Faculteit Letteren & Wijsbegeerte

Gloria Deruyck

A stylistic comparison of Dutch and Spanish

translations of Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Also

Rises (1926)

Masterproef voorgedragen tot het behalen van de graad van

Master in de Meertalige Communicatie

2016

Promotor Prof. Dr. Lieve Jooken

Vakgroep Vertalen Tolken Communicatie

Table of contents

1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Hemingway’s place in the rise of Modernism ............................................................ 3

1.1.1 Modernism as a literary movement...................................................................... 3

1.1.2 Why Hemingway can be considered a modernist writer ..................................... 4

1.2 Hemingway: the crafting of a style ............................................................................. 6

1.3 Hemingway and The Sun Also Rises (1926) ............................................................... 9

1.3.1 Le roman à clef .................................................................................................... 9

1.3.2 The Lost Generation .......................................................................................... 10

2 Methodology .................................................................................................................... 11

2.1 Fragments analysed ................................................................................................... 11

2.2 Translations ............................................................................................................... 12

2.2.1 Dutch translation ................................................................................................ 12

2.2.2 Spanish translation ............................................................................................. 13

2.3 Hemingway’s main stylistic characteristics .............................................................. 17

2.3.1 Everyday (informal) language and structures .................................................... 17

2.3.2 Use of adjectives ................................................................................................ 18

2.3.3 The Iceberg Theory ............................................................................................ 19

2.3.4 Repetition ........................................................................................................... 20

2.4 Possible techniques for translating Hemingway’s style ............................................ 21

3 Analysis of the corpus..................................................................................................... 23

3.1 Everyday (informal) language and structures in the Spanish and Dutch translation 24

3.2 Restrictive adjective use in the Spanish and Dutch translation ................................. 32

3.3 The Iceberg Theory in the Spanish and Dutch translation ........................................ 37

3.4 Repetition in the Spanish and Dutch translation ....................................................... 43

3.5 Stylistic choices of Adsuar and Fick-Lugten compared............................................ 49

3.6 Critical review of Hurtado and Molina’s categorization (2002) ............................... 50

4 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 52

5 Bibliography .................................................................................................................... 55

6 Appendices ...................................................................................................................... 58

6.1 Appendix 1 ................................................................................................................ 58

Acknowledgements

This thesis marks the culmination of a four-year MA study in Multilingual Communication in

English-Spanish-Dutch, at Ghent University. The process prior to the completion of this

study was sometimes lengthy and difficult. However, it is with a feeling of satisfaction that I

look back upon a challenging and interesting period of research leading up to the final result.

The process of a thesis is, however, not something you go through alone. Therefore, a thank

you to everyone who completed to the completion of this master’s thesis.

First and foremost, I would like to thank my thesis supervisor Prof. Dr. Lieve Jooken for her

patience and excellent guidance throughout this process. Prof. Jooken steered me towards

new insights and better results. She was always there to provide feedback and help, when I

was lost in translation. In short, Prof. Jooken was a very accessible and interested advisor,

who was open to her students’ own input and ideas, and thought with them to attain the final

goal.

Finally, I would also like to thank my parents and friends for their unfailing support and

encouragement, not only during the writing of this thesis, but especially throughout my years

of study. I can honestly say that without them, I would never have found the dedication to

persevere. Thank you.

Abstract

This paper presents the results of a case study that analysed how the main stylistic

characteristics of Ernest Hemingway’s style are transferred into the Dutch and Spanish

translation of his novel The Sun Also Rises (1926). The framework for this research was

defined on the basis of the four key characteristics of Hemingway’s writing, as they can be

deducted from Earl Rovit’s work Ernest Hemingway (1963) and Frederic Joseph Svoboda’s

study Hemingway & The Sun Also Rises: The Crafting of a Style (1983): (1) informal and

colloquial language, (2) restrictive adjective use, (3) the Iceberg Theory and (4) repetition.

This thesis investigates forty excerpts taken from the last five chapters (XIII-XVIII) of the

second book of the American roman à clef and its Dutch and Spanish rendering. The corpus

was compiled from the online databases worldcat.org, books.google.com and the Ghent

University faculty library of Arts and Philosophy. The fragments selected for the analysis

were accounts of the characters’ stay in Pamplona during the Festival of San Fermin, which

were selected and analysed according to the occurrence of Hemingway’s main stylistic facets.

In order to classify the translation techniques that were observed, the analysis adopted

Hurtado and Molina’s (2002) categorization of translation techniques. The study of the

fragments analysed shows that both translations opted for a more neutral and less informal

rendering of the original novel by Hemingway. However, the Spanish translation proves to be

more faithful in terms of respecting Hemingway’s informal and colloquial language use.

With regard to the second aspect of the writers’ style, both translations tend to make explicit

what was suggested by the seemingly neutral adjectives. Furthermore, both the Dutch and the

Spanish version adhere to the principle of the Iceberg Theory, even though it is debatable if

the translators realised that they were dealing with an actual example of this theory, or if they

just decided on a literal translation of the original. The analysis of the last characteristic,

repetition, shows that the Dutch translation is more faithful to the source text than the Spanish

translation, which uses more synonyms. This study also points out that Hurtado and Molina’s

categorization (2002) illustrates some shortcomings, when it is used for determining

translation techniques in literary works. (370 words)

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1 Introduction

During the last years of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century, the social,

political, aesthetic, sexual and cultural landscape of the world changed significantly. This era

saw the rise of technology and innovation, the devastating outcome of two world wars, early

feminism (Suffragettes), rapidly growing cities and an upsurge of literacy, due to the mass

production and spread of printed books. The war, together with the other revolutionary

developments that took place in early twentieth-century society, would influence the writing

and work of many authors and artists. Ezra Pound, T.S. Eliot, James Joyce, F. Scott

Fitzgerald and Virginia Woolf were among the literary references of that time and as friends,

but especially as contemporaries, they would have a major influence on other writers, such as

Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961), whose work is the focus of the present study. Hemingway

was born in 1899, in Illinois (U.S). Throughout his career, which he started writing for

several newspapers and magazines, the writer would publish some fifty-five short stories, two

works of non-fiction and six novels. Especially, The Sun Also Rises (1926), A Farewell to

Arms (1929), For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940) and The Old Man and the Sea (1952) constitute

Hemingway’s twenty-first century legacy. In 1961 the author was found dead, after he had

taken his own life. Hemingway will be remembered not only as a flamboyant and

adventurous character, but especially as the writer who introduced a new style and technique

into (American) writing. Much research has been done on Hemingway himself, his oeuvre

and his work. Little is known, however, about how translators decided to render

Hemingway’s characteristic style and the struggles they encountered in the process.

Contributing to this field of inquiry, will be the main focus of the present case study.

In the twentieth century, the literary movement of Modernism played an important role in the

development of the novel. One revolutionary invention after the other had transformed

Western society and Modernism was the movement that translated these inventions and new

developments into literature. A young generation of writers shared the desire to break with

the prevailing standards of the realistic and naturalistic literature of the nineteenth century

(Liebregts, 2003, p. 69) and wanted to express the essence of their era. Hemingway was one

of them. Modernism and the influence this movement had on European literature is an

interesting and well-studied topic in the context of literary history. An influential study

published on Modernism by Jan Baetens Modernisme(n) in de Europese letterkunde: 1910-

1940 (2003), gives a well-structured and comprehensive account of the movement and its

literary significance. The work by Baetens (2003), together with Modernism (2005) by Tim

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Armstrong, which studies twentieth-century literature and culture, were useful sources for

section 1.1.2. In this part, a number of typical literary characteristics of Modernism are

discussed, for example, the purposeful lack of closure to the narrative structure, the central

preoccupation with the inner self and consciousness of the characters and the fragmentary

and nonlinear discourse.

Hemingway’s significance as a major twentieth-century writer and the fact that he was called

the “voice of his generation” (Rovit, 1963, p. 18), made the writer into a well-discussed topic.

Important research on the life and work of Ernest Hemingway was conducted by Earl Rovit.

His Ernest Hemingway (1963) gives a detailed account of Hemingway’s stylistic

characteristics and recurring themes, through an analysis of his main works. Another very

relevant source for the present paper was the research on Hemingway and his novel The Sun

Also Rises (1926), by Frederic Joseph Svoboda in Hemingway & The Sun Also Rises: The

Crafting of a Style (1983).

The main purpose of the present case study, is to provide a stylistic comparative analysis of

the translation of Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises (1926) into Dutch and Spanish.

The comparison will focus on a selective corpus of fragments that narrate the characters’ stay

in Pamplona, during the San Fermin festival. Furthermore, the analysis will concentrate on

the narrative rendering of Hemingway’s main stylistic characteristics, such as his informal

constructions, restrictive adjective use, omitting superfluous information or his implicitness

and how Hemingway played with the flow of a story (1.2). The corpus of this study consists

of the last five chapters (chapter XIII-chapter XVIII) of the second book of the original

American novel The Sun Also Rises (1926), and its Dutch and Spanish translation, En de zon

gaat op… by W.A. Fick-Lugten (1965) and Fiesta by the Spanish translator Joaquín Adsuar

(1988), which will be further discussed in the methodology section of this paper. By

comparing the selected excerpts, this study intends to answer one main research question:

How are the main stylistic characteristics of Ernest Hemingway’s style transferred into the

Dutch and Spanish translation of his novel The Sun Also Rises (1926)?

According to Svoboda (1983, p. 112), Hemingway adheres a simple way of writing and

structuring his novels. Furthermore, Levin (1962, p. 77) claims that the writer “uses a

restricted choice of adjectives” and only mentions the bare essentials, omitting whatever was

too superfluous for the story (1.2). Therefore, it could be said that Hemingway’s style might

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be straightforward to translate. However, the simplicity of Hemingway’s writing is deceptive;

its apparent simplicity is disguising a significant complexity on various levels.

The introduction of this thesis will first give a summarized account of Modernism as a

literary movement of the twentieth century and of its general characteristics (1.1.1), with a

second section focussing on why Hemingway can be considered a modernist writer (1.1.2).

After providing a literary background, this introduction will discuss the writer Ernest

Hemingway and the stylistic characteristics (1.2) of his work, which will provide the main

framework for the comparative analysis. In part 1.3 this study will focus on the literary

importance of The Sun Also Rises (1926), concentrating on the novel as a “roman à clef”

(1.3.1) and “The Lost Generation” (1.3.2).

1.1 Hemingway’s place in the rise of Modernism

1.1.1 Modernism as a literary movement

Within literary history, Modernism as a movement can be situated between 1880/90 and

1940. In the course of fifty years new inventions and changes in society were transforming

the traditional Western world. Virginia Woolf explains the changing atmosphere of the

twentieth century and why 1910 can be seen as the start of ‘High Modernism’, the peak of the

literary movement:

…in or about December 1910 human character changed. […] The change was not

sudden and definite. But a change there was, nevertheless; and, since one must be

arbitrary, let us date it about the year 1910… All human relations have shifted: those

between masters and servants, husbands and wives, parents and children. And when

human relations change there is at the same time a change in religion, conduct,

politics and literature […] (cited in Liebregts, 2003, p. 70).

According to Liebregts (2003, p. 72), Modernism encompasses the response of different

artistic movements to the revolutionary changes and developments in society. It implies

parallelism in how they tried to express their understandings in texts that could reflect these

innovations in shape as well as content. In other words, modernist writers tried to capture the

changes in society in their work, in a way that was different from the traditional (nineteenth

century) manner. “Modernism is continually attempting to assert its own beginnings, to mark

itself as rupture, whether aesthetic, social, political, sexual or cultural” (Tew & Murray, 2009,

p. 3).

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Liebregts thinks that rejecting Realism and with it, the blind belief that it could represent the

world in an objective and transparent way, is what binds modernist writers together. Every

representation and reflection of reality is, in some way, subjective and there is not one true or

right interpretation (2003, p. 72).

Modernism developed into an international movement that has influenced literature all over

the world. However, within this movement, British literature takes up a central role. The

British influence can especially be attributed to the rise of Anglo-American literary criticism

and theory development since the 1960s and the upsurge of English as a global lingua franca.

In addition, writers, such as James Joyce, T.S. Eliot and Virginia Woolf, left their mark on

world literature and they are often seen as central figures in forging the tenets of Modernism.

In general, 1939 is considered as marking the end of Modernism, which is linked to the start

of World War II and the publication of James Joyce’s Finnegans Wake. According to

Liebregts (2003, p. 69), Joyce explores some of the modernist aspects to an extreme, in a way

that his work is often seen as the foundation for the new Postmodern movement.

1.1.2 Why Hemingway can be considered a modernist writer

Like many of his contemporaries, Hemingway was influenced by the literary movement of

Modernism. As a result, some of the general literary techniques that are typically associated

with modernist writing can be found in Hemingway’s novels and also in the work that will be

analysed, The Sun Also Rises (1926).

Firstly, at the end of the story, a modernist novel does not always resolve all issues that have

been raised or provides closure to its narrative structure. In other words, the reader is

sometimes left with ‘holes’ in the narration and many questions. This can refer to the desire

of the modernist writers to reflect fragmentary reality as faithfully as possible. In their view

reality does not always present everything as clearly, individuals are at times left to ‘fill the

holes’ or fathom the truth for themselves, and novels provide a fictional parallel of this

condition. To put it differently, the reader has a significant and active role in interpreting the

novel. He or she has to work out what it is the writer is trying to convey. Therefore, Liebregts

(2003, p. 73) claims that the reader of a modernist novel has been attributed more

responsibility to come to a meaningful interpretation of the narration and to search for the

meaning of the novel, which is often hidden between the lines or not explicitly mentioned.

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This characteristic of the Modern novel can be related to the Iceberg Theory (or the Theory of

Omission), which is the metaphor Hemingway used to describe his own style. The theory is

also often linked to Hemingway’s novel The Sun Also Rises (1926). “The Sun Also Rises has

the solidity of an iceberg, seven-eighths unseen yet carefully based on that unseen

foundation” (Svoboda, 1983, p. 11). This theory will be further explained in section (1.2). In

brief, it can be said to refer to Hemingway’s continuous experimenting with implied

meaning. Only the tip of the iceberg was explicitly stated, the unsaid was left to be

discovered by the reader relying on their own imagination.

Secondly, one of the main characteristics of literary Modernism is the central preoccupation

with the inner self and consciousness of the characters. Instead of focusing on the world in

which the character is situated, twenty-century writers focused internally, on the subject’s

feelings and thoughts and finding ways to express those in text. This perspective is also called

‘Stream of Consciousness’:

The continuous flow of sense perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and memories in the

human mind; or a literary method of representing such a blending of mental processes

in fictional characters, usually in an unpunctuated or disjointed form of interior

monologue (Baldick, 2008, p. 318).

According to Rovit (1963, p. 30), capturing true emotions in text, was one of Hemingway’s

major concerns. He wanted to write about real persons, with real emotions his readers could

relate to. Therefore, he does not hide the feelings and emotional battles his characters are

dealing with from his audience. In The Sun Also Rises (1926), for example, Hemingway

emphasises, the main character Jake’s impressions and feelings, which he “does not analyse,

but records directly” (Svoboda, 1983, p. 82). To put it differently, Hemingway chose to

present the emotions of his characters in a direct way.

In his research Liebregts (2003, p. 73) discusses the nonlinear and discontinuous discourse of

the modernist novel as another element of literary Modernism. He states that often the linear

course of the plot is interrupted by flashbacks or flash-forwards without any clear reason,

creating leaps in time and resulting in a fragmented and illogical transition between sentences

or scenes. This purposeful fragmentation can be linked to the modernist writer’s intention to

represent human inability to see the world in a logical and structured way.

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1.2 Hemingway: the crafting of a style

On the face of it, The Sun Also Rises (1926) comes across as a ‘simple’, straightforward

novel, in terms of language and structure. However, it has an underlying complexity that is

only apparent to the perceptive reader (Svoboda, 1983, p. 112). In this section a number of

prominent features of Hemingway’s style will be discussed.

Firstly, according to Svoboda (1983, p. 112), Hemingway adheres to a straightforward and

clear style, he tends to “keep the language and structure in his novels simple”. This is a

characteristic he learned while writing for different newspapers. Before his writing career,

Hemingway had a background in journalism. After secondary school, he wrote for the Kansas

City Star and worked as a correspondent for the Toronto Daily Star. The journalistic

experience Hemingway gained in these early days would influence the formation of his style.

The Kansas City Style sheet describes the use of “short sentences, short first paragraphs,

vigorous English, avoiding superfluous words and avoiding the use of adjectives”, rules

which would stay important throughout his career. According to Rovit (1963, p. 41), the

Kansas experience trained Hemingway to use “a kind of stripped, non-literary use of

language where the standards of readability, accuracy, and economy would be the paramount

determinants of the way scenes and events were described”.

In Hemingway, A collection of critical essays (1962), Harry Levin sees Hemingway’s syntax

as “informal” (p. 76). Hemingway uses “who” instead of “whom” or “that” instead of

“which”, to avoid an overly polished language that would not represent the nature of

everyday communication in his dialogues. The following fragments taken from Hemingway’s

To Have and Have Not (1937) illustrate this feature. In To Have and Have Not (1937), Harry

Morgan, captain of a fishing boat, is forced to ship contraband between Florida and Cuba.

“Where the hell are we?” […] “Ain’t nothing like that this side of Miami.”

“You know damn well we ain’t been carried up to no Miami,” he told the nigger. (To

Have and Have Not, 1937)

In addition to his informal style, Hemingway “uses a restricted choice of adjectives” (Levin,

1962, p. 77), especially in dialogues. Nouns are often supported by monosyllabic adjectives,

such as “fine”, “good”, “nice”, “lovely”,… which do not convey much or complex

information in themselves: however, they are charged with implicit meaning. In conclusion

Levin (1962, p. 79) says that Hemingway’s “diction is thin and his syntax is weak. He would

rather be caught dead than seeking the ‘mot juste’ or a balanced phrase. His adjectives are not

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colourful and his verbs are not really energetic”. The next fragment from Hemingway’s Hills

Like White Elephants (Charters, 2003) illustrates this.

“You started it,” the girl said. “I was being amused. I was having a fine time.”

“Well, let’s try and have a fine time.” (Charters, 2014, p. 476)

[…] “Do you feel better?” he asked. “I feel fine,” she said. “There is nothing wrong

with me. I feel fine.” (Charters, 2003, p. 478)

This is not a statement that may sound depreciative of one of the most influential writers of

the twentieth century. Nevertheless, Hemingway chose this style, because he wanted to write

stories people could relate to, he narrated the truth in a way that was as close as possible to

reality. If he decided to write about universal feelings, then he had to present them in a way

everyone would understand and feel connected to.

Secondly, following Darzikola (2013, p. 9), the Iceberg Theory, is an important and

frequently used notion, when describing Hemingway’s style and approach. In the Paris

Review of 1958, Hemingway said: “I always try to write on the principle of the iceberg. There

is seven eighths of it under water for every part that shows. Anything you know you can

eliminate and it only strengthens your iceberg” (Hemingway cited in Svoboda, 1983, p. 19).

This method would call for a careful and attentive reader, because it was often the reader’s

task to determine what was actually said. Hemingway only left the bare essentials to proceed

from. Therefore, this theory is also often referred to as the ‘Theory of Omission’, everything

that was not necessary for the story or for conveying an experience, should be left out.

(Scribner cited in Smith, 1983, p. 273).

If a writer of prose knows enough about what he is writing about, he may omit things

that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling

of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them (Scribner cited in

Smith, 1983, p. 273).

The following example, taken from Hemingway’s short story Hills Like White Elephants

(1927) (Charters, 2003), demonstrates the use of the iceberg principle. In this four-page long

story, the writer portrays a conversation between a couple that is waiting in a remote train

station surrounded by white hills, for a train to take them to Madrid. To a first-time reader,

the story and the conversation may come across as trivial. However, the story alludes to a

more profound meaning, which is not immediately clear to the reader. Hemingway omitted

almost everything that refers to what the couple is actually discussing, he never narrates

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explicitly that the two characters are talking about having an abortion. The message is

implicit to a very subtle degree, showing only the tip of the iceberg.

“It’s really an awfully simple operation, Jig” the man said. “It’s not really an

operation at all.” […] “I’ll go with you and I’ll stay with you all the time.” […]

“That’s the only thing that bothers us. It’s the only thing that made us unhappy.” […]

“We’ll be fine afterwards. Just like we were before. I know we will. You don’t have to

be afraid. I’ve known lots of people that have done it.” (Charters, 2003, p. 476)

Thirdly, Hemingway was known to manipulate the tempo of a scene, speeding up to a climax,

only to later slow the motion down. Hemingway used short sentences, repetition and

descriptions of scenes to slow down the story, so he could insist on particular actions,

drawing the reader’s attention to them (Svoboda, 1983, p. 60). The following example is from

the novel To Have and Have Not (1937) and uses repetition in a very poignant manner.

The three of them started for the door, and I watched them go. They were good-

looking young fellows, wore good clothes; none of them wore hats, and they looked

like they had plenty of money. They talked plenty of money, anyway, and they spoke

the kind of English Cubans with money speak. (To Have and Have Not, 1937)

Finally, Hemingway, together with many other modernist writers, is often portrayed as an

“unconventional writer” (Svoboda, 1983, p. 30). Hemingway seemingly refused to follow the

exact lines that were set out for a writer and his novel at that time. The Sun Also Rises (1926)

became the opposite of a “formulaic fiction” novel (Svoboda, 1983, p. 33). In this type of

novel the shape and plot are very predictable, often readers can already speculate how the

story will end. Another aspect of formulaic fiction is the fixed set of characters, “a clear and

admirable hero is the backbone of formulaic fiction” (Svoboda, 1983, p. 31). Hemingway

suggested that a novel would be better off, if it left behind conventional expectations of what

elements or characters it should contain. The writer followed his own course and created

stories, such as The Sun Also Rises (1926), where there was no traditional strong hero (Jake),

but possibly a multitude of heroic characters (Cohn, Brett, Bill and Romero). In addition,

there is no predictable love story or happy ending to be found in the novel. The love between

Brett and Jake is impossible and will never happen, the characters stay tormented and the

reader is not left behind with a feeling that everything is solved.

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1.3 Hemingway and The Sun Also Rises (1926)

1.3.1 Le roman à clef

In September 1925, Hemingway started writing The Sun Also Rises and by mid October

1926, the novel had reached the bookstores. According to Rovit (1963, p. 147), The Sun Also

Rises (1926) was Hemingway’s “first, and perhaps most completely successful novel”. The

novel is an example of a roman à clef, a literary genre that originated during the seventeenth

century. According to Boyde (2009, p. 156), the inventor of the genre was the French writer

Madeleine de Scudéry. A roman à clef is a novel in which the readers do not have to put

much effort into matching characters to real people. Especially in the seventeenth century, the

era of salons and public teahouses, the genre was created to “disguise from the general reader

the public figures whose political actions and ideas formed the basis of fictional narratives”

(Boyde, 2009, p. 156). The “clef” or key refers to the unlocking of a secret, which happens

when the reader finds out who or what the characters and situations in the novel are referring

to.

It is no secret that Hemingway was a man of the world, that he liked to travel, enjoy the Paris

nightlife and the occasional fishing trip. In addition, he was a bullfighting ‘aficionado’.

Therefore, he often went to Spain and the annual San Fermin festival in Pamplona. In 1925,

he took a group of friends to go and see these bullfights and enjoy the festival, this would be

the foundation for the story of The Sun Also Rises (1926). The novel follows a group of

expatriates from Paris to Pamplona. During their journey, the book focuses on the main

character Jake Barnes and his relationship with the others. Especially the impossible love

between Jake and Brett constitutes the central theme of the novel. It soon became clear that

Hemingway’s companions; Lady Duff Twysden, Pat Guthtrie, Donald Ogden Stewart and

Harold Loeb, would model for subsequently, Brett, Michael, Bill and Robert Cohn. In

addition, it would be easy to recognize the real persons behind the characters and Hemingway

in the then ‘supposedly’ main character, Hem. Therefore, the novel can be interpreted as a

roman à clef, as a disguised account of Hemingway's literary life in Paris and his trip to

Pamplona in 1925. The first drafts of the novel are more of a journalistic and direct account

of their trip, the names of the characters were even left unchanged. However, after revising

these drafts, Hemingway decided to use fictional names instead. After the first original pages,

journalism turned to fiction. “The framework was altered and adapted as the novel took

shape, and the fictional creation was thus distanced from the historical/journalistic facts”

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(Svoboda, 1983, p. 9). In other words, Hemingway started the novel, based on his own

experience, yet along the way, he added more and more of his imagination, until the story

was far from the original journalistic account of the 1925 trip and a completely fictionalised

novel. Hemingway is to have said that, “The only writing that was any good was what you

made up, what you imagined” (Hemingway cited in Svoboda, 1983, p. 112).

1.3.2 The Lost Generation

Ernest Hemingway is considered by Rovit (1963, p. 18) as “the spokesman of The Lost

Generation”. The Lost Generation refers to a group of young writers and artists that

experienced the war, such as Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald. World War I had had such

a major impact on them that once they returned home, they felt alienated from society. They

started to distrust the traditional American values and were left disillusioned (Svoboda, 1983,

p. 108). Therefore, many chose to leave the country and tried to rebuild their lives abroad.

The war had left these writers with a different mind-set, which is reflected in their work. In

The Sun Also Rises (1926), Jake, similar to Hemingway, is an American expatriate that lives

in Paris. Many of the characters in the novel, like The Lost Generation, have been

psychologically and physically scarred by their experiences. This is also clear in the novel,

the character of Robert Cohn has never fought in the war, therefore, he is not seen as ‘lost’,

which explains why he is the outsider in the story. The novel has two epigraphs that refer to

The Lost Generation, the first one is from a conversation between Gertrude Stein and

Hemingway, in which Stein seems to have said “You are all a lost generation”. The second

epigraph is derived from Ecclesiastes and according to Svoboda, it suggests that:

The lost generation is not really lost, it is only a part of the cycle of life and that if the

sun has set upon the members of Jake’s generation, it has set only for a while and

therefore, it will rise again (Svoboda, 1983, p. 108).

In other words, the title of the novel can be interpreted as invoking an optimistic note: it

suggests that there is still hope for the Lost Generation.

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2 Methodology

This section explains how the research for this paper was conducted. The first part (2.1) will

discuss the fragments that have been analysed and how they were selected. Furthermore, it

will elaborate on the motivation for selecting the novel The Sun Also Rises (1926) from the

oeuvre of Ernest Hemingway as the focus of this study. The second part of this methodology

section (2.2) will introduce the corpus of Dutch and Spanish translations by W.A. Fick-

Lugten and Joaquín Adsuar. In the third part of this section (2.3), the main framework of the

analysis will be defined, i.e. Hemingway’s key stylistic characteristics as they are identified

in studies by literary critics and scholars. Finally, paragraph 2.4 will consider a range of

translation techniques that may be anticipated in the work of the two translators. This part

will rely on the categorization of techniques suggested by Hurtado and Molina (2002), two

Spanish academics and researchers in the field of translation and interpreting. It is important

to mention that their list of techniques is based on non-literary as well as literary texts.

2.1 Fragments analysed

The fragments examined in this study were taken from the corpus compiled for this paper,

which consists of the original American novel The Sun Also Rises (1926) by Ernest

Hemingway, and its translations into Dutch and Spanish: En de zon gaat op… (1965) by the

Dutch translator W.A. Fick-Lugten and Fiesta (1988) by the Spanish translator Joaquín

Adsuar. According to Svoboda, the writer of one of the main studies on Hemingway’s style,

the original narrative forms the starting point of Hemingway’s literary success. “Before The

Sun Also Rises, Ernest Hemingway had promised much- perhaps even greatness. With this

novel he achieved that greatness and gave promise of continuing achievements to come”

(1983, p. 114). After the first edition of the novel in 1926, the book became internationally

known and was translated all over the globe. The international bibliography of translations,

Index Translationum, supports this claim as Hemingway is one of the fifty most translated

authors of the database. Because the novel launched Hemingway’s career and constituted one

of the first expressions of his stylistic hallmark and, because more than eighty years after its

publication it is still an exciting and well-read story, set in Spain, The Sun Also Rises (1926)

was selected as the foundation of this study.

12

The forty excerpts analysed were taken from the last five chapters (XIII-XVIII) of the second

book of the original novel by Hemingway. These last chapters discuss, the characters stay in

Pamplona during the Festival of San Fermin. Since this is the part in the book where all the

characters are together and their feelings for each other, ranging from friendship to gratitude,

hatred and love, reach a climax, this section provides a concentration of dialogue, which is

one of the narrative elements that contains a number of stylistic characteristics. This

motivates the focus on these chapters for the corpus analysis.

The corpus of the original novel and its Dutch and Spanish translations was compiled from

the online databases worldcat.org, books.google.com and the Ghent University faculty library

of Arts and Philosophy. Once the corpus was compiled, a further selection was needed in

order to identify the sixteen fragments that will be discussed at length. This selection was

based on the presence of Hemingway’s main stylistic characteristics this study has focussed

on, viz. the presence of informal constructions, a restricted choice of adjectives, implied

meaning (Iceberg Theory) and manipulation of the narrative flow (see section 1.2 and 2.3).

Eventually, the research yielded forty excerpts, which can be fully consulted in the appendix

section of this paper (6.1).

2.2 Translations

The Spanish and Dutch translations that were used to compile the corpus for this paper, are

En de zon gaat op…(1965) by W.A. Fick-Lugten and Fiesta (1988) by Joaquín Adsuar. The

following paragraphs will discuss the two translations and their translators.

2.2.1 Dutch translation

Both the database of Index Translationum and the database of worldcat.org, only list one

Dutch translation of Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises (1926), the translation En de zon gaat

op… (1965) by W.A. Fick-Lugten. Very little information is known about the translator.

According to WorldCat Identitites she seems to have translated mainly young adult fiction

during the 1950s and 1960s, such as the De Vijf series, based on Enid Blyton’s original

children’s adventure novels The Famous Five and some historical novels. W.A. Fick-Lugten

appears to have rendered mainly English and Finnish novels into Dutch

13

(noordseliteratuur.nl). However, there are some aspects in the paratext that stand out. For

example, the rendering does not mention to whom the book is dedicated (Hadley and John

Hadley Nicanor), something which the Spanish version does include. In addition, the Dutch

translation chooses not to follow the subdivisions of the original, which contains nineteen

chapters and three books. En de zon gaat op… (1965) restarts with chapter I every time a new

book begins, whereas in the source text chapters are numbered consecutively throughout the

novel. The edition of En de zon gaat op… selected for this study was published in 1965. This

is an important factor to take into account when analysing the translation, because due to the

time of print the language used in the novel may sound archaic in places to the present-day

reader.

2.2.2 Spanish translation

Besides its obvious link to my own linguistic proficiency, the decision to analyse the Spanish

translation of the narrative is rooted in the affective relationship Hemingway had with Spain.

The writer admired Spanish culture and lifestyle and in his novel, he wanted to introduce this

culture to a broader audience, and vice versa. According to Rodríguez Pazos (2011, p. 123),

Guarnido-Hausner (1944), Solá (1979), Adsuar (1988), Martínez-Lage (2002) and Adsuar-

Hamad (2003) are the five main Spanish translators of Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises

(1926). Due to the fact that the Index Translationum database mentions primarily Adsuar as

the translator of the novel and because research on the Spanish rendering pointed generally in

his direction, this translator and his interpretation of Hemingway’s novel were selected to

complete the corpus. Joaquín Adsuar, has translated many novels into Spanish during the

1970s, primarily from English and German.

In Contextual mismatches in the translation into Spanish of Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun

Also Rises, Rodríguez Pazos (2002, p.2) considers that there are three common errors a

translator can commit when translating a narrative: mismatching literary clues that refer to

the “preservation of stylistic features”, not understanding the external field of reference and

lacking linguistic insight. According to Rodríguez Pazos (2002, pp. 1-13), Adsuar is guilty of

all three in his rendering of The Sun Also Rises (1926). The next paragraphs will therefore

focus on why Adsuar’s translation is criticised by Rodriguez Pazos (2002). Furthermore, it is

also important to briefly discuss the role of the Spanish dictator Francisco Franco (1892-

14

1975) and his censorship, to have a better understanding of the Spanish renderings of

Hemingway’s novel.

The external field, or the reality outside the novel (for example; Paris, Pamplona, the festival,

etc), that the writer refers to is crucial for the translator. It is essential that he or she interprets

the original source correctly in terms of its temporal and spatial references. Rodriguez Pazos

(2002, p. 4) states in his article that understanding the reality the writer is talking about, as

well as a thorough knowledge of the English language, would have guided the translator in

producing a better translation. In the following fragment, Adsuar interprets the original in a

manner that does not agree with the meaning of the text, but is in accordance with his own

experience. To put it differently, instead of faithfully translating the source text, Adsuar

represents his own interpretation or experience of the original in his translation. He might

have considered his version easier for the target audience to understand.

Up on the top of the mountain we saw the lights of the fort. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926,

p. 186)

En su cumbre [la de la montaña] vimos las luces del castillo. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 214)

Here the translator could have used fuerte (m), but instead Adsuar opted for castillo (m)

(castle). Hemingway referred to the fort of San Cristobal, which is situated near Pamplona,

yet the translator ignored this reference. According to Rodriguez Pazos (2002, p. 5), Adsuar

might have thought that an American did not know the difference between a Spanish castle

and a fort. As a Spaniard, the translator knew that it is common in Spain to encounter

mountaintop castles. Therefore, he might have thought that the Spanish audience would feel

more acquainted with a castillo than a fuerte. In conclusion, the translator decided not to

follow the original source, because, in his opinion, the Spanish target audience would not be

able to relate to the initial fort.

It is vital for a good translation of the source text, that the translator has a thorough

understanding of the source language. If this is not the case, the situation may lead to wrong

interpretations and mistranslations. The following fragments taken from The Sun Also Rises

(1926) are examples of mistranslations, due to slips of the translator or even cases in which

the translator seems to not have understood the original English text.

You know he’s extraordinary about buying champagne. It means any amount to him.

(The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 63)

15

Sabes, es un tipo extraordinario a la hora de comprar champaña. Quiero decir en

grandes cantidades. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 69)

Here Adsuar has literally translated any amount ‘a lot’ into grandes cantidades when he

could have opted for ‘Significó mucho para él’(It meant a lot to him). The next sentence is

another striking slip of the translator.

I’m not interested in bullfighters. That’s an abnormal life. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 18)

No me interesan los toreros. Su vida es normal. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 18)

In the next two fragments, coves is an informal and now old-fashioned expression to refer to

‘a man’ or ‘a fellow’(oxforddictionaries.com), which Adsuar wrongly translated as vanidoso

(cocky, arrogant). In the original text, Hemingway wrote taking off; yet Adsuar must have

misread this as ‘talking off’ and therefore translated it as hablar de.

...and all these coves were busy taking off their medals, and I had mine in my pocket.

(The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 140)

Aquellos vanidosos no hacían más que hablar de sus medallas, y yo llevaba las mías

en el bolsillo. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 157-158)

In addition, the Spanish dictator-Francisco Franco also had an influence on Adsuar’s

rendering of the novel. Although his version of The Sun Also Rises (1926) dates from 1988,

which is roughly speaking ten years after Franco’s death, the translation was definitely

influenced by the Spanish dictator. The early renderings, some produced during the

dictatorship, had not been criticised in the media and kept on being re-issued and read by the

Spanish audience, “with very few superficial revisions taking place every few years” (Penas,

2008, p. 59-60). The censorship introduced during the Franco era (1936-1975), focused on

controlling media content, such as printed media, films and radio. By banning certain books

and news input from other countries, Spain was being excluded from the outside world. Also

the translation of novels was controlled by the government. This put extra pressure on

translators: the interpretation they gave to the source text had to be politically correct, if they

wanted their version to reach the readers, or even worse, if they wanted to avoid severe

punishment: “Publishers’ priorities were inverted: rather than seeking good translations of

books that attracted readers to foreign authors, they sought famous authors who attracted

readers in spite of the mediocre texts of their translations” (Penas, 2008, p. 59). The

16

following fragments are examples of how Adsuar’s translation still bears the marks of

Franco’s censorship.

In the source text, the character of Brett is portrayed as a strong and independent woman. She

is different from other women, because she is seen as one of the boys and has quite an

‘androgynous’ appearance, she wears trousers and has short hair, something that was

revolutionary for women during the 1920s. However, because of the censorship, the Spanish

translators were not allowed to depict such a woman. Her manners were not seen as suitable

for a lady, Brett was still married but did no longer live with her husband and was on the

verge of a divorce, she did not want any children and flirted with many men. Therefore, when

referring to Brett, the Spanish translators tend to portray her as a woman “that should not

deserve respect” (Penas, 2008, p. 60).

I’m a goner (repeated three times). […] I’m a goner now anyway. (The Sun Also

Rises, 1926, p. 187)

Soy una perdida (repeated two times) […] Soy una perdida, una descarriada. […]

Soy una mujer descarriada. (Fiesta; 1988, p. 214)

Goner is informal/slang for ‘a person or thing beyond help or recovery’

(collinsdictionary.com). However, Adsuar chose to translate this with the Spanish verb ‘ser’

(to be) and ser + adj. means that the situation that is expressed, is a lasting and fixed one.

Therefore, soy perdida can be interpreted as ‘Brett has always been lost’, she will never

change. Descarriada refers to someone who has gone off track. However, here Adsuar again

used the verb ‘ser’, seemingly to emphasize the lasting condition of the situation. Brett is not

always feeling like a goner, but the Spanish translation makes it seem as if this is the case and

that she can only blame herself and her promiscuous lifestyle for it. The translator could have

chosen for the more neutral expression ‘una persona que no tiene remedio’, which is more

similar to I’m a goner.

I never felt such a bitch. […] I do feel such a bitch. […] I do feel such a bitch. (The

Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 188)

Jamás me he sentido tan perdida como ahora, como una mala mujer. […] Me siento

como una puta. […] Me siento como una fulana. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 215-216)

17

Here again the translator opted for portraying Brett in a negative way. The term ‘bitch’

“normally conveys anger towards a woman’s way of treating others rather than referring to

her sexual behaviour” (Penas, 2008, p. 61 ). However, Adsuar decided differently. Una mala

mujer (a bad woman) is still capturing what Hemingway meant, namely, that Brett is feeling

really bad for using Jake to get to another man, but puta and fulana (prostitute) do not convey

the same meaning.

In examples like the previous, the translator decided to re-interpret passages from the source

text that might risk being considered not in accordance with the politically correct values of

the target culture. Therefore, the translator renders these passages, expressing an opinion

about them that he or she thinks will be shared by the target audience. Similar examples will

be mentioned in the current study, but they are not the main focus in the analysis of the

translations.

2.3 Hemingway’s main stylistic characteristics

The primary aspects of Hemingway’s style constitute the framework for the analysis of this

study’s corpus. To motivate the analysis that follows, the outline of these characteristics will

be discussed here (see also 1.2), supported by examples selected from the novel The Sun Also

Rises (1926).

2.3.1 Everyday (informal) language and structures

The language Hemingway uses in his novels is simple and natural, the words he chooses in

his dialogues are clear, casual and conversational. He intended to make people relate with the

characters and the dialogues in his novel and represent everyday communication:

“Hemingway aims for such a subtle simplicity, in order to recreate the experiences of life and

to show the effects that those experiences have on men and women” (Svoboda, 1983, p. 112).

According to Gouanvic (2007, p. 361), Hemingway was influenced by the American

colloquial writing style of Gertrude Stein. In addition, Beach (cited in Gouanvic, 2007, p.

361), argues that “Hemingway selects the exact word, the word most likely to occur to the

unsophisticated, or the consciously unbookish character”. In the following examples,

Hemingway does not shy away from informal vocabulary and phrases.

18

“We got here Friday, Brett passed out (to faint/especially as a result of drinking) on

the train […] All our love and sorry to be late, but Brett was really done in (very

tired). […] Love to all the chaps, […]” (The Sun Also Rises, 196, p. 131)

“What a lousy telegram!” […] ‘I come on Thursday’. That gives you a lot of dope (

information), doesn’t it. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 133)

2.3.2 Use of adjectives

In order to offer a precise image, Hemingway got rid of most adjectives (Gouanvic, 2007, p.

361). In addition, the adjectives he did decided to use, were often the same ones and

monosyllabic, such as “fine”, “good”, “nice”, “great”,… Hemingway’s choice in adjectives

was in other words restricted (Levin, 1962, p. 77). However, as is the case for Hemingway’s

complete style, these short, seemingly unimportant and neutral adjectives, often carry much

underlying and implicit tension and meaning. The next fragment is an example of a

conversation between Jake and the hotel owner Montoya, talking about the bulls they have

just seen running through the streets. Although the two men are ‘aficionados’ and know much

about bulls and bullfighting, they still seem to use very flat and meaningless adjectives.

“Well, how did you like the bulls?” he asked.

“Good. They were nice bulls.”

“They’re all right”-Montoya shook his head-“but they’re not too good.”

“What didn’t you like about them?”

“I don’t know. They just didn’t give me the feeling that they were so good.”

“I know what you mean. They’re all right.”

“Yes they’re all right.”

“How did your friends like them?”

“Fine.”

“Good,” Montoya said. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 149)

Here Jake does not want to come across as an amateur in front of Montoya, so when Montoya

says he thinks the bulls were all right, Jake agrees, although in the succeeding conversation

he has with his friends, he says the bulls were ‘grand’. With all right Montoya means that

they were mediocre, they were not bulls that would lead to spectacle during the bullfight.

Furthermore, when asked what his friends thought of the bulls, Jake answers fine, while

actually they were ecstatic about them.

19

2.3.3 The Iceberg Theory

“A few things I have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you

know about, the story is strengthened. If you leave out or skip something because you do not

know it, the story will be worthless. The test of any story is how very good the stuff is that

you, not your editors, omit” (Hemingway, quoted in Johnston’s Hemingway and Freud: The

Tip of the Iceberg, 1984, p. 68).

The Theory of Omission, is often referred to as ‘the Iceberg Theory’, because it can be

related to that image. A small part of the iceberg is shown on the surface, however, most of

the iceberg is hidden and submerged. One of the first people to mention the iceberg was

Freud, he was convinced that there was always a part in our minds that was unconscious,

memories, events or feelings that we did not talk about, but disguised from the outside world.

Traumatic experiences, for example, were often submerged and suppressed. Therefore, the

Iceberg Theory is a better choice to label that part of Hemingway’s writing, because his style

was more about implication and suggesting than simply omission. However, “these buried

memories would eventually surface in a disguised form that required deciphering” (Johnston,

1984, p. 69). This is exactly what happens in The Sun Also Rises (1926 ): Hemingway never

narrates explicitly what happens to Jake and the other characters during the war. He never

directly mentions the fact that Jake is impotent as a result of a war injury, because this has

been a traumatic experience Jake is still suffering from and coming to terms with.

Hemingway only implies that Jake and Brett can never be lovers and it is left to the attentive

reader to find out why, from the few hints that have been given.

‘We’d better keep away from each other.’

‘But, darling, I have to see you. It isn’t all that you know.’

‘No, but it always gets to be.’

‘That’s my fault. Don’t we pay for all the things we do, though? (The Sun Also Rises,

1926, p. 34)

In this fragment, taken from Pazos (2002, p. 11), the author gives his readers implicit clues in

pronominal references that are left undefined. He refers indirectly to Jake’s impotency and

only a careful reader would understand that it stands for ‘sex’. Indeed by simply replacing the

pronouns with the appropriate reference, the dialogue would make perfect sense.

20

2.3.4 Repetition

Hemingway often seems to manipulate the flow of a scene. In order to vary the tempo of a

passage, he uses short sentences, descriptions or repetitions. This part will focus on how the

writer used the rhetorical technique of repetition to draw the attention or insist on a specific

moment in the novel.

Repetition is a common technique used in prose to add emphasis and unity, which

Hemingway deliberately used in his work. He was convinced that repetition would introduce

a natural flavour to his dialogues. With this technique, Hemingway could link sentences

together and create an organic flow in his passages or generate the feeling of zooming in, like

the reader is watching the scene in slow motion (Hays, 2007, p. 293). The next passage, taken

from The Sun Also Rises (1926), illustrates what Hays means.

Brett moved close to me. We sat close against each other. I put my arm around her

and she rested against me comfortably. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 251)

The repetition in the second sentence of close, links the two first sentences together. In

addition, the last two sentences are connected through the word against. Here the reader gets

the feeling that the author indeed zooms in on the scene, firstly Brett moves closer towards

Jake, secondly they sit together and thirdly Jake puts his arm around her.

The use of this technique of repetition is grounded in Hemingway’s journalistic background

and the stylistic affinities with his literary friend Gertrude Stein. During his work as a

journalist Hemingway “was used to setting down repeated details for the sake of clarity and

precision” (Herbert, 2011, p. 47). Furthermore, as a literary companion, Stein’s writing and

work marked Hemingway’s style and she found that repeating words over and over again

would make these words take on a striking power (Herbert, 2011, p. 47).

The following scene, where Romero is facing the bull that killed Vincente Girones, is a good

example of how Hemingway again uses repetition, to play with the rhythm of this scene

(slowing down the pace).

Romero flicked his cape so the color caught the bull’s eye. The bull charged with the

reflex, charged, and found not the flash of color but a white horse, and a man leaned

far over the horse, shot the steel point of the long hickory shaft into the hump of

muscle on the bull’s shoulder, and pulled his horse sideways as he pivoted on the pic,

making a wound, enforcing the iron into the bull’s shoulder, making him bleed for

Belmonte. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926 p. 220)

21

Here the tempo goes from fast (the movement of the cape), fast (the bull charging, the reflex)

to slow (the wounding of the bull). The part where the bull is being hurt, is restated two

times: shot the steel point into the hump of muscle on the bull’s shoulder […] making a

wound and enforcing the iron into the bull’s shoulder, making him bleed for Belmonte. Not

only by repeating the stabbing of the bull, but also by repetition of the words: bull, charged

and horse, Hemingway insists on the importance of this fragment. Furthermore, according to

Svoboda (1983, p. 63) in the first drafts of this fragment, Hemingway wrote: ‘enforcing the

iron into the bull’s shoulder, cutting him further down to size for Belmonte’, ‘cutting the bull

down’ is quite harsh and a movement that is sudden and quickly. In the stage of revising,

Hemingway replaced this sentence with making him bleed, which is not as sudden, as it is

more a gradual movement, focussing on the suffering of the bull.

2.4 Possible techniques for translating Hemingway’s style

In the following chapter, the corpus compiled for this study will be analysed, focussing on the

four main characteristics of Hemingway’s style, mentioned in the previous section (2.3 and

also 1.2). In other words, the main research question of this study, how are the main stylistic

characteristics of Ernest Hemingway’s style transferred into the Dutch and Spanish

translation of his novel The Sun Also Rises (1926)?, will be explored by considering four sub

questions:

1. How are the colloquial structures and vocabulary, which Hemingway uses in The

Sun Also Rises (1926), translated in the Dutch and Spanish rendering of the novel?

2. How is Hemingway’s restricted use of adjectives in The Sun Also Rises (1926),

translated in the Dutch and Spanish rendering of the novel?

3. How is the Iceberg Theory reflected in The Sun Also Rises (1926) and do the Dutch

and Spanish translations maintain the implicit style that supports it?

4. How is Hemingway’s repetition of lexical elements in The Sun Also Rises (1926),

translated in the Dutch and Spanish rendering of the novel?

In order to provide an answer to these sub-questions, the analysis will rely on the terminology

for translation techniques that was introduced by Hurtado and Molina in their article in Meta:

Translator’s journal (2002, p. 511). This classification of translation procedures was later on

22

also mentioned by Hurtado and Olalla Soler, in the Spanish journal Sendebar (2014, p. 14),

which is specialised in articles on translation and interpreting.

Translation procedure Explanation Example

1. amplification Introducing details, not

mentioned in the original

text. For example,

information, explicative

paraphrasing or notes of

the translator.

The translation of the Arabic

concept ramadhan, can be

translated as ramadan, the Muslim

month of fasting.

2. adaptation Replacing a cultural

element of the ST with

one from the target

culture.

To change baseball (American

English) into cricket for the

British reader.

3. borrowing Literally copying a word

or expression from

another language.

In Spanish, taken from English:

gol, mitin and líder.

4. calque A literal translation of a

word or phrase.

(Eng.) science fiction ► ciencia

ficción (Sp.)

5. compensation Introducing an element of

information or stylistic

effect of the original text,

in another place in the TT

because it cannot be

reflected in the same place

as in the ST.

She told me I was a pretty wench,

and that everybody gave me a

very good character, and loved

me. (Eng.) ► También tuvo la

bondad de decirme que era

hermosa, que todo el mundo me

quería y decía bien de mí. (Sp.)

6. description Replacing a term or

expression with a

description of its form

or/and function.

Panettone (It.) ► traditional

Italian cake eaten on New Year’s

Eve (Eng.)

7. discursive creation Creating a temporary

equivalent that is

unexpected and has

nothing to do with the

context.

Rumble fish (British film) ► La

ley de la calle. (Sp.)

8. Elision Omitting information

present in the original text.

Ramadan, the Muslim month of

feasting. (Eng.) ► Ramadán (Sp.)

9. established equivalent Using a known expression

or term, that figures as an

equivalent of the original

expression or term.

Se parecen como dos gotas de

agua. (Sp.) ► They are like two

peas in a pod. (Eng.)

10. generalization “To use a more general of

neutral term” (Hurtado

and Molina, 2002, p. 510).

However, this does not

include a change of

register, as this is not

guichet, fenêtre ou devanture (Fr.)

►window (Eng.)

23

mentioned in the article.

11. (linguistic amplification) Adding linguistic

elements.

(Eng.) No way ►de ninguna de

las maneras (Sp.)

12. (linguistic compression) The reduction of linguistic

elements.

Yes, so what? ►¿Y? (Sp.)

13. literal translation Translating word for

word.

She is reading. (Eng.) ► Ella está

leyendo. (Sp.)

14. modulation Introducing a different

point of view, emphasize

or cognitive category. For

example, subject becomes

object or cause for effect.

What are you looking for? (Eng.)

► ¿Qué has perdido? (Sp.)

15. particularization Using a more specific

term or expression

(opposite of

generalization).

window (Eng.) ► guichet (ticket-

window) (Fr.)

16. substitution Changing linguistic

elements for paralinguistic

elements (intonation,

gestures) or vice versa.

The Arabic gesture of putting

your hand on your heart can be

translated with the expression

Thank you (Eng.).

17. transposition A change in grammatical

category, e.g., noun for

verb or preposition for

verb.

He will soon be back (Eng.) ►No

tardará en venir (Sp.), changing

the adverb soon for the verb

tardar.

18. variation Changing linguistic or

paralinguistic elements

(intonation, gestures) that

affect aspects of linguistic

variation.

Changes of textual tone, style,

social dialect, geographical

dialect, etc., e.g., to introduce or

change dialectal indicators for

characters when translating for the

theatre, changes in tone when

adapting novels for children, etc.

3 Analysis of the corpus

The results of the analysis will be discussed according to the occurrence of Hemingway’s

main stylistic characteristics (see 1.2 and 2.3), everyday (informal) language and structures

(3.1), restrictive adjective use (3.2), Iceberg Theory (3.3) and repetition (3.4). For each

feature a selection of significant fragments has been made from the corpus, which will be

discussed at length in this chapter. The reader will be referred to comparable cases that can be

retrieved in the full corpus in the appendix. In the last section, the Spanish and Dutch

translations will be compared in general to the original by Ernest Hemingway and an

evaluation of the model of Hurtado and Molina (2002) will be provided. The translation

24

techniques that have been used by the translators will be discussed following the same

categorization made by Hurtado & Molina (2002) (see 2.4). The translation procedure of

elision, can also be referred to as omission, in the analysis of the examples.

3.1 Everyday (informal) language and structures in the Spanish and Dutch translation

The most significant examples of informal constructions, occur in fragments where the

characters engage in dialogues. Sixteen cases will be discussed in detail in sections 3.1, 3.2,

3.3 and 3.4. The reader can consult the remaining excerpts in appendix 1 of this paper. The

numbers of the examples refer to the full list in the appendix (6.1). The excerpts are presented

as follows: first the original narrative fragment is quoted and subsequently the Spanish and

Dutch versions are discussed. The passages that are relevant for commentary, have been

underlined.

The first example is taken from chapter XIII. Jake and Bill are still fishing in San Sebastian,

when they receive a letter from Mike and Brett. In the letter Mike explains that they are

already in Pamplona, staying with some friends and that they will be at the hotel Montoya,

where they all decided to meet, by Tuesday. The narrative voice of this fragment is that of the

character Mike. Mike is a bankrupt Scottish war veteran; he is also the character that swears

the most in the novel, because he is unhappy about his broken relationship with Brett, his

bankruptcy and because he is constantly drunk.

1. We got here Friday, Brett passed out on the train, so brought her here for 3 days rest

with old friends of ours. We go to the Montoya Hotel Pamplona Tuesday, arriving at I

don't know what hour. Will you send a note by the buss to tell us what to do to rejoin

you all on Wednesday. All our love and sorry to be late, but Brett was really done in

and will be quite all right by Tues. and is practically so now. I know her so well and

try to look after her but it's not so easy. Love to all the chaps. (The Sun Also Rises,

1926, p. 131)

In the Spanish version the fragment is translated as follows:

1. Llegamos aquí el viernes. Brett sufrió una ligera indisposición en el tren de manera

que la traje aquí pare que descansara tres días en compañía de unos viejos amigos.

Saldremos para el hotel Montoya de Pamplona el martes, pero no sé a qué hora

llegaremos. Me gustaría que nos enviaras una nota con el autobús diciéndonos qué

tenemos que hacer para reunirnos contigo el miércoles. Recibe todo nuestro afecto y

nuestras excusas por el retraso, pero Brett se encontraba muy mal. Estará totalmente

25

establecida para el martes, ya caso lo está. La conozco muy bien y trato de cuidarla,

pero no resulta fácil. Recuerdos a todos los amigos. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 147-148)

The Dutch rendering of this part is:

1. Wij zijn vrijdag hier aangekomen. Brett is in de trein flauwgevallen; daarom heb ik

haar hier gebracht om een dag of drie rust te houden bij oude vrienden van ons.

Dinsdag gaan wij naar hotel Montoya in Pamplona, maar we weten nog niet, hoe laat

wij daar zullen aankomen. Wil je per bus bericht zenden, hoe wij ons woensdag bij je

kunnen voegen? Veel hartelijke groeten en nog wel excuus voor ons laat komen, maar

Brett was werkelijk oververmoeid en zal dinsdag wel weer geheel in orde wezen, wat

zij eigenlijk nu al is. Ik ken haar door en door en probeer haar goed te verzorgen,

maar dat is niet zo heel gemakkelijk. Hartelijke groeten aan allen. (En de zon gaat

op…, 1965, p. 108)

In the original narrative Hemingway wrote passed out, which is informal language for ‘to

faint’ (collinsdictionary.com). However, in the Spanish version this is translated as sufrió una

ligera indisposición. Indisposición is more similar to the English ailment, used when

someone is just not feeling too well, therefore it does not capture what Hemingway wanted to

convey (discursive creation). Furthermore, when reading the book, the reader should have

suspected that the writer might have meant that Brett passed out due to drinking too much,

because in the novel the reader gets to know a group of friends that are rather fond of

drinking. Another observation is that Hemingway writes tell us what to do to rejoin you all,

whereas Adsuar writes diciéndonos qué tenemos que hacer para reunirnos contigo. Contigo

means ‘with you’, in other words according to the Spanish text Mike and Brett will only be

reunited with Jake and not with the rest of the group. This is an example of modulation,

described by Hurtado and Molina (2002). In addition, All our love and sorry to be late, but

Brett was really done in and will be quite all right by Tues. and is practically so now, is one

sentence, but in the Spanish text, the translator chose to create two sentences: Recibe todo

nuestro afecto y nuestras excusas por el retraso, pero Brett se encontraba muy mal. Estará

totalmente establecida para el martes, ya casi lo está.

W.A. Fick-Lugten used flauwvallen to translate passed out in her version, which does capture

the original meaning, but because the verb belongs to a neutral register in Dutch, the

translation loses the informal hinting at Brett having been drunk. To put it differently, the

translator decided to change the register of the original. Another observation is the informal

expression She was really done in; according to collinsdictionary.com, done in means

physically exhausted. In the Dutch translation this was, as far as meaning concerns, rendered

faithfully, into oververmoeid, but here again the translator changed the register, losing the

26

informal character of the expression. In the Spanish version Adsuar wrote se encontraba muy

mal (she felt really sick), which does not capture the original meaning (discursive creation),

but in this case the register does stay the same. Another remark is that in Hemingway’s

version, the first sentence is a long sentence separated by commas. However, the Dutch

translator opted for two sentences, after the first part Wij zijn vrijdag hier aangekomen (we

arrived here Friday), W.A. Fick-Lugten puts a full stop. Furthermore, the translated text

added the pronoun ik (I), to clarify to the reader that it was Mike who took care of Brett.

The informal way of saying arriving there at I don’t know what hour, has not been

transferred in the Spanish and Dutch rendering. In the Dutch translation, maar we weten nog

niet, hoe laat wij daar zullen aankomen (but we do not know at what hour we will arrive

there), is also more explicit than what was said in the source text. In addition, Hartelijke

groeten (kind regards) is less informal than Recuerdos (regards, greetings) and Love to.

Another observation is that the informal salutation chaps has been kept neutral in both

translations, amigos (friends) and allen (all). The two previous examples, demonstrate the

decision of the translator to change the register of the original narrative.

The second fragment is also taken from chapter XIII. In this scene, the friends are having a

drink and Mike starts to tell stories from his time in the army. Once he was invited to a

formal dinner where the guests had to wear their medals. Since Mike never sent for his, he

had to go and ask his tailor for some medals. Nevertheless, after dinner he never returned

them.

3. "Ah, yes," said Mike. "I know now. It was a damn dull dinner, and I couldn't stick it,

so I left. Later on in the evening I found the box in my pocket. What's this? I said.

Medals? Bloody military medals? So I cut them all off their backing- you know, they

put them on a strip- and gave them all around. Gave one to each girl. Form of

souvenir. They thought I was hell's own shakes of a soldier. Give away medals in a

night club. Dashing fellow." […] Seems some chap had left them to be cleaned.

Frightfully military cove. Set hell's own store by them." Mike paused. "Rotten luck

for the tailor," he said. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 140-141)

3. -Ah, sí- exclamó Mike-, ahora lo recuero. Era una cena aburrida, insoportable, así que

me fui. Más tarde, esa misma noche encontré la caja en el bolsillo. ¿Qué es esto?, me

pregunté. ¿Medallas? ¿Malditas condecoraciones militares? Las saqué del soporte, ya

sabéis que las colocan sobre una especie de cartón recubierto de cintas, y las repartí.

Le di una a cada chica, como recuerda. Debieron creer que era un fantástico soldado

de pelo en pecho, repartiendo mis condecoraciones en una sala de fiestas entre las

tanguistas. ¡Vaya que tipo más raro! […] , pues las medallas no eran suyas, sino de un

tipo que se las había dejado para que las limpiara, uno de esos militares presumidos y

27

jactanciosos. Al pobre sastre les armo un escándalo imponente. ¡Mala suerte! (Fiesta,

1988, p. 158)

3. 'O, ja', zei Mike, ' nu weet ik het weer. Het was zo'n verdraaid saai diner, dat ik het

niet kon uithouden. Ik ging er vandoor. Later op de avond vond ik die doos in mijn

zak. "Wat is dat?" zei ik. "Medailles? Van die donderse militaire medailles?" Ik sneed

ze dus allemaal los van de lintjes- zij zaten aan zo'n ding vast, weet je- en deelden ze

rond. Elk meisje gaf ik er een. Zo'n aandenken. Zij vonden het echt een goeie zet voor

een oud-soldaat, om in een nachtclub medailles weg te geven. Kranige Kerel!' […]

Het schijnt, dat de een of andere hoge piet ze bij hem had gebracht om ze te laten

opknappen. Een vreselijk hoge militaire piet! Was er verduiveld op gesteld'. 'Een

wanbof voor die kleermaker', zei hij.(En de zon gaat op…, 1965, p. 117)

Here the slang expression damn is used as an intensifier for dull dinner. In the Spanish

version, the translator chose not to render the informal expression, by omitting the equivalent

of damn all together. This could be attributed to the influence of the censorship, introduced

by Franco (see 2.2.2). W.A. Fick-Lugten did translate the expression, by using the Dutch

verdraaid, which is less colloquial than the possible alternative verdomd. Furthermore, the

informal statement I couldn’t stick it, meaning Mike could not handle it/ he could not stay

there, is translated via the Spanish adjective insoportable (intolerable, unbearable), this is an

example of reducing linguistic elements (linguistic compensation), whereas the Dutch stayed

fairly close to the original ik kon het niet uithouden (I could not take it any longer). The

translator also ignored the contraction in couldn’t, which is used in English, in everyday

speech and informal writing. However, this can be attributed to the fact that linguistic

contraction cannot be compensated in Dutch.

Both translators also decided to render the often used English informal adjective bloody into

respectively malditas and donderse. Maldito,-a is an informal adjective, especially when put

in front of the noun (SALAMANCA), like in this fragment. Donderse may be considered less

informal than verdomde or vervloekte. Another observation is the rendering of chap (informal

for man or boy). Adsuar decided to use a possessive pronoun (uno de esos) instead of a noun,

an example of the translation technique transposition (Hurtado & Molina, 2002).

In addition, the informal expression cove, meaning a man or a fellow

(collinsdisctionary.com), is used to express the fact that Mike did not like the soldier. In both

translations, this feeling is conveyed, using the Dutch piet, which has a somewhat negative

connotation (used for someone who feels superior to others (WNT)) and the Spanish esos

(those) and presumidos (conceited, pretentious).

28

In the novel there are several expressions containing the word hell, like hell’s own shakes of a

soldier and set hell’s own store. These are idiosyncratic expressions in which the narrative

voice varies upon existing informal idioms such as ‘no great shakes’ and ‘to set store on’,

which means ‘not very good or significant’ and ‘consider to be of importance or value’

(oxforddictionaries.com). Therefore, the expressions in the original novel can be interpreted

as respectively they thought I was a very good soldier and they saw the medals as very

important. Hell’s own can be seen in these sentences as an informal addition that intensifies

the meaning of the expression by emphasis or expressing anger. The Dutch translator

correctly transferred the meaning er op gesteld zijn and informality verduiveld of set hell’s

own store. However, the first expression hell’s own shakes of a soldier was translated as zij

vonden het een goeie zet (they thought it was a good move), which focusses on the action and

not on Mike being a good soldier (modulation).

In the Spanish version, Adsuar uses an established equivalent, when translating hell’s own

shakes of a soldier, with un soldado de pelo en pecho (a very brave soldier), the second

phrase with hell, he did not translate (omission). Another remark concerning the Dutch

translation is that it provides the reader with more information (amplification) than the

original version. Hemingway wrote a soldier, not explaining anything, but the Dutch version

mentions oud-soldaat (veteran), which makes clear that at the time of the dinner, Mike was

no longer a soldier. This is not understood from the original. In addition, in the original text

They thought I was hell’s own shakes of a soldier. Give away medals in a night club. Dashing

fellow, are three short sentences, but in the Dutch narrative this becomes one long sentence,

using a comma, and one short one Zij vonden het echt een goeie zet voor een oud-soldaat, om

in een nachtclub medailles weg te geven. Kranige kerel!. This is an example of syntactic

change to Hemingway’s writing style, which affects the rhythm of the sentence. Moreover,

the informality of the English phrase is not retained in the translation. W.A. Fick-Lugten

introduced (amplification) the conjunction om (to) to link the sentences together, which

reduces the conversational aspect of the source.

The informal rotten luck (very bad luck) has not been translated equally informally by both

translators. However, Wanbof does sound a bit outdated, the expression is not even

mentioned in the contemporary Van Dale. Adsuar again opts for a very general translation,

with ¡Mala suerte! (bad luck).

29

In the third example taken from chapter XV, the group goes to see their first bull-fight.

Everyone is very excited and nervous, Brett, for example, is worried she will not mange

seeing the bull get killed. However, not everyone is as enthusiastic, Cohn’s only concern is

that he might get bored. Bill cannot understand how anyone could feel bored watching a bull-

fight and consequently finds Cohn’s remark a bit presumptuous. Therefore, during the bull-

fight Bill keeps a close eye on Cohn to see his reactions. The following passage is narrated

from Jake’s point of view:

6. Several times during the bull-fight I looked up at Mike and Brett and Cohn, with the

glasses. They seemed to be all right. Brett did not look upset. All three were leaning

forward on the concrete railing in front of them. “Let me take the glasses,” Bill said.

“Does Cohn look bored?” I asked. “That kike!” (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 168)

6. En el transcurso de la corrida miré varias veces a Mike, Brett y Cohn con los gemelos

de campaña. Parecían encontrarse bien y Brett no daba muestras de estar incómoda o

excesivamente impresionada. Los tres se apoyaban en la barandilla de cemento. -

Déjame los gemelos -me pidió Bill. -Y Cohn, ¿parece aburrido? -pregunté yo. -¡Ese

judío…! (Fiesta, 1988, p. 191)

6. Verscheidene malen keek ik tijdens het gevecht met mijn kijker omhoog naar Mike,

Brett en Cohn. Zij leken het goed naar hun zin te hebben. Brett leek niet van streek.

Alle drie leunden ze over de betonnen borstwering voor hen. ‘Geef mij die kijker

eens’, zei Bill. ‘Ziet Cohn er uit of hij zich verveelt?’ vroeg ik. ‘Die vent!’ (En de zon

gaat op…, 1965, p. 141-142)

As stated in collinsdictionary.com, kike is American offensive slang for a Jewish person. In

the Spanish translation Adsuar understood that the reference was made to Jews and he added

the offensive tone with ese (that). W.A. Fick-Lugten on the other hand is using the technique

of generalisation by opting for vent (man, fellow), which does not at all convey what

Hemingway meant.

Another remark is that in the original text, the phrase They seemed to be all right, was

translated in the Dutch version as: Zij leken het goed naar hun zin te hebben (they seemed to

have a good time/like it), which is more explicit than Hemingway’s suggestion. This can be

seen as an example of the Iceberg Theory, where the idea of the characters having a good

time is implied beneath the surface. Because seemed to be all right does not express much,

the reader himself has to imagine that all right meant ‘a good time’, but in the Dutch text, the

translator already comes to that conclusion and by describing the situation, he does the

thinking for the reader.

30

The last example is taken from chapter XVII and in this scene Jake finds out from Bill and

Mike what Cohn did during their very drunk night out in Pamplona. Cohn went to search for

Brett and he found her in bed with the bull-fighter Pedro Romero. As a result, Cohn was

beside himself with anger and started to attack Romero. In this passage, Mike is the character

talking:

9. "He nearly killed the poor, bloody bull-fighter. Then Cohn wanted to take Brett away.

Wanted to make an honest woman of her, I imagine. Damned touching scene." He

took a long drink of the beer. "He is an ass." "What happened?" "Brett gave him what

for. She told him off. I think she was rather good." (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 205)

9. -Casi mata al pobre torero. Después intentó llevarse a Brett. Quería convertirla en una

mujer decente, supongo. Una escena sentimental, melodramática. Se bebió un buen

trago de cerveza. -Ese Cohn es un burro. -¿Y qué pasó? -Brett lo puso verde. Lo echó

de allí. Creo que se portó estupendamente. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 234)

9. 'Hij heeft die arme, donderse stierenvechter bijna van kant gemaakt. En daarna wilde

Cohn Brett meenemen. Ik verbeelde me, dat hij een eerbare vrouw van haar wilde

maken. Vervloekt aangrijpende scène'. Hij nam een lange teug van zijn bier. 'Een

echte ezel'. 'Wat gebeurde er verder?' 'Brett nam hem onder handen. Zij joeg hem

weg. Ze was; geloof ik, aardig op streek'. (En de zon gaat op…, 1965, p. 174-175)

In these fragments, bloody (used to express anger or annoyance or for emphasis) has been

omitted from the Spanish text as well as damned. Adsuar did not translate damn, instead he

added (amplification) the adjective melodramática, which was not in the original version, to

compensate for the informal damn. Furthermore, the informal expression give someone what

for means to punish or scold someone severely (oxforddictionaries.com) and was translated

by Adsuar with the expression poner verde, which means to talk badly about someone

(SALAMANCA). In other words, the translator chose an established Spanish equivalent for

the English expression. To tell someone off is informal for scolding someone, both

translations rendered this phrase with She told him to go away. This is not really what is in

the original sentence (discursive creation), but it can be seen as a consequence of telling

someone off.

W.A. Fick-Lugten used the translation technique of compensation twice in this last fragment.

Compensation implies that the translator introduces text or information in another place than

chosen by the original author. Originally, the two phrase ran: He nearly killed the poor,

bloody bull-fighter and Wanted to make an honest woman of her, I imagine. The Dutch

translation on the other hand is: Hij heeft die arme, donderse stierenvechter bijna van kant

31

gemaakt and Ik verbeelde me, dat hij een eerbare vrouw van haar wilde maken. In other

words an element of the source text has been introduced in another place in the target text, in

this case not altering the meaning. In addition, W.A. Fick-Lugten introduces a more lengthy

and florid expression. She could have translated the verb to kill with the verb vermoorden,

instead she used the phrase van kant maken, which is more explicit than ‘to kill’. This can be

seen as a compensation for the fact that elsewhere in the text, the Dutch version is less

informal than the original. Another observation is the fact that in the original text, the subject

of wanted to make an honest woman out of her was omitted, to add to the informal character

of the sentence. This is ignored in the Dutch version, because it adds the subject hij (he): dat

hij een eerbare vrouw van haar wilde maken. Furthermore, the translator also added the

adjective verder (further) in Wat gebeurde er verder?, which makes it easier for the reader to

understand that what follows is going to be an answer to ‘What happened after Cohn wanted

to take Brett away?’, which is not specifically clear in the original text: What happened?.

To conclude, in general both translations come across as less informal than the original. An

interesting observation here, is that to come to this conclusion Hurtado and Molina’s

techniques were not really necessary. Indeed generalization can be seen as a technique to step

away from the informal nature of the original text and deciding not to follow an important

characteristic of Hemingway’s style. However, it seems to be more appropriate to see all the

examples in which the informal character is ignored, as a change of register. Therefore,

changing the register could be suggested as a new technique to complete the categorization of

translating procedures.

Furthermore, the Dutch translation seems to be more faithful to the original source in terms of

interpretation, but does not always convey the same informal meaning expressed by

Hemingway. The Spanish translation on the other hand is more often inaccurate in terms of

interpretation, but stays closer to the informal register.

In this concluding paragraph, all the techniques, categorised by Hurtado and Molina (2002),

that were found in the previous fragments and that were used by the translators to render the

original source text have been listed to provide a clear overview:

Joaquín Adsuar:

Amplification (1) Linguistic compensation (1)

Compensation (1) Modulation (1)

Discursive creation (3) Omission (4)

32

Established equivalent (2) Transposition (1)

W.A. Fick-Lugten:

Amplification (4)

Compensation (3)

Description (1)

Discursive creation (1)

Generalization (1)

Modulation (1)

3.2 Restrictive adjective use in the Spanish and Dutch translation

In the novel The Sun Also Rises (1926), Hemingway does not seem to use many adjectives,

especially not in dialogues. Furthermore, instead of varying between the range of adjectives

available, the writer opts for simple examples. However, this can be deceiving, because these

seemingly ‘simple’ adjectives often imply a more complex significance.

The following fragment was selected form chapter XIII. Before diner, Mike and Cohn had a

serious dispute about Brett. Mike called Cohn a steer for following Brett around everywhere.

Therefore, Jake was dreading diner, because he thought that the atmosphere would be bad.

3. He could not stop looking at Brett. It seemed to make him happy. I must have been

pleasant for him to see her looking so lovely, and know he had been away with her

and that every one knew it. They could not take that away from him. Bill was very

funny. So was Michael. They were good together. [...] Under the wine I lost the

disgusted feeling and was happy. It seemed they were all such nice people. (The Sun

Also Rises, 1926, p. 150)

3. No podía apartar los ojos de Brett. Su presencia parecía hacerlo feliz. Debía significar

una satisfacción intima para él verla tan atractiva y saber que había estado con ella y

que todos nosotros lo sabíamos. Eso nadie podía quitárselo. Bill estuvo muy gracioso.

También Mike. Los parecían llevarse de maravilla. […] Bajo los efectos del vino

olvidé el disgusto y me sentí feliz. Tenía la impresión de que todos éramos gente

simpática y amable. (Fiesta, 1965, p. 169-170)

3. Hij kon zijn ogen niet van Brett afhouden. Het leek hem gelukkig te maken, naar haar

te kijken. Het moet prettig voor hem zijn geweest, dat hij met haar uit was geweest en

dat iedereen daarvan op de hoogte was. Dat kon niemand hem ontnemen. Bill was

heel amusant en Mike ook. Zij waren aan elkaar gewaagd. [...] Door de wijn raakte ik

het vervelende gevoel van afkeer kwijt en begon ik mij welgemoed te voelen. Zij

leken mij allen zulke aardige lui...(En de zon gaat op…, 1988, p. 126).

In the original text, Hemingway used neutral adjectives that do not really convey much

feeling or extra information. Adsuar does not follow this facet of Hemingway’s style. For

33

example, where Hemingway wrote pleasant, Adsuar opted for una satisfacción intima (a

personal satisfaction), which describes ‘the pleasant feeling’ Cohn must be having, because

he has spent some time alone with Brett and everyone knows about it. Therefore, instead of

relying on the reader to figure out why it must have been pleasant for Cohn, as Hemingway

did, Adsuar chose to explicitly mention, what was implicit with Hemingway.

Another observation is that Adsuar chose to pick a different adjective than the neutral lovely,

a more fitting one (particularization) for what Hemingway may have meant, namely

atractiva. When said of a person this adjective means that someone is physically interesting

to look at, which would correspond more to the fact that several sentences before this

fragment, the writer described how Brett looked: Brett wore a black, sleeveless evening dress.

Furthermore, the expression to be good together is translated in Spanish by the phrase

llevarse de maravilla (to get along great), which conveys the same meaning. This is an

example of an established equivalent. In the original, disgusted is an adjective, in Adsuar’s

translation, el disgusto is a noun, in other words, the translator used the technique of

transposition. Adsuar also decided to add the adjective simpática to his version. Furthermore,

Adsuar added (amplification) su presencia (her presence) to his translation, to explain the it

of the original text and los efectos del (the effects of), to clarify that due to the drinking Jake

was feeling better. Another observation is that the translator used the technique of

modulation: he introduced a different point of view in his text. In the original source

Hemingway wrote they were all such nice people, whereas Adsuar wrote todos éramos gente

simpática y amable. With éramos (first person plural of the imperfecto of ‘ser’ / to be) the

subject is ‘nosotros’, ‘we’. In other words, in the Spanish version Jake is not represented as

the character that is looking at the others, as if he himself does not belong with them. In the

Spanish text, Jake is included in the group, ‘we’.

The Dutch rendering by W.A. Fick-Lugten is quite similar to the original version. However,

the translator chose to add (amplification) vervelende (irritating) in het vervelende gevoel van

afkeer (the irritating feeling of disgust). The Dutch version also inserts Het leek hem gelukkig

te maken, naar haar te kijken (looking at her), which can be seen as a compensation for

omitting to see her looking so lovely in the following sentence. It seems as if the Dutch

translator added information to make the text clearer to the target audience, again making

explicit what was originally implicit. Furthermore, W.A. Fick-Lugten added (amplification)

34

the conjunctive en (and) to link two sentences together, which were separate in the source

text.

In addition, both translations opted for amplification, to describe the neutral He could not

stop looking at Brett, in a more ornate way. Instead of No podía dejar de mirar (he could not

stop looking), Adsuar used apartar los ojos (could not keep his eyes of). In the Dutch version

kon zijn ogen niet afhouden was chosen, again conveying the meaning of ‘could not keep his

eyes of her’.

The next excerpt is taken from the same chapter as the previous fragment. This is one of the

first conversations between Brett and Pedro Romero, the Spanish bull-fighter, narrated from

Jake’s point of view.

7. He looked at her across the table. "You know English well." "Yes, " he said. "Pretty

well, sometimes. But I must not let anybody know. It would be very bad, a torero

who speaks English." "Why?" asked Brett. "It would be bad. The people would not

like it. Not yet." "They would not like it. Bull-fighters are not like that." (The Sun Also

Rises, 1926, p. 190)

7. Se echó a reír con los ojos fijos en ella por encima de la mesa. -Eh, habla usted bien el

inglés. -Sí, a veces basta lo hablo muy bien. Pero no puedo permitir que los demás lo

sepan. No estaría bien que un toreo hable inglés. -¿Por qué? -Estaría mal -repitió-. No

le gustaría a la gente. Al menos por ahora. -¿Por qué no? -No les gustaría. Los toreros

no son así. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 217)

7. Over de tafel heen keek hij haar aan. 'U kunt goed Engels'. 'Ja', zei hij. 'Aardig goed,

soms. Maar ik mag het niemand laten merken. Het zou lelijk zijn, als een torero

Engels sprak'. 'Waarom?' vroeg Brett. 'Het zou kwaad kunnen. De mensen zouden het

niet goed vinden. Nog niet'. 'Waarom niet?' 'Zij zouden er iets op tegen hebben.

Stierenvechters zijn zo niet'. (En de zon gaat op…, 1965, p. 161)

An observation to be made on the Spanish version is that Adsuar introduces modulation.

Hemingway writes It would be bad, which Adsuar transformed into No estaría bien (it would

not be good). The Spanish translation also adds (amplification) that Romero was laughing

when he looked at Brett (Se echó a reír con los ojos fijos en ella por encima de la mesa),

which is not in the original source text. In addition, both translations inserted (amplification)

‘Why not?’ (¿Por qué no? and Waarom niet?) to clarify for their readers that what followed

would explain why it would be bad for bull-fighters to speak English. In the original source,

the audience has to establish this link for themselves. Furthermore, it can be said that in

general both translators respect the neutral choice of adjectives. For example, well is

35

translated as bien and goed, which both means ‘good’. However, in terms of repeating the

adjectives, the translators did not decide to follow the original source.

The third example is chosen from chapter XVII. Jake, Mike and Bill are talking about what

had happened that night. Brett had spent the night with the bull-fighter, Pedro Romero, and

Cohn had found out about this, which resulted in a fight between Romero and Cohn. When

telling the anecdote, Mike is very drunk and feels dreadful, because Brett left him:

8. "I'm rather drunk," Mike said. "I think I'll stay rather drunk. This is all awfully

amusing, but it's not too pleasant. It's not too pleasant for me. Mike started to open the

bottle. "Would you mind opening it?" I pressed up the wire fastener and poured it for

him. "You know," Mike went on, "Brett was rather good. She's always rather good. I

gave her a fearful hiding about Jews and bull-fighters, and all those sort of people, and

do you know what she said: 'Yes. I've had such a hell of a happy life with the British

aristocracy!" He took a drink. "That was rather good. […]. Finally, when he got really

bad, he used to tell he he'd kill her. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 207)

8. -Estoy muy borracho -dijo Mike. Creo que voy a seguir borracho. Esto es bastante

divertido, pero nada agradable. No, no es agradable para mí. Tomé la botella, empujé

hacia arriba el alambre que sujetaba el tapón y se la serví. -Sabéis?- continuo Mike-.

Brett se portó muy bien. Ella siempre sabe quedar bien. Le solté un buen sermón

sobre los judíos, los toreros y toda esa clase de gente. ¿Y sabéis qué me respondió?:

<< ¡Desde luego! ¡He pasado una vida tan feliz con la aristocracia británica!>> -

Tomo otro trago-. Eso estuvo muy bien. Al final, cuando su estado mental fue

empeorando, solía decirle que acabaría matándola. (Fiesta, 1965, p. 236)

8. 'Ik ben aardig dronken', zei Mike. 'Ik denk er hard over dronken te blijven. Dit is nu

wel heel vermakelijk, maar niet al te prettig. Voor mij is het niet zo heel prettig'.

Mike begon de fles open te peuteren. 'Zou je het erg vinden haar zelf even open te

maken?' Ik lichtte de dop eraf en schonk hem in. 'Weet je', vervolgde Mike, Brett

hield zich aardig goed. Altijd trouwens. Ik gaf haar een vreselijke uitbrander over

joden en stierenvechters en al dat soort lui en weet je, wat ze zei? - "Ja, ik heb ook

zo'n verdraaid gelukkig leven gehad met de Britse aristocratie!"' Hij nam een slok.

'Dat was aardig raak. Toen hij ten slotte echt een kwaaie kerel werd, placht hij haar te

vertellen, dat hij haar zou vermoorden. (En de zon gaat op…, 1988, p. 176)

Here again Hemingway introduces straightforward adjectives. The understatement it’s not too

pleasant for me, actually implies that the situation is awful for Mike, the woman he wants to

marry has fallen in love with a nineteen-year-old bull-fighter and he is left alone. In the

Spanish translation too has been omitted, as well as Mike started to open the bottle. "Would

you mind opening it?". Furthermore, when he got really bad describes the manners of Brett’s

first husband, but the reader of the original does not know what bad implies. The reader has

to rely on his own imagination. In the Spanish and Dutch renderings this is lost, both

36

translations describe when he got really bad. Adsuar wrote Su estado mental fue empeorando,

maybe he tries to make it seem as if Brett’s husband has psychological problems. In the

Dutch version, W.A. Fick-Lugten writes, Toen hij ten slotte echt een kwaaie kerel werd,

‘whenever he lost his temper’. Both translations decided to add more information, so the

target readers would be able to understand better what was meant. In the original Hemingway

wrote she was rather good, but the reader does not know how to interpret this. Therefore,

Adsuar used the verb portarse (referring to how she behaved) and W.A. Fick-Lugten ze hield

zich aardig goed (she kept calm, stayed strong). In this part of the fragment, the Dutch

translator also decided to omit the second She’s always rather good and compensated it with

Altijd trouwens (always actually).

In the final fragment, selected from chapter XVIII, Jake and Bill are having lunch outside the

hotel. It is the final day of the fiesta and after lunch they will go to the last bull-fight of the

festival, starring Pedro Romero. The narrative voice of this fragment is that of Jake:

10. We ate at a restaurant in a side street off the square. They were all men eating in the

restaurant. It was full of smoke and drinking and singing. The food was good and so

was the wine. We did not talk much. Afterwards we went to the café and watched the

fiesta come to the boiling-point. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 215)

10. Comimos en un restaurante situado en una calle adyacente a la plaza. Todos los

clientes del restaurante eran hombres. Estaba lleno de humo, de bebidas y de cantos.

La comida era buena y también el vino. Bill y yo no hablamos mucho. Después de

comer nos dirigimos al café y vimos como los festejos estaban llegando a su punto de

ebullición. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 244)

10. We staken het plein dwars over en aten in een restaurant aan een zijstraat van het

plein. In dat restaurant zaten enkel mannen te eten. In een dichte tabakswalm werd er

gegeten, gedronken en gezongen. Het eten zowel als de wijn was er best. Wij spraken

niet veel. Naderhand gingen wij naar het café en sloegen gade, hoe de fiesta haar

kookpunt naderde. (En de zon gaat op…, 1965, p. 182-183)

This fragment was chosen, because it clearly illustrates that Hemingway uses his adjectives

sparingly. The writer opts for short successive sentences that do not describe the restaurant or

the meal the characters are having. In the Dutch version, the writer added we staken het plein

dwars over (we crossed the square). Adsuar made the Spanish translation a bit longer, by

writing Bill y yo instead of we (particularization). Afterwards is also made more specific in

the Spanish version: Después de comer (after lunch). Furthermore, both translations did not

follow the original in repeating the and (It was full of smoke and drinking and singing and

The food was good and so was the wine).

37

W.A. Fick-Lugten also opted for amplification, when describing the smoke in the restaurant.

Hemingway did not add in the original that it was smoke coming from the cigarettes of the

men in the restaurant, because he probably thought that even without explicitly stating that, it

would be clear where the smoke came from. W.A. Fick-Lugten thought differently and added

tabak (tobacco).

From these findings, it seems that both translators primarily decided to make explicit what

was implicit in the original narrative. In the Spanish as well as the Dutch translation,

information was added to clarify the meaning of Hemingway’s text to the target audience. In

most examples, Adsuar and W.A. Fick-Lugten decided not to follow Hemingway’s style of

using monosyllabic and simple adjectives. Instead, they chose to make their translations as

transparent as possible for the reader to understand the setting of events.

In the previous selected fragments, the following translation techniques stood out:

Joaquín Adsuar:

Amplification (4) Modulation (2)

Description (2) Particularization (3)

Omission (2) Transposition (1)

Established equivalent (1)

W.A. Fick-Lugten:

Amplification (8)

Compensation (2)

Description (1)

Omission (2)

3.3 The Iceberg Theory in the Spanish and Dutch translation

The Iceberg Theory, or the Theory of Omission, is often linked to Ernest Hemingway (see

sections 1.2 and 2.3.3). The writer was convinced that irrelevant information and unnecessary

repetition should be avoided in his narratives. Furthermore, instead of stating the obvious,

Hemingway used dialogues and context to convey the many underlying (implicit) messages.

Therefore, only an attentive reader will be able to uncover the missing parts and notice the

few clues Hemingway left behind. In other words, it is up to the reader to decipher what is

unwritten, from the one eighth upper part of the iceberg that is mentioned. In the following

38

fragments, this section will focus on how the Spanish and Dutch translation dealt with

fragments in the text that reflect the tenets of the Iceberg Theory.

The first example occurs in chapter XIII. Jake and his friends are on their way to watch the

unloading of the bulls. On the street, Brett draws the attention of several people. The

narrative voice of this fragment is that of the character Jake:

2. The woman standing in the door of the wine-shop looked at us as we passed. She

called to someone in the house and three girls came to the window and stared. They

were staring at Brett. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 142)

Spanish translation:

2. La mujer que estaba en la puerta del establecimiento se nos quedó mirando cuando

pasamos por delante de ella. Llamó a alguien que debía de estar dentro de la casa y

aparecieron tres jóvenes que se asomaron a la ventana a mirar a Brett. (Fiesta, 1988,

p. 160)

Dutch translation:

2. Terwijl we voorbijliepen, keek de vrouw die op de drempel van de wijnzaak stond,

ons strak aan. Zij riep iets tegen iemand in huis en er kwamen drie meisjes voor het

raam staan kijken. Zij stonden Brett aan te gapen. (En de zon gaat op…, 1965, p. 118)

This fragment focusses on they were staring at Brett. Here Hemingway implicitly refers to

the fact that Brett does not look like a typical woman. A perceptive reader already knows that

Brett has quite a boyish look; she has short hear and likes to wear trousers. This was a female

look that was new in the early twentieth century. Therefore, it is understandable that the

people of Pamplona, a city far away from cosmopolitan Paris, are not used to seeing a woman

such as Brett and have the tendency to stare.

In the Spanish version, Adsuar decided to use generalization as a technique, because he

translated the wine-shop into the general establecimiento (establishment). Furthermore, the

translator added (amplification) por delante de ella (in front of her) and que debía de (had to

be). These are examples of obvious information that Hemingway did not mention, but Adsuar

still chose to use. The logical chain of events that Brett and her friends pass in front of the

wine-shop and that if the children appear in the window, they had to be inside the house as

well, is thus made explicit. Another observation is that the Spanish text did not translate three

girls, instead Adsuar opted for a generalization and wrote jóvenes (youngsters). A final

remark is that the Spanish text does not mention the repetition of staring at Brett. Therefore,

it seems as if Adsuar ignores the underlying significance of this passage.

39

In the Dutch text, the first sentence can be seen as an example of compensation, where

linguistic elements are introduced in another place in the translation: The woman standing in

the door of the wine-shop looked at us as we passed and Terwijl we voorbijliepen, keek de

vrouw die op de drempel van de wijnzaak stond, ons strak aan. Furthermore, the adverb strak

(tight, strong), which was not in the original, was added to the Dutch text.

W.A. Fick-Lugten seems to have captured the implicit meaning of this fragment better than

Adsuar. The original mentions the woman staring at Brett, which means she is looking

fixedly at her. The verb also conveys that Brett probably does not like it. This implicit

addition to the verb is understood by the Dutch translator, who translated staring with a verb

transmitting the same connotation: aangapen. Adsuar on the other hand used the neutral

mirar (to look at).

The next excerpt is taken from chapter XIV; in this scene Jake is in his room when he hears

Brett and Mike laughing next door. This makes him sad, because he wishes it had been him

and Brett laughing. In his bed, Jake starts to reflect on his relationship with Brett.

3. I had been getting something for nothing. That only delayed the presentation of the

bill. The bill always came. That was one of the swell things you could count on. I

thought I had paid for everything. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 152)

Spanish translation:

3. Había estado recibiendo algo a cambio de nada. Eso servía para retrasar la

presentación de la factura. Pero ese tipo de facturas siempre se pagan. Es una de esas

cosas magnificas con las que siempre hay que contar. Yo pensaba que había pagado

por todo. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 172)

Dutch translation:

3. Ik had iets gekregen voor niets. Dat was enkel uitstel geweest voor het aanbieden van

de rekening. Altijd kwam er een rekening. Dat was een van die heerlijke dingen

waarop je stellig kon rekenen. Ik meende voor alles betaald te hebben. (En de zon

gaat op…, 1965, p. 127)

The hidden meaning behind I had been getting something for nothing, is that Jake is getting

affection and love from Brett, but he is not able to give her anything in return, due to what

happened to him in the war, his impotency. Furthermore, the bill is a metaphor for

unhappiness, someone will always end up hurt and unhappy. In other words, Jake knew he

would get hurt, because he understands that he and Brett will never be in a normal

40

relationship. At the end of the fragment Jake says: I thought I had paid for everything, which

is again referring to his wound. In his opinion, he has suffered enough already.

In the Spanish version, the verb ‘servir’(to help, to suit) was added (amplification), to make it

clearer for the reader that the previous sentence ‘helped to delay’ the presentation of the bill.

Furthermore, eso tipo de facturas (that type of bills) is a particularization of the bill. Another

observation in this sentence is that the translator used the verb pagar (to pay), to accompany

the facturas (bills). In the original and the Dutch translation this is not the case. It seems as if

Adsuar did not understand that bill was used as a metaphor and therefore decided to use the

verb pagar, because ‘pagar una factura’ (to pay a bill) is a well-known collocation. The

translator also added siempre (always) in the Spanish text.

In the Dutch translation, W.A. Fick-Lugten used the technique of transposition. In the

original text delayed was used as a verb, but in the Dutch version, delayed becomes a noun:

uitstel. Another remark is that in the source text, bill is mentioned with a definite article,

whereas in the translation, the noun is accompanied by an indefinite article: een (a). This is an

example of generalization. Furthermore, W.A. Fick-Lugten chose to insert (amplification) the

adverb stellig (certainly), which intensifies the phrase.

The third fragment is also from chapter XIV. After dinner, Jake returns to his room and tries

to get some sleep. However, due to this wheeling sensation in his head, he does not seem to

be able to. Therefore, to pass the time, he starts to think about Brett and how they will never

be together.

4. I could shut my eyes without getting the wheeling sensation. But I could not sleep.

There is no reason why because it is dark you should look at things differently from

when it is light. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 151)

Spanish version:

4. Podía cerrar los ojos sin sentir aquella sensación de ir montado en un tiovivo. Pero no

podía dormir. No hay razón para que la oscuridad haga ver las cosas distintas de como

se ven cuando la luz está encendida. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 172)

Dutch version:

4. Ik kon mijn ogen sluiten zonder dat draaierige gevoel te krijgen. Maar ik kon niet in

slaap komen. Er bestaat geen enkele reden, waarom je de dingen in de nacht

donkerder zoudt zien dan in het daglicht. (En de zon gaat op…, 1965, p. 127)

41

With the last sentence of this fragment, There is no reason why because it is dark you should

look at things differently from when it is light, Hemingway implies that even though it is dark,

your problems still stay the same, they do not disappear. At night, Jake is still impotent and

he and Brett will still never be lovers.

The Spanish version describes the wheeling sensation and compares it to the feeling

experienced on a merry-go-round: aquella sensación de ir montado en un tiovivo. In the

second sentence, Adsuar decides to change the original adverb dark into a noun: la oscuridad

(the dark), this is an example of transposition. In addition, in the same sentence the technique

of modulation is used, when la oscuridad becomes the subject and viewpoint of the Spanish

text. However, Adsuar maintains the implicit character of the source text.

In the Dutch translation, what is meant becomes more explicit. W.A. Fick-Lugten explains

what Hemingway wanted to convey: dat je de dingen in de nacht donkerder ziet (that you see

things more pessimistic when it is dark/night). In other words, The Dutch translation did not

adhere to the characteristics of Hemingway’s style, instead the translator chose to render a

text that puts the implied meaning on record.

In the last excerpt, mentioned in chapter XVI, Brett has just told Jake that she is in love with

the bull-fighter Pedro Romero. The two decide to go and have a drink, when Brett suddenly

notices Romero. He walks over to their table and starts to talk with Brett. The fragment is

narrated from Jake’s point of view.

7. I stood up. Romero rose too. "Sit down," I said. "I must go and find our friends and

bring them here." He looked at me. It was a final look to ask if it were understood. It

was understood all right. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 190)

Spanish translation:

7. Me levanté. Romero también. -Siéntese -le dije-. Tengo que ir a buscar a los demás

amigos. Me miró. Fue una mirada definitiva como si quisiera preguntarme con ella si

había comprendido. Desde luego está más claro que el agua. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 218)

Dutch translation:

7. Ik stond op. Ook Romero ging staan. 'Ga zitten', zei ik. 'Ik wil onze vrienden gaan

zoeken en hen hier brengen'. Hij keek mij aan. Het was een laatste blik om zich te

vergewissen, of de zaak beklonken was. De zaak was zeer zeker beklonken. (En de

zon gaat op…, 1965, p. 162)

42

Here again, only a perceptive reader will be able to understand the underlying meaning of this

fragment. The it in to ask if it was understood and it was understood all right refers to the fact

that Jake is leaving Brett and Romero alone, because he knows Brett loves Romero. And with

the look that the bull-fighter gives Jake, he wants to ask if it is all right that something might

happen between him and Brett. It is as if Romero is asking Jake for permission.

In his translation, Adsuar omitted the verb ‘to rise’ and bring them here. Furthermore, it was

understood all right is replaced by the expression más claro que el agua (something is crystal

clear). The Dutch version was translated quite faithfully to the original text, following

Hemingway’s Iceberg Theory by not stating too much and keeping aspects hidden under the

surface. However, in this fragment W.A. Fick-Lugten still replaced it with the more explicit

de zaak (the case/the situation).

In general it can be said that the Dutch translation is more faithful to the original than the

Spanish translation in terms of respecting the author’s suggestive, implicit style of writing.

However, it may be debatable whether or not the translators’ choices are always a case of

wanting to respect Hemingway’s style and the Iceberg Theory, because it seems as if W.A.

Fick-Lugten and Adsuar were simply not always aware of the underlying message certain

passages conveyed.

The following paragraph will provide an overview of some of the techniques that were

selected to translate the previous fragments.

Joaquín Adsuar:

Amplification (4) Omission (3)

Description (1) Particularization (1)

Generalization (2) Transposition (1)

Modulation (1)

W.A. Fick-Lugten:

Amplification (2)

Compensation (1)

Generalization (1)

Transposition (1)

43

3.4 Repetition in the Spanish and Dutch translation

Repetition is a typical characteristic of Hemingway’s style and therefore also a very common

technique in The Sun Also Rises (1926), especially to insist on particular actions and attract

the reader’s attention. The following cases illustrate this point.

The first excerpt is taken from chapter XVII. Jake finds Bill, Mike and Edna (a friend of

Bill’s), after they have been thrown out of a bar. The problems had begun after Mike saw

some people inside he still owed money to. The narrative character of this fragment is Jake.

6. Outside the Bar Milano I found Bill and Mike and Edna. Edna was the girl's name.

"We've been thrown out," Edna said. "By the police," said Mike. 'There's some people

in there that don't like me." "I've kept them out of four fights," Edna said. "You've got

to help me. Bill's face was red. "Come back in, Edna," he said. "Go on in there and

dance with Mike. "It's silly," Edna said. "There’ll just be another row." "Damned

Biarritz swine," Bill said. "Come on," Mike said. "After all, it's a pub. They can't

occupy a whole pub." "Good old Mike," Bill said. "Damned English swine come here

and insult Mike and try and spoil the fiesta." "They're so bloody," Mike said. "I hate

the English." "They can't insult Mike," Bill said. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 192)

Spanish translation:

6. Me encontré con Bill, Mike y Edna, así se llamaba la chica, en la puerta del bar

Milano. -Nos han echado -dijo Edna. -La policía -dijo Mike-. Dentro hay unas

personas que no me quieren bien. -Los he sacado de cuatro broncas -dijo Edna-.

Tienes que ayudarme. Bill estaba rojo de excitación. -Vuelve adentro, Edna, vuelve y

baila con Mike -dijo.-Seria tontería. Tendríamos otra pelea. -¡Malditos cerdos de

Biarritz! -maldijo Bill. -Vamos a entrar -insistió Mike-. Al fin y al cabo es un bar

público. No pueden ocupar un bar entero ellos solos. -Pobre Mike -añadió Bill-.

¡Malditos puercos ingleses! Vienen aquí, insultan a Mike y tratan de estropear la

fiesta. -¡Son asquerosos! -Mike se indignó. ¡Odio a los ingleses! -No pueden insultar a

Mike -continuó Bill-. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 219)

In the Dutch version the fragment is translated as follows:

6. Buiten de Milano-Bar trof ik Bill, Mike en Edna aan. Edna heette dat meisje. 'Wij zijn

eruit gegooid', zei Edna. 'Door de politie', zei Mike. 'Daar binnen zitten wat lui die

niet op mij gesteld zijn'. 'Ik heb hen van vier kloppartijtjes afgehouden', zei Edna. 'Jij

moet me erbij helpen'. Bills gezicht zag vuurrood. 'Laten wij er aan de achterkant

ingaan, Edna', zei hij. 'Ga jij daar binnen met Mike dansen'. 'Dwaasheid', zei Edna.

'Dan komt er opnieuw een rel'. 'Die verdomde zwijnen uit Biarritz', zei Bill. 'Kom

mee', zei Mike. 'Het is toch per slot een bar. Zij kunnen niet op een hele bar beslag

leggen'. 'Goeie, ouwe Mike', zei Bill. 'Vervloekte Engelse zwijnen, om hier Mike te

komen beledigen en proberen de fiesta in de war te sturen'. 'Zulke mispunten zijn het

nu', zei Mike. 'Ik heb een hekel aan Engelsen'. 'Zij mogen Mike niet beledigen', zei

Bill. (En de zon gaat op…, 1965, p. 162-163)

44

Throughout the dialogue, Hemingway uses the verb ‘say’. In the Spanish translation, Adsuar

started using the same verb as well, but then switched to using synonyms, such as: maldecir

(to swear), insister (to insist), añadir (to add), indignar (to irritate) and continuar (to

continue). This is an example in which the ‘clues associated with the simplicity of

Hemingway’s style are lost’ (Pazos, 2002, p. 8) in the Spanish rendering. Elements that are

implicit in the source text, for example how the characters are feeling, or elements that are

obvious enough, are still made explicit in Adsuar’s text. For example, ¡Malditos cerdos de

Biarritz! -maldijo Bill, maldecir means to curse, however, the expression ¡Malditos cerdos!

(damned swine) already makes it clear that he is swearing, therefore, there is no need to

repeat that. W.A. Fick-Lugten, stays faithful to the original source text by also using only one

neutral verb throughout the conversation (zeggen).

Furthermore, Adsuar completely adapted the first sentence of the fragment. The original ran:

Outside the Bar Milano I found Bill and Mike and Edna. Edna was the girl's name, which

became Me encontré con Bill, Mike y Edna, así se llamaba la chica, en la puerta del bar

Milano in the Spanish version. The translator used the technique compensation, the beginning

of the source text is transferred to the end of the target text. In this sentence, Adsuar also opts

for linguistic compensation by creating one sentence, where the original had two. In addition,

the Spanish version writes en la puerta (at the door), which is a particularization of where

Jake found his friends (outside).

Another observation is that the original narrative mentions Bill’s face was red, where the

Spanish version opts for Bill estaba rojo (Bill was red), this can be seen as a generalization of

the source text. Adsuar also decided to omit said Edna (“It’s silly,” said Edna ). Furthermore,

the Spanish version describes the noun pub (un bar público).

In the Dutch translation, W.A. Fick-Lugten decides to add vuur (fire) in the description of

Bill’s face. The translator also uses modulation as a technique, she refers to we (we: Bill and

Edna), but in the original version Hemingway only focusses on Edna, from Bill’s point of

view (“Come back in, Edna,”). Furthermore, W.A. Fick-Lugten added (amplification) aan de

achterkant (through the back), when Bill asks Edna to come back to the club. Perhaps the

translator misinterpreted “Come back in, Edna,” as a reference to the backdoor of the

nightclub. Another remark is that the adjective silly, in It’s silly has been translated with the

Dutch noun dwaasheid (foolishness), which is an example of transposition and change in

register, because dwaasheid comes across as more formal than the rather colloquial silly.

45

The second example is from chapter XIII. In this fragment Mike tells Jake that he and Brett

share everything with each other and that he was aware of her affair with Cohn.

4. "She gave me Robert Cohn's letters. I wouldn't read them." "You wouldn't read any

letters, darling. You wouldn't read mine." "I can't read letters," Mike said. "Funny,

isn't it?" "You can't read anything." "No. You're wrong there. I read quite a bit. I read

when I'm at home." (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 148)

4. -Me entrego las cartas de Cohn, pero no quise leerlas -insistió Mike. -No eres capaz

de leer una sola carta. No lees siquiera las mías. -No, no puedo leer cartas -concedió

Mike. Es gracioso, ¿verdad? -No eres capaz de leer nada. -En eso te equivocas. Leo

bastante. Leo mucho cuando estoy en casa. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 167)

4. 'Zij heeft mij Robert Cohns brieven gegeven. Ik heb ze niet willen lezen', zei Mike. 'Je

wilde totaal geen brieven lezen, beste Mike. Zelfs de mijne niet'. 'Ik kan geen brieven

lezen, is dat niet komiek?' zei Mike. 'Jij kunt niets lezen'. 'Neen, Dat heb je mis! Ik

lees heel wat. Ik lees, als ik thuis ben'. (En de zon gaat op…, 1965, p. 124)

This excerpt focusses on the verb ‘to read’ and the noun letters, to emphasise that Mike did

not read the letters from Cohn to Brett. He could not do it, because it would be too difficult

for him to read how Cohn declares his love to Brett, Mike’s fiancé. Both translators have

chosen to faithfully follow the original narrative, using each time the same verb (leer or

lezen) and noun (cartas or brieven) and repeating it as many times as Hemingway did.

However, the Dutch translation omitted the verb ‘lezen’ just once, in zelfs de mijne niet (even

not mine).

An additional remark is that in this fragment, as in the previous one, Adsuar decided on the

technique of particularization to translate the verb ‘to say’. In the original, Hemingway keeps

on using the same verb that does not add much information. In the Spanish version, the verb

insistir (to insist) was added and conceder (to admit) was used to render ‘to say’.

Furthermore, the two first sentences from the original are reduced (linguistic compensation)

to one sentence in the Spanish version, which shows that Adsuar did not follow

Hemingway’s style in keeping the first two short sentences separate. The Spanish translator

also used modulation in his narrative. In No eres capaz de leer una sola carta (you are not

able to read one single letter) the viewpoint is changed, now it seems as if Mike is not able to

read the letters, whereas in the original he did not want to read them (wouldn’t). Adsuar has

also taken the liberty to add (amplification) the adverb mucho (a lot) in the final sentence.

In the Dutch translation zei Mike (said Mike) was added in the second sentence, to clarify to

the reader that Mike is the person talking. The original source mentions darling, where the

46

Dutch mentions beste Mike (dear Mike), this can be seen as a generalization of darling. With

the neutral beste Mike, the translator does not transfer the original feeling of emotional

closeness between Brett and Michael into the Dutch translation. Furthermore, W.A. Fick-

Lugten decided to turn the two short sentences of the original ("I can't read letters," Mike

said. "Funny, isn't it.”) into one sentence ('Ik kan geen brieven lezen, is dat niet komiek?' zei

Mike).

In the next scene, also taken from chapter XIII, Brett is pushing Mike to tell one of his

wartime stories to the rest of the group. Mike, however, does not want to, because he feels

that his stories only portray him badly.

2. "He was a very distinguished soldier," Brett said. "Tell them about the time your

horse bolted down Piccadilly." "I'll not. I've told that four times." "You never told

me," Robert Cohn said. "I'll not tell that story. It reflects discredit on me." "Tell them

about your medals." "I'll not. That story reflects great discredit on me." "What's story

that?" “Brett will tell you. She tells all the stories that reflect discredit on me." "Go on.

Tell it, Brett." "Should I?" "I'll tell it myself." (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 139)

Spanish translation:

2. -Se distinguió como soldado -dijo Brett-. -Cuéntales aquella vez que tu caballo se

encabrito cuando desfilabas por Piccadilly. -No. Ya lo he contado cuatro veces. -A mí

no me has contado todavía. -No voy a contarlo. Esa historia me desacredita mucho. -

¿Qué historia es ésa? -Brett te la contará. Siempre está dispuesta a contar las cosas

que me desacreditan. -Vamos, Brett, cuéntalo. -¿Me permites? -La contaré yo mismo.

(Fiesta, 1988, p. 157)

Dutch translation:

2. 'Hij was toen een militair van zeer grote betekenis', zei Brett. 'Vertel hun eens wat

over de tijd, toen je paard in Piccadilly op hol sloeg'. 'Geen sprake van, dat heb ik al

vier keer verteld'. 'Mij heb je het nooit verteld', zei Robert Cohn. 'Die geschiedenis

vertel ik niet, die doet mij schande aan'? 'Vertel hun eens over je medailles'. 'Geen

sprake van. Die geschiedenis doet mij zeer veel schande aan'. 'Wat is dat voor een

geschiedenis?' 'Brett zal het jullie wel vertellen. Zij vertelt alle geschiedenissen die

mij schande aandoen'. 'Vooruit, vertel op, Brett!' 'Mag ik?' 'Ik zal het zelf wel

vertellen'. (En de zon gaat op…, 1965, p. 116)

In this fragment Hemingway clearly chose to repeat the verb ‘to tell’ and the phrase that

reflects discredit on me, in order to put emphasis on the story he is going to tell, as if

Hemingway wanted to make the reader anxious for the story to come. The Dutch rendering

follows the original text in repeating the same verb (vertellen/ to say) and phrase (schande

aandoen/ to disgrace). Adsuar’s translation also follows Hemingway quite faithfully, only

47

"Tell them about your medals." "I'll not. That story reflects great discredit on me." has been

omitted from the Spanish version, giving the reader the impression that Brett will tell the

anecdote of Piccadilly and not the one about the medals, because these are not mentioned.

In the original text, distinguished is an adjective, whereas in the Spanish version

distinguished is no longer an adjective, but a verb (distinguirse). Furthermore, Adsuar

decided to add (amplification) cuando desfilabas (when you marched), to give more

information about the situation. The translator reduced I’ll not to No and that story to lo

(Spanish pronoun), which are examples of linguistic compensation. In addition, Adsuar has

omitted Robert Cohn in the Spanish version. In the Spanish translation, the technique

particularization is also used, when the original it is rendered into esa historia (that

anecdote/story). With siempre está dispuesta (she is always ready), the translated text

mentions something that is not in the original text, She tells all the stories (discursive

creation).

The Dutch version is actually quite accurately translated. One observation is that W.A. Fick-

Lugten uses a description to translate a distinguished soldier, which is transferred into een

militair van zeer grote betekenis (a very important soldier).

The final example is taken from chapter XVIII. Brett, Bill and Jake went to see the last bull-

fight of the festival, between Romero, Belmonte and Marcial. When Romero comes into the

arena, Jake watches him very closely.

10. Pedro Romero had the greatness. He loved bull-fighting, and I think he loved the

bulls, and I think he loved Brett. (The Sun Also Rises, 1926, p. 220)

Spanish translation:

10. Pedro Romero sí tenía esa grandeza. Le gustaba el toreo, y creo que quería a los toros

y también que amaba a Brett. (Fiesta, 1988, p. 250)

Dutch translation:

10. Pedro Romero bezat die grootheid. Hij ging op in het stierenvechten; en ik geloof dat

hij de stieren liefhad en ook, dat hij Brett liefhad. (En de zon gaat op…, 1965, p. 187)

Here the focus is on the verb ‘to love’, which emphasises the fact that Romero loves Brett, as

much as he loves bull-fighting. It puts forward that Brett and Romero are in love, and that the

feeling is mutual. Jake feels quite sad about this, because he also loves Brett, but he knows he

cannot give her what Romero gives her. Therefore, Jake wishes he could hate Romero, but he

48

does not. Romero is a great bull-fighter, someone with such a passion for the art of bull-

fighting, and therefore, he can only admire him. In the Spanish version, this repetition and

emphasis is lost, because Adsuar chose to opt for three different synonyms of the verb to love

(gustar, querer, amar). In addition, gustar (to like) does not convey the same determination

as ‘to love’. In the Dutch translation, W.A. Fick-Lugten chose to use opgaan in (to be fully

occupied with) the first time, instead of repeating liefhebben (to love) three times, as was

done in the original version. As a result, also the Dutch text loses the intensity of the verb ‘to

love’ and what it stands for in this fragment.

Furthermore, in this fragment and I think is also repeated twice, because it emphasises the

contrast between Jake on the one hand and Romero on the other hand. In the Spanish and

Dutch rendering, this is not the case. Both translations also put extra focus on the greatness

Jake so passionately describes before this fragment, by adding die and esa (that greatness).

After analysing the corpus, it seems that in general the Spanish translator was not always

faithful in translating Hemingway’s characteristic technique of repetition. More than the

Dutch translator, Adsuar used synonyms to translate the noun or verb that was used in the

source text or pronouns to avoid repetition. Therefore, the Spanish version does not fully

acknowledge the literary significance of repetition in Hemingway’s narrative (see 2.3.4 and

3.4).

What follows is an overview of the translation techniques used in the previous four examples:

Joaquín Adsuar

Amplification (4) Modulation (1)

Compensation (1) Particularization (3)

Description (1) Omission (3)

Generalization (1) Transposition (1)

Linguistic compensation (3)

W.A. Fick-Lugten

Amplification (4) Particularization (1)

Description (1) Transposition (1)

Modulation (1)

Omission (1)

49

3.5 Stylistic choices of Adsuar and Fick-Lugten compared

When dealing with a literary work, a translator has to be aware of the stylistic features

introduced by the original author and decide how he or she will transfer these features

systematically to obtain a consistent result that is true to the original literary achievement

(Pazos, 2002, p. 4).

After analysing several fragments of the corpus in detail, we can conclude that Adsuar did not

deliver a very faithful translation of the original novel The Sun Also Rises (1926) by

Hemingway. First, the Spanish translator decided to render a less colloquial translation. This

may be attributed to the ongoing literary influence of Franco’s legacy (2.2.2) during the first

half of the twentieth century. Due to the severe censorship rules he imposed and the fact that

Spain was still a very religious country, translators had to make sure that what their readers

read was adjusted to their customs and not too indecent. In terms of respecting Hemingway’s

restrictive adjective use, it is remarkable that both translators decided to make explicit what

was kept implicit in the source text. More information was often added so the Spanish readers

would understand the implicit meaning that was hidden under the seemingly simple

adjectives. In terms of the Iceberg Theory stylistic principle, which is an important facet of

Hemingway’s writing, Adsuar does the contrary of Hemingway. Some of the implied

meanings or feelings that the original author left unsaid are made explicit by Adsuar. It seems

as if the Spanish translator (or possibly his publisher) does not trust that his audience will

understand what is meant, but not clearly stated. Furthermore, another aspect of

Hemingway’s style, repetition, is treated differently in the Spanish version. Adsuar tends to

use more synonyms when translating the original. At times, it seems as if the translator did

not comprehend that repetition was also a part of Hemingway’s writing style. In other words,

we have been able to confirm that “Adsuar’s eagerness for clarity betrays Ernest

Hemingway’s style” (Pazos, 2002, p. 8).

In comparison to the Spanish translation, W.A. Fick-Lugten offered a stylistically more

faithful translation of the original source text. Apparently, the Dutch version had fewer

difficulties in interpreting the English text than Adsuar. However, the Dutch translator did

have some problems with translating the informality of The Sun Also Rises (1926). Parallel to

Adsuar’s narrative, W.A. Fick-Lugten decided to add more information in her text, to clarify

what was at times unclear with Hemingway. In other words, the Dutch version did not adhere

to the simplicity of the adjectives that were chosen in the original and the reference that was

50

behind them. In terms of the Iceberg Theory, it seems that W.A. Fick-Lugten understood

better that what was hidden under the surface, should stay under the surface. However, there

were also examples in which the Dutch version did specify the implicit meaning for its

readers. Referring to the final characteristic that was discussed, it can be said that the Dutch

text often loses the intensity of the element that was repeated.

3.6 Critical review of Hurtado and Molina’s categorization (2002)

This case study has also been a test case to assess the relevance of the techniques listed by

Hurtado and Molina (2002) to analyse the translation of stylistic features. It is to be noticed

that sometimes the categorization of translating techniques made by Hurtado and Molina is

not sufficient enough to name every adaptation that occurs when translating The Sun Also

Rises (1926). In other words, the range of techniques does not cover all the essential shifts

that were relevant for the stylistic comparison of the novel. For example, Hurtado and

Molina’s model (2002) does not provide a clear answer to the fact that the translators decided

to make explicit some of the implicit meanings. Furthermore, the model does no cover the

transformation that takes place when informal or colloquial expressions become neutral or

informal. Therefore, it could be suggested to insert a technique such as a change of register

(3.1) to complete the categorization of translation procedures. Another shortcoming of the

categorization is the lack of a label to refer to using a more florid and ornate language style in

translations or deciding to use different synonyms instead following the original in repeating

the same expression. Hurtado and Molina (2002) do not mention particular techniques that

cover these phenomena. It would seem as if Hurtado and Molina’s (2002) translation

procedures do not take into account the context of the translations. The model focusses on

separate units and not on the relevance of these items in the translation. Their translation

techniques are more used in terms of adapting a translation to its target audience than

techniques a translator could apply to express his or her creative and individual decision

regarding the rendering. Furthermore, the categorization is too straightforward. According to

their critical review of translation techniques, Hurtado and Molina (2002, p. 508) say that

“strategies and techniques occupy different places in problem solving: strategies are part of

the process, techniques affect the result”. In other words, this means that, for example,

paraphrasing as a strategy will not necessarily lead to using amplification as a translation

technique. The translator may decide to use a discursive creation or an established equivalent

51

to deal with the paraphrase. This is a remark that can be made concerning Hurtado and

Molina’s model (2002). Although they say otherwise, using their model often leads to the

problem just described.

52

4 Conclusion

The aim of this case study was to investigate how the main stylistic characteristics of Ernest

Hemingway’s style are transferred into the Dutch and Spanish translation of his novel The

Sun Also Rises (1926).

In addition to being idiosyncratic, Hemingway’s peculiar style should also be situated against

the backdrop of the literary movement of that time. At the end of the nineteenth and the

beginning of the twentieth century, some revolutionary changes took place, which changed

the political, social, aesthetic, sexual and cultural landscape of the world. These

developments would influence the work of many twentieth-century artists and writes,

including Ernest Hemingway. With these changes came the literary movement of

Modernism. Modernism implied that translating the new developments that were taking place

in society were transferred into literature, which suggested a break with the predominant

standards of the realistic and naturalistic literature of the nineteenth century. The main

characteristics of this movement are: the meaningful lack of closure to the narrative structure,

the fragmentary and nonlinear discourse and especially the main preoccupation with the

character’s inner self and consciousness. Like many of his contemporaries, Hemingway was

influenced by the literary movement. Therefore, many of the Modernist characteristics can be

traced in Hemingway’s writing style. The four main facets of the writer’s style, that can be

compiled from Rovit’s (1963), Svoboda’s (1983) and Levin’s (1962) research are: the

informal and colloquial language that is used in the novel, the restrictive choice of adjectives

Hemingway adheres to, the Iceberg Theory and the practice of repetition. On the basis of

these characteristics, Hemingway’s writing may come across as “simple” (Svoboda, 1983, p.

112) and therefore, it could be said that the writer’s style might be straightforward to

translate. It was Hemingway’s intention to write stories people could relate to. If he decided

to write about universal feelings, then he had to present them in a way everyone would

understand. For example, he wanted his dialogues to be as authentic as possible. Therefore,

the characteristics of informality, restrictive adjective use and repetition, mostly occur in

dialogues and not in the narrative text, as a reflection of everyday conversations. However,

Hemingway’s uncomplicated writing is deceptive; its apparent simplicity is disguising a

complexity on various levels.

53

The four characteristics mentioned above provided the main focus from which to analyse the

corpus sample of fragments deducted from the Dutch (W.A. Fick-Lugten) and Spanish

(Joaquín Adsuar) translation of The Sun Also Rises (1926).

After analysing forty fragments, taken from the last five chapters (XIII-XVIII) of the second

book of Hemingway’s novel, I was able to observe that in terms of respecting the informal

and colloquial language of the original, both translations are less informal and more neutral

than the source text. However, compared to the Dutch version, the Spanish text tends to

follow the original more closely. Fick-Lugten does not always convey the original register,

by introducing additional explicit information or more ornate expressions. Both translations,

however, decided to reduce the conversational aspect of the original. For the Spanish

rendering this choice may be attributed to the censorship installed under Franco, which still

influenced the translation. The second facet of Hemingway’s style that was highlighted, was

the restrictive use of adjectives. In the translations, it is observed that both translators tend to

make explicit the meaning suggested by seemingly neutral adjectives. In other examples, the

simplicity of the adjectives is maintained, but compensated elsewhere in the fragment

providing more information for the reader to understand the context. Furthermore, one of

Hemingway’s main characteristics, is his implicit meanings (the Iceberg Theory) and both

translators follow the original quite faithfully in that sense. However, it is unclear whether

this is the case because they understood the implicit meaning the source wanted to convey

and respected that, or if the translators themselves did not understand what Hemingway was

referring to and just tried to follow the original. The final characteristic that was discussed, is

Hemingway’s use of repetition. In conclusion, it can be said that the Dutch translation

approaches the significant repetition in the original more faithfully. Adsuar on the other hand

uses more synonyms to translate repeated expressions.

With regard to the model of translation techniques described by Hurtado and Molina (2002),

it can be said that the model is not always a key point of reference to interpret the

transformations made by the translators. Furthermore, the range of techniques does not cover

all the essential shifts that were relevant for the stylistic comparison of the novel, in

particular, register shift, the use of a more ornate style and of synonyms. Therefore, it would

be interesting to investigate if the techniques, described by Hurtado and Molina’s model

(2002) are more appropriate to discuss literary or rather non-literary texts.

54

In addition, based on the selection of parallel fragments, the analysis was able to demonstrate

that on the whole the techniques amplification, omission, description and generalization

occur most frequently. This suggests that both translators indeed decided on offering more

information to their readers, to make it easier for them to comprehend the novel. In terms of

translating the informal and colloquial language use, Adsuar opts for omission more often

than the Dutch translator. After analysing, restrictive adjective use, the second characteristic,

amplification is noticed more often in the Dutch translation. In reference to the Iceberg

Theory, the Spanish version contains more examples of amplification than the Dutch version.

Furthermore, Fick-Lugten never introduces omission, which indicates that the translation

follows the original quite faithfully. In terms of repetition, both translators opt mostly for

amplification.

Finally, in order to confirm whether or not the translations are faithful renderings of the

original novel The Sun Also Rises (1926), in terms of following the main aspects of

Hemingway’s writing style, further research has to be conducted on a more extensive corpus.

55

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6 Appendices

6.1 Appendix 1

Corpus of forty fragments retrieved from the American novel The Sun Also Rises by Ernest

Hemingway (1926) and the Spanish and Dutch rendering by Joaquín Adsuar (1988) and

W.A. Fick-Lugten (1965). For each of the four main characteristics of Hemingway’s style:

the informal and colloquial language use, the restrictive choice of adjectives, the Iceberg

Theory and the practice of repetition, ten examples have been selected.

Informal and colloquial language use in The Sun Also Rises (1926)

example 1

Taken from chapter XIII:

1. We got here Friday, Brett passed out on the train, so brought her here for 3 days rest

with old friends of ours. We go to the Montoya Hotel Pamplona Tuesday, arriving at I

don't know what hour. Will you send a note by the buss to tell us what to do to rejoin

you all on Wednesday. All our love and sorry to be late, but Brett was really done in

and will be quite all right by Tues. and is practically so now. I know her so well and

try to look after her but it's not so easy. Love to all the chaps.

1. Llegamos aquí el viernes. Brett sufrió una ligera indisposición en el tren de manera

que la traje aquí pare que descansara tres días en compañía de unos viejos amigos.

Saldremos para el hotel Montoya de Pamplona el martes, pero no sé a qué hora

llegaremos. Me gustaría que nos enviaras una nota con el autobús diciéndonos qué

tenemos que hacer para reunirnos contigo el miércoles. Recibe todo nuestro afecto y

nuestras excusas por el retraso, pero Brett se encontraba muy mal. Estará totalmente

establecida para el martes, ya caso lo está. La conozco muy bien y trato de cuidarla,

pero no resulta fácil. Recuerdos a todos los amigos.

1. Wij zijn vrijdag hier aangekomen. Brett is in de trein flauwgevallen; daarom heb ik

haar hier gebracht om een dag of drie rust te houden bij oude vrienden van ons.

Dinsdag gaan wij naar hotel Montoya in Pamplona, maar we weten nog niet, hoe laat

wij daar zullen aankomen. Wil je per bus bericht zenden, hoe wij ons woensdag bij je

kunnen voegen? Veel hartelijke groeten en nog wel excuus voor ons laat komen, maar

Brett was werkelijk oververmoeid en zal dinsdag wel weer geheel in orde wezen, wat

zij eigenlijk nu al is. Ik ken haar door en door en probeer haar goed te verzorgen, maar

dat is niet zo heel gemakkelijk. Hartelijke groeten aan allen.

59

example 2

Taken from chapter XIII:

2. "What a lousy telegram!" I said. "He could send ten words for the same price. 'I come

Thursday'. That gives you a lot of dope doesn't it?" "It gives you all the dope that's of

interest to Cohn."

2. -Qué porquería de telegrama! Por el mismo dinero podía haber enviado hasta diez

palabras. <<Vengo jueves.>> Muy expresivo y explicativo, ¿no te parece? -Te explica

aquello que Cohn quiere que sepas.

2. 'Wat een softelegram', zei ik. 'Voor hetzelfde geld kon hij tien woorden seinen. "Ik

kom donderdag". Daardoor weten wij flink wat, vind je ook niet?' 'Je weet er alles

mee wat voor Cohn van belang is'.

example 3

Taken from chapter XIII:

3. "Ah, yes," said Mike. "I know now. It was a damn dull dinner, and I couldn't stick it,

so I left. Later on in the evening I found the box in my pocket. What's this? I said.

Medals? Bloody military medals? So I cut them all off their backing- you know, they

put them on a strip- and gave them all around. Gave one to each girl. Form of

souvenir. They thought I was hell's own shakes of a soldier. Give away medals in a

night club. Dashing fellow." […] Seems some chap had left them to be cleaned.

Frightfully military cove. Set hell's own store by them." Mike paused. "Rotten luck

for the tailor," he said.

3. -Ah, sí- exclamó Mike-, ahora lo recuero. Era una cena aburrida, insoportable, así que

me fui. Más tarde, esa misma noche encontré la caja en el bolsillo. ¿Qué es esto?, me

pregunté. ¿Medallas? ¿Malditas condecoraciones militares? Las saqué del soporte, ya

sabéis que las colocan sobre una especie de cartón recubierto de cintas, y las repartí.

Le di una a cada chica, como recuerda. Debieron creer que era un fantástico soldado

de pelo en pecho, repartiendo mis condecoraciones en una sala de fiestas entre las

tanguistas. ¡Vaya que tipo más raro! […] , pues las medallas no eran suyas, sino de un

tipo que se las había dejado para que las limpiara, uno de esos militares presumidos y

jactanciosos. Al pobre sastre les armo un escándalo imponente. ¡Mala suerte!

3. 'O, ja', zei Mike, ' nu weet ik het weer. Het was zo'n verdraaid saai diner, dat ik het

niet kon uithouden. Ik ging er vandoor. Later op de avond vond ik die doos in mijn

zak. "Wat is dat?" zei ik. "Medailles? Van die donderse militaire medailles?" Ik sneed

ze dus allemaal los van de lintjes- zij zaten aan zo'n ding vast, weet je- en deelden ze

rond. Elk meisje gaf ik er een. Zo'n aandenken. Zij vonden het echt een goeie zet voor

een oud-soldaat, om in een nachtclub medailles weg te geven. Kranige Kerel!' […]

Het schijnt, dat de een of andere hoge piet ze bij hem had gebracht om ze te laten

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opknappen. Een vreselijk hoge militaire piet! Was er verduiveld op gesteld'. 'Een

wanbof voor die kleermaker', zei hij.

example 4

Taken from chapter XIV:

4. To hell with women, anyway. To hell with you, Brett Ashley. Women made such

swell friends. Awfully swell.

4. ¡Al diábolo con las mujeres! ¡Vete al diábolo, lady Ashley! Las mujeres pueden llegar

a ser excelentes amigas. Sí, realmente excelentes.

4. In elk geval konden de vrouwen naar de bliksem lopen. Loop naar de bliksem, Lady

Ashley! Vrouwen waren zulke prettige kameraden. Verbazend prettig!'

example 5

Taken from chapter XIV:

5. What a lot of bilge I could think up at night. What rot, I could hear Brett say it. What

rot!

5. ¡Qué cantidad de estupideces podía pensar por la noche! <<!Qué porquería!>>, me

pareció oír decir a Brett. ¡Qué porquería!

5. Wat een massa onzin haalde ik 's nachts toch in mijn hoofd! Wat een donderse onzin!

Dat hoorde ik Brett al zeggen. Wat een donderse rommel!

example 6

Taken from chapter XV:

6. Several times during the bull-fight I looked up at Mike and Brett and Cohn, with the

glasses. They seemed to be all right. Brett did not look upset. All three were leaning

forward on the concrete railing in front of them. “Let me take the glasses,” Bill said.

“Does Cohn look bored?” I asked. “That kike!”

6. En el transcurso de la corrida miré varias veces a Mike, Brett y Cohn con los gemelos

de campaña. Parecían encontrarse bien y Brett no daba muestras de estar incómoda o

excesivamente impresionada. Los tres se apoyaban en la barandilla de cemento. -

Déjame los gemelos -me pidió Bill. -Y Cohn, ¿parece aburrido? -pregunté yo. -¡Ese

judío…!

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6. Verscheidene malen keek ik tijdens het gevecht met mijn kijker omhoog naar Mike,

Brett en Cohn. Zij leken het goed naar hun zin te hebben. Brett leek niet van streek.

Alle drie leunden ze over de betonnen borstwering voor hen. ‘Geef mij die kijker

eens’, zei Bill. ‘Ziet Cohn er uit of hij zich verveelt?’ vroeg ik. ‘Die vent!’

example 7

Taken from chapter XVI:

7. "Tell him Brett wants to see him put on those green pants." "Pipe down, Mike." "Tell

him Brett is dying to know how he can get into those green pants." […]"Oh, pipe

down, Mike for Christ's sake!"

7. -Dile que Brett quiere verlo con esos pantalones verdes. -Cállate, Mike! -Dile que

Brett se muere pos saber cómo puede meterse dentro de esos pantalones. -Cállate de

una vez! […] -¡Te digo que cierres el pico de una maldita vez, Mike, por el amor de

Dios!

7. 'Zeg tegen hem, dat Brett hem die groene broek wil zien aantrekken'. 'Kop dicht,

Mike!' […] 'Hou toch in godsnaam je kop dicht, Mike!'

example 8

Taken from chapter XVI:

8. "I'm going to sit here," Brett said. "I'll stay with you," Cohn said. "Oh don't! Brett

said. "For God's sake, go off somewhere. Can't you see Jake and I want to talk?" "I

didn't," Cohn said. "I thought I'd sit here because I felt a little tight."

8. -Yo me quedo aquí -dijo Brett. -Yo me quedo contigo -se ofreció Cohn. -¡Oh no! -

exclamo Brett-. ¡Por el amor de Dios, vete a cualquier parte! ¿No te das cuenta de que

Jake y yo queremos hablar? -No, no me había dado cuenta -dijo Cohn-. Pensaba

quedarme aquí sentado porque empiezo a estar un poco mareado.

8. 'Ik blijf hier zitten', zei Brett. 'Ik houd je gezelschap', zei Cohn. 'Doe dat toch niet!' zei

Brett. Ga in godsnaam ergens anders heen. Merk je dan niet, dat Jake en ik iets te

bespreken hebben?' 'O neen', zei Cohn. 'Ik bleef hier liever zitten, omdat ik een beetje

boven mij theewater ben'.

example 9

Taken from chapter XVII:

9. "He nearly killed the poor, bloody bull-fighter. Then Cohn wanted to take Brett away.

Wanted to make an honest woman of her, I imagine. Damned touching scene." He

62

took a long drink of the beer. "He is an ass." "What happened?" "Brett gave him what

for. She told him off. I think she was rather good."

9. -Casi mata al pobre torero. Después intentó llevarse a Brett. Quería convertirla en una

mujer decente, supongo. Una escena sentimental, melodramática. Se bebió un buen

trago de cerveza. -Ese Cohn es un burro. -¿Y qué pasó? -Brett lo puso verde. Lo echó

de allí. Creo que se portó estupendamente.

9. 'Hij heeft die arme, donderse stierenvechter bijna van kant gemaakt. En daarna wilde

Cohn Brett meenemen. Ik verbeelde me, dat hij een eerbare vrouw van haar wilde

maken. Vervloekt aangrijpende scène'. Hij nam een lange teug van zijn bier. 'Een

echte ezel'. 'Wat gebeurde er verder?' 'Brett nam hem onder handen. Zij joeg hem

weg. Ze was; geloof ik, aardig op streek'.

example 10

Taken from chapter XVII:

10. He poured out another bottle of beer. "Brett's rather cut up. But she loves looking after

people. That's how we came off together. She was looking after me." “I know,” I said.

“I’m rather drunk,” Mike said. “I think I’ll stay rather drunk. This is all awfully

amusing, but it’s not too pleasant. It’s not too pleasant for me.” He drank off the beer.

10. Se sirvió otra botella de cerveza. -Brett tiene sus manías, pero le gusta cuidar a la

gente. Eso es lo que nos unió. Me cuidaba. -Lo sé. -Estoy muy borracho -dijo Mike-.

Creo que voy a seguir borracho. Esto es bastante divertido, pero nada agradable. No,

no es agradable para mí. Se terminó la cerveza.

10. Hij schonk opnieuw een flesje bier leeg. 'Brett is er wel een beetje kapot van; maar zij

verzorgt graag anderen. Zo zijn wij het samen eens geworden. Zij paste mij op'. ‘Dat

weet ik’, zei ik. ‘Ik ben aardig dronken’, zei Mike. ‘Ik denk er hard over dronken te

blijven. Dit is nu wel heel vermakelijk, maar niet al te prettig. Voor mij is het niet zo

heel prettig’. Hij dronk het bier op.

Restrictive choice of adjective use in The Sun Also Rises (1926)

Example 1

Taken from chapter XIII:

1. "He'll behave. I'll tell him." "You tell him, Jake. Tell him either he must behave or get

out." "Yes," I said, "it would be nice for me to tell him." "Look, Brett. Tell Jake what

Robert calls you. That is perfect, you know." "Oh, no. I can't." “Go on. We’re all

friends. Aren’t we all friends, Jake?” “I can’t tell him it’s too ridiculous.” “I’ll tell

him.” “You won’t? Michael. Don’t be an ass.” "He calls her Circe," Mike said. "He

claims she turns men into swine. Damn good. I wish I were one of these literary

chaps." "He'd be good, you know," Brett said. "He writes a good letter."

63

1. -Bien, pero oblígale a que se comporte bien. – Lo hará. Y se lo diré. – Díselo tú,

Jake? Dile que o se comporta bien o se larga. – Sí – respondí-. Estaría bien que yo se

lo dijera. – Mira, Brett. Dile a Jake cómo te llama Robert. Es algo perfecto, ¿sabes? -

¡Oh, no! ¡No puedo! – Vamos, adelante. Todos somos amigos. ¿Verdad que somos

amigos, Jake? -No puedo decírselo. Es demasiado ridículo. – Se le diré yo. -No, no,

Michael. No seas burro. -La llama Circe -dijo Mike-. Proclama que tiene el don de

convertir a los hombres en cerdos. ¡Estupendo! Me gustaría ser uno de esos literatos.

– También podrías serlo -dijo Brett-. Escribes buenas cartas.

1. 'Nu - laat hij zich dan behoorlijk gedragen'. 'Dat zal hij wel. Ik zal het hem zeggen'?

'Zeg jij het liever, Jake. Zeg hem dat hij zich goed moet gedragen of anders moet

weggaan'. 'Ja', zei ik. 'Erg prettig voor mij, hem dat te vertellen!' 'Luister eens, Brett,

vertel jij eens aan Jake, hoe Robert je noemt. Dat is schitterend weet je'. 'O neen ,dat

kan ik niet'. 'Kom, kom, wij zijn vrienden onder elkaar. Wij zijn toch immers goede

vrieden samen, Jake?' 'Ik kan het hem niet vertellen, het is te bespottelijk'. 'Ik zal het

hem wel zeggen'. 'Neen, Michael. Doe niet zo vervelden'. 'Hij noemt haar Circe', zei

Mike. 'Hij beweert, dat zij mannen in zwijnen verandert. Verdomd goed, ik wou, dat

ik zo'n literair type was'. 'Hij zou het best kunnen, weet je', zei Brett. 'Hij kan mooi

brieven schrijven'.

example 2

Taken from chapter XIII:

2. They went up-stairs and I stopped to speak with Montoya. "Well how did you like the

bulls?" he asked. "Good. They were nice bulls." "They're all right" -Montoya shook

his head -"but they're not too good." "What didn't you like about them?" "I don't

know. They just didn't give me the feeling that they were so good." "I know what you

mean." "They're all right." "Yes. They're all right." "How did your friends like them?"

"Fine." "Good," Montoya said.

2. Ellos subieron a sus habitaciones y yo me detuve a hablar con Montoya. -Bueno, ¿le

han gustado los toros? -me preguntó. -Sí. Eran muy bonitos. -Estaban bien -Montoya

movió la cabeza-, pero no son demasiado buenos. -¿Qué es lo que no le ha gustado de

ellos? -No lo sé. Simplemente me ha dado la impresión de que no son demasiado

buenos. -Ya sé lo que quiere decir. -Están bien, eso es todo. -Sí, están bien. -¿Les ha

gustado el espectáculo a sus amigos? -Sí, mucho. -Me alegro -dijo Montoya.

2. Zij gingen naar boven en ik bleef staan praten met Montya. 'Nu, bevielen de stieren

u?' vroeg hij. 'Ja - het waren aardige stieren'. 'Zij zijn niet kwaad' - Montoya schudde

zijn hoofd - 'maar ook niet al te best'. 'Wat stond u niet aan van ze?' 'Ik weet het niet.

Zij gaven mij enkel niet het gevoel, dat zij zo goed waren'. 'Ik begrijp, wat u bedoelt'.

'Zij zijn wel zoals zij moeten wezen'. 'Ja - dat zijn ze'. 'Hoe vonden uw vrienden ze?'

'Prachtig'. 'Goed zo', zei Montoya.

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example 3

Taken from chapter XIII:

3. He could not stop looking at Brett. It seemed to make him happy. I must have been

pleasant for him to see her looking so lovely, and know he had been away with her

and that every one knew it. They could not take that away from him. Bill was very

funny. So was Michael. They were good together. [...] Under the wine I lost the

disgusted feeling and was happy. It seemed they were all such nice people.

3. No podía apartar los ojos de Brett. Su presencia parecía hacerlo feliz. Debía significar

una satisfacción intima para él verla tan atractiva y saber que había estado con ella y

que todos nosotros lo sabíamos. Eso nadie podía quitárselo. Bill estuvo muy gracioso.

También Mike. Los parecían llevarse de maravilla. […] Bajo los efectos del vino

olvidé el disgusto y me sentí feliz. Tenía la impresión de que todos éramos gente

simpática y amable.

3. Hij kon zijn ogen niet van Brett afhouden. Het leek hem gelukkig te maken, naar haar

te kijken. Het moet prettig voor hem zijn geweest, dat hij met haar uit was geweest en

dat iedereen daarvan op de hoogte was. Dat kon niemand hem ontnemen. Bill was

heel amusant en Mike ook. Zij waren aan elkaar gewaagd. [...] Door de wijn raakte ik

het vervelende gevoel van afkeer kwijt en begon ik mij welgemoed te voelen. Zij

leken mij allen zulke aardige lui...

example 4

Taken from chapter XIV:

4. Enjoying living was learning to get your money's worth and knowing when you had

it. You could get your money's worth. The world was a good place to buy in. It

seemed like a fine philosophy. In five years, I thought, it will seem just as silly as all

the other fine philosophies I've had. [...] I wished Mike would not behave so terribly

to Cohn, though. Mike was a bad drunk. Brett was a good drunk. Bill was a good

drunk. Cohn was never drunk.

4. Disfrutar de la vida era aprender a aprovechar el valor de nuestro dinero. El mundo es

un buen lugar para ir de compras. Parecía una buena filosofía. Pensé que al cabo de

cinco años eso me parecía tan tonto como cualquiera de las filosofías perfectas que

había tenido a lo largo de mi vida. […] De todos modos deseaba que Mike no tratara a

Cohn de manera tan horrible. Mike tenia mal vino. Bill lo tenía bueno. En cuanto a

Cohn, jamás se emborrachaba.

4. Leven zoals je prettig vond, was leren, waar voor je geld te krijgen en te weten,

wanneer je dat had gehad. Je kon waar voor je geld krijgen. De wereld was een goede

plek om iets te kopen. Het leek een prachtfilosofie. Over een jaar of vijf, dacht ik, zal

die mij weer even onzinnig lijken als alle andere mooie filosofieën die ik had gehad.

65

[...] Ik wilde eigenlijk maar, dat Mike zich niet zo afschuwelijk gedroeg jegens Cohn.

Mike had een kwade dronk. Brett een goede, Bill een goede. Cohn was nooit dronken.

example 5

Taken from chapter XV:

5. "He's a fine boy, don't you think so?" Montoya asked. "He's a good-looking kid," I

said. "He looks like a torero," Montoya said. "He has the type." "He's a fine boy."

5. -Es un chico estupendo -dijo Montayo-. ¿No les parece? -Es un joven muy guapo -

comenté. -Tiene tipo de torero -añadió Montoya-. Tiene estilo. -Parece buen chico.

5. 'Wat een prachtjongen, nietwaar?' zei Montoya. ''t Is een knappe jongen', zei ik. 'Hij

ziet er uit als een rasechte torero', zei Montoya. 'Hij heeft het ware type'. 'Een

prachtige jongen'.

example 6

Taken from chapter XVI:

6. "He depresses me so." "He's behaved very badly." "Damned badly. He had a chance

to behave so well." "He's probably waiting just outside the door now." "Yes. He

would. You know I do know how he feels. He can't believe it didn't mean anything. "I

know." "Nobody else would behave as badly. Oh, I'm so sick of the whole thing. And

Michael. Michael has been lovely, too." "It's been damned hard on Mike." "Yes. But

he didn't need to be a swine." "Everybody behaves badly," I said. "Give them the

proper chance." "You wouldn't behave badly." Brett looked at me.

6. -Me deprime. -Se está comportando muy mal. -Sí, pero que muy mal. Y es podía

haberse portado bien. -Posiblemente estará esperando fuera, en la puerta. -Sí. Es

capaz. Sé lo que le pasa, ¿sabes? No acepta que lo que hubo entre nosotros no tiene la

menor importancia. -Lo sé. -Nadie más que él sería capaz de tomárselo tan mal. Estoy

harta de todo el asunto. Y Michael… ¡Vaya, también él se está comportando de

manera encantadora! – Lo ocurrido ha sido muy duro, para Mike. -Sí, pero no por eso

tiene que comportase como un cerdo. -Todo el mundo puede comportase mal. Haz la

prueba y lo verás. -Tu no lo harías nunca -Brett me miró fijamente.

6. 'Mij maakt hij tureluurs'. 'Hij gedraagt zich erg slecht'. 'Verdraaid slecht. En hij was

juist in de gelegenheid om zich eens heel goed te gedragen'. 'Nu staat hij zeker weer

vlak voor de deur te wachten'. 'Ja. Net iets voor hem. Ik weet precies, hoe hij zich

voelt, weet jee. Hij kan maar niet geloven, dat het niets te betekenen had'. 'Dat weet

ik'. 'Niemand anders zou zich zo verkeerd gedragen. O, ik walg toch zo van alles! En

Michael! Michael is ook al zo schitterend geweest'. 'Voor Michael is het ook wel

vervloekt erg'. 'Ja. Maar hij behoefde zich niet te gedragen als een zwijn'. 'Iedereen

gedraagt zich slecht', zei ik, 'als je hem maar in de gelegenheid stelt'. 'Jij zou je niet

slecht gedragen'. Brett keek mij aan.

66

example 7

Taken from chapter XVI:

7. He looked at her across the table. "You know English well." "Yes, " he said. "Pretty

well, sometimes. But I must not let anybody know. It would be very bad, a torero

who speaks English." "Why?" asked Brett. "It would be bad. The people would not

like it. Not yet." "They would not like it. Bull-fighters are not like that."

7. Se echó a reír con los ojos fijos en ella por encima de la mesa. -Eh, habla usted bien el

inglés. -Sí, a veces basta lo hablo muy bien. Pero no puedo permitir que los demás lo

sepan. No estaría bien que un toreo hable inglés. -¿Por qué? -Estaría mal -repitió-. No

le gustaría a la gente. Al menos por ahora. -¿Por qué no? -No les gustaría. Los toreros

no son así.

7. Over de tafel heen keek hij haar aan. 'U kunt goed Engels'. 'Ja', zei hij. 'Aardig goed,

soms. Maar ik mag het niemand laten merken. Het zou lelijk zijn, als een torero

Engels sprak'. 'Waarom?' vroeg Brett. 'Het zou kwaad kunnen. De mensen zouden het

niet goed vinden. Nog niet'. 'Waarom niet?' 'Zij zouden er iets op tegen hebben.

Stierenvechters zijn zo niet'.

example 8

Taken from chapter XVII:

8. "I'm rather drunk," Mike said. "I think I'll stay rather drunk. This is all awfully

amusing, but it's not too pleasant. It's not too pleasant for me. Mike started to open the

bottle. "Would you mind opening it?" I pressed up the wire fastener and poured it for

him. "You know," Mike went on, "Brett was rather good. She's always rather good. I

gave her a fearful hiding about Jews and bull-fighters, and all those sort of people, and

do you know what she said: 'Yes. I've had such a hell of a happy life with the British

aristocracy!" He took a drink. "That was rather good. […]. Finally, when he got really

bad, he used to tell he he'd kill her.

8. -Estoy muy borracho -dijo Mike. Creo que voy a seguir borracho. Esto es bastante

divertido, pero nada agradable. No, no es agradable para mí. Tomé la botella, empujé

hacia arriba el alambre que sujetaba el tapón y se la serví. -Sabéis?- continuo Mike-.

Brett se portó muy bien. Ella siempre sabe quedar bien. Le solté un buen sermón

sobre los judíos, los toreros y toda esa clase de gente. ¿Y sabéis qué me respondió?:

<< ¡Desde luego! ¡He pasado una vida tan feliz con la aristocracia británica!>> -

Tomo otro trago. Eso estuvo muy bien. Al final, cuando su estado mental fue

empeorando, solía decirle que acabaría matándola.

8. 'Ik ben aardig dronken', zei Mike. 'Ik denk er hard over dronken te blijven. Dit is nu

wel heel vermakelijk, maar niet al te prettig. Voor mij is het niet zo heel prettig'.

Mike begon de fles open te peuteren. 'Zou je het erg vinden haar zelf even open te

67

maken?' Ik lichtte de dop eraf en schonk hem in. 'Weet je', vervolgde Mike, Brett

hield zich aardig goed. Altijd trouwens. Ik gaf haar een vreselijke uitbrander over

joden en stierenvechters en al dat soort lui en weet je, wat ze zei? - "Ja, ik heb ook

zo'n verdraaid gelukkig leven gehad met de Britse aristocratie!"' Hij nam een slok.

'Dat was aardig raak. Toen hij ten slotte echt een kwaaie kerel werd, placht hij haar te

vertellen, dat hij haar zou vermoorden.

example 9

Taken from chapter XVII:

9. "I'm going to bed," Bill said. "Poor old Mike. I had a hell of a row about him last

night. "Where? At that Milano place?" "Yes. There was a fellow there that helped pay

Brett and Mike out of Cannes, once. He was damned nasty." "I know the story." "I

didn't. Nobody ought to have a right to say things about Mike." "That's what makes it

bad."

9. -Me voy a la cama -me dijo Bill-. Pobre Mike. Tuve una buena bronca por su culpa

anoche. -¿Dónde? ¿En ese sitio…, el bar Milano? -Sí. Había un tipo que en cierta

ocasión ayudo a Mike y a Brett a pagar sus deudas para que pudieran salir de Cannes.

Estuvo verdaderamente desagradable. -Conozco la historia. -Yo no. Nadie debería

tener derecho a decir cosas como las que él dijo contra Mike. -Eso es lo malo.

9. 'Ik ga naar bed', zei Bill. 'Die arme, ouwe Mike. Ik heb een vervloekte herrie over hem

gehad, verleden nacht'. 'Waar? In de Milano-bar?' 'Ja. Daar was een vent ie Brett en

Mike eens aan geld had geholpen op uit Cannes weg te komen. Hij was bliksems

hatelijk'. 'Dat verhaal ken ik'. 'Ik wist er niets van. Niemand behoorde het recht te

hebben, zulke dingen tegen Mike te zeggen'. 'Dat maakt het juist zo erg'.

example 10

Taken from chapter XVIII:

10. We ate at a restaurant in a side street off the square. They were all men eating in the

restaurant. It was full of smoke and drinking and singing. The food was good and so

was the wine. We did not talk much. Afterwards we went to the café and watched the

fiesta come to the boiling-point.

10. Comimos en un restaurante situado en una calle adyacente a la plaza. Todos los

clientes del restaurante eran hombres. Estaba lleno de humo, de bebidas y de cantos.

La comida era buena y también el vino. Bill y yo no hablamos mucho. Después de

comer nos dirigimos al café y vimos como los festejos estaban llegando a su punto de

ebullición.

10. We staken het plein dwars over en aten in een restaurant aan een zijstraat van het

plein. In dat restaurant zaten enkel mannen te eten. In een dichte tabakswalm werd er

68

gegeten, gedronken en gezongen. Het eten zowel als de wijn was er best. Wij spraken

niet veel. Naderhand gingen wij naar het café en sloegen gade, hoe de fiesta haar

kookpunt naderde.

The Iceberg Theory in The Sun Also Rises (1926)

example 1

Taken from chapter XIII:

1. Montoya could forgive anything of a bull-fighter who had aficion. He could forgive

attacks of nerves, panic, bad unexplainable actions, all sorts of lapses. For one who

had aficion he could forgive anything. At once he forgave me all my friends. Without

his ever saying anything they were simply a little something shameful between us,

like the spilling open of the horses in bull-fighting.

1. Montoya podía perdonárselo todo a un torero que tuviera afición. Podía perdonarle

ataques de nervios, miedo, actuaciones malas e inexplicables. Podía perdonárselo todo

a quien tuviera afición. A mí me perdonaba cualquier cosa que hicieran mis amigos.

Sin que nunca me dijera nada, eran para él simplemente algo vergonzoso entre

nosotros, como la cornada que revienta al caballo y hace que sus tripas caigan sobre la

arena.

1. Montoya kon een stierenvechter, die aficion had, alles vergeven. Hij kon zo iemand

zenuwaanvallen, het verwekken van relletjes, verkeerde, onverklaarbare handelingen,

alle soorten misslagen vergeven. Want wie aficion bezat, kon hij alles vergeven.

Dadelijk vergaf hij me al mijn vrienden! Zonder dat hij ooit wat zei, waren zij niets

dan een luttel iets tussen ons, waarover wij ons moesten schamen, zo iets als het

nodeloos openrijten van paarden in stierengevechten.

example 2

Taken from chapter XIII:

2. The woman standing in the door of the wine-shop looked at us as we passed. She

called to someone in the house and three girls came to the window and stared. They

were staring at Brett.

2. La mujer que estaba en la puerta del establecimiento se nos quedó mirando cuando

pasamos por delante de ella. Llamó a alguien que debía de estar dentro de la casa y

aparecieron tres jóvenes que se asomaron a la ventana a mirar a Brett.

2. Terwijl we voorbijliepen, keek de vrouw die op de drempel van de wijnzaak stond,

ons strak aan. Zij riep iets tegen iemand in huis en er kwamen drie meisjes voor het

raam staan kijken. Zij stonden Brett aan te gapen.

69

example 3

Taken from chapter XIV:

3. I had been getting something for nothing. That only delayed the presentation of the

bill. The bill always came. That was one of the swell things you could count on. I

thought I had paid for everything.

3. Había estado recibiendo algo a cambio de nada. Eso servía para retrasar la

presentación de la factura. Pero ese tipo de facturas siempre se pagan. Es una de esas

cosas magnificas con las que siempre hay que contar. Yo pensaba que había pagado

por todo.

3. Ik had iets gekregen voor niets. Dat was enkel uitstel geweest voor het aanbieden van

de rekening. Altijd kwam er een rekening. Dat was een van die heerlijke dingen

waarop je stellig kon rekenen. Ik meende voor alles betaald te hebben.

example 4

Taken from chapter XIV:

4. I could shut my eyes without getting the wheeling sensation. But I could not sleep.

There is no reason why because it is dark you should look at things differently from

when it is light.

4. Podía cerrar los ojos sin sentir aquella sensación de ir montado en un tiovivo. Pero no

podía dormir. No hay razón para que la oscuridad haga ver las cosas distintas de como

se ven cuando la luz está encendida.

4. Ik kon mijn ogen sluiten zonder dat draaierige gevoel te krijgen. Maar ik kon niet in

slaap komen. Er bestaat geen enkele reden, waarom je de dingen in de nacht

donkerder zoudt zien dan in het daglicht.

example 5

Taken from chapter XVI:

5. Just then Montoya came into the room. He started to smile at me, then he saw Pedro

Romero with a big glass of cognac in his hand, sitting laughing between me and a

woman with bare shoulders, at a table full of drunks. He did not even nod.

5. En esos momentos, Montoya entro en el comedor. Me vio e inicio una sonrisa, pero

en ese instante vio a Pedro Romero con una copa en la mano y sentado entre una

mujer con los hombros al descubierto y yo en una mesa llena de borrachos. Ni

siquiera me saludó.

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5. Op dat ogenblik trad Montoya de eetzaal binnen. Juist toen hij mij lachend aankeEk,

viel zijn oog op Pedro Romero, die met een groot glas cognac in zijn hand lachend

tussen een vrouw met blote schouders en mij in zat aan een tafel vol lui die teveel

gedronken hadden. Hij knikte zelfs niet.

example 6

Taken from chapter XVI:

6. "I said you'd live a long time." "I know it," Romero said. "I'm never going to die. "I

tapped with my finger-tips on the table. Romero saw it. He shook his head. "No. Don't

do that. The bulls are my best friends."

6. -He dicho que vivirá mucho. -Lo sé. No moriré nunca. Tamborileé sobre la mesa con

la yema de los dedos. Romero lo advirtió y movió la cabeza. -No, no haga eso. Los

toros son mis mejores amigos.

6. 'Ik zei, dat u lang zoudt leven.' 'Dat weet ik', zei Romero. 'Ik ga nooit dood'. Ik klopte

met mijn vingertoppen op de tafel. Romero zag het. Hij schudde met zijn hoofd.

'Neen. Dat moet u niet doen. De stieren zijn mijn beste vrienden'.

example 7

Taken from chapter XVI:

7. I stood up. Romero rose too. "Sit down," I said. "I must go and find our friends and

bring them here." He looked at me. It was a final look to ask if it were understood. It

was understood all right.

7. Me levanté. Romero también. -Siéntese -le dije-. Tengo que ir a buscar a los demás

amigos. Me miró. Fue una mirada definitiva como si quisiera preguntarme con ella si

había comprendido. Desde luego está más claro que el agua.

7. Ik stond op. Ook Romero ging staan. 'Ga zitten', zei ik. 'Ik wil onze vrienden gaan

zoeken en hen hier brengen'. Hij keek mij aan. Het was een laatste bik om zich te

vergewissen, of de zaak beklonken was. De zaak was zeer zeker beklonken.

example 8

Taken from chapter XVIII:

8. The sword-handler took the cape, looked up at Brett, and came over to us and handed

the cape. “Spread it out in front of you,”, I said. Brett leaned forward. The cape was

heavy and smoothly stiff with gold. The sword-handler looked back, shook his head,

and said something. A man beside me leaned over toward Brett. “He doesn’t want you

71

to spread it,” he said. “You should fold it and keep it in your lap.” Brett folded the

heavy cape.

8. El mozo de espadas tomó el capote de paseo, miró a Brett, se acercó a nosotros y nos

lo alargó. -Extiéndelo delante de ti -le expliqué. Brett se echó hacia adelante. El

capote era pesado y ligeramente rígido por el oro. El mozo de espadas volvió la

cabeza para mirarnos y musitó algo entre dientes. Un hombre que estaba a mi lado se

inclinó hacia Brett. -No quiere que lo extienda -dijo-, ha dicho que lo doble y se lo

ponga en el halda. Brett dobló el pesado capote como se le indicaba.

8. De zwaardknecht nam de cape aan, keek op naar Brett, kwam bij ons en overhandigde

de cape. ‘Spreid haar voor je uit’, zei ik. Brett boog zich voorover. De cape was zwaar

en wel glad, doch stijf van het goud. De zwaardknecht keek om, schudde zijn hoofd

en zei iets. Een man naast mij boog zich tot Brett over: ‘Hij wil niet hebben, dat u de

cape uitspreidt’, zei hij. ‘U moet die opvouwen en op uw schoot houden’. Brett

vouwde de zware cape op.

example 9

Taken from chapter XVIII:

9. After a little while Bill said: “Well, it was a swell fiesta.” “Yes,” I said; “something

doing all the time.” “You wouldn’t believe it. It’s like a wonderful nightmare.”

“Sure,” I said. “I’d believe anything. Including nightmares.” “What’s the matter? Feel

low?” “Low as hell.”

9. Al cabo de un rato, Bill dijo: -Bien, ha sido una fiesta estupenda. -Sí -asentí-, sin un

momento de descanso, siempre de juerga en juerga. -No te lo creerás, pero para mí es

como una maravillosa pesadilla. -Desde luego. Yo me lo creo todo, incluso las

pesadillas -añadí. -¿Qué te ocurre? ¿Deprimido? -Sí, mucho.

9. Even daarna zei Bill: ‘Nu, het is een prachtig feest geweest’. ‘Ja’, zei ik. ‘Er was

voortdurend iets te doen’. ‘Het is niet te geloven. Het lijkt wel een wonderbaarlijke

nachtmerrie’. ‘Zeker’, zei ik. ‘Ik zou alles wel geloven. Nachtmerries incluis’. ‘Wat

scheelt eraan? Heb je het land?’ ‘Verdomd het land’.

example 10

Taken from chapter XVIII:

10. I went out the door and into my own room and lay on the bed. The bed went sailing

off and I sat up in bed and looked at the wall to make it stop. Outside in the square the

fiesta was going on. I did not mean anything. Later Bill and Mike came in to get me

down and eat with them. I pretended to be asleep.

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10. Salí y me dirigí a mi cuarto. Me eché en la cama, que me pareció una lancha

navegando por un mar agitado, así que me incorporé, me senté y miré a la pared para

detener mi mareo. Fuera, en la plaza, la fiesta continuaba. Para mí ya no significaba

nada en absoluto. Después Bill y Mike llegaron con intención de que bajara a cenar

con ellos. Fingí estar dormido.

10. Ik ging de deur uit naar mijn eigen kamer en kroop in bed. Het bed zeilde weg, zodat

ik rechtop ging zitten en strak naar de muur bleef kijken om een vast punt te houden.

Daar buiten op het plein werd de fiesta voortgezet. Het zei mij niets. Later kwamen

Bill en Mike bij me om mij over te halen met hen mee te gaan eten in de beneden-

eetzaal. Ik hield me slapend.

Repetition in The Sun Also Rises (1926)

example 1

Taken from chapter XIII:

1. "Your friend, is he aficionado, too?" Montoya smiled at Bill. "Yes. He came all the

way from New York to see the San Fermines." "Yes?" Montoya politely disbelieved.

"But he's not aficionado like you." He put his hand on my shoulder again

embarrassedly. "Yes," I said. "He's a real aficionado." "But he's not aficionado like

you are."

1. -Su amigo, ¿es también aficionado? – Sí. Ha venido expresamente desde Nueva York

para ver los Sanfermines. -¿De veras? – Montoya parecía dudarlo, pero no quería ser

descortés-. Pero no es un verdadero aficionado. De nuevo me puso la mano en el

hombro, de nuevo con aspecto cohibido. -Sí -insistió yo-. Es un auténtico aficionado.

-Pero no con afición como usted.

1. 'Is uw vriend ook een aficionado ?' Met een glimlach wende Montoya zich om naar

Bill. 'Ja. Hij is heel uit New York gekomen om de San Fermines te zien.' 'Zo?' deed

Montoya beleefd-ongelovig. 'Maar zo'n aficionado als u is hij niet!' Verlegen legde hij

zijn hand op mijn schouder. 'Ja', zei ik. 'Hij is een echte aficionado '. 'Toch niet zo'n

aficionado als u!'

example 2

Taken from chapter XIII:

2. "He was a very distinguished soldier," Brett said. "Tell them about the time your

horse bolted down Piccadilly." "I'll not. I've told that four times." "You never told

me," Robert Cohn said. "I'll not tell that story. It reflects discredit on me." "Tell them

about your medals." "I'll not. That story reflects great discredit on me." "What's story

that?" “Brett will tell you. She tells all the stories that reflect discredit on me." "Go on.

Tell it, Brett." "Should I?" "I'll tell it myself."

73

2. -Se distinguió como soldado -dijo Brett-. -Cuéntales aquella vez que tu caballo se

encabrito cuando desfilabas por Piccadilly. -No. Ya lo he contado cuatro veces. -A mí

no me has contado todavía. -No voy a contarlo. Esa historia me desacredita mucho. -

¿Qué historia es ésa? -Brett te la contará. Siempre está dispuesta a contar las cosas

que me desacreditan. -Vamos, Brett, cuéntalo. -¿Me permites? -La contaré yo mismo.

2. 'Hij was toen een militair van zeer grote betekenis', zei Brett. 'Vertel hun eens wat

over de tijd, toen je paard in Piccadilly op hol sloeg'. 'Geen sprake van, dat heb ik al

vier keer verteld'. 'Mij heb je het nooit verteld', zei Robert Cohn. 'Die geschiedenis

vertel ik niet, die doet mij schande aan'? 'Vertel hun eens over je medailles'. 'Geen

sprake van. Die geschiedenis doet mij zeer veel schande aan'. 'Wat is dat voor een

geschiedenis?' 'Brett zal het jullie wel vertellen. Zij vertelt alle geschiedenissen die

mij schande aandoen'. 'Vooruit, vertel op, Brett!' 'Mag ik?' 'Ik zal het zelf wel

vertellen'.

example 3

Taken from chapter XIII:

3. "What medals have you got, Mike?" "I haven't got any medals." "You must have

some." "I suppose I've the usual medals. But I never sent in for them. One time there

was this whooping big dinner and the Prince of Wales was to be there, and the cards

said medals will be worn. So naturally I had no medals, and I stopped at my tailor's

and he was impressed by the invitation, and I thought that's a good piece of business,

and I said to him: 'You've got to fix me up with some medals.' He said: 'What medals,

sir?' And I said: 'Oh, any medals. Just give me a few medals.' So he said: 'What

medals have you, sir?'

3. -¿Te dieron alguna medalla, Mike? -No, ninguna. -Debes tener alguna. -Supongo que

me darían las normales, pero nunca fui a buscarlas. En una ocasión tuve que insistir a

una cena de gala a la que iba a ir incluso el príncipe de Gales y la invitación indicaba

que se debían lucir las condecoraciones. Yo, lógicamente, no tenía ninguna, así que

fui a ver mi sastre, le ensené la invitación, que ya podéis suponer como le impresiono,

y le dije: <<Tiene usted que coserme alguna medalla.>> <<Qué condecoraciones,

señor?>>, me preguntó. <<Cualquiera. Póngame unas cuantas.>> El insistió: <<Pero

¿qué condecoraciones tiene usted, señor?>>

3. 'Wat voor medailles heb je gekregen, Mike?' 'Ik heb in het geheel geen medailles

gekregen'. 'Dat moet toch wel?'. 'Ik veronderstel, dat ik de meest gangbare medailles

wel gehad heb, maar ik heb ze nooit laten komen. Eens was er een bliksems groot

diner en de Prins van Wales zou komen en op de uitnodiging stond, dat ieder zijn

medailles moest dragen. Maar ik had dus natuurlijk geen medailles en ging naar mijn

kleermaker. Die invitatiekaart maakte een diepe indruk op hem en ik dacht: daar kan

ik een slaatje uit slaan, en zei tegen hem: "U moet een stelletje medailles voor mij

zien op te scharrelen". Hij vroeg: "Wat voor medailles, meneer?" En ik zei: "O, alles

74

is goed. Geef mij er maar wat". Toen zei hij weer: 'Wat voor medailles heeft u,

meneer?"

example 4

Taken from chapter XIII:

4. "She gave me Robert Cohn's letters. I wouldn't read them." "You wouldn't read any

letters, darling. You wouldn't read mine." "I can't read letters," Mike said. "Funny,

isn't it?" "You can't read anything." "No. You're wrong there. I read quite a bit. I read

when I'm at home."

4. -Me entrego las cartas de Cohn, pero no quise leerlas -insistió Mike. -No eres capaz

de leer una sola carta. No lees siquiera las mías. -No, no puedo leer cartas -concedió

Mike. Es gracioso, ¿verdad? -No eres capaz de leer nada. -En eso te equivocas. Leo

bastante. Leo mucho cuando estoy en casa.

4. 'Zij heeft mij Robert Cohns brieven gegeven. Ik heb ze niet willen lezen', zei Mike. 'Je

wilde totaal geen brieven lezen, beste Mike. Zelfs de mijne niet'. 'Ik kan geen brieven

lezen, is dat niet komiek?' zei Mike. 'Jij kunt niets lezen'. 'Neen, Dat heb je mis! Ik

lees heel wat. Ik lees, als ik thuis ben'.

example 5

Taken from chapter XVI:

5. "Do you still love me, Jake?" "Yes," I said. "Because I'm a goner," Brett said. "How?"

"I'm a goner. I'm mad about the Romero boy. I'm in love with him, I think." "I

wouldn't be if I were you." "I can't help it. I'm a goner. It's tearing me all up inside."

"Don't do it." "I can't help it. I've never been able to help anything." "You ought to

stop it." "How can I stop it? I can't stop things. Feel that?" Her hand was trembling.

"I'm like that all through." " You oughtn't do it." "I can't help it. I'm a goner now,

anyway. Don't you see the difference?"

5. -¿Todavía me quieres, Jake? -Sí -le respondí. -Es que soy una perdida. -¿Cómo? -Sí,

una perdida, una descarriada. Estoy loca por ese muchacho, Romero. Creo que estoy

enamorada de él. -Si yo fuera tu no lo estaría. -No puedo evitarlo. Soy una perdida. Es

como si algo me estuviera desgarrando las entrañas. -Domínate, Brett. -No puedo

remediarlo. Nunca he sido capaz de dominarme. – Ya es tiempo de que cambies. -

Como voy a cambiar? ¡No puedo detener los acontecimientos! ¿Te das cuente? – Le

temblaba la mano-. Todo el cuerpo me tiembla del mismo modo. -Debes dominarte,

Brett. -No puedo evitarlo. De todas maneras ya soy una mujer descarriada. ¿Es que no

te das cuenta de la diferencia?

5. 'Hou je nog altijd van mij, Jake?' 'Ja', zei ik. 'Want ik heb het weer te pakken, zie je'.

'Wat?' 'Ik heb het te pakken. Ik ben gek op die jongen- Romero. Ik geloof dat ik

75

verliefd op hem ben'. 'Als ik jou was, zou ik me daarvoor hoeden'. 'Ik kan er niets aan

doen. Ik heb het te pakken. Van binnen word ik uit elkaar gescheurd'. 'Doe het niet'.

'Ik kan er niet tegenop. Nooit heb ik me ergens tegen kunnen verzetten'. 'Zie ervan af'.

'Hoe kan ik dat? Ik kan de dingen niet tegenhouden. Voel eens!' Haar hand trilde. 'Zo

ben ik door en door'. 'Je moest het liever niet doen'. Ik kan er niets tegen beginnen. In

ieder geval heb ik het nu weer te pakken. Zie je het verschil niet?'

example 6

Taken from chapter XVII:

6. Outside the Bar Milano I found Bill and Mike and Edna. Edna was the girl's name.

"We've been thrown out," Edna said. "By the police," said Mike. 'There's some people

in there that don't like me." "I've kept them out of four fights," Edna said. "You've got

to help me. Bill's face was red. "Come back in, Edna," he said. "Go on in there and

dance with Mike. "It's silly," Edna said. "There’ll just be another row." "Damned

Biarritz swine," Bill said. "Come on," Mike said. "After all, it's a pub. They can't

occupy a whole pub." "Good old Mike," Bill said. "Damned English swine come here

and insult Mike and try and spoil the fiesta." "They're so bloody," Mike said. "I hate

the English." "They can't insult Mike," Bill said.

6. Me encontré con Bill, Mike y Edna, así se llamaba la chica, en la puerta del bar

Milano. -Nos han echado -dijo Edna. -La policía -dijo Mike-. Dentro hay unas

personas que no me quieren bien. -Los he sacado de cuatro broncas -dijo Edna-.

Tienes que ayudarme. Bill estaba rojo de excitación. -Vuelve adentro, Edna, vuelve y

baila con Mike -dijo.-Seria tontería. Tendríamos otra pelea. -¡Malditos cerdos de

Biarritz! -maldijo Bill. -Vamos a entrar -insistió Mike-. Al fin y al cabo es un bar

público. No pueden ocupar un bar entero ellos solos. -Pobre Mike -añadió Bill-.

¡Malditos puercos ingleses! Vienen aquí, insultan a Mike y tratan de estropear la

fiesta. -¡Son asquerosos! -Mike se indignó. ¡Odio a los ingleses! -No pueden insultar a

Mike -continuó Bill-.

6. Buiten de Milano-Bar trof ik Bill, Mike en Edna aan. Edna heette dat meisje. 'Wij zijn

eruit gegooid', zei Edna. 'Door de politie', zei Mike. 'Daar binnen zitten wat lui die

niet op mij gesteld zijn'. 'Ik heb hen van vier kloppartijtjes afgehouden', zei Edna. 'Jij

moet me erbij helpen'. Bills gezicht zag vuurrood. 'Laten wij er aan de achterkant

ingaan, Edna', zei hij. 'Ga jij daar binnen met Mike dansen'. 'Dwaasheid', zei Edna.

'Dan komt er opnieuw een rel'. 'Die verdomde zwijnen uit Biarritz', zei Bill. 'Kom

mee', zei Mike. 'Het is toch per slot een bar. Zij kunnen niet op een hele bar beslag

leggen'. 'Goeie, ouwe Mike', zei Bill. 'Vervloekte Engelse zwijnen, om hier Mike te

komen beledigen en proberen de fiesta in de war te sturen'. 'Zulke mispunten zijn het

nu', zei Mike. 'Ik heb een hekel aan Engelsen'. 'Zij mogen Mike niet beledigen', zei

Bill.

76

example 7

Taken from chapter XVII:

7. "A big horn wound. All for fun. Just for fun. What do you think of that?" "I don't

know." "That's it. All for fun. Fun you understand." "You're not an aficionado?" "Me?

What are bulls? Animals. Brute animals;" He stood up and put his hand on the small

of his back. A cornada right through the back. For fun- you understand." [...] All for

morning fun. Es muy flamenco. "It's bad." "Not for me," the waiter said. "No fun in

that for me."

7. Una grave herida de asta. Y todo por diversión. Solo por diversión. ¿Qué opina usted

de ello? -No lo sé. -Eso es. Solo por diversión. Diversión, ¿Lo entiende? -¿No es usted

aficionado? -¿Yo? ¿Qué son los toros? Animales. Unas bestias salvajes. -Se levantó y

se llevó la mano a la espalda-. Una cornada en la espalda. Una cornada que lo

atraviesa. Por diversión…, ¿lo entiende usted? […] Todