penguin, 1949. (Originally published by Uni-versity of Chicago Press in 1946.) An archaeologist with extensive expe-rience in the ancient Near East, the author had a valuable insight into thecoordination of human affairs with the structure and functioning of thelarger cosmological order.

Frieden, Bernard .T. The Environment Protection Hustle. Cambridge: MITPress, 1979. A critique of the environmental movement as elitist and

without concern for the real problems of the people. This study is basedon research done in response 10 the efforts to Limit development inCaliforniu in the 19705.

Friedman, Lawrence M. A History of American Lanu:2d ed. New York: Simon andSchuster, 1985. A thorough and quite readable account of the development

of law and its manner of functioning in America. An understanding of thelegal context of human relations with the natura] world is necessary for thesuccess of any environmental activity. This should be read in relation to thework by Morton Horowitz that is also cited in this bibliography.

Fumemo, Michael. Science Under Siege: flow the Environmental Misinformation

Campaign Is Affecting Our Lives. New York: William Morrow, 1993. Anemotionally based assault on ecological writings as being scientificallyuntenable.

Fuson, Robert H. The Log of Christopher Columbus. Camden, ME: Inter-national Marine Publishing Company, 1987. A more recent translation ofthe earliest of our sources [or the first impressions of Europeans on estab-lishing communication with the indigenous peoples of the Americas.

Gever, John, et a]. Beyond OU: The Threat to Food and Fuel in the Coming

Decades. Cambridge: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1986. A valuablestudy of the consequences of the depletion of petroleum on agriculturalproduction due to a decline in the availability of oil-based fertilizer.

Gimbutas, Marija. The Language of the Goddess. San Francisco: Harper San

Francisco, 1989. A scholar of some renown in her archaeological inquiryinto the mythology of the Goddess in the late Paleolithic and throughoutthe Neolithic Periods of human development, in the region of Asia Minorand the Balkan region of what is considered Old Europe.

Bibliography . 215

Glacken, Clarence J. Traces on lhe Rhodian hore: alure ()Jill 1I1111re ill

Western Thought: From Ancient Time 10 till! Ent! oj tlie EighteetlthCentury. Berkeley: University of alifornia Press, 1967. tud)' fthe history of Western civilization wilh an impressive d·pth of lind r-standing of the role of the human in th larger context of the naturalworld as this has been envisaged in the various periods of '\ stem d vel-

opment.Goldsmith,Edward. The Way:An Ecological World Vi" •. Boston: hambhula.

1993. One of the most perceptive of contemporary writ rs on ecologicalIssues,Goldsmith presents a compreh nsive slatement of the mostllrgent

issues of the present.Goodenough, Ursula. The Sacred Depths oj Nature. ew York: Oxford Uni-

versity Press, 1998. We could never have guessed that scientific inqujrywould open into such a world of wonder for the mind and such joy of

heart.Gore, Albert. Earth in the 8oLMee. New York: Houghlon Mimin, 1992. An

excellent presentation of the basic ecology issues with sound guidance

for a way of dealing with them.Griffin, Susan. Woman and Nauue. New York: Harper and Row, 1978. An

impressive scholar and writer of the feminist movement expresses herconcern over an exaggerated identifteation of woman with nature.

Grim, John, The Shomon. Norman, OK: UniversilY of Oklahoma PreSS, 1984.An important study of the shaman in the context of the typology of reli-gious personalities. Special allentiOn is given to these healing practition-

ers among the Ojibway peoples.Hawken, Paul. The EeoLogyofComn""ee. New York: HarperCoUins, 1993. The

author shows a reulistie understanding of the ecological crisis and a corre-

spending awareness of the presenl commercial-industrial world and itsmode of functioning. His hope is lhatlhe corporations controlling the pre-sent Earth siluation will lead us into reslorative economics, an econom'"smore sustainable in the fulure than our presenl plundering econo";cs.

Hayden, Tom. The Los' Gospel oJ'M Earth. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books,1996. A book of personal experiences and reflections from someonewith eXlensive experience in the world of political affairs. Tom H~ydenbrings logel

herviews of various religions for an ecologically susllllnable

future.

216 . THE GREAT WORK

Helvarg, David. The ""CirAgainst the Greens: The lflise-Use Movement, the NewRight, and AMi-Environmental Yiolence. San Francisco: Sierra Club

Books, 1994. A valuable resource for understanding the assault againstthe environmentalist movement.

Herlihy, David. The Black Death and the Tmnsformauon oj the West.Editedand with an introduction by amuel K. Cohn, Jr. Cambridge, MA, andLondon, England: Harvard University Press, 1997. One of the best stud-

ies of the Black Death and its consequences in the economic, social, and

cultural development of this critical century in Western history.Herman, Arthur. The Idea of Decline in WesternHistory. New York: The Free

Press, 1997. A long and detailed overview of the pessimism of the last

two centuries concerning the future of civilization just when the doctrine

of progress seemed to be realized in the industrial-commercial dominionover nature.

Hessel, Dieter, and Rosemary Radford Ruether, eds. Chris/,ianity andEcology. Cambridge: Center [or the Study of World Religions and

Harvard University Press, 1999. This is the most comprehensive collec-tion of papers to date on the role and resources of Christianity in relationto the environment.

Horowitz, Marlon J. The Transformation of American Law, 1780-1860. NeW'

York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Originally published in 1977. Aninvaluable work for understanding the bonding of the legal and the judi-

ciary professions in America with the commercial-industrial establish-ment to the neglect of the ordinary citizen. worker. farmer, and those lesseffluent or influential.

---. The Transformation of American. Law, 1860-1920. Cambridge:Harvard University Press, 1994. In this second volume on American law,the most valuable contribution is the description of the rise of the com-mercial, industrial, and financial corporations, their legal status, and thepower they have attained.

Hughes, Robert. American Visions: The Epic History of Art in America. NewYork: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997. Since much of this book is concerned withthe relation of the human community with the natural world, it is of greatvalue to see how this relationship is depicted in the various arts. Here thevisual arts are presented.

Hunt, Charles B. Ncuurai Regions of the United States and Canada. San

Bibliography , 21 'Z

Francisco: W. H, Freeman Press, 1974, ~ hile this is an older work, it is

still valuable f its i I if 'or I s rc enu callons and thorough de.cnption. or the vari-

ous geographical regions or the orth Amen an continent.

Huntington, Ellsworth CI' dC' 'I' '. imate uri WI. ./zatwlt. ew Haven: Vale niversity

Press 1915 Thi ' ', ,liS IS one of the enrhest and 010 t thorough tudies or the

effects of geographi al 'rc environment on human cullUral development.

Hyams, Edward Sol d C' 'I' ', ,an LV< IZatiOll, New York: Harper and Row Torch-

books, 1952, A unique book, written in superb English style and with

comprehensive erudition it ides i I' h ' "I"1 I provt ee IOSlg 111l1tO 1 e vanoUS civi IzaUons

ofthe past th in whi, e manner 10 w ich they have dealt with their lund, and the

consequences on the hum ' ' If '1'1 d I' Lei 'I', an commuDlty useu. te ec 1I1ea CIVI iza-

nons seems to b I I Ie C oee Y re ated to the lack of care for and the conse-

quent deterioration of their soil.Irland LID d C m'ldl

, y , , 'lOd and Woodlallds: The Story of New Ellgland's Forests,

Hanover NH' U' ,p f N, ,DIverSity ress 0 ew England, 1982, An excellent

description of th for r N ~ I d " 'e OleslS 0, ew DOg an ,their history. their present sta-

tus, and their future prospects, by someone who is himself u Iorester with

extensive academic training and orficial experience, He outlines the nec-essary steps that need to be taken if these rorests are to continue in any

integral manner.Jackson, Wes, Becom.ing Native to This Place, Lexington, KY: University

Press of Kentucky, 1994, This series of six essays are an expansion of alecture given at the University of Kentucky on the need for a sense ofplace, how this was lost and how it can be recovered, The small commu-nity in intimate contact with the land is the needed context for a recovery

of this sense of place._, New Root' for Agriculture, New York: Friends of the Earth, 1980, Theauthor, founder and director of the Land Inslitute in Salina, Kansas, studiesthe deeper forces at work in the biosyslemS of the natural world that weneed \0 understand if we are to sustain the health of our agricultural prod-ucts over a prolonged period of time, He is concerned with the integralheallh or lhese sources on which the food supply of humans depends, He is

also deeply committed 10 the permaculture practices of agriculture,

Jansson, f\.nnMari, el al .. eds. Inve,ting in Nalural Capital: The Ecolag

ical

Econon'ic' Approach lO SuslainabililY, Washington, D,C.: The Free Press,1994, We need '0 pro,ect and foster whatever natural capital survives the

218 . THE GREAT WORK

abu e we have shown to those very forces on which we depend for contin-ued well-being of the human community.

.lantsch, Erich. The Self-Organizing Universe: Scientific and Human Implica-tions olthe Emerging Paradigm, of Evolution. New York: Pergamon, 1980.This is an authentic presentation of the thought of lIya Prigogine, whosebasic study has been in chemistry. Even in the pre-living world an active

seU-organizing dynamics is functioning. The presentation here includes

various levels of self-organizing, from the earliest shaping of mailer to the

activity of humans. This spontaneous appearance of ordered complexity is

one of the main concerns of thoughtful scientists at the present time.Jensen, Derrick, et al. Railroads and Clearcius. Spokane, WA: Keokee Inland

Island Public Lands Council, 1995. Story of the vast timberlands of theNorthwest given by Congress in 1864 to the Northern Pacific Railroad to

be sold as a commodity, mostly to the Weyerhauser corporate empire, forc,learcutting_ and the consequences into the present.

Johnson. Hugh. The International Book oj Trees. New York: Simon and

Schuster, 1973. The author has a rare gift for understanding and writing

about the various species of trees. He not only describes the various

species in technical language, he also communicates something of thatdeeper reality that is the poetry or the mystique of the various species.

Kauffman, Stuart. At Home in the Universe: The Search for Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.Written by a widely recognized scientist concerned with the comprehensivestudy of the universe and the source of its order from its physics, through itschemical, biological, and historical human phases. He is a scientist who is

also a writer of impressive competence. This is an excellent source to seehow thinking scientists are interpreting their own discoveries.

Kay, Jane Holtz. Asphalt Nation: How the Automobile Took Over America andHow We Can rake It Back. New York: Crown Publishers, 1997. A booklong needed to understand just what is happening to the human commu-nity as the automobile becomes the central economic feature of the soci-ety, with corresponding cultural consequences.

Kaza, Stephanie. The Attentive Heart: Conversations with Trees. New York:Ballantine Books, 1993. While others write about intimacy with nature,this author expresses it.

Keller, Evelyn Fox. A Feeling/or the Organism: The Life and Workof Barbara

Bibliography . 219

McClin/ock.NewYork: W. H. Fre man, 1983. n of th most significantbooks to indicate the value of th personal rapport f the biolog

i·al s i n-

ttst with the subject being studied.Kelley,KevinW. The Home Planel. ew York: d Iison-~Iesley. 1988. book

ofphotographs chosen from the NASA call clion, taken by the asuonautsand published with brillianl commenls by the astronauts th mselves. The

Ki poetic and emotional tone of the comnlents makes a po,,,,rfulimpacl.

mbrell, Andrew.The Human Body Shop: The Engineering and Marketing ofLife. San Francisco: Harper San francisco, 1993. detailed sludy ofwhat is happening now in transplanting and modifications we are impos-mg on the human body. Written by someone with exceptional clarity in

hIS thinking and precision in his writing.Kolodny,Annette. The Lay of the Land: Metaphor as Experience and History in

American Life and Letters. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North CarolinaPress, 1975. A study of the feminine metaphor for understanding andrelating to the New World discovered here in North America. Provides thebasis for a critical insight into the forces in American history and culturethat have been leading the society into a destrUctive relation with its land.

Konen, David. When Corporal.ion:; Rule the World. San Francisco: Kumarian

Press and Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 1995. A book that everyoneshould read in order to understand what is happening to the planet Earthand the political and economic world as the corporations take possessionof the planet both in its physical reality and its political controls. We arein the age when the nation-state has so declined that it must now be con-sidered mainly as an instrument to assist the transnational corporations

in their quest to cont[(llthe planetary process in its every aspecl._. The Po:;t_Corporate World: Life After Capitol

ism. San Francisco:

Kumarian Press and Berrett-Koehler, 1998. Here the author proposes anew, more organic approach to the life process, a truly democratiC lifebased on local economies free from the oppresive dominace of the greatcorporations. He goes far beyond generalizations into delailed considera-tion of all

lhevarious aspeels ofhow a valid economywould funco

on. The

most comprehensive guide that I have seen both in the principles pre-

senled

and the details of application. ., t Dobert. Voices of the First Day: Awakening the AborigUwl DreOnlum

e

.~~,. . fRochester, VT Inner Traditions, 1991. An excellent collec!"?" a

220 . THE GREAT WORK

information and understanding of the inner world of indigenous peoples

as expressed in the language and in the artistic imagery of the Aboriginesof Australia.

Lebon, J. H. G. An Introduction to Human Geography. New York: CapricornBooks, 1966. Studies in geography are among the best ways of entering

the field of ecology, as witness recent analyses of economic and political

geography. Of books dealing with human geography this volume, though

written some years ago, remains one of the most helpful.Kimbrell, Andrew. The Human Body Slzop: The Cloning, Engineering, and

Marketing of Life. Upland, Pa.: Diane Publishing, 2nd ed. 1999. Orig. ed.

1993. A thorough critique of the ever-increasing autack on the human

person through reduction of the human body to a commodity to be con-

trolled, dissected, bought, and sold as any other physical being. or spe-cial concern are the efforts being made to intervene in the genitic process

with totally inadequate understanding of how it functions or the conse-quences of such actions. The author, founder and director of the

International Center for Technological Assessment, is remarkably clearin his thinking and precise in his writing.

Legge, James, tran. Sacred Books of China, Part III. Sacred Books of the East,

vol. 27. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Reprint 1966. (originally published

in London in 1885.) This is a translation of the ancient Book of Ritual,known as the Li Chi in China.

Leiss, William. The Domination of Nature. New York: George Braziller, 1972.

A study of scientific discoveries inspired by the quest for human domina-

tion of the natural world and its consequences on both the natural worldand human society itself

Leopold, AIda. A Sand County Almanac. With Essays on Conseroation FromRound River. New York: Oxford University Press, 1966. A classic trea-lise, especially renowned for its section on "A Land Ethic."

Little, Charles E. The Dying of the Trees. New York: Viking Press, 1995. Asoul-shaking survey of the condition of the forests throughout the NorthAmerican continent by an author fully competent to write on this subject.Simply recalling the American chestnut and the American elm of the pastand the present declining situation of the hemlock, the dogwood, thebeech, and the sugar maple should evoke an intense reaction toward pro-tecting the remaining species, which could be imperiled as long as pre-sent conditions persist.

Bibliography . 221

Lopez,BarryHolstun About This Life: Joume) au the Thre.</101dof 11rrM')·NewYork:Alfred A K f 1998 A II . . di . .

h

. nap, . co itton of eo"ay' '" ,callng JU'"

ow we need to resh ..'ape our "naglllaUon and memory in our xpericnc

eof

the natural world.___ . Arctic Drea,ns' In .' d V . .. taguwt,wn (In esire Ul a

Y.ork:Bantam Books 1988 '\'1' \ k', . 115 )00 IS a

Lopez's ex' .penences 10 the Arelic regions.__ . Of Wolves and Men. New York: cribners, 1978. The author has an

amazing ability to it f J' . . .WTI e rom a persona sensItiVity toward other species

who share the planet with us.Lovins, Amory 5'- E

. oJI nergy Paths: Toward a Vurable Peace. an francisco:Friends of the Earth lntemational, distributed by Ballinger, Cambridge,MA. 1977. A widely read and influential presentation of a way to fulfill

our energy need . h . ... s WIt out com'nltung ourselves to nuclear sources or 1'01-

luting industriesMacy, Joanna M t lei' . B d .

. u ua au,a Ily U1. U dllLsm. and General Systems Theory:

The Dharlna of Nalural Syst.emu. Albany, NY: State University of NewYork,1991. A speciaJ resonance is experienced between these twa world-Views, revealing something profound in the functioning of the naturaJworld in both its physicaJ-material and psychic-spiritual aspect.

Mackinder, Sir Halford John. Democratic Ideals and Realities. London:Constable and Co., 1909. His essay on "rhe GeographicaJ Pivot ofHistory" was given in 1904. This book on democratic ideaJs was anexpansion of his thesis. He taught at the School of Geography at oxford,

until 1904, then at the London School of Economics.Marsh, George Perkins. Man and Nal.ure: Or Phy.,jc"l Geography cs Modified

by l1uman

Action. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965.Originally published in 1864. Marsh was among the earliest Americanwrilers to give careful attention to the deleterious impact that humans

were having on the natural world.Maser, Chris. Global imperative: Horrnoni.--ing Culture and Nature. WaJpole,

NH: Slillpoint publishing, 1992. A scholar, forester, and thinker, the.author has written an overall view of the human presence to the natural"arid, with indications of the need for a greater appreciation of the natu

raJ

world for its aesthe'ic and spirituaJ as well as economic value to humans.McDaniel, Jay B. Wi,h Roots ond Wings: Chris,ianilr in an Age of Ecology and

ialogue. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1995. A leading Christian

worthem 1-""tiscOP'"ntllsterful description of

222 . THE GREAT WORK

theologian highlights important new directions for Christianity in relation

Laother religious traditions and in light of the environmental crisis.McKibben, Bill. Hope, Human: and Wild: True Stories of Living Lightly on the

Earth, Boston; Little, Brown, ] 995. After dealing in other books and

essays with the del terious aspects of what is happening on the planet,the author in these three essays deals with positive achievements, espe-cially in Curitiba, a city in Brazil, and in Kerala, a stale in southwest

India. These are stories of ecological success in human communities.McLuhan, T C. Touch: the Earth: A Self-Portrait of Indian Existence. New

York: Promontory Press, 1971. A collection of remarkable statements ofoutstanding Indian personalities. These statements reveal the depth ofinsight and feeling of the indigenous peoples of the North American con-tinent during the period of European occupation.

McPhee, John. Annals oj the Former World. New York: Farrar, Straus &Giroux, 1998. An extremely valuable resource for its description of thegeological record of the North American continent by someone with alifelong dedication to understanding this continent in its historical emer-gence, its most basic structure and its integral functioning.

Meadows, Donella H., et al., eds. The Limits to Growth: A Report/or the ClubofRome's Project on the Predicament oj Mankind. New York: UniverseBooks, ]972. This work, sponsored by the Club of Rome and theMassachusetts institute of Technology is, it seems, the first carefully stud-ied overview of the human economic situation in relation to the resourcesof the natural world. That there was a problem remained largely unrecog-nized until after World War Il. This book evoked intense opposition, yetthe validity of its basic conclusions has been sustained. With RachelCarson's Silent Spring in 1962 and the meeting of the United NationsConference on the Environment held in Stockholm in 1972, this book canbe considered as one of the main inspirations of the environmental move-ment throughout the world.

Meadows, Donella H., et al., eds. Beyond the Limits: Confronting GlobalCollapse. Envisioning a Sustainable Future. Post MiUs,VT:Chelsea GreenPublishing Company, 1992. A successor volume to the above title, thisreview of the subject some twenty years later reaffirms the basic conclu-sions arrived at earlier, with a greater sense of urgency toward reshapingthe human venture in a more benign relation with the natural world.

Bibliography . 223

Meiss Millard P 'nt' . Fl, . . al.Lng m orellce and Sien,III after ,lae Black Dealla.

Princeton NJ' Prin t U' . I'. ..,. ce on OIverslty ress. 1951. A survey of the chang""

In arnsuc expressio d i r f sni .n an In ,omlS 0 splntuolit after the Block Death.

based on extensi d f, nsrve stu Y 0 the coni mporary documents of the

penod. An irwaluabl f d die sour e or un erstan mg lh d el r cultural

consequences of thi . ., '5 expenence, whIch has influenced \ eslem history

into our own times.Merchant Carol Th D

R

' , yn. e ealla oj Nauue: 1V0me,~Ecology, and Ihe cien'ifr.c

evolutwn San F . H. ranCISCO: arper San francisco, 1990· These tWObooks

(see below) pr h tl \. e ent t e 10Ug11of one of the most effeclive historians of

envlfonmenlalth Ioug rt to emerge from the feminisl movemenl. The author

emphasizes btl' I" a 1 socia concerns and the integrity of the human co

mmu'

ruty with the ecosystems of the planet._ . Ecological Revolal,ions: Nauue; Gender, and Scie,l£e in New EnglanO..

Chapel Hill NC' U' . f N C . ., . nlverslly a orth amhna Press, 1989. A detw1ed

M

' study of the sequence of tr.nsfo01lations in America in relation to the land.

iddleton Susa d D id L' ., n, an aVI Illsschwager. WilMSS: Endangered SpecLes of

Nor'h America. Introduction by E:. 0, Wilson. San Francisco: ChronicleBooks, 1994,. A Iarge-Iomw! book of photographs of many of the endan-gered species of North America, providing insight into what we are losing

as various living forms become extinct.Milbrath, Lester W. Envisioning a Suslai,nable Socie/.y: Learning Our Way Out.

Albany, NY: Stale University of New York Press, 1989. A political scien-tist presents in three seclions the results of his lifetime of thought con-cerning the present human situation: the present impasse, the future asan inlegral sustainable presence of humans in 'he natural world, and the>Yay1.0 achieve the desired transfnrrnation. The emphasis is on the need tochange human ways of thinking so as to create a sustainable future.

Miller, Perry. Erralld

illto 'he WildorMS." Cambridge: Harvard UniversityBelknap Press, 1993. This author is the foremost scholar of the earlyyew'S of New England puritan theology and cultural thinking. Superbinsight into the problems associated with the corningof European religionand culture into the wilderness world of America. He sees religion as the

basic issue of civilization in relation to nature.Montessori, Maria. To Educate ,he Humn" Polerl1iaL Oxford. England: Clio

Press, 1948. The firs' woman to obtain a medical degree in modem Italy,

I

I

I

I I

224 . THE GREAT WORK

M nte~Rorilook on the issues associated with the integral development ofchildren from their earliest years. he is among the most distinguishededucators of our times. This might be considered one of her most signifi-cant books, especially for its insight into the importance of the childawakening 10 the surrounding universe.

Muir, John. The Wild.erness World of John Muir. Edited with an introductionand interpr tetive comments by Edwin Way Teale. Illustrated by HenryB. Kane. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. J954. The editor, a New England nat-uralist, has selected the most significant writings of the person whofirstappreciated in real depth the wilderness regions of northern Califomia.

Nash, Roderick. Wilderness and the American. Min.d. New Haven: Yale Univer-

sity Press, 1967. 3d ed., 1989. Hardly any subject is more in need of elu-

cidation than the meeting of persons from the Christian-humanist culture

of Europe with the indigenous peoples and culture of the North American

continent. The author reveals the difficulty Europeans encountered in

their efforts to respond to the sacred in one of its most dramatic self-presentations on the American continent.

Neihardt, John G. Black Elk Speaks: Being the Life Story ofa Holy Man aft.heOglala Sioux. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1932. One of the most

complete and authentic accounts that we have of a religious personality ofthe indigenous peoples of thi continent. John Neihardt had the literary

skill to enable the story of Black Elk 1,0 come through in the English lan-guage with exceptional clarity,

Noble, David F. America by Design: Science, Technology, and the Rise ofCorporate Capitalism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977. This is one of themost significant works dealing with the rise of scientific technologies andthe modern corporation in the late nineteenth century. It is most helpful inunderstanding the transition into the modem industrial period.

Noble, David W The Eternal Adam and the New World Garden: The Central

Myth in the American Novel Since 1830. New York: Braziller, 1968. Theauthor describes the myth of the millennium to be realized in the newlydiscovered North American continent is presented as the central focus ofAmerican culture. This myth finds a diversity of expression in the variouswriters who have dominated the literal)' scene in America through theyears.

Norberg-I-lodge, Helena. Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh. SanFrancisco: Sierra Club Books, 1992. A remarkable work by a remarkable

Bibliography . 225

person, who is one of the [ew accomplish,·d \\,·"em hnln of ,h,'

Ladakh language. Because the l.adakh culture wM relotl,,·1\ un,nRu-

enced by modem Westem cultur' unlil r ccntly. Ihe oulhor h e ""n-en.c

edthe suslainable ultur of this ind pe,,,I"n' people in Illl' .,."ere

climate of the' ., I I'f' . hir ongme I e sItuatIon, h suggests way 10 m,nntn,n I C

culture and points toward ways that induslrialized societies might I arn

from Ladakh.Novak, Michael. Toward a Theology of the Corporation: Amerkan Enlerpri se

Institute, 1990. ew York: Penguin Books, \986. This aUlhor presents 1I

view of utmost praise for the modem corporlllion. He endowS rue modem

corporation with a kind of sacred aura.Ohmae Kenichi. The End of the Nation-St,ate: The Rise of /{egio

nalEco""mics.

New York: The Free Press, 1995. A clearly wrillen descriplion

of the

transition from notion-based economies to the new global economy withIts consequent disruption of the earlier nation-based economies. An

excellent presentation of the dissolution of the nalion-slllle

as the primllry

ordering principle in the public life oi Western society.Orr, David F. Ecological Literacy: Education and the Transition to a Post-

modern World. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1992.Orr's basic thesis is thsl educalion is cenlral to creating a viable future forboth the human community and for the natural life_systemS of the Earl

h

.

He offers guidance in designing an educational program that will prepare

students for their role in shaping a trUly integral Earth community.Osborn, Fairfield. Our plundered Planet. Boston: Liltl

e, Brown, 1948. One of

the first surveys of ti,e ptanetary devastation ,aking place through theplundering process of the industrial world. In 1953 Osho

rnwrote anolher

work. Limits of Our Earth. .Peck, Robert M. Land of ,he Eagle: A Natural Hi.·tory of North Ame"ca. NewYork: summit Books, 1990. The quotations from Captain John Snu

th

aretaken from The General! Historie of Virginia. New England andz:Summer Isles, Iac- ed- Glasgow: University of Glasgow Pre.s

s

; Lo~;~:907 44-47 Robert Peck's book IS a re eMacmillan and Co., 1 ' pp. . . elf ation its wild-general natural hislory of the continent, its geo1ogJc 0..... 'life, and its European settlement~ ld: TME".;ro'-'" and the CallaP'"

ponting, cu-e- A GreenH"lOry of the ." .)looks. 1991 comprehenaiveof Great Civilizalio". ew York: pengusn .. _:_. -_.~...... to the nal

ural

d. .L -_.- of hu ............ - In ...----

series of slO le8 on pie cvua"-

226 . THE GREAT WORK

world from earlie t times to the present There is both a fullness and a con-

ciseness in the data, a clarity in the presentation, and a comprehensiverange in the thinking that makes this book fascinating to read.

Prucha. Francis Paul, ed. Americanizing the American Indian: Writings by the"Friends oj/he Indians" 1880--1900. Cambridge: Harvard UniversityPress, 1973. A valuable record of the awkward, humiliating, and oftencruel efforts made toward the end of the nineteenth century to absorb theindigenous peoples of this continent into the intellectual, cultural, andreligious orientation of European settlers,

Redfern, Ron. The Making of a Continent. New York: Times Books, 1983.A detailed, geological-based presentation of the shaping of theNorth American continent, in a large-book format, with photographs.The various parts of the continent are related to the formation of theNorth American tectonic plate, one of the complex of Continental platesthat took shape with the breakup of the original Pangaea some 200 mil-lion years ago.

Register, Richard. Ecocity Berkeley: Building Cities for a Healthy Future.Berkeley: North Atlantic Books, 1987. A study of the city of Berkeley andhow it might be periodically redesigned in its various areas over a periodof a hundred years so that the original streams would be brought aboveground, woodlands would be replanted, and wildlife reintroduced. Peoplewould live closer to their work. They would mostly walk or bicycle wher-ever they needed to go. The automobile would be extensively eliminated.Waste would largely be purified locally. With all these alterations thepopulation could be maintained at it.spresent level.

Reisner, Marc. Cadillac Desert: The American West an.d Its DisappearingWater. New York:Penguin Books, 1986. Study (also made into a film) ofgovernment-financed projects for damming the great rivers of the West.The story is told with all of itsinLrigue and with an understanding of boththe natural life-systems of the West and the human communities that sup-port these engineering projects.

Reuther, Rosemary Radford. Gaia and God:All.Ecofeminist Theology of EarthHealing. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1992. One of the leadingfeminist. theologians details the potential resources in the Jewish-Christ.ian traditions for an ecofeminisr understanding of the planet and itshuman presence.

Rolston Hoi E·Iv. , meso IIVlronmell,al E,lIics: Du'ie '0 and \'olut '" ,lit nJUrt.1

orld. Philadelphia· Te I . .tre If· rnp e Illverslly Pre s, 1 88. comprchen.;"

a ment 0 the subject r .. . . 0 ellVll"Ontllnlal thica with an '-lIlph i. on Ill<'

R rntnnstc value of nature.ossak, Theodore. Th» Va· .N v. tee oj the Earth: All Expl.ona/loll oj ECOP'Jclwlog .

ew fork: Simon and S 1 99po aff

. c luster, I 2. An astute comm 'n'a'or on conI m-

rary errs, Roszak d f1 .rofcuod insieht i e ines an emerging Ii Id 1 e _opsychology "ill, a

p ooun insight toto th .ural world. e IOtegral relatedness 01 the human with th nat-

Ryley,Nancy.Tile Forsaken G de . .0' E . '" 11. Four Gonoersa'LOIIS on the Deep Meaning

, lI""ollmen'al fll Whend. . ness. eaton, Illinois: Quest Books, 199B. After

unng environment l 'II fa I ness or many years Nancy Ryley has wrille

n

an accounl of her· 'd expenence and her quest for underslanding of the

eeper sources of it' th d· .. . m e ,sruptlOn we are causing in the integral func-

t1~nhlOgof the Earth. This book is an account 01the conversations she had

Wit Laurens van d p MTh er ost, arion Woodman, RoSS Woodman, and

Sal o~as Berry on this subject.e, Kirkpatrick 0 II . ... .

F

. . we ers '" the Land: The Bwegwnal V"wn. San

rencrsco: Sie Cl b B k· .f . ITa u 00 s, 1985. This author is deeply commllled to a

uture dependent on the inlimacy 01 the local community with the sur-

rounding natu 1 .. H 1 d· .. ra setung- , e sees tne estruCllve consequences mherent

m the industriat way oflife.

Schmidheny St I CI ., ep 18n. wngmg Course. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992. The

author has been one of the leading [igures in establishing corporation Icontrol of the global economy through the World Business council for I

Sustainable Development. This council, in alliance with the World TradeOrganization and other world organizations, presents itself as interestedin securing an integral mode of human presence to the Earth by "chang-ing course," as it were. The difficulty is in the inherent exploitative

nature of the corporations' activities.Schumacher, E. f. Small Is Beautiful: Ecorwmics (LS if People MtUW

ed

. NewYork: HarperCol\in

s, 1989. OriginallY published, 1973. A gracioUSyet

po,,,rlul

presentation of the need to observe a sense of scale in everyphase of human life bul especiallY in economica. Schumacher had exten-sive experience in planned national economies while he was in charge ofthe British Coal Board economy after World Warn.He saW the danger of

Bibliography . 227

228 . THE GREAT WORK

globalization that would neglect the local community on which all thingshuman needed to be based.

Simon, Julian L. The Ultimate Resource. Princeton, 1: Princeton UniversityPress, 1981. Julian Simon is the mosl radical of those who see environ-

mentalists 8S enemies of all reasonable thinking. He sees no population

problem, no pollution problem, no resource problem that is not beingfully resolved in the ordinary processes of contemporary science and eco-

nomics. He feels all aspects of life and environment are constantly

improving and that environmentalists are simply doomsayers in the midstof ever-increasing abundance.

Smart, Bruce, ed. Beyond Compliance: A New Industry View of the Environ-ment. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1992. An effort bythe industrial world to defend itself against the accusation that industry isindifferent to the pollution of the environment that it is causing. Suppliesan extensive listing of the larger and more polluting industries and theefforts they are making to diminish the deleterious consequences of theiractivities.

Smith, Page. Th.e Rise of Industrial America: A Peoples History of the Post-

Reconstruction Era. Vol. 6. New York: Penguin Books, 1984. A fascinat-ing description by a master historian of the transition of America from theagricultural society of the pre-Civil War years to the industrial-techno-logical urban society under control of modem corporations that devel-oped in the three last decades of the nineteenth century.

Snyder, Gary. The Practice a/the Wild: Essays. San Francisco: North Point Press,1990. Some of the best essays by one ofAmerica's finest nature writers andpoets. Snyder has established himself as someone with insight such as fewattain into wildness as the deep reality ofall authentic existence.

Spengler, Oswald. The Decline of the West. 2 vols. New York: Knopf, 1926.This book, written by Spengler before the beginning of the WorldWar Ibut revised and published in the years after the war, collapsed much ofthe optimism concerning the future course of human affairs generated bythe Enlightenment Age of seventeenth through nineteenth centuries.

Spretnak, Charlene. The Resurgence of the Real. Reading, MA: AddisonWesJey, 1997. A critique of the modern world with its reduction oflivingprocesses to mechanism, its suppression of the local and the intimate infavor of the genera! and the standardized, its sanitized and sterilizingmedicine that neglects the self-strengthening and heaJing forces of the

......J

body.The ,ponlaneo .

Th

U~cn:all\l' po",,- ul lU,lUr.~ t~ ltr"1 ",I.

e authorhas pre, I I 1\ I'. . en ec a 1"0 "nh II fl.rr cl ,n" ",\-"'IOn10 her writing ~ ,"1"" .

Spurr,Stephen H. Am;ricon F P IofW h' artS' a I ) 111f)~I .. ln/","·n'. l,k: l "' ,."

as mgton Press 1976 \ Iludeof th " I rut wr plt.-Oll· , nn", I ,,,.ollnl of ,h ... u.-e government agenc I I fhe d ncy,owor< t'" "It·" of Ill<' <tll

lllt\ Ill' h,

expecte • the era . I .th ss atutuc e munlfe_leo 10'" roth. fort'" '" I

e sense of the natural w ld .modir b or llS !'1l11pl) so much re-..ourct· , IOUnlU -h r- l'fl"

I Y10 e managed bo I d .Steingrabe S d ..' .ugIt, an sold Iike on otJwr ('011'01 I't"luJ II In.

r, an ra. Li:vtng DEn . own.strecw!: An ecolog..,' 1.00l.01 on{"('rond ,he

VLronment. Readin M .1997 A g, A: Addie n Wesl'Y' 1·rlo·d La",,,.n·" Book.

. remarkable perso If'hnion of the envi na story a II1vesligationinto the che

nnea) pol-

e environment b .' Pforth y a SCIenliSt. resenlS overwhelming .vid nee

e cancer-causing h . I .Slone Ch. c enuca po\lullon of the air. woler. and .oil.

, nstopher 0 SI II 'I'WK' lOU I rees Have tanding? Lo' haS. CA:

. aufmann,1974 A b . f . .of b' S . fie study arguIng for the fights of na\llral modes

emg. lone was su d' I' . . .S pporle 111 lIS pOSllIOnby Assoclal Juslice of the

upreme Courl Will' a .'Strickland W. . ,am· Dougla" who has also Wflnenon lhe ,ubJe

cl

., Illtam Jou l.r 71 .r .1794-1 '.. rna OJ I' our OJ lite UniLed StaLeS of Amen

ca

H

. .795. EdIted by Rev. J. E. Strickland, .1971. The New York

Istoncal So . l L· b .p. cle y. I rary 01 CongreSSCalalog Card Number: 75--165

767.

reClSeobserval" .V. Ions concerrnng lhe selliers of the upper Hudson RIver

S. alley and their lreatment of the land in the late eighteenth century·

WlmmeBrian TI H 'dde I ., . Ie • n 1e"" oj ,he Cosmos. Humanity Olin LheNew Story.

Mal~knoll, NY: Orbis Press, 1996. In the depth and comprehensive rangeof hi, in,ighl, in Ihe lilerary qualilY of his wTiting, in the precision of hislanguage, Ihe author is un,urpassed in hi, pTesenlalion of UTediscoveriesof conlemporary science concerning the origin, strUcture, and function-ing of lhe universe. He sugge,1S ways in which we can relate to thal all-nouri,hing abyss from which the universe is conslantly coming into being·

_. The Universe Is a Green Dragon. Santa Fe, NM' Bear and Co., 1985.A fl\5cin

aling series of discussions on hoWwe understand the univeTse,

and our place and function in it.Swimme, Brian, and Thomas Berry. TIte Universe Sl.Or1' From Lhe Primordial

FIaring Forth 1.0 the Ecozoi.c Era: A Celebration of Lhe Un!oldinfJ of ,heco,mo

s• San FranciscO' Harper San Frandsco, 1994· Perhaps the !irs' pre-

sentation of the evolulionary procesS narrated in slOryform· Based on the

""

230 . THE GREAT WORK

euth nti cientific data of a scienti I committed to the study of the large-5 ale stru lure of the universe in association with a historian of cultures.

ykes, Sir Percy. A History of Exploration: From Earliest Times to the PresentDay. London: RouLiedge and Kegan raul, 1949. 3d ed. A comprehensivesurvey of the manner in which the different peoples of Earth, after divid-ing [rom each other from earliest Limes and shaping themselves in diversecultural modes of expression, have been discovering one anotherthroughout historical time.

Tarbell, Ida M. The Hc,tory oj the Standard Oil Company. Revised editionedited by David M. Cha.lmers. New York: W. W. Norton, 1969. Originallypublished in 1904. The story of the corporation that, in some sense,began the modem economic-industrial world with all its ruthless power

and effort to crush any competition. Originally published by McClure~,the most Prominent journal oCthe period, between 1902 and 1904.

Tattersall, Ian. Becoming Human: Evolution. and Human Uniqueness. New

York: Harcourt Brace, 1998. The human story told from the era-Magnon

period, with special emphasis on Our capacity for thought, language, andsymbolic activities. Of particular interest are the sections dealing withthe distinctive nature of humans in relation to other animal forms.

The Tarrytown Leuer Tarrytown, NY: Published by the Tarrytown Group since

1981. Self-described as a "Forum of New Ideas," it seeks to assist busi-ness executives in carrying out their managerial functions in the ever-changing circumstances of the contemporary world.

Taylor, Bron Raymond, ed. Ecological Resistance Movements. Albany, NY: State

University of New York Press, 1995. A study of ecological-based resistancemovements throughout America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America.

Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre. The Phenomenon of Man.. New York: Harper and

Row, 1959. One of the earliest and most significant studies of the evolutionof the universe and its culmination in the spiritual world of the human. Ofspecial significance for its religious-theological implications. A new trans-lation has been completed by Sarah Appleton-Weber. Brighton, Sussex,UK: Sussex Academic Press, 1999.

Templeton, John. Is Progress Speeding Up?: Our Multiplying Multitudes ofBlessings. Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press, 1997. An extremepresentation of the benefits of the modern industrial world and its sup-posed advantages, with apparently no concern for the devastation of the

Bibli,ography . 231

naturalworldlhat is takin I' I .'

f

g P ace ant lhe hmlled p"lS."'e1· for the Ion··

range uture. AUlh ' (' eglowin .. or IS apparently a d,vOled di.ciple of Juli n imon',

g vision of the futu II '11lechnological . d . re ,at WI emerg out of our I' enl icnl;fte.'I: , ,10 ustrial way ollif .equeville, Alexis de. Democracv i .'New" k: D b acy UI AmerlGlL. !'ranslat;on by eorg La"renGe.

or. ou leday A I B '0Consideredb nc 10' ooks, 1969. (Original c-<lilion1835--1840.)y some competent pers '11written as . ons as PUSSI) y th besl book ver

an Interpretation of ih A .Amen 1 e mencan v utur and the t rmotion r

can cu lure.

Toulmin, Stephen. The R tTneolcg if N e urn to Cosmology: postmo,um cie,,,,e and Ih~y 0 atlLre Berkel . U" .surveyofth . ey, niverstty of Cahfornia Press, 1982, A

e status of the field f I deth centu b ' 0 cosmo ogy tower the end of the Iwent;-thi k ry ased on a series of brier siudi s of individual cosmological

n ere In that period.Tucker M, ary Evelyn, and J h B . h . 'Th I . 0 nell rong, eds. Con/UCla""m and Ecology:

e nterrelatwn oifH E Ith 5 ealJen, art L and Humalls. Cambridge: Center for

e tudy of World R Ii . d .the f . e IglOnsan Harvard University Press, 1998. This is

rst collection of ' b I'th essay' to e pub ished on this topic. It documents

e remarkable . " .

C

. senSItIVItieS toward the natural world evident in

onfucian tho ht h I. ug t roug 1 means of self_culLivation ritual practice

social ori "I orientation, and political theory.

Tucker Ma E I, ry ve yn, and John Grim, eds. Worldviews and Ecology. Mary-

knoll NY, 0 b' B k . ..' . r IS 00,,1994. Different worldvlews have 'haped the var-IOU' civilizations and are ,till powerful determining force' throughout thehuman community. This collection of studie, bring' these traditions moredirectly into an awareness lhat each arose in the beginning by its intimaterelation with the natural world and that each ha' a role 10 play in Ihe

future of the human project.Tucker, Mary Evelyn, and Duncan Williams, ed'· Buddhism and Ecology: TheInterconnection of Dharma and Deeds. Cambridge: Center for the Study ofWorld Religions and Harvard University Press, 1997. A major contribu-tion 10 our understanding of the role of Buddhisl thought in understandingthe interrelated nature of the universe. The essays draw on both Buddhisttheory and practice to suggestways to live in greater harmonywith nature.

Turnbull. colin M. The Fomt People. New York: SilJ10nand Schuster, 1961.

An account of one of the pygmypeople of West Africa. in their relation '0

232 . THE GREAT WORK

the forest. Their intimacy with the forest as a personal numinous pres-ence has a power and unique quaJity that is found with indigenous peo-ples but tends to be lost in urban settings.

Turner, Frederick, 1. Beyond Geography: Th.e Weslern.Spirit Against the Wilder-ness. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992. An extensive

presentation of the deep suspicion toward the natural world as seducer ofhuman spiritual qualilies throughout the course of Western civilization.

AJthough the thesis proposed is widely valid and deserves presentation,the author fails to indicate the intimate appreciation of the natural worldmanifested up through the medieval period. This appreciation we findespecially in persons such as Hildegard of Bingen in the twelfth century,also by Saint Bonaventure in the thirteenth century.

Van den Bergh, .leroen C.J.M., et aI., eds. Toward Sustainable Development:Concepts, Methods, and Policy. Covelo, CA: Island Press, 1994. An effort 1.0bring the ecological study of economics into scientific form. Among theconcepts offered is that of "natural modes ofbeing" as "capital" in the eco-nomic sense. Also the phrase "sustainable development" as a term comesunder intensive scrutiny. These papers were delivered at a workshop heldat Stockholm University in 1992 under the auspices of the InternationalSociety for Ecological Economics.

van der Post, Sir Laurens.A Far-Off Place. NewYork:Harcourt Brace, 1974. Awriter with a depth of insight into twentieth-century cultural developmentsin Africa and the European-American worlds. As a child he grew up inintimate contact with the Bushmen of South Africa. This backgroundenables him to write with a special feeling for our human presence in thenatural world and provides special insight into the world of the Bushmenas they were passing from their earlier tribal culture into the European-American civilization.

Weatherford, Jack. Indian Givers: How the Indians of the Americas Trans-formed the World.NewYork: Ballantine, 1988. A significant reorientationof our view of the place of the indigenous peoples of the Americas in thelarger course of human history. The original inhabitants here have beenimmensely more significant in the history or the modern world than wehave ever understood or appreciated. Outlined here are the contributionsto economic development of the European empires [rom this continent'sgold and silver; to medicine, through quinine and cocaine; to the foodsupply of the world;and to spiritual traditions.

Bib/iogmph) . 233

Weisman AI Ca''. an. VLOleU: A Village /1} Ht/II"'ol ,h, !fo,M. ~ h." III ",

Junction, VT:Chelsea G p II' .villaae si reen un •• hlO"'. 1998. "1,,,11I1,-<1 It lTll'l\ torage Situated on the arid I' f

a ., palOs 0 olombia, lith Amen a rh I ,,"h

VISionaryleader com t . 'cultiv ti pe ent 10 cont mporarr 1,'Chnoln~i, nd ne ..nt

a on gave new life to i If Ithe tro . 0 use . ant ev " et Ul o"dilion. Ihal enol I-d

W'l hi picel for st to reestablish itself.I s Ire, Bruce. The M l C lla .U.. ora 0 pse of ,he nllJersiJ lb." late

ruverstty of New York P .happen d ress, 1990. A SlI ·rb e planation of "hut hM

e to the contem .'cate t . porary universIty and why it no long r mllluni-

S 0 Its students a ld f . .me ' . wor 0 meanlOg. ThIS Ioss of larg r 001 xt of

anmg 10 our highest 1 1 f'ety d ' eve so [melle tual developm nl leaves our soci-

esutute of th IWilson E . ,ose rea values that human lif should have.

, . O. Bwpllllw C bri I I' reib bi . am TItge: -rarva niversily Press, 1984. An

a sor mg descripti f hto h Ion 0 t e manner in which living b ings er altraCl

ed

eae other, told b bi loai Luni .'" y a '0 ogist 0 unique gtfts, as a sClenust

and as a

writer with somethi ki .__ C ,. 109 a m to poetic expression in some of his essayS.

. OllSllwnce' Th U' if K1998 , ... e ntty II nowledge. New York: Alfred A. Knopf •

. A distinguish d b' I' d ...

W

'j e 10 agist an strong proponent of emplOC1srn

•

1 son expres h' hh ses 15 t oughts on the unity of knowledge. Although it

as all the inherent' d . f . " h' k b I

a

tna equaeleS 0 emp,nclsm, I IS war e ongs

mong the more sig 'n . ' f d ..' h' ffnI Icant wntlngs a mo ern sCientISts ,n t eIT e ort to

explain themselves and their work in the larger perspective of human

understanding.Wilson E 0 d B' d' ' W ' d P

, . ., e. 10 wersll,y. a,hlngton, D.C.: National Aca emy resS

,

1988. A coHection of over fifty essays by extremely competent scientistsconcerning the manner in which the life_systems of the planet funclio

n

,indicating the damage already done and the future consequences ofignoring the basic pattern of interdependentlife-fonns. These essay' areevidence enough that we know hoW humans should relate to the life-SYs·tem' of the planet, even though we will always be limited in our insight.

World Commission on Environment and Development. Our Common Future.New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. The commission, under chair-person Gr

oHarlem Brundtland, was authorized by the United Nations to

inquire into the problems associated with the deleterioas consequencesof the industrial process as i. is extended throughout the human com

mu

'ni'y, 'Thi. i. the report. It was followed by the United Nation. Conference0" Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.

234 . THE GREAT WORK

World Conservation Union. Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for SustainableLiving. Gland, Switzerland: World Wildlife Fund, 1991. A study spon-

sored by the United Nations Environmental Program, the World Con-

servation Union, and the World Wide Fund for Nature, it articulates the

principles and conditions for sustainable living, the special needs for var-

ious human situations, with indications of the manner in which the strat-egy can be carried OUl.]11 the precision of its proposals, and the design for

their fulfillment by the community of nations, this document is one of the

most significant to come from these official sources.

Worster, Donald. Natures Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas. 2d ed.Cambridge: Cambridge Un.iversity Press, 1994. The basic work dealing

with the origins and development of the study of ecology. Our understand-ing of the natural world and the human role within the natural world had anew beginning with the scientific discoveries of the seventeenth centuryand our progressive understanding of the universe and the planet Earthas an evolutionary process.

---. Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West.New York: Pantheon Books, 1985. A study of the development of the

western regions of the North American continent by a people indifferentto the ecological structure and functioning of the region, which had theresult of terrible consequences to the land and its ecosystems.

Wub-e-ke-niew. We Have the Right to Exist: A Translation of AboriginalIndigenous Thought. The First Book Ever Publishedfrom an Ahnishinah-bre6jibway Perspective.New York: Black Thistle Press, 1995. One of the

most authentic and complete responses from the indigenous peoples ofNorth America 1'0 the intrusion and devastation of their culture by theincom.ing peoples and cultures of the European world. The Euro-Americans still cannot quite appreciate just how unjust and oppressivetheir occupation of the continent has been and remains, even in thepresent.

Yergin, Daniel. The Prize: The Epic Quest/or Oil, Money, and Power. NewYork:Simon and Schuster, 1991. A monumental narrative of over 800 pages ofthe beginning and development of the petroleum industry and its influenceon both the economic and political spheres of the human community.

Index

Abbey.Edward,73Aborigines, 53-54, 178Aesthetic experiences, 15-17.82,97.

111.123.175.191Alienation: and defining mom nt 1 oding

to human situation. 136-37. anddynamics of future. 166-67. 170:and ecological geography, 94; nodeducation/university, 71, 73, 80;and ethics, 104: and industrial·commercial order, 14-]5; andreligion, 71. 78-79; and rituuls,17-20; and science/technology. 15.78--79; and wild and sacred, 54.See also Economics/economy;Exploitation

Androcentrism, 181--82, 193Anthropocentrisrn, 44-45, 56, 101-2,

104,106,136-37Aquinas, Thomas, 77,189,190,191Archetypal symbols, 69-70,160,171-73Architects/architecture, 53, 65-66, 186,

187Aristotle, 186, 189, 191Arts/artists, 45, 53, 54. 55, 81, 123, 171.

177,178,197. See also Poels/poetryAustralia, 36, 53-54, 178Authenticity, 49-51,114,191

Bacon, Francis, 103, 168, 191-92Bailey, Ronald, 112-13Barnett, Richard, 113Berg, Peter, 65Berry, Wendell, 65Biblical tradition, 52-53, 186, 189. See

also ChristianityBierstadt, Albert, 5 196Biologists/biology, 73-74• 138,192,

Black Elk, 19. 23Bowers, Ckel, 98Bowman, Isaiah, 95Breton. Mary joy. 183BfOv,'O,Lester, 63

Bnlluhland. ro Horlem. 133

BulTon. (;;,0'1\" 169B\llTOUgh • John. 5Burrow', lUI.. 95

C,mpbell, .J.. 153CaMIl. Rueh I. uo. 182rt r, Jimmy. 97MaStro1 hie ev Ilt5,59, 167. 199

Cavanuugh. John. 113Celebration: lind dynumics of future,

170-71: Earth 86.61: of ex-ist nee.177; universe as, 19-20. See also

RitualsCenozoic Ern, 4, 7-8, 29-30, 49, 55. 79,

80,84,85.90Ceremonies. See Rilun.lsChaisson, E.rie, 166Chung Tsai, 188Charter for NalUre (V.N.), 133China/Chinese, 1-2, 9-10, 23, 63, 92.

185,188.193.198Christianity. 1,23_24,38,77, 136, ~~,

189. 191. See also Biblical tradItion;

ReligionChurch, Frederick Edwin. 5 .Citi 65-66 155-56.See also UrbanIsmmea, . .'., 44 54Classical clvlhzal1ons, 1, 8, ' '

139-40,167.184,198. See alsoClassical traditions, wisdom of

Classical traditions, wisdom of, 176,

185-89• 193Cole. Thomas, 5 G tCommunity: as central issue of ~; 71

Work. 115; human need for, - .See also Relatedness 91

Consciousness, 79. 174-75,190- '200 124 126

Conservation movetnent. 6'75 sO 120.Constitution. V.S .• 73. 74- • •

127.128Corporate colonisl;d~ 130";'32C.""""teli-- I

235