grammar course (gc)

Grammar Course (GC)

B. McEnery UCC Language Centre Oct 2019

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GRAMMAR COURSE (GC)

Developed by Brendan McEnery, UCC Language Centre

1. Active or passive verb forms Page: 2

2. Adjectives Page: 6

3. Adverbs Page: 8

4. Articles (a/an/the/0) Page: 11

5. Comparatives and superlatives Page: 14

6. Conditional sentences Page: 16

7. Countable and uncountable nouns Page: 20

8. Emphatic structures Page: 25

9. Gerund or infinitive? Page: 27

10. Irregular verbs Page 30

11. Modal verbs Page: 31

12. Noun + noun Page: 37

13. Participle phrases Page: 40

14. Present perfect tenses Page: 43

15. Questions Page: 45

16. Relative clauses Page: 48

17. Reported speech Page: 52

18. Sentence structure Page: 56

19. Singular or plural? Page: 62

20. State verbs Page: 65

21. Tenses Page: 68

22. That clauses and ‘wh’ clauses Page 79

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1. ACTIVE OR PASSIVE?

A: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.

P: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.

Identify the subject and object in the active sentence. Shakespeare = subject; Hamlet = object

Identify the ‘agent’ and ‘victim’ in the active sentence. Shakespeare = agent; Hamlet = ‘victim’

Identify the ‘agent’ and ‘victim’ in the passive sentence. Shakespeare = agent; Hamlet = ‘victim’

Identify the subject of the passive sentence. Hamlet. (The object of the active sentence becomes

the subject of the passive version)

A: …plants…. Plants produce oxygen. ‘Plants’ as ‘old/known/previously mentioned’ information

normally comes first; ‘oxygen’ as ‘new to the reader’ information normally comes second.

P: …oxygen… Oxygen is produced by plants. ‘Oxygen’ as ‘old/known’ information/previously

mentioned’ information normally comes first; ‘plants’ as ‘new’ information normally comes second.

A: The police have arrested the criminal.

P: The criminal has been arrested by the police. If you want to name the agent.

P: The criminal has been arrested. More common, as the agent is obvious, and this passive

sentence is shorter!

A: Someone has stolen my mobile phone.

P: My mobile phone has been stolen. The agent is unknown. Focus on the ‘victim’ rather than the

agent.

A: You/Users store the information on the hard disk.

P: The information is stored in the hard disk. More common, especially in written English, as it’s

more formal, less personal, and avoids the problem of naming the agent.

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A: Our hair grows every day

P: (NOT POSSIBLE) There is no ‘agent-victim’ relationship. The active sentence has no direct object.

A: My grandfather died last night.

P: (NOT POSSIBLE) There is no ‘agent-victim’ relationship. The active sentence has no direct object.

Two passive structures are often possible with reporting verbs:

A: People say (that) he is extremely rich. Conversational in style. Rarely used in written/academic

English.

P: It is said (that) he is extremely rich. / He is said to be extremely rich.

A: Experts believe (that) the city was established in Roman times.

P: It is believed (that) the city was established in Roman times. Avoids the question ‘Which

experts?’

P: The city is believed to have been established in Roman times. Avoids naming the agent.

ACTIVE PASSIVE

AGENT VICTIM VICTIM VERB be THE PAST PARTICIPLE

(AGENT)

The sun

heats the earth

PRESENT SIMPLE The earth

is heated (by the sun)

is heating PRESENT CONTINUOUS

is being

heated PAST SIMPLE was

has heated PRESENT PERFECT has been

is going to heat

FUTURE is going to be

will heat FUTURE will be

Exercises:

1. Choose active or passive:

Cheese makes / is made from milk.

They make / are made cheese from milk.

Terrorists attacked / were attacked the building.

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The building attacked / was attacked by terrorists.

The information stores / is stored on the hard disk.

Oxygen releases / is released by plants.

Plants release / are released oxygen.

Our hair grows / is grown every day.

The population will increase / will be increased in the next few years.

The pyramids at Giza built / were built by the ancient Egyptians.

The weather in Cork changes / is changed very often.

2. Complete the following table:

ACTIVE PASSIVE

The school

a new computer

A new computer

(by the school)

is bought every year.

is buying this week.

bought last month.

has been bought

recently.

is going to buy

next week.

will be bought

next week.

should buy

3. What is the difference in meaning or style between the following sentences?

1A. My mobile phone was stolen yesterday.

1B. My mobile phone got stolen yesterday.

2A. He painted the kitchen last year.

2B. He had the kitchen painted last year.

2C. He got the kitchen painted last year.

2C. The kitchen was painted last year.

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Answer keys:

Exercise 1

Cheese is made from milk. They make cheese from milk.

Terrorists attacked the building. The building was attacked by terrorists.

The information is stored on the hard disk. Oxygen is released by plants. Plants release

oxygen.

Our hair grows every day. The population will increase in the next few years.

The pyramids at Giza were built by the ancient Egyptians. The weather in Cork changes

very often.

Exercise 2

ACTIVE PASSIVE

The school

buys a new computer.

A new computer

is bought (by the school)

every year.

is buying is being bought

this week.

bought was bought last month.

has bought has been bought

recently.

is going to buy

is going to be bought

next week.

will buy will be bought *

next week.

should buy should be bought *

* modal verb + (passive) infinitive

Exercise 3

1A. My mobile phone was stolen yesterday. NEUTRAL STYLE

1B. My mobile phone got stolen yesterday. INFORMAL STYLE (NOT USED IN FORMAL WRITTEN

ENGLISH)

2A. He painted the kitchen last year. HE PAINTED IT HIMSELF.

2B. He had the kitchen painted last year. HE ASKED (AND PROBABLY PAID) SOMEONE ELSE TO PAINT

IT.

2C. He got the kitchen painted last year. THE SAME MEANING AS 2B BUT INFORMAL STYLE (NOT

OFTEN USED IN FORMAL WRITTEN ENGLISH)

2C. The kitchen was painted last year. IT IS NOT STATED WHO PAINTED IT.

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2. ADJECTIVES

Explain why the following are grammatically incorrect:

two differents problems a five-miles walk

Important are tolerance and respect.

She is absolutely nice. The movie was rather perfect.

It’s a big nice house. a sunny beautiful day political Irish history

He has two alive parents

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Answers and explanations:

two differents problems a five-miles walk a 3-hours movie

Adjectives in English are always singular, even compound adjectives with a

plural number.

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It is a product expensive. It is an expensive product. This product is/looks

expensive.

The adjective comes before the noun, but can come after the noun with be,

seem, appear, taste, look etc. Adjectives cannot normally be used without the

nouns they describe.

Important are tolerance and respect. The most important is to be polite.

Tolerance and respect are important. The most important thing/point/quality

is to be polite.

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She is absolutely nice. The movie was rather perfect.

When modifying ‘gradable’ adjectives (e.g. nice, cold, expensive etc) you can

use a range of adverbs (a bit, a little, rather, fairly, quite (=fairly), very, really,

extremely) but not absolutely, totally or completely.

When modifying ‘ungradable’ adjectives (e.g. perfect, freezing, impossible etc)

you can use absolutely, totally, really, completely or quite (=completely), but

not a bit, a little, rather, fairly, quite (=fairly), very, extremely.

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It’s a big nice house. a sunny beautiful day political Irish history

When we use more that one adjective to describe something, the most

important rule is that ‘opinion’ adjectives come before ‘fact’ adjectives:

It’s a nice big house.

a beautiful sunny day

a famous Italian artist

Other useful rules include: size before age before colour (a big old white

house), and origin/nationality before type (Irish political history).

Some adjectives (e.g. main, major, only, particular, enough) always or normally

come before the noun they describe, while others come after it (with the verb

‘be’ or equivalent) e.g. asleep, awake, afraid, alive and alike:

He has two living parents / Both of his parents are alive. He has two alive

parents

I met two afraid children. I met two scared children / I met two children who

were afraid.

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3. ADVERBS

Adverbs can give more information about a verb (1) or an adjective (2) or another adverb

(3).

(1) He drives slowly

(2) He’s a really slow driver

(3) He drives very slowly

Adverbs cannot be used to give information about a noun: He’s a slowly driver. He’s a

slow driver

Adjectives cannot be used to give information about an adverb or another adjective:

This problem is incredible complicated. This problem is incredibly complicated

He drives real slowly. He drives really slowly.

Adverbs can come at the start, in the middle, or at the end, of a sentence.

Formal conjunctive adverbs (which link a sentence to the previous sentence) usually (but

not always) come at the start of the sentence, usually followed by a comma.

However, there are some disadvantages. In addition, the new product is more fuel efficient.

In particular, it is worth noting the number of accidents in the second group.

There are, in addition, three less frequent causes of cancer.

Adverbs of frequency (always, usually, normally, sometimes, often, sometimes, rarely, hardy

ever, never) generally go immediately before the main verb, but after be (or between an

auxiliary verb and be):

Peter usually arrives late. Peter has always arrived late.

Does Peter sometimes arrive late? Peter is never late.

Peter has always been punctual.

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Other adverbs which generally follow these rules include just, already, even, also, still and

especially:

They have just arrived. He even did the washing up! Peter has already finished.

She also works part-time as a fitness coach. She is also a part-time fitness coach.

This disease especially affects babies. This disease is especially dangerous for babies.

It is unusual (but more emphatic) to put ‘negative’ adverbs like never, hardly ever, and

rarely at the start of a sentence. If you do so, you must invert the subject and verb:

Rarely have I seen him arrive late.

Never has there been such a cold winter

Adverbs of manner and degree generally come after the verb:

Peter eats quickly. The price rose significantly. She doesn’t study sufficiently.

She doesn’t study enough. (THE ADVERB enough ALWAYS COMES AFTER THE VERB/ADJECTIVE/ ADVERB

IT MODIFIES)

We generally don’t put an adverb between verb and its direct object:

Peter ate quickly his dinner.

They bought yesterday a new car.

He loves very much his wife.

Peter ate his dinner quickly.

They bought a new car yesterday.

He loves his wife very much.

Adverbs which generally come at the end of a sentence include yet, too and as well:

They haven’t arrived yet.

She works as a fitness coach as well.

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EXERCISE:

In which place(s) can you put the adverb in brackets in the sentences below?

1. There are some disadvantages. (however)

2. There were mistakes in the calculations. (obviously) (A ‘COMMENT ADVERBIAL’)

3. Official documents are published in both English and Irish. (always)

4. The state publishes official documents in both English and Irish. (always)

5. The new device is more economical. (also) 6. The new device saves money. (also)

7. The new device is more economical. (as well)

8. This disease affects babies. (especially) 9. This disease affects babies. (in particular)

10. The price fell. (slightly)

11. Dickens wrote. (quickly) 12. Dickens wrote his novels. (quickly)

13. The government introduced the new tax. (last year)

14. Unemployment is a problem in that region. (still)

ANSWER KEY:

(If more than one position is possible, the most common position is shown first).

1. However, here are some disadvantages. There are, however, some disadvantages. There are some

disadvantages, however. (SPOKEN ENGLISH ONLY)

2 Obviously, there were mistakes in the calculations. There were obviously mistakes in the calculations.

3. Official documents are always published in both English and Irish.

4. The state always publishes official documents in both English and Irish.

5. The new device is also more economical. 6. The new device also saves money.

7. The new device is more economical as well. (FAIRLY INFORMAL)

8. This disease especially affects babies.

9. This disease affects babies in particular. In particular, this disease affects babies.

10. The price fell slightly. 11. Dickens wrote quickly. 12. Dickens wrote his novels quickly.

13. The government introduced a new tax last year. Last year, the government introduced a new tax.

14. Unemployment is still a problem in that region.

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4. ARTICLES (a/an/the/0): Ten ‘rules’

1. In English there are two articles: the definite article (the) and the indefinite article (a/an) [a

before a consonant sound and an before a vowel sound]

What is the difference in meaning between these two articles? What is the difference between a

house and the house?

When you say (or write) a house, the listener (or reader) generally doesn’t know which house you

have in mind because you haven’t mentioned any house before, or is a typical house.

e.g. Peter bought a new house last month e.g. A house can be expensive to heat.

When you say (or write) the house, the listener (or reader) generally knows which house you have

in mind – either because you have mentioned the house before or because it is obvious which house

you are referring to (or there is only one!)

e.g. He paid too much for the house.

We do not let the pet rabbits into the house.

When you say (or write) the houses, you are referring to a particular group of houses which the

listener (reader) knows about (or which you describe later in the same sentence).

e.g. I took a photo of the houses beside the cathedral.

2. We generally put an article before a singular countable noun (e.g. a coin / the coin)

We do not put the indefinite article before an uncountable noun (e.g. a money )

3. What is the difference between a car and one car?

When we want to be ‘mathematical’, we say (or write) one car

e.g. Last month they sold the Ferrari and now they only have one car .

When we don’t need to be ‘mathematical’, we use a/an

e.g. Next year, I hope to buy a car

4. We use the definite article in superlative phrases,

e.g. Dublin is the largest city in Ireland

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5. We generally use the definite article before a noun if there if there is only one in existence (in that

context):

the sun, the moon, the sky, the environment (in general), the internet, the (worldwide) web, the

government (of the country in question, or governments in general), the capital city etc.

6. ‘the X of Y’ structure usually means that X is specific, not general:

the behaviour of elephants, the effects of global warming, the cost of health care

7. We do not normally put any article before proper nouns (e.g. names of people, book titles, movie

titles, song titles, company names, the names of countries, cities, famous buildings, street names,

languages and so on). Proper nouns start with a capital letter.

e.g. Harry Potter, Microsoft, Spain, Buckingham Palace, Washington St, Latin

Exceptions: Plural countries (e.g. the U. S., the Netherlands, the Philippines), and

countries ending in a singular countable noun (e.g. the United Kingdom)

buildings/places with “the X of Y” structure: (e.g. the Leaning Tower of Pisa,

the Great Wall of China, the Houses of Parliament)

rivers (the Nile), oceans (the Pacific) and mountain ranges (the Alps)

8. We do not normally put any article before plural nouns, or before an uncountable noun, when

talking in general.

e.g. That’s life!; Health is more important than wealth; Money can’t buy you love; Capitalism

works better than communism; Boys run faster than girls.

I have studied the Chinese history. (‘History’ is uncountable here; the definite article makes the

meaning too specific. The adjective ‘Chinese’ makes the meaning specific enough.)

9. There is often no article before the names of meals: I have breakfast (not the breakfast or a

breakfast) at 7am; I had lunch yesterday with Peter; I am too busy to cook dinner tonight.

10. For the following buildings/places, there is no article when speaking about them as normally

frequented: pupils go to school 5 days a week (not the school or a school); many students go to

university after secondary school; criminals are put in prison; sick people are treated in hospital; I

like to forget my job when I am at home; I drink a lot of coffee at work; I read a lot in bed.

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EXERCISE:

Correct any mistakes with articles in the following paragraph.

Last night I watched one fantastic DVD. It is called Eastern Promise.

It was a best romantic comedy I’ve ever seen. Brad Pitt played main

role. He falls in love with the beautiful poor woman who works in

large hotel where he is staying in the China. She visits him often

when he is sick in the hospital. The movie shows how the love is

possible between the people from the different cultures. Music in

the movie was superb but the ending was a bit predictable. I would

recommend movie to anyone who likes the romantic comedies.

CORRECT VERSION

Last night I downloaded a fantastic movie. (Rule 3 above) It is called ‘Eastern

Promise’. It was the best romantic comedy I’ve ever seen. (Rule 4) Brad

Pitt played the main role. (Rules 1&2) He falls in love with a beautiful

poor woman (Rule 1) who works in the/a large hotel (Rules 1&2)

where he is staying in the China. (Rule 7) She visits him often when he is sick in

the hospital. (Rule 10) The movie shows how the love is possible between the

people from the different cultures. (Rule 8) The music in the movie was superb

but the ending was a bit predictable. (Rule1) I recommend the/this film

(Rules 1&2) to anyone who likes the romantic comedies. (Rule 8)

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5. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES (big - bigger-

the biggest)

Complete the following table:

The Shannon is a long river NORMAL ADJECTIVE Asia is a big continent.

The Shannon is longer than the Lee

COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVE Asia is than Europe.

The Shannon is the longest river in Ireland

SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVE Asia is the in the world.

Is river A as long as the river B?

Is country A as ?

River A isn’t as long as river B County A isn’t as

River C is as long as river B Country C is as big as county B.

River A _________ Country A

River B ___________________ Country B

River C ___________________ Country C

SHORT ADJECTIVES (1-2 syllables) LONG ADJECTIVES (2 or more syllables)

Mobile calls are

dearer than text messages

Mobile calls are

more expensive than

text messages

Text messages are

cheaper than

mobile calls Text messages are

less expensive than

mobile calls

International mobile calls are generally the dearest type of call.

International mobile calls are the most expensive type of call.

Local landline calls are usually the cheapest type of call.

Local landline calls are usually the least expensive type of call.

To intensify/soften adjectives:

Paris is a very big city. Dublin is quite a big city. / Dublin is a fairly big city.

Paris is much/far/considerably bigger than any other French city. Birmingham is a little /

slightly bigger than Manchester.

Paris is by far the biggest city in France. That city is marginally the biggest in the country.

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Answer key:

The Shannon is a long river NORMAL ADJECTIVE Asia is a big continent.

The Shannon is longer than the Lee

COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVE Asia is bigger than Europe. (or a bigger continent)

The Shannon is the longest river in Ireland

SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVE Asia is the biggest continent in the world.

Is river A as long as the river B?

Is country A as big as country B?

River A isn’t as long as river B County A isn’t as big as the other two countries.

River C is as long as river B Country C is as big as county B

Some irregular spellings:

thin – thinner - the thinnest large – larger - the largest easy – easier - the easiest

friendly – friendlier - the friendliest (or more friendly - the most friendly)

Some irregular adjective forms:

Good - better - the best bad – worse - the worst far - further/farther - the furthest/the farthest

Other variations:

Cork is the second biggest city in the Republic of Ireland.

Limerick isn’t nearly as nice as Cork! (=Cork is much nicer than Limerick!)

Paris is one of the most beautiful cities in the world.

This product is becoming cheaper and cheaper. This problem is getting more and more complicated.

The more salt we consume, the thirstier we feel. The older you are, the wiser you become.

The price of the new product is the same as the price of the old product. (The two prices are the

same)

Some adverbs have irregular comparative and superlative forms:

She sings well. She sings better than me. She sings the best (of all the family).

I sing badly. I sing worse than her. I sing the worst (of all the family).

However, for most adverbs just add more and the most

He writes clearly. He writes more clearly. He writes the most clearly (of all the group).

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6. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

In a conditional sentence there are normally two clauses (the ‘condition clause’ and the ‘result

clause’) which are usually joined by the word if. There are four main types of conditional, and

variations on these.

THE ‘ZERO’ CONDITIONAL

If you boil water, it evaporates

If you love someone, you want to share everything with them

FORM: if + present simple (in the condition clause) present simple (in the result clause)

FUNCTION: To express the normal consequences of an action, event or situation in the past,

present or future

THE FIRST CONDITIONAL

If it rains this afternoon, we’ll go to the cinema

If it’s raining this afternoon, we’ll go to the cinema

FORM: if + present simple or continuous will + infinitive

FUNCTION: To describe the consequences of an action, event or situation which is entirely possible

in the future

THE SECOND CONDITIONAL

If I had enough money, I would buy a nice big house in the country

If I was/were rich, I’d buy a nice big house in the country

If I was running this company, I’d change many things

FORM: if + past simple / continuous would + infinitive

FUNCTION: To describe the consequences of an action, event or situation which is unlikely or

imaginary.

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THE THIRD CONDITIONAL

If I had known you were in hospital, I would have visited you

If I’d studied harder at university, I’d have got better grades

FORM: if + past perfect would have + past participle

FUNCTION: To describe the imaginary consequences of an action, event or situation which did not

happen in the past.

EXERCISE A

What is the difference between (a) and (b)?

(a) If I find his wallet, I’ll phone him immediately

(b) If I found a wallet in the street, I would bring it to the nearest police station

What is the difference between (c) and (d)?

(c) If I knew his number, I’d phone him.

(d) If I had known his number, I would have phoned him.

VARIATIONS:

If I had enough money, I would buy a nice big house in the country

I would buy a nice big house in the country if I had enough money

The two sentences above have the same meaning. The result clause can come first or second. When

the result clause is first, no comma is needed.

................................................................................................................................................................

If you see them, tell them I’ll be late

In this first conditional, the result is an order / instruction (in the imperative verb form)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

She will come if she has time

She won’t come if she hasn’t got time

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She won’t come unless she has time

if + negative verb can often be replaced by unless + positive verb

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

I must study hard. Otherwise, I won’t pass my exams. ( = If I don’t study hard,)

................................................................................................................................................................

If he has time, he will come to the meeting (First conditional)

If he has time, he may/might come to the meeting

If you took more exercise, you would feel better (Second conditional)

If you took more exercise, you may/might feel better

If she had run faster, she would have won the race (Third conditional)

If she had run faster, she may/might have won the race

The use of may or might in the result clause makes the result sound uncertain.

................................................................................................................................................................

If I were to win the lottery, I would buy a nice house in the country. (Second conditional)

Were I to win the lottery, I would buy a nice house in the country. (Second conditional)

Had I studied harder, I would have got better exam results. (Third conditional)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....

If I had gone to the party, I would be tired now

This is a ‘mixed’ conditional. It starts like a third conditional but finishes like a second conditional.

This is because the condition clause refers to the past but the result clause refers to the present.

If I were rich, I would have bought that smartphone.

Another ‘mixed conditional’. The condition refers to the present (and the past), but the result refers

to the past.

EXERCISE B

Complete the following sentences using appropriate forms of the verbs from

the list in italics at the end.

1. He would be a good footballer if he _______________ some weight

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2. If you freeze water, it _______________ ice. 3. If she _______________ he was a criminal, she would not have married

him. 4. If I were you, I _______________ to a doctor immediately. 5. Unless they ask me to pay, I _______________ 6. If I had worked harder, I _________________ a promotion last month. 7. If I ________________ not there at 3 o’clock, start without me. 8. If you argue with complaining customers, it _______________ them

even angrier. 9. I might go on holidays to South America next year if I _______________

enough money. 10. What _______________ if you found a burglar in your house?

be, become, do, get, go, have, know, lose, make, pay

ANSWERS

EXERCISE A:

In sentence (a), his wallet is a real wallet which has been lost and it is entirely possible that the

speaker will find this wallet. That’s why a first conditional is used.

In sentence (b), the wallet is an imaginary wallet. The speaker is fantasising about what he would do

in an unlikely or imaginary situation. That’s why a second conditional is used.

In sentence (c), the speaker is talking about the present and the future but she feels that getting the

phone number is unlikely. That’s why a second conditional is used

In sentence (d), the speaker is fantasising about the past. In reality, she didn’t know the telephone

number and so she didn’t phone him

EXERCISE B:

1. lost 2. becomes / will become (ZERO OR FIRST CONDITIONAL) 3. had known

4. would go / get 5. won’t (pay) 6. would have got 7. am / ‘m / don’t get

8. makes / will make (ZERO OR FIRST CONDITIONAL)

9. have/get/make (THE FIRST CONDITIONAL BECAUSE OF THE TIME EXPRESSION ‘next year’)

10. would you do

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7. COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Every English noun is either countable or uncountable:

A countable noun (C)* can be counted! It can be singular or plural.

e.g. a car, my car, the car, one car, every car, three cars, car, few cars

an artist, one artist, that artist, each artist two artists, many artists

A singular countable noun cannot be used alone – i.e. you normally put an article (a/an/the) before

it (or another word like my, his, our, this, that, each, every)

Uncountable nouns (U)* cannot be counted. They are always singular.

e.g. information, the information, this information, that information, our information, a lot of

information, too much information, very little information

You can use the (the definite article) before an uncountable noun but you cannot use a/an (the

indefinite article)

If you want to count an uncountable noun, there are two possibilities:

1. Put a countable noun + of before the uncountable noun: e.g. a slice of bread, one piece of information, two bits of advice, three items of clothing

2. Make a compound noun with the uncountable noun first and a countable noun second: e.g. a news story, a research paper

Some nouns can be countable in one context and uncountable in another context:

I had a coffee a few minutes ago. I drink too much coffee.

A new law about drink driving was introduced last month. She’s studying law at the moment.

Common mistakes: Correct versions:

I want to be singer I want to be a singer

There were three equipments in the room There are three pieces of equipment in the room

* A good dictionary will have the abbreviations C or U after each noun (or each use of the noun)

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EXERCISE

Correct any mistakes in the following sentences. Not all the sentences contain mistakes.

1. She has apartment.

2. He has nice new apartment.

3. I bought a bread in the supermarket.

4. We will need two breads

5. Let me give you some advice

6. My father gave me two good pieces of advice

7. She is excellent teacher

8. She is my teacher

9. We went to the pub and had a few beers

10. Beer is my favourite drink

11. There are too many informations in the document

12. I heard a terrible news this morning

13. He wants to find a work in the city centre

14. She brought two luggages with her on holiday

15. Do you think he will make a good impression at the interview?

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ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS

1. She has an apartment. An article before a singular countable noun

2. He has a nice apartment. Even with an adjective before a singular countable noun, you still need

an article (or equivalent).

3. I bought bread / some bread / a loaf of bread / a roll in the supermarket. Bread in an

uncountable noun

4. We will need two loaves of bread / two slices of bread / two rolls.

5. Let me give you some advice. Correct. Advice is an uncountable noun and so it cannot have a/an

before it. It is never plural.

6. My father gave me two good pieces of advice. Correct. If you want to ‘count’ advice, you need to

use a countable noun with it.

7. She is an excellent teacher. A singular countable cannot be used alone.

8. She is my teacher. Correct. The possessive pronoun my replaces the article.

9. We went to the pub and had a few beers. Correct. Beer is a countable noun in this context

10. Beer is my favourite drink. Correct. Beer is an uncountable noun in this context

11. There are too many pieces of information / There is too much information in the document.

Information is uncountable.

12. I heard a terrible piece of news this morning. News is an uncountable noun. You cannot put

a/an directly before it.

13. He wants to find work / a job in the city centre. Job is countable; work is uncountable.

14. She brought two suitcases/ two bags/ two items of luggage with her on holiday. Suitcases and

bags are countable; luggage is uncountable.

15. Do you think he will make a good impression at the interview? Correct. Impression is a countable

noun.

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QUANTIFIERS:

Used with COUNTABLE NOUNS Used with UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

How many? How much?

not a/one piece of furniture

no pieces of furniture

no furniture

one, two etc a/an the

this/these

the (or no article), a/an (indefinite

article) this

another (singular); other (plural) other

few (negative meaning) / a few

(positive or neutral meaning (fewer)

little (negative meaning) / a little

(positive or neutral meaning) (less)

several / a number of a quantity of / an amount of

some some

lots of * / a lot of lots of * / a lot of

numerous *** a good deal of ***

plenty of * plenty of *

many (more) much **** (more)

a large number of a great deal of ***

a large amount/quantity of

most (of the) most (of the)

* = informal *** = formal **** = very formal

comparatitive forms

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EXERCISE: Choose the best alternatives:

1. There isn’t much/many new information in that article.

2. Johnson and Jones have done much / many / a lot of /a great deal of research into this

problem.

3. The table shows the amount/quantity/number of consumers who trust online shopping

sites.

4. She attended fewer/less lectures last semester than this semester.

5. I have read few / a few books on the topic so I feel ready to start my thesis.

6. He had only little / a little experience when he joined the company but he learned quickly.

7. Most of / Most students feel depressed at some time during their studies.

8. Climate change is very important issue / a very important issue.

9. One disadvantage is the weight of the product. Other/Another problem is the price.

10. There are several/many nationalities studying at UCC.

ANSWER KEY

1. There isn’t much/many new information in that article.

2. Johnson and Jones have done much / many / a lot of / a great deal of research into this problem.

3. The table shows the amount/quantity/number of consumers who trust online shopping sites.

4. She attended fewer/less lectures last semester than this semester.

5. I have read few / a few books on the topic s I feel ready to start my thesis.

6. He had only little / a little experience when he joined the company but he learned quickly. (AVOID A

DOUBLE NEGATIVE)

7. Most of / Most students feel depressed at some time during their studies.

8. Climate change is very important issue / a very important issue.

9. One disadvantage is the weight of the product. Another / Other problem is the price.

10. There are several/many nationalities studying at UCC.

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8. EMPHATIC STRUCTURES

Peter broke the window.

It was Peter who broke the window.

I really hate washing up after dinner.

What I really hate is washing up after dinner.

Washing up after dinner is one thing I really hate.

I’m phoning you to ask for a favour.

The reason I’m phoning you is to ask for a favour.

He’s a real nerd! He can only talk about computers.

He’s a real nerd! All he can talk about is computers.

We have never had such easy access to information.

Never have we had such easy access to information.

He’s a great singer and writes fantastic songs.

Not only is he a great singer, he also writes fantastic songs.

The government needs to invest more money in hospitals.

The government does need to invest more money in hospitals. (or really needs)

Her writing is good She writes well. She is an excellent writer.

Her writing is so good. She writes so well. She is such an excellent writer

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Rewrite the following sentences to emphasise the underlined words:

1. Crick and Watson discovered the structure of DNA in Cambridge in 1953.



4. We cut the number of interviews to reduce the cost of the project.

5. We cut the number of interviews to reduce the cost of the project.

6. Ireland is rarely affected by drought.

7. You should not leave this door unlocked under any circumstances.

8. The new car model is stylish in appearance and environmentally friendly.

9. We need to re-think our treatment of farm animals.

10. Mars is far from Earth.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS

1. It was Crick and Watson who discovered the structure of DNA in Cambridge in 1953.

The scientists who discovered the structure of DNA in Cambridge in 1953 were Crick and Watson.

2. It was in Cambridge that Crick and Watson discovered the structure of DNA in 1953.

3. It was in (the year) 1953 that Crick and Watson discovered the structure of DNA in Cambridge.

4. What we did to reduce the cost of the project was to cut the number of interviews.

5. The reason (why) we cut the number of interviews was to reduce the cost of the project.

6. Rarely is Ireland affected by drought.

7. Under no circumstances should you leave this door unlocked.

8. Not only is the new car model stylish in appearance, it is also environmentally friendly.

The new car model is not only stylish (in appearance) but also environmentally friendly.

The new car model is both stylish in appearance and environmentally friendly.

9. We do/really need to re-think our treatment of farm animals.

10. Mars is so/really far from Earth. (or Mars is such a long distance from Earth)

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9. GERUND OR INFINITIVE?

A gerund (‘ing’ form) is normally used:

• after a preposition ( e.g. He’s interested in improving his English) *

• as the subject, object or complement of the main verb in a sentence (e.g.

Learning a language takes a long time. I hate driving. Seeing is believing)

An infinitive is more common:

• after an adjective (e.g. It’s difficult to pronounce that word) A full infinitive

• to express purpose (e.g. I came to Ireland to learn English) A Full infinitive

• after modal verbs (e.g. I should read more) A bare infinitive

In a V1 + V2 structure, the second verb can be a gerund or an infinitive. **

There are three possibilities:

1. It doesn’t matter if you use a gerund or an infinitive (e.g. She started learning

English when she was five = She started to learn English when he was five)

2. You have no choice; V1 dictates whether V2 is a gerund or infinitive (e.g. I enjoy

learning new words; Parents spend a lot of time worrying about their children; The

student denied cheating in the exam; I need to improve my vocabulary; I would rather

stay at home tonight)

3. You can use either a gerund or infinitive, but the meaning is different in each case.

• He stopped smoking (He became a non-smoker)

≠ He stopped to smoke (e.g. He stopped driving to have a cigarette)

• I remember taking my medicine (I took it and I can remember this past event)

≠ I remember to take my medicine (I always remember that I have to take it)

• I forget taking my medicine (I probably took it but I can’t remember this past

event) ≠ I forget to take my medicine (I am very forgetful about my medicine)

• I regret telling you that he left (I told you that he left and it was a mistake to

tell you this) ≠ I regret to tell you that he left (I have bad news! He left)

• Try opening the window (An open window might help to solve the problem)

≠ Try to open the window (It’s difficult to open the window but please try)

• She went on learning the piano (She continued with her piano lessons)

≠ She went on to learn the piano (Later on, she started to learn the piano)

• Travelling by train means getting up earlier. (=involves; has that result)

He didn’t mean to damage the equipment. (=intend)

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* When ‘to’ is a preposition (i.e. not part of the full infinitive), use a gerund (e.g. I’m

looking forward to meeting you; She’s used to driving on the left)

** V2 can sometimes take other forms (e.g. I recommend (that) you visit Dublin)

*** Gerunds and infinitive can be negative (e.g. not knowing, not to know) and

passive (being studied, (to) be studied)

Complete the following sentences. Choose a gerund or an infinitive. Sometimes both

are possible.

1. Normally, I hate _______________ a dictionary. (use)

2. It’s easy _______________ grammar mistakes. (make)

3. _______________ cigarettes is bad for your health. (smoke)

4. We like _______________ by the teacher. (correct)

5. She’s against ______________ animals in laboratory experiments. (use)

6. I will never forget _______________ him for the first time last year. (meet)

7. They object to _______________ overtime without pay. (work)

8. He suggested (me) _______________ to the doctor. (go)

9. It’s crazy _______________ left and right when walking across a busy street with

lots of traffic. (look)

10. We spent a lot of time _______________ the possible reasons. (investigate)

11. I regret _______________ you that you have just failed the exam. (tell)

12. You should avoid _______________ after _______________ alcohol. (drive,

drink)

1. using 2. to make 3. smoking 4. being corrected / to be corrected 5. using

6. meeting 7. working 8. suggested going / suggested (that) I go /should go / went

9. not to look 10. investigating 11. to tell 12. driving, drinking

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COMPLEX INFINITIVE AND –ing FORMS

Use this table to complete the sentences below

POSITIVE NEGATIVE PASSIVE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

INFINITIVES (to) write not to write (to) be

written

(to) have

written

(to) be writing

-ing FORMS writing not writing being

written

having

written

-------------------

It is important _______________ your essay in an informal conversational style.

This essay needs _______________ soon.

I hope _______________ the essay this week.

She seems _______________ the essay at the moment.

I may _______________ my last essay too quickly.

He can’t remember ______________ the essay last year.

I enjoy _______________ essays.

I have started writing the essay but I cannot imagine it _______________ this week.

_______________ references for your sources will lose you marks.

It is possible to combine some of the above forms. For example:

This text fragment seems to have been written in Greek. (PERFECT PASSIVE INFINITIVE)

Not having written her essay, she avoided the teacher. (NEGATIVE PERFECT –ing FORM)

ANSWER KEY:

not to write ; to be written; to write; to be writing; have written

having written / writing; writing; being written; not writing

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10. IRREGULAR VERBS

Complete each sentence with an appropriate irregular verb form (past simple

or past participle). See the list of irregular verbs under ‘Content’ in Blackboard.

1. I usually feel happy on Friday evenings but last Friday I f _ _ _ sad.

2. Snow is rare on Christmas day in Ireland, but four years ago snow f _ _ _ on

Christmas morning.

3. Mark Smith is our teacher but last week we were t_________ by a different

teacher.

4. Now we know that the earth is round but before the age of Columbus most

people t_________ the world was flat.

5. After the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, Pompeii l _ _ under 5 meters of

volcanic ash.

6. While I cooked the dinner, my housemate l _ _ _ the table.

7. He reads a lot of novels but he has never r_________ any book by Dickens.

8. The captain of the team was a wonderful leader. Last year she l_________

them to a famous victory.

9. It was a difficult choice but in the end we c_________ the red sofa.

10. Last Saturday I b________ a new laptop. It c_________ a lot of money so I

p_________ for it by credit card.

ANSWER KEY:

1. felt 2. fell 3. taught 4. thought 5. lay 6. laid

7. read 8. led 9. chose 10. bought ; cost; paid

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11. MODAL VERBS* (and ‘semi-modals’)

OBLIGATION/NECESSITY/ADVICE/OPTIONS/PROHIBITION

‘PAST’ FORMS

OBLIGATION/NECESSITY

You must* phone Peter.

You have to phone Peter.

You need to phone Peter.

You had to phone Peter.

You needed to phone Peter.

ADVICE/RECOMMENDATIONS

(POSITIVE)

You should* phone Peter.

You ought to* phone Peter.

You could* phone Peter.

You should / ought to have phoned

Peter. (= You didn’t phone him but

that was a mistake)

OPTIONS

You can* phone Peter.

You could* phone Peter.

You could have phoned Peter. (= You

didn’t phone him but it was an option)

NO NECESSITY

You do not have to phone Peter.

You do not need to phone Peter.

You needn’t* phone Peter.

I didn’t have to / I didn’t need to

phone him. (= It wasn’t necessary)

I needn’t have phoned him. (= I

phoned him but it wasn’t necessary)

ADVICE/RECOMMENDATIONS

(NEGATIVE)

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You should not* phone Peter.

You ought not to* phone Peter.

You shouldn’t have phoned Peter.

(=You phoned him but that was a

mistake)

PROHIBITION/IMPOSSIBILITY

You must not* phone Peter.

You may not* phone Peter.

You cannot* phone Peter.

You weren’t permitted/allowed to

phone him.

You couldn’t phone Peter. (=It wasn’t

possible to phone him)

ABILITY/POSSIBILITY

PAST PRESENT FUTURE

GENERAL

ABILITY

I could* swim

when I was five

years old.

I was able to swim

when I was five.

I can* type very

fast.

I’m able to type

fast.

I’ll (I will) be able

to speak English

fluently after this

course.

SPECIFIC

ABILITY/

SUCCESS ON

ONE

OCCASION

I managed to finish

my assignment last

night. (could is not

usual in this

context)

I was able to see / I

could see the

bottle but

couldn’t* reach it.

I can* see the

bottle but I can’t*

reach it.

I’m able to see the

bottle but I’m not

able to reach it.

I can* meet you

tomorrow

morning.

I’ll be able to meet

you tomorrow

morning.

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FORECASTING

The economic situation will* improve next year.

will* definitely improve

is going to improve

is certain to improve

is bound to improve

will probably improve

should* improve (normally only for events you hope will happen)

is likely to improve

will* possibly improve

may* improve / may not improve

might* improve / might not improve

could* improve

probably will not* (won’t*) improve

is unlikely to improve

will not* (won’t*) improve

certainly will not (won’t) improve

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DEDUCTION/SPECULATION

SPECUATING ABOUT THE PAST SPECUATING ABOUT THE PRESENT

He must* have gone to bed early.

(MODAL + have + PAST PARTICIPLE)

He must* be in bed. (MODAL +

INFINITIVE) (He will* be in bed (now)).

He probably went to bed early. He’s probably in bed.

He should* be in bed (by now)

He may / may not* have gone to bed

early.

He possibly went / didn’t go to bed

early.

He may / may not* be in bed.

He is possibly / possibly not in bed.

He might / might not* have gone to

bed early. He possibly went / didn’t go

to bed early.

He might /might not* be in bed.


He could* have gone to bed early. He

possibly went / didn’t go to bed early.

He could* be in bed.


He probably didn’t go to bed early. He probably isn’t in bed.

He can’t* have gone to bed early. He can’t* be in bed.

He couldn’t* have gone to bed early. He couldn’t*be in bed.

(He mustn’t* have gone to bed early.) (He mustn’t* be in bed.) Informal/Irish

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EXERCISE: Correct the mistakes with modals in the following sentences:

1. I must to go now.

2. She can swims well.

3. This medicine should store in a fridge.

4. I mustn’t use my key because the door is never locked.

5. Drivers in Ireland and Britain do not have to drive on the right.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6. I must go to the dentist yesterday.

7. You should have went to the party; it was great!

8. I stayed in bed yesterday morning. It was my day off work so I needn’t have got up.

9. Fifty years from now, all cars will can fly.

10. I could go on a foreign holiday last year because my parents gave me the money.

11. The weather should be bad tomorrow.

12. Do you think it will rain this afternoon? I’m not sure; it can.

13. Where is Peter? I’m not sure; he can still be at work.

14. There are no lights on in her house. She is maybe asleep or she is maybe not at

home.

15. He could of dropped his wallet in the street this morning.

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ANSWER KEY

1. I must to go now. 2. She can swim well. MODAL + INFINITIVE (WITHOUT to) IN ALL

CASES

3. This medicine should be stored in a fridge. A PASSIVE INFINITIVE = ‘be’ + PAST PARTICIPLE

4. I needn’t / don’t need to / do not have to use my key because the door is never locked.

5. Drivers in Ireland and Britain must not drive on the right. (EXPRESSES STRONG

PROHIBITION)

cannot drive (EXPRSSES PROHIBITION IN INFORMAL SPOKEN ENGLISH, BUT COULD

CONFUSINGLY SUGGEST INABILITY)

may not drive (MORE POLITE PROHIBITION)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6. I had to / needed to go to the dentist yesterday. PAST OBLIGATION/NECESSITY

7. You should have gone to the party; it was great! TO REFER TO THE PAST AFTER should,

USE A ‘PERFECT’ INFINITIVE (= ‘have’ + PAST PARTICIPLE)

8. I stayed in bed yesterday morning. It was my day off work, so I didn’t have to / I didn’t

need to get up. (I needn’t have got up. = I got up but it wasn’t necessary.)

9. Fifty years from now, all cars will be able to fly. ONE MODAL AFTER ANOTHER IS NOT

POSSIBLE, AS A MODAL HAS NO INFINITIVE FORM.

10. I was able to / managed to go on a foreign holiday last year because my parents ...

‘Could’ IS ONLY USED FOR GENERAL PAST ABILITY.

11. The weather will probably be bad tomorrow.

12. Do you think it will rain this afternoon? I’m not sure; it could/may/might. ‘Can’ IS NOT

USED FOR FORECASTING.

13. Where is Peter? I’m not sure; he could/may/might still be at work. ‘Can’ IS NOT USED

FOR SPECULATING.

14. There are no lights on in her house. She may be asleep, or she may not be at home.

SPECULATING ABOUT THE PRESENT (OR Maybe she is asleep = SPOKEN ENGLISH ONLY)

15. He could have dropped his wallet in the street this morning. TO SPECULATE ABOUT THE

PAST, USE A ‘PERFECT ‘INFINITIVE (= have + PAST PARTICIPLE)

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12. NOUN + NOUN (N+N)

In English it is common to put two nouns side by side to make a compound

noun (N+N) e.g. a football club, a computer screen, the music teacher, money

problems, health education, a television programme, and climate change.

A plural compound noun has an ‘s’ at the end of the second noun (not at the

end of the first) e.g. three computer screens (three computers screen/s)

Often, the first noun operates like an adjective in front of the second noun, i.e.

the first noun describes the second noun or gives more information about the

second noun.

When an adjectival form of the first noun exists, we normally use the adjective

form (A+N) rather than the noun form, e.g. financial problems (finance

problems), technological developments (technology developments)

Sometimes using the adjective doesn’t express your meaning (e.g. healthy

education, the musical teacher) so you use a compound noun instead (health

education, the music teacher)

Sometimes a triple compound noun is possible (e.g. oil production costs), or

even a quadruple compound noun (e.g. a wind energy research centre)

When pronouncing compound nouns, the stress usually falls on the first noun

(e.g. money problems). When writing compound nous, sometimes there is

more than one possibility (e.g. ski bob and ski-bob). The hyphen option is

becoming less common. Where both nouns are very short, we usually make

one word (e.g. bathroom) while for longer nouns we usually separate the

nouns (e.g. airport terminal). If in doubt, write two separate words.

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We often put an apostrophe after the first noun and a space between the two

nouns (N’s N) when the second noun belongs to, or is part of, or is used by or

produced by, the first noun, e.g. Peter’s house, Peter’s brother, Ireland’s

history, a woman’s face, a dog’s tail, women’s magazines, the government’s

decision, cow’s milk and the train’s arrival. This pattern is common when the

first noun is a person, an animal or an organisation, and it always used when

the first noun is the name of a person. Often, the idea could be reformulated

as an SVO sentence with the first noun as the subject and the second noun as

the object (e.g. women read these magazines or the government made the

decision)

Sometimes we put the preposition ‘of’ between the two nouns (N of N) (a map

of Cork, the centre of the room, the history of Ireland). This pattern is not as

common in English as in some other European languages.

Sometimes both N’s N and N of N are possible (Cork’s history, the history of

Cork), sometimes not (Cork’s map). If you are not sure, choose N of N (e.g. the

centre of Cork), except when one of the nouns is the name of a person.

Other prepositions are sometimes used between two nouns e.g. developments

in technology, education about health, the solution to the problem. (N P N)

When describing containers, both N of N and N+N are possible but the

meaning of each is different. A coffee cup is just a cup while a cup of coffee

means the cup and the drink inside.

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Correct any mistakes in the following N+N examples. Not every example is

incorrect.

1. a heart attack

2. the house of Stephen

3. North Ireland

4. hair growth

5. the tourist industry

6. a medicine problem

7. animal behaviour

8. a physics teacher

9. the lesson’s end

10. a historical degree

1. a heart attack CORRECT (‘ a cardiac arrest’ IS A MORE FORMAL ALTERNATIVE)

2. the house of Stephen Stephen’s house

3. North Ireland Northern Ireland (=political)/ the North (of Ireland) (=political) /

northern Ireland (=geographical) / the north of Ireland (=geographical).

4. hair growth CORRECT (‘the growth of hair’ IS POSSIBLE AND MORE FORMAL, BUT LESS

COMMON)

5. the tourist industry CORRECT (‘the tourism industry’ IS ALSO COMMON)

6. a medicine problem a medical problem ≠ a problem in medicine (=faced by medical

professionals) ≠ a medicinal problem (=related to medical drugs)

7. animal behaviour CORRECT (‘the behaviour of animals’ , ‘animals’ behaviour’, ‘an

animal’s behaviour’ ARE POSSIBLE BUT LESS COMMON)

8. a physics teacher CORRECT (BOTH WORDS ARE SINGULAR) ≠ ‘a physical teacher’!

9. the lesson’s end IS POSSIBLE BUT MUCH LESS COMMON THAN ‘the end of the lesson’

10. a historical degree a history degree / a degree in history

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13. PARTICIPLE PHRASES

What do the underlined participle phrases mean? Rephrase them.

Coached effectively, children can quickly learn how to play tennis well.

Cork is a fairly relaxed city compared to Dublin.

Parking his car near the main entrance, he walked into the shop.

A group of tourists exploring the island discovered the ruins of an ancient church.

Sales started at a low level but rose steadily, reaching 20 million units at the end of

the period.

A famine has hit parts of Sudan, killing thousands of people.

Not having any money, I was unable to take a taxi home.

Having finished her degree, my sister decided to take a year off.

ANSWER KEY

‘Coached’ = ‘If they are coached’. Here the past participle replaces a full passive conditional clause.

‘compared’ = ‘if it is compared’. Here the past participle replaces a full passive conditional clause.

‘Parking’ = ‘After he (had) parked’. Here the present participle shows that the action in the participle

phrase happened immediately before the main action

‘exploring’ = ‘when they were exploring’ or ‘’who were exploring’. In the former case, the present

participle shows that the main action happened during (at the same time as) the action in the

participle phrase. In the latter case, it replaces a relative clause.

‘reaching = ‘and they reached’. Here the present participle avoids the use of a second conjunction.

The action in the participle phrase happened after the action in the main clause.

‘killing’ = ‘and it killed’. Here the present participle expresses consequence/result, as well as the

sequence of actions.

‘Not having’ = ‘because I didn’t have’. Here the (negative) present participle expresses cause/reason.

‘Having finished’ = ‘After she had finished’. Here the action in the participle phrase happened before

the main action, but not necessarily immediately before it.

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The subject of the participle phrase must be given in the main clause of the sentence.

Having looked at some advantages, online shopping also has some disadvantages

Having looked at some advantages of online shopping, let us now examine some

disadvantages.

As well as some advantages, online shopping also has some disadvantages.

Cork is a fairly relaxed city, comparing to Dublin.

Cork is a fairly relaxed city, compared to Dublin.

Cork is a fairly relaxed city if we compare it to Dublin.

Normally, the subject of the participle phrase is also the subject of the main clause,

as in the examples above. However, sometimes this not the case:

I saw a man standing outside the house (≠ Standing outside the house, I saw a man)

Put the participle phrase as close as possible to the person/thing which it refers to.

Rewrite the underlined subordinate clauses as participle phrases:

1. Because he intended to study the behaviour of gorillas, he moved to Kenya.

2. I need to buy three textbooks which are required for the course.

3. After he had spent nearly five years on the Beagle expedition, Darwin returned to

England.

4. He smoked 30 cigarettes a day and took very little exercise, which led to several

medical conditions.

5. The workshop which had been scheduled for this afternoon has been cancelled.

6. Before you submit your essay, you should proof-read it carefully.

7. If he is given the right treatment and medication, he should recover well.

8. As you failed two modules, you will have to return to Cork for the repeat

examinations in August.

9. Sales continued to rise in the 1990s and reached 55 million in 1999.

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1. Intending to study the behaviour of gorillas, he moved to Kenya.

2. I need to buy three textbooks required for the course.

3. After spending nearly five years on the Beagle expedition, Darwin returned to England.

(After) having spent nearly five years on the Beagle expedition, Darwin returned to England.

4. He smoked 30 cigarettes a day and took very little exercise, leading to several medical conditions.

5. The workshop scheduled for this afternoon has been cancelled.

6. Before submitting your essay, you should proof-read it carefully.

7. Given the right treatment and medication, he should recover well.

8. Having failed two modules, you will have to return to Cork for the repeat examinations in August.

9. Sales continued to rise in the 1990s, reaching 55 million in 1999.

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14. PRESENT PERFECT (SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS)

Match the examples of the present perfect (a-d) with the four uses/meanings (1-4)

Example Describes….

a Many earthquakes have hit that

region.

1 an action which started in the past

and is still in progress. The emphasis

is on the duration of the action.

b The government has been

examining this question.

2 a recent action with an impact on

the present. The result is important.

c The government has invested a lot

in the road network.

3 a recent/current continuous action

(possibly with an impact on the

present).

d This course has been running in

UCC for the last 7 years.

4 an action which happened at some

time in the past. The date/time is

not important

Correct any mistakes in the following sentences. Explain why the incorrect form is not

acceptable.

I’ve seen him yesterday.

We’re here since 8 o’clock this morning.

I’ve been knowing him since we were in primary school.

I have been cooking the dinner and it’s on the table.

She’s lived here since 2 years.

They haven’t never been to New York.

Have you still finished your essay?

He has submitted his assignment yet.

I have read the book before I saw the movie.

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ANSWER KEY: a-4; b-3; c-2; d-1

I’ve seen him yesterday.

I saw him yesterday. (Present perfect not possible with an expression of finished time)

We’re here since 8 o’clock this morning.

We’ve been here since 8 o’clock this morning. (=We arrived at 8 am and are still here)

I’ve been knowing him since we were in primary school.

I’ve known him since we were in primary school. (A non-continuous ‘state’ verb)

I have been cooking the dinner and it’s on the table.

I have cooked the dinner and it’s on the table. (Emphasis on completed action)

She’s lived here since 2 years.

She’s lived here for 2 years. (or since 201X)

She’s been living here for 2 years. (or since 201X)

They haven’t never been to New York. (A double negative)

They’ve never been to New York.

They haven’t ever been to New York.

Have you still finished your essay?

Have you finished your essay (yet)?

Are you still working on your essay?

He has submitted his assignment yet.

He has (already) submitted his assignment (already).

He hasn’t submitted his assignment yet.

I have read the book before I saw the movie.

I had read the book before I saw the movie. (Past perfect rather than present perfect)

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15. QUESTIONS

Are you a student?

Where was he a student?

What are you studying?

Why did you study economics?

How will he finance his studies?

How long have you been studying marketing?

How often have you been absent this semester?

Which company paid for the research project?

When were you accepted for the course?

Must students attend all lectures?

Should students be helped more?

Who(m) did she contact?

Who contacted her?

Match the question types (A-F) with the appropriate examples (1-6)

1 Do plants feel pain? A AN INDIRECT (EMBEDDED) QUESTION

2 How do plants feel pain? B A NEGATIVE TAG QUESTION (USUALLY EXPECTING A POSITIVE ANSWER)

3 Don’t plants feel pain? Do plants not feel pain?

C AN OPEN QUESTION (A ‘WH’ QUESTION))

4 Plants feel pain, don’t they? D A CLOSED QUESTION (A ‘YES/NO’ QUESTION)

5 Plants don’t feel pain, do they? E A NEGATIVE QUESTION (EXPECTING A POSITIVE ANSWER)

6 We need to investigate if/how plants feel pain.

F A POSITIVE TAG QUESTION (USUALLY EXPECTING A NEGATIVE ANSWER)

Correct any mistakes in the following. Not all the questions contain mistakes.

What exactly an atom is?

When the course will finish?

Where the war started?

A solution to global warming is possible?

Is possible a solution to global warming?

She has written how many songs?

Nobody knows when did he die.

It’s a good solution, is it?

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Could you tell me where the train station is?

Do we should attend all the lectures?

Which lecturer did teach you marketing?

Which author did you prefer?

What means ‘bizarre’?

Who you love?

Write questions which would lead to these answers:

QUESTION ANSWER

What is your first name? My first name is Ying.

Where …. you …..? I was born in Beijing

I studied accounting at Beijing university.

I studied accounting at Beijing university.

I’ve been learning English for 12 years.

I’m staying in an apartment near the

university.

In my free time, I like going to a gym, and

going for drives in the countryside.

My friend Wei drives.

I go to the gym three times a week.

I’ll be in Cork until the end of the year?

I’m going to look for a job in Beijing.

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ANSWER KEY 1-D 2-C 3-E 4-B 5-F 6-A

What exactly is an atom? VERB ‘be’ BEFORE SUBJECT, WHEN THE VERB ‘be’ IS THE MAIN/LEXICAL VERB

When will the course finish? AND Where did the war start? AUXILIARY

VERB + SUBJECT + BASE FORM OF MAIN/LEXICAL VERB

Is a solution to global warming possible? A

solution to global warming is possible? = A ‘DECLARATIVE’ QUESTION. ONLY ACCEPTABLE IN SPOKEN

CONVERSATION WITH RISING INTONATION.

Is possible a solution to global warming possible? VERB be + SUBJECT + ’COMPLEMENT’

How many songs has she written? She

has written how many songs? ONLY ACCEPTABLE IN SPOKEN CONVERSATION, WITH RISING INTONATION.

CHECKING FOR INFORMATION OR INDICATING SURPRISE.

Nobody knows when he died. NOT A ‘DIRECT’ QUESTION; AN INDIRECT/EMBEDDED QUESTION; USE THE

WORD ORDER OF A STATEMENT.

It’s a good solution, isn’ it? / It isn’t a good solution, is it?

CORRECT. Could you tell me where the train station is? (AN INDIRECT/EMBEDDED QUESTION)

Should we attend all the lectures? Should IS A MODAL AUXILARY VERB. NO OTHER AUXILIARY VERB IS

NEEDED.

Which lecturer taught you marketing? DON’T USE THE AUXILAIRIES do, does, did IN A ‘SUBJECT’ QUESTION.

(THE QUESTIONER WANTS TO KNOW THE IDENTITY OF THE SUBJECT.)

CORRECT. Which author did you prefer? AN ‘OBJECT’ QUESTION (NOT A SUBJECT QUESTION)

What does ‘bizarre’ mean? THIS IS A QUESTION ABOUT THE COMPLEMENT (‘Bizarre’ means strange) SO IT’S

NOT A SUBJECT QUESTION.

Who loves you? (A SUBJECT QUESTION) OR Who do you love? (AN OBJECT QUESTION)

SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

Where were you born? What did you study at university? What was your primary degree?

Where did you study? Where did you do that degree?

How long have you been studying English? Where are you staying (in Cork)?

What do you do in your free time? What are your hobbies/pastimes?

Who drives (when you go to the countryside)? Who is the driver?

How often do you go to the gym? How long will you be (staying) in Cork?

What are you going to do after that?

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16. RELATIVE CLAUSES

You can join two short sentences together to make one longer sentence using a relative clause.

e.g. This is the car. It hit me. → This is the car which hit me

Sometimes you have to use a relative clause because there is no better way to express the idea.

e.g. I don’t like people who make mobile calls on the bus.

A relative clause usually begins with a relative pronoun. In the sentences below the relative clauses

are underlined and the relative pronouns are highlighted.

This is the car which hit me

This is the car that hit me

There is no difference in meaning between the two sentences above but the relative pronoun which

is a bit more formal than the relative pronoun that.

This is the car which I want to buy

This is the car that I want to buy

This is the car I want to buy

There is no difference in meaning between the three sentences above but the first is the most

formal and the third is the least formal. If the noun before the relative pronoun (i.e. car) is the object

of the verb in the relative clause (i.e. buy), the relative pronoun is optional (i.e. can be dropped) – as

in the last sentence above.

He is the man who spoke to me

He is the man that spoke to me

There is no difference in meaning between the two sentences above but the relative pronoun who is

a bit more formal than the relative pronoun that.

He is the man whom I phoned

He is the man who I phoned

He is the man that I phoned

He is the man I phoned

There is no difference in meaning between the four sentences above but the first is the most formal

and the last is the least formal. If the noun before the relative pronoun (i.e. man) is the object of the

verb in the relative clause (i.e. phoned), the relative pronoun is optional – as in the last sentence

above.

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He is the man whose brother was injured in the crash

I don’t know the name of the company whose office was destroyed by fire.

We usually use whose to indicate ownership or some other close connection between the subject of

the main clause and the subject of the relative clause.

• The relative pronouns for things are which, that and whose. • The relative pronouns for people are who, whom, that and whose.

• If the noun before the relative pronoun is the object of the verb in the relative clause, the relative pronoun is optional (except whose)

Sometimes it is possible to put a preposition before a relative pronoun (mainly which and whom):

She is the friend who/whom I depend on more than any other

She is the friend on whom I depend more than any other.

Other relative pronouns are where (for place), when (for time) and why (for reason)

This is a photo of the village where I was born. (= in which)

This was the period when Ireland was ruled by the English (= during which)

That was the reason (why) I left the company

Defining and non-defining relative clauses

This is a photo of the boat which/that I bought last week.

This is a photo of the Titanic, which sank in 1912 on its first voyage.

The first sentence above contains a defining relative clause which gives us essential information

which we need to ‘define’ (or ‘identify’) which boat the speaker/writer has in mind. Do NOT put a

comma before a defining relative clause.

The second sentence above contains a non-defining relative clause because what comes after the

comma (i.e. which sank in 1912 on its first voyage) is non-essential information which the

listener/reader does not need to identify which boat is being described.

This a photo of the woman that/who/whom I met in Barcelona last month.

This is a photo of my wife, who is Australian.

The first sentence above contains a defining relative clause which gives us essential information

which we need to define (or identify) which woman the speaker/writer has in mind. Notice that

there is no comma before (or after) a defining relative clause.

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The second sentence above contains a non-defining relative clause because what comes after the

comma (i.e. who is Australian) is non-essential information which the listener/reader does not need

to identify which boat is being described.

• Non-defining relative clauses are separated from the main clause by a comma (or two commas if the relative clause is ‘embedded’ in the main clause).

• Do not use the relative pronoun ‘that’ in non-defining relative clauses.

EXERCISE 1: Choose an appropriate relative pronoun for each of the following sentences. Sometimes no relative pronoun is necessary. Put in commas where the relative clauses are non-defining. The answers are given at the end of the page.

1. He’s the player __________ scored the goal. 2. I’ve lost the bag __________ I bought in Cyprus.

3. She’s the woman __________ son won the prize.

4. I like people __________ say what they think.

5. The Irishman I admire the most was Michael Collins __________ was born in Cork.

6. They are the people __________ bought our house.

7. That’s the type of music __________ I like.

8. He’s the neighbour _________ wife died.

9. That is the painting __________ is worth $1,000,000.

10. Next week we’re going camping __________ we’ve never done before.

11. That was the day ___________ we decided to get married.

12. This is the house __________ I spent much of my childhood.

13. Tomorrow is the deadline __________ applications will not be accepted.

14. I really loved her paella __________ she cooked amazingly quickly.

15. Poorer families cannot afford to buy fresh healthy food __________ can lead to medical

problems.

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EXERCISE 2: Correct any mistakes in the following. Can you explain/justify your corrections?

1. That is the textbook which the professor asked us to buy it.

2. I hate lecturers, who speak too fast.

3. On the Origin of Species, what is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology,

was published in 1859.

4. The stone circle at Stonehenge, which is located in the south of England was built

between 3000 BC and 2000 BC.

5. The friend on who I depended so much has died.

6. That is the girl who’s brother I met at the party last week.

7. Lowering taxes leads to more consumer spending, that leads to job creation.

8. The heart is divided into four chambers which is located in the centre of the chest.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ANSWER KEY:

1. who / that 2. which / that / NO RELATIVE PRONOUN 3. whose

4. who / that 5. ,who 6. who / that 7. which / that / NO RELATIVE PRONOUN

8. whose 9. which / that 10. ,which 11. when / on which / NO RELATIVE PRONOUN

12. where / in which 13. (,) after which 14. , which 15. , which

1. That is the textbook which the professor asked us to buy it. (Duplication of direct object)

2. I hate lecturers who speak too fast. (No comma before a defining relative clause)

3. The Origin of Species, which is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology, was published in

1859. (‘what’ is not a relative pronoun. It means ‘the X which’)

4. The stone circle at Stonehenge, which is located in the south of England, was built between 3000 BC and

2000 BC. (A pair of commas around a non-defining relative clause)

5. The friend on whom I depended so much has died. (Object pronoun, after a preposition)

6. That is the girl whose brother I met at the party last week. (who’s = who is)

7. Lowering taxes leads to more consumer spending, which leads to job creation.

8. The heart, which is located in the centre of the chest, is divided into four chambers. or

The heart is divided into four chambers, and is located in the centre of the chest.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology

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17. REPORTED SPEECH (INDIRECT SPEECH)

If the reporting verb (say, tell, ask etc) is in the present tense, there is no change of tense in the

reported statement.

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH

“I had a great time in Portugal” David tells me that he had a great time in

Portugal

If the reporting verb is in the past tense there are usually tense changes in the reported sentence –

especially in formal English.

“I always go to Portugal for my holidays.” David said (that*) he always went to Portugal

for his holidays.

David said (that) he always goes to Portugal

for his holidays.

“I’m going to Portugal tomorrow.” David said (that) he was going to Portugal the

following day / the next day / the day after.

David said (that) he was going to Portugal

tomorrow.

David said (that) he is going to Portugal

tomorrow.

“I’ve visited Portugal seven times.” David said (that) he had visited Portugal seven

times.

David said (that) he has visited Portugal seven

times.

“I flew back from Portugal two days ago”. David said (that) he had flown back from

Portugal 2 days before/previously.

David said (that) he had flown back from

Portugal 2 days ago.

David said (that) he flew back from Portugal 2

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days ago.

“I will be in Portugal for ten days.” David said (that) he would be in Portugal for

ten days.

David said (that) he will be in Portugal for ten

days.

“Could you go to Portugal?” David asked me to go to Portugal.

David asked me if I could go to Portugal.

“Phone the office in Portugal immediately.” David told me to phone the office in Portugal

immediately.

“Did you phone the office?” David asked me if/whether I had phoned the

office.

“When did you phone them?” David asked me when I had phoned them.

* It is highly recommended to use ‘that’ after a reporting verb in academic writing.

Tell/say/ask variations:

I told Martha. / I told Martha the price. / I told Martha (that) I would meet her at 8pm. / I told the

truth/a lie. / I told Martha to finish the work. / I told Martha about my research project.

I said (that) I needed more time. / I said to him that I needed more time. / I said, “I need more time”

I asked Pablo to help me. / I asked Pablo for a few euro. / I asked Mary what she wanted. / I asked

Mary if/whether she wanted to go. I asked Mary, “Do you want to go?”

Thoughts can also be reported directly or indirectly, with the same grammar rules.

“Is my English good enough to apply for this

job?”, he wondered.

He wondered if his English was good enough to

apply for that job.

“This will be easy”, she thought. She thought it would be easy.

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EXERCISE:

“I always go to Portugal for my holidays.” David told me that he ……

“I’m going to Portugal tomorrow.”

“I’ve visited Portugal seven times.”

“I flew back from Portugal two days ago.”

“I will be in Portugal for ten days.”

“Could you go to Portugal?”

“Phone the office in Portugal immediately.”

“Did you phone the office?”

“When did you phone them?”

“Is my English good enough to apply for this

job?” , he wondered.

“This will be easy”, she thought.

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ORIGINAL QUOTATION: “We will build a wall and Mexico will pay for it” REPORTING USING DIRECT SPPECH: Donald Trump said, “We will build a wall and Mexico will pay for it.” REPORTING USING INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH: Trump says (that) the USA will build a wall and Mexico will pay for it. Trump said (that) the USA will build a wall and Mexico will pay for it. Trump said (that) the USA would build a wall and Mexico would pay for it. VARYING THE REPORTING VERB: Trump told the audience (that) the USA will/would build a wall. Trump insists (that) the USA will build a wall. Trump has promised that the USA will build a wall. Trump has stated that Mexico will/would pay for the wall. Trump claims/insists that Mexico will pay for the wall.

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18. SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Are the following sentences? Why? / Why not?

The children played. Yes. Subject + Verb (an intransitive verb in this use = IV)

The children played games. Yes. S + V (a transitive verb here = TV) + Object (direct

object)

The children laughed. Yes. S + IV

The children sent. No. S + TV This verb is always transitive so a direct object is

needed.

The children sent text messages. Yes. S + V + O

The children sent me text messages. Yes. S + V + O (indirect) + O (direct)

The children sent text messages to each other (or to one another). Yes. S + V + O

(direct) + O (indirect)

The children talked me. No. S + V (intransitive) + ‘to’ + O (indirect)

The children photographed each other. Yes. S + V + O (direct) (reciprocal pronoun)

The children photographed themselves. Yes. S + V + O (direct) (reflexive pronoun)

The children were bored. Yes. S + be + Complement

The children were. No. S + be. Missing complement.

But could be an acceptable sentence in response to the question: ‘Who was bored?’

The basic and normal structure of a (statement) clause or a (statement) sentence is

SVO, SVC or SV, depending on whether the verb takes an object, a complement, or

neither (a verb used intransitively). Some sentences/clauses have an SVOO structure

i.e. the verb takes an indirect object as well as a direct object.

Correct any mistakes in the following sentences and explain why the corrections are

needed. Not all the sentences contain mistakes.

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1. This book I have never read.

2. Why she married him is something I cannot understand!

3. Parents are too worried about working to earn lots of money and is bad for family

life.

4. Casablanca, it is my favourite movie.

5. We should clean twice a day our teeth.

6. It exists a cheap and easy solution.

7. There have to be made a lot of changes.

8. A distillery is a place where whiskey is produced.

ANSWER KEY

1. I have never read this book. SVO (SUBJECT - VERB - OBJECT)

This is a book which I have never read. (SVC FOLLOWED BY A RELATIVE CLAUSE)

2. CORRECT. (SUBJECT – VERB - COMPLEMENT).

YOU CAN ALSO SAY/WRITE I cannot understand why she married him WHICH HAS AN SVO

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

3. Parents are too worried about working to earn lots of money and this is bad for family life. (THE

VERB ‘is’ IN THE SECOND CLAUSE NEEDS A SEPARATE SUBJECT) or Parents are too worried about

working to earn lots of money, which is bad for family life.

4. Casablanca is my favourite movie. OR My favourite movie is Casablanca. (SVC)

IN FORMAL WRITTEN ENGLISH, DON’T HAVE A NOUN AND A RELATED PRONOUN IN THE SAME CLAUSE. IN

OTHER WORDS, DON’T DUPLICATE THE SUBJECT)

5. We should clean our teeth twice a day.(SVO) (PUT THE DIRECT OBJECT IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE

VERB. DON’T SEPARATE THEM)

6. A cheap and easy solution exists. (SUBJECT BEFORE VERB) (SV)

There is a cheap and easy solution. (SVC) (FIRST MENTION)

It is a cheap and easy solution. (SVC) (SECOND MENTION)

7. A lot of changes have to be made. SV (DON’TDUPLICATE THE SUBJECT)

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8. A distillery is a place where whiskey is produced. CORRECT. SVC in main clause + SV in the relative

clause, even a passive relative clause.

How many clauses are in the following sentence?

I met Peter in a café and he told me about his new job.

What is a clause?

A clause is a group of words which contains (at least) a subject and a verb.

What is a sentence?

A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop. It contains one clause

( in a simple sentence) or more than one clause.

When we want to join clauses (C+C), we use co-ordinators and subordinators.

There are seven co-ordinators, which are often collectively called FANBOYS. (for,

and, nor, but, or, yet, so). They come in the middle of the sentence, between the

two clauses to form a compound sentence. You can put a comma before these co-

ordinators, but not all writers do so. In formal written English, it is not good style to

begin a sentence with and, but or any of the other seven FANBOYS.

for We went into the house for it was very cold outside.

and He works very hard and he earns a lot of money.

nor We didn’t eat very much nor did we feel very thirsty.

but He works very hard but he likes his job.

or You can go on foot or you can drive there.

yet He works very hard yet he doesn’t earn a lot of money.

so She wasn’t happy in that job so she left.

You can put a comma before these co-ordinators, especially if one (or both) of the clauses is (are) long.

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Subordinators:

We went into the house because it was very cold.

Because it was very cold, we went into the house.

He doesn’t earn a lot of money although he works very hard.

Although he works very hard, he doesn’t earn a lot of money.

Subordinators can come between the two clauses which they join (usually without a

comma) or before the first clause (with an obligatory comma at the end of the first

clause). The clause introduced by the subordinator is a subordinate/dependant

clause and is usually considered (slightly) less important than the other clause, which

is called the main clause. The two (or more) clauses form a complex sentence.

Time conjunctions (e.g. after, as soon as, before, just as, since, until, when, while etc)

can be subordinators if they introduce a clause:

I’ll stay here until they arrive.

Relative pronouns (e.g. who, whose, whom, which, that) are also subordinators

because they introduce relative clauses, which are subordinate to (dependant on)

the main clause. The relative clause always comes after the main clause.

She is the athlete who finished second in the race.

Peter arrived late for the lecture, which is not surprising.

Conjunctions in conditional clauses (if, even if, unless) introduce subordinate clauses.

If you leave your mobile phone there, it will be stolen!

There are many other subordinators (C+C), which show the connection between the

main clause and the subordinate clause e.g., that, so that, whether, as if, why, what

e.g. It is clear that smoking causes cancer. Why we need sleep is complex.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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If you wish to show the connection between a sentence and the sentence(s) before

it, you can use conjunctive adverbs (e.g. However, … Therefore,…. In addition, ….

After that, … ) These S+S linkers usually come at the start of the sentence and are

followed by a comma.

He works very hard. However, he earns very little.

After a while it started to get rather cold. Therefore, we went inside.

Correct any mistakes in the following examples of written English:

1. The movie was very interesting. And I really enjoyed it.

2. We all went home before the end of the match. Because the weather was bad.

3. I have visited many European countries. For example France, Spain and Greece.

4. Spending money is easy earning it is more difficult.

5. Spending money is easy, earning it is more difficult.

6. My wife and I left our home town. Then we stayed with friends in the capital city.

We stayed there for two months. Then we finally got our visas for Australia. We

travelled to Australia. We live there now.

7. My wife and I left our home town, and we stayed with friends in the capital city for

two months, but finally we got our visas for Australia, so we travelled to Australia,

and we live there now.

8. If you have an important job interview you should arrive a little before the time of

the interview, wear smart formal clothes, try to predict the questions you will be

asked, it is also important to prepare relevant questions which you can ask the

interviewer such as about salary or working hours.

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SUGGESTED ANSWERS:

1. The movie was very interesting and I really enjoyed it.

COORDINATORS JOIN TWO CLAUSES TO FORM ONE SENTENCE. USE A CO-ORDINATOR TO AVOID SHORT

CHOPPY SENTENCES.

2. We all went home before the end of the match because the weather was bad.

A SUBORDINATOR IS A C+C LINKER, NOT AN S+S LINKER.

3. I have visited many European countries, for example France, Spain and Greece.

THE LAST SIX WORDS ARE ONLY A PHRASE. THEY CANNOT BE A SENTENCE AS THERE IS NO SUBJECT+VERB. USE

A COMMA TO SEPARATE A PHRASE FROM THE REST OF THE SENTENCE.

4&5.

Spending money is easy but earning it is more difficult. (Optional comma before but)

Whereas spending money is easy, earning it is more difficult.

Spending money is easy. Earning it is more difficult.

Spending money is easy; earning it is more difficult.

SENTENCE 4 ON THE PREVIOUS PAGE IS CALLED A ‘RUN ON’ BECAUSE ONE SENTENCE RUNS INTO THE NEXT

WITHOUT ANY LINKING DEVICE.

SENTENCE 5 IS CALLED A ‘COMMA SPLICE’. A COMMA ONLY SEPATATES. IT DOESN’T SHOW CONNECTION

BETWEEN THE TWO THINGS THAT IT SEPARATES. A SEMI-COLON SHOWS A CONNECTION.

6&7. My wife and I left our home town and stayed with friends in the capital city for

two months. When we finally got our visas, we travelled to Australia, where we now

live.

6 IS TOO ‘CHOPPY’. WE MAKE LONGER SENTENCES USING COORDINARTORS AND SUBORDINATORS.

7 IS TOO ‘STRINGY’. THE IMPROVED VERSION HAS TWO SENTENCES, EACH CONTAINING 2-3 CLAUSES.

8. If you have an important job interview, you should arrive a little before the time of

the interview, wear smart formal clothes, and try to predict the questions you will be

asked. It is also important to prepare relevant questions which you can ask the

interviewer, such as about salary or working hours.

A LIST OF THREE THINGS IS ALWAYS WRITTEN LIKE ‘A, B and C’. THE COMMA AFTER B IS OTIONAL.

START A NEW SENTENCE WITH ‘It is …’ AS THIS IS A NEW TOPIC WITH A NEW SUBJECT+VERB.

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19. SINGULAR OR PLURAL? (CONCORD)

The planets travel/travels round the sun.

The sun heat/heats the earth. Mars do/does not have a moon.

There is/are over 1 billion cars in the world.

The number of cars and other vehicles on the roads is/are rising.

A large number of glaciers has/have melted.

A lot of glaciers has/have melted.

57% of men prefer/prefers not to ask for directions when they are lost.

Playing computer games with friends is/are good for developing one’s social skills.

One of the cause/causes of poverty is lack of education.

It is one of the most famous book/books ever written.

Every student know/knows this.

Any student know/knows this.

Each student know/knows this.

All students know/knows this.

Nobody know/knows this.

None of us is/are perfect.

Everything is/are included in the price.

Either tea or coffee is/are provided.

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Neither tea (n)or coffee is/are provided.

Who is/are coming to the party?

Who is/are the guests?

There are many good products to choose from, which make/makes it difficult to

decide.

There is other/another point to consider.

It is difficult to solve this/these problems.

There is/are a lot of reasons to learn English.

There is/are plenty of ways to improve your English.

Technology has brought many improvements to our daily life/lives.

A lot more information/s is/are needed.

The data was/were collected by three different students.

People need/needs relaxation. Each person/people is different.

The government decide/decides if taxes should be increased or not.

The staff of the school is/are not happy.

His family was/were very supportive.

The company has/have changed its/their policy.

The police is/are looking for the criminal.

Mathematics was/were my favourite subject at school.

Many people think that politics is/are boring.

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ANSWER KEY

The planets go round the sun. The sun heats the earth. Mars does not have a

moon.

There are over 1 billion cars in the world.

The number of cars and other vehicles on the roads is rising.

A large number of glaciers have melted. A lot of glaciers have melted.

57% of men prefer not to ask for directions when they are lost.

Playing computer games with friends is good for developing one’s social skills. (GERUNDS ARE ALWAYS SINGULAR)

One of the causes of poverty is lack of education.

It is one of the most famous books ever written.

Every student knows this. Each student knows this. Any student knows this.

All students know this. Nobody knows this. None of us are/is perfect

Everything is included in the price.

Either tea or coffee is provided. Neither tea (n)or coffee is provided.

Who is coming to the party? Who are the guests?

There are many good products to choose from, which makes it difficult to

decide.

There is another point to consider. There are other points to consider.

It is difficult to solve these problems / this problem

There are a lot of reasons to learn English. There are plenty of ways to improve

your English.

Technology has brought many improvements to our daily lives.

A lot more information is needed. (GC7)

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The data was/were collected by three different students.

People need relaxation.

Each person is different (person = individual). / Each people is different (people

= nation/race)

The government decides/decide if taxes should be increased or not.

The staff of the school are/is not happy.

His family was/were very supportive .

The company has/have changed its/their policy.

The police are/is looking for the criminal.

Mathematics was my favourite subject at school.

Many people think that politics is boring.

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20. STATE VERBS (non-continuous verbs)

The verbs below are either rarely/never used in the continuous form, or have a different meaning

when used in continuous form. This list is not complete!

believe agree love appear be

doubt disagree prefer feel (it feels) belong

feel (=think) deny like hear consist of

forget mean dislike look (=seem) contain

imagine (=think) promise hate resemble depend (on)

know surprise see deserve

realise seem exist

remember smell fit

see

(=understand)

sound include

suppose taste involve

think matter

understand need

want own

wish weigh

* I think it’s a good idea. ≠ Please be quiet! I’m thinking.

Do you see the problem? ≠ Are you seeing Peter later today?

John comes from Scotland ≠ John is coming from Scotland.

I believe you I’m believing you

His actions surprised me His actions were surprising me

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You will love their new CD You will be loving their new CD

This pizza tastes delicious This pizza is tasting delicious

This house has belonged to us since my

father died.

This house has been belonging to us since

my father died.

When we want to stress that an activity is temporary, we sometimes use a state verb in the

continuous form:

This trip is costing me a lot of money!

You’re being very unhelpful this morning.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Correct any mistakes in the following sentences:

I’m understanding what you’re saying.

Are you agreeing with me?

He’s living in London.

I am liking this pizza.

We’ll be playing tennis tomorrow.

It is depending on the weather.

The house was belonging to my uncle.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

I understand what you’re saying.

Do you agree with me?

He’s living in London. CORRECT

I like this pizza.

We’ll be playing tennis tomorrow. CORRECT

It depends on the weather.

The house belonged to my uncle

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21. TENSES IN ENGLISH - A QUICK REVIEW

NAME OF TENSE

EXAMPLES OF

DIFFERENT USES

MEANINGS OF THOSE

USES

NOTES ON GRAMMATICAL

FORMS

PAST SIMPLE I booked my

holiday yesterday.

ONE SHORT

COMPLETED ACTION

IN THE PAST. THE

DATE/TIME IS

USUALLY GIVEN OR

KNOWN

Regular verbs:

Positive: he arrived

Negative: he did not arrive /

he didn’t arrive

(arrive = INFINITIVE)

Question: Did he arrive?

Irregular verbs:

She went, she didn’t go

Did she go? (=INFINITIVE)

They lived in Paris

for 2 years.

ONE LONGER

COMPLETED ACTION

IN THE PAST. THE

DATE/TIME IS

USUALLY GIVEN OR

KNOWN

We went to the

cinema every week

when we were

students.

A SERIES OF

COMPLETED PAST

ACTIONS. THE TIME

PERIOD IS USUALLY

GIVEN OR KNOWN

PAST HABITUAL

(used to)

I used to visit my

grandmother every

Sunday.

AN ACTION REPEATED

ON MANY OCCASIONS

IN THE PAST, BUT NO

LONGER DONE.

I/you/he/she/it/we/they

used to +INFINITIVE

I used to live in

Dublin.

A PAST STATE WHICH

IS NO LONGER THE

CASE

PAST HABITUAL

(would)

I would visit my

grandmother every

Sunday.

AN ACTION REPEATED

ON MANY OCCASIONS

IN THE PAST, BUT NO

LONGER DONE.


would +INFINITIVE

would often contacted to ‘d

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PAST PERFECT

(SIMPLE)

I had read the book

before I saw the

movie.

The robbers had

left by the time the

police arrived.

A PAST ACTION WHICH

WAS COMPLETED

BEFORE ANOTHER

PAST ACTION. (The

main action is in past

simple. Use past

perfect for a

‘flashback”)

They had left / they’d left

They had not left / they

hadn’t left

Had they left?

PAST PERFECT

CONTINUOUS

They had been

seeing each other

for two years

before he proposed

marriage to her.

A CONTINUOUS PAST

ACTION WHICH

CONTINUED UP TO A

PAST TIME/EVENT.


had been + ING FORM OF

MAIN VERB.

PAST CONTINUOUS

(PROGRESSIVE)

He was hit by a car

as he was crossing

Patrick Street.

We were watching

a movie when she

phoned.

A CONTINUOUS

ACTION WHICH

HAPPENED AROUND

THE SAME TIME AS

THE MAIN PAST

ACTION

I /he/she/it was crossing

We/you were crossing

I was not watching / I wasn’t

watching

Were you watching?

Yesterday I was

cycling to work. The

sun was shining

brightly and .………

SETTING THE SCENE AT

THE START OF A STORY

PRESENT PERFECT

SIMPLE

I have visited

Canada but I’ve

never been to the

U.S.

AN EXPERIENCE IN

YOUR LIFE.

THE DATE AND TIME

ARE NOT IMPORTANT

Regular verbs:

I/we/you have (‘ve) started

He/she/it has (‘s) started

I have not started / I haven’t

started

Have you started?

(started = PAST PARTICIPLE)

Irregular verbs:

She has lived here

since 2002.

AN ACTION WHICH

STARTED IN THE PAST

AND IS STILL IN

PROGRESS NOW

The President has

died.

HOT NEWS. THE

TIME/DATE IS NOT

GIVEN

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I’ve lost my keys. A RECENT PAST

ACTION WITH AN

IMPACT ON THE

PRESENT. THE

DATE/TIME ARE NOT

GIVEN

He has gone

He hasn’t gone

Has he gone?

(gone = PAST PARTICIPLE)

Once water has

reached boiling

point, it starts to

evaporate.

A REPEATED ACTION

(IN A SUBORDINATE

CLAUSE) BEFORE

ANOTHER REPEATED

ACTION

PRESENT PERFECT

CONTINUOUS

She has been living

here since 2001.

I’ve been waiting

here for the last

half an hour!

AN ACTION WHICH

STARTED IN THE PAST

AND IS STILL IN

PROGRESS

(THE EMPHASIS IS

OFTEN ON THE

ACTIVITY/DURATION

RATHER THAN THE

PRESENT IMPACT)

I have been waiting / I’ve

been waiting

He has not been playing /

he hasn’t been playing /

he’s not been playing

How long have you been

working here?

I’ve been running in

the rain; that’s why

my hair is wet.

A RECENT

CONTINUOUS PAST

ACTION WHICH HAS

HAD AN IMPACT ON

THE PRESENT

PRESENT SIMPLE She often walks to

work.

I never smoke.

He lives in China

I have a

smartphone

REPEATED ACTIONS /

PERMANENT STATES

THE TIME PERIOD

INCLUDES THE PAST,

THE PRESENT AND

PROBABLY THE

FUTURE

I/you/we/they walk

He/she/it walks

I/you/we/they do not /

don’t walk

He/she/it does not / doesn’t

walk

Do I /you we/they walk?

Does he/she/it walk?

The match starts at

3pm tomorrow.

A FUTURE

TIMETABLED EVENT

When I see him A FUTURE EVENT After time conjunctions like

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tomorrow, I’ll give

him the letter.

(IN A SUBORDINATE

CLAUSE)

when, before, after & as

soon as, as well as if

PRESENT

CONTINUOUS

(PROGRESSIVE)

He’s staying in Cork

for a month.

AN ACTION IN

PROGRESS AT THE

MOMENT

I am staying / I’m staying

You/we/they are/’re staying

He/she/it is/’s staying

I am not leaving / I’m not

leaving

Are you leaving? Is she

leaving? etc.

I’m reading an

interesting book at

the moment.

AN ACTION

HAPPENING AROUND

NOW

Internet marketing

is becoming more

and more

important.

A CHANGE

HAPPENING AT THE

MOMENT

When you are

making tea, always

use boiled water.

(=When you make

tea, always use

boiled water.)

A REPEATED ACTION

WHICH IS

SUBORDINATE IN

THAT SENTENCE TO

THE MAIN REPEATED

ACTION

He’s always leaving

the toilet door

open!

AN ANNOYING HABIT

(informal)

We’re meeting at 7

this evening.

A FIXED FUTURE

ARRANGEMENT

FUTURE –

GOING TO +

INFINITIVE

We’re going to buy

a new car.

A PLAN OR DECISION

MADE PREVIOUSLY

I am going to sell it / I’m

going to / I’m gonna sell it

(INFORMAL US Eng)

You/we/they are going to

leave

He/she/it is going to fall

It’s not / It isn’t going to fall

Is it going to fall?

Look at the clouds.

It’s going to rain.

A FORECAST (USUALLY

BASED ON PRESENT

EVIDENCE)

She’s going to be 21

tomorrow.

A FUTURE FACT

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FUTURE SIMPLE I see we don’t have

any milk. I’ll buy

some later.

A DECISION MADE

WHILE SPEAKING OR

JUST BEFORE


will go

(I/we shall for promises and

predictions)

I/you/he/she/it/we/they ‘ll

go

I will not buy it / I won’t buy

it

Will you buy it?

I think the price of

oil will rise next

month.

A FORECAST (OFTEN

BASED ON AN

OPINION)

She’ll be 21 next

month.

A FUTURE FACT

FUTURE

CONTINUOUS

(PROGRESSIVE)

This time next

week, we’ll be lying

on a beach in Spain.

A CONTINUOUS

/TEMPORARY ACTION

IN PROGRESS AT A

FIXED TIME IN THE

FUTURE

She will be lying on a beach.

He will not / won’t be

coming

When will they be arriving?

I’ll be meeting him

tomorrow.

A FUTURE

ARRANGEMENT OR

FACT

FUTURE PERFECT

(SIMPLE)

By next March, they

will have

completed the

motorway from

here to the capital

city.

AN ACTION WHICH

WILL BE COMPLETED

BEFORE (OR AT) A

GIVEN TIME IN THE

FUTURE


will have + PAST PARTICIPLE

OF MAIN VERB

They will have completed it

They will not / won’t have

completed it by then.

Will they have completed

it?

FUTURE PERFECT

CONTINUOUS

By next March, I

will have been

living here for

twenty years.

A CONTINUOUS

ACTION WHICH WILL

CONTINUE UP TO A

GIVEN TIME IN THE

FUTURE, WITH AN

EMPHASIS ON THE

DURATION.


will have been + ING FORM

OF MAIN VERB.

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Complete the following sentences using the correct tense of the verbs in

brackets. More than one tense may be possible. The answers are given on the

next page.

1. I _______________ in Italy in 1988. (be born=PASSIVE)

2. I _______________ the first ten years of my life in Naples and then my family _______________ to Rome. (spend, move) 3. Now I _______________ in Florence, the home town of my boyfriend. (live) 4. I first met him while I _______________ in Rome University. (study)

5. Last year we _______________ a small apartment in Florence. (buy)

6. I work in an IT company called Technosoft and my boyfriend _______________ in a legal firm. (work) 7. I started as a secretary in Technosoft but I _______________ Assistant Marketing Manager for the last two years. (be) 8. In my free time I _______________ tennis and squash. (play) 9. When I was a teenager I _______________ 20 cigarettes a day but last year I _______________ smoking completely. (smoke, give up) 10. At the moment, I _______________ a Masters in Marketing at Florence University. (do) 11. I _______________ never _______________ the USA but I ____________ to go there next summer. (visit, hope) 12. My boss _______________ at the end of next month and I _______________ him. (retire, replace) 13. When I ________________ my new job, I _________________ extremely busy! (start, be)

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Circle the acceptable tense(s) in each sentence:

1. By the age of eight, Mozart wrote / had written / has written his first

symphony.

2. As an adult, Mozart first worked / has worked/ had worked in Salzburg. He

then moved/ has moved to Vienna, where he worked / was working as a

freelance performer and composer.

3. Before the age of Columbus, some people thought / had thought / were

thinking / used to think / would think that the earth was flat.

4. Social networks became / have become / are becoming / become very

popular in recent years.

5. I study/ am studying / am used to study / am used to studying in the Boole

library on Saturdays.

6. The lecture starts / is starting / will start / shall start/ is going to start / is

gonna start / will be starting at 3pm this afternoon.

7. Peter can’t come to the lecture because he finishes / is finishing / will finish

/ is going to finish / will be finishing his project.

8. This time next month, I will relax / am going to relax / will be relaxing after

my exams.

9. By the end of this year, Apple will invest / will be investing / will have

invested / will have been investing $50m in their new tablet.

10. After I finish / will finish / have finished / will have finished my MA,

I hope / am hoping / will hope to do a PhD

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What is the difference in meaning between the ABC sentences below?

1A. When we arrived, he had cooked dinner.

1B. When we arrived, he was cooking dinner.

1C. When we arrived, he cooked dinner.

2A. He has lived in London for 5 years.

2B. He lived in London for 5 years.

2C. He has been living in London for 5 years.

3A. I read the book.

3B. I have read the book.

3C. I have been reading the book.

4A. The temperature rises.

4B. The temperature is rising.

4C. The temperature has risen.

5A. I will write the essay at the end of the month.

5B. I will be writing the essay at the end of the month.

5C. I will have written the essay by the end of the month.

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ANSWERS:

1. I was born in Italy in 1988.

2. I spent the first ten years of my life in Naples and then my family moved to Rome. 3. Now I live / am living in Florence, the home town of my boyfriend. (THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS MAKES THE ACTION SOUND MORE TEMPORARY / SHORT TERM)

4. I first met him while I was studying in Rome University.

5. Last year we bought a small apartment in Florence.

6. I work in an IT company called Technosoft and my boyfriend works / is working in a legal firm. (THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS MAKES THE ACTION SOUND MORE TEMPORARY / SHORT TERM) 7. I started as a secretary in Technosoft but I have been Assistant Marketing Manager for the last two years. (= I am still Assistant Marketing manager) I was Assistant Marketing Manager for the last two years. (= I recently finished working as Assistant Marketing manager) 8. In my free time I play tennis and squash. 9. When I was a teenager I smoked / used to smoke (A PAST HABIT) 20 cigarettes a day but last year I gave up smoking completely. 10. At the moment, I am doing a master’s in Marketing at Florence University. 11. I have never visited the USA but I hope / I am hoping to go there next summer. 12. My boss is retiring / is going to retire / will retire / will be retiring at the end of next month and I am going to replace / I will be replacing / I am replacing / I will replace him. 13. When I start my new job, I will be / am going to be extremely busy!

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1. By the age of eight, Mozart wrote / had written / has written his first

symphony.

2. As an adult, Mozart first worked / has worked/ had worked in Salzburg. He

then moved/ has moved to Vienna, where he worked / was working as a

freelance performer and composer.

3. Before the age of Columbus, some people thought / had thought / were

thinking / used to think / would think that the earth was flat.

4. Social networks became / have become / are becoming / become very

popular in recent years.

5. I study/ am studying / am used to study / am used to studying ? in the

Boole library on Saturdays.

6. The lecture starts / is starting / will start / is going to start / is gonna start /

will be starting at 3pm

7. Peter can’t come to the lecture because he finishes / is finishing / will finish

/ is going to finish / will be finishing his project.

8. This time next month, I will relax / am going to relax / will be relaxing after

my exams.

9. By the end of this year, Apple will invest ? / will be investing / will have

invested / will have been investing $50m in their new tablet.

10. After I finish / will finish / have finished / will have finished my MA,

I hope / am hoping / will hope to do a PhD

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1A. When we arrived, he had cooked dinner. HE (HAD) COOKED DINNER BEFORE WE

ARRIVED AND THE MEAL WAS READY TO EAT.

1B. When we arrived, he was cooking dinner. HE WAS IN THE MIDDLE OF COOKING IT WHEN

WE ARRIVED.

1C. When we arrived, he cooked dinner. HE STARTED COOKING DINNER WHEN WE

ARRIVED.

2A. He has lived in London for 5 years. HE MOVED TO LONDON 5 YEARS AGO AND IS STILL

LIVING THERE.

2B. He lived in London for 5 years. HE SPENT 5 YEARS IN LONDON BUT IS NOW LIVING

SOMEWHERE ELSE.

2C. He has been living in London for 5 years. THE SAME MEANING AS 2A

3A. I read the book three years ago. THE DATE/TIME OF THE ACTION IS IMPORTANT

3B. I have read the book. THE RESULT OF THE ACTION IS IMPORTANT (E.G. I CAN DISCUSS

THE BOOK WITH YOU). THE DATE/TIMEOF THE ACTION IS NOT IMPORTANT.

3C. I have been reading the book. I PROBABLY HAVEN’T FINISHED READING IT (BUT CAN OR

WANT TO DISCUSS IT WITH YOU).

4A. The temperature rises. A REPEATED ACTION (E.G. EVERY MORNING, EVERY SPRING ETC.)

4B. The temperature is rising. NOW, AT THE MOMENT, OR IN THIS PERIOD OF HISTORY

4C. The temperature has risen. IT IS HOTTER NOW THAN IN THE PAST, (BUT THE

TEMPERATURE NOW MAY BE STABLE).

5A. I will write the essay at the end of the month. ALL THE WRITING WILL HAPPEN AT THE

END OF THE MONTH

5B. I will be writing the essay at the end of the month. AT THE END OF THE MONTH, I WILL

BE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE WRITING PROCESS.

5C. I will have written the essay by the end of the month. I WILL FINISH THE ESSAY BEFORE

THE END OF THE MONTH.

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22. that CLAUSES

We use that as a conjunction to join a verb, adjective or noun in the main clause to a

subordinate/dependent clause.

I know that it is expensive.

It is possible that the product will fail.

The fact that he is old is not important.

• The word that is often omitted, especially in spoken English:

I know it’s expensive.

It’s possible the product will fail.

The fact he’s old is not important.

… but it is more formal to leave it in, especially in written English.

• A that clause (on its own) cannot be a full sentence.

One thing is clear. That the problem of global warming must be solved.

One thing is clear. The problem of global warming must be solved.

One thing is clear: the problem of global warming must be solved.

It is clear that the problem of global warming must be solved.

• A that clause always includes a subject and verb.

It is possible that a product failure.

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‘wh’ CLAUSES

A ‘wh’ clause can be the subject, object or complement of another verb.

1. What he wrote was untrue.

2. She explained what she meant.

3. More investment is what is needed.

In 1 and 2 above, the what clause can be described as a noun clause. In 3, it is an adjectival

clause.

Other examples are:

Why she married him is something I cannot understand!

Which strategy they used is unclear.

It is not known who first thought of the idea.

He could not remember where he had left his keys.

It is important to understand how a volcano works.

Childhood is when the personality is mostly formed.

These clauses can be described as dependent/subordinate clauses. They can often be

reformulated using relative clauses.

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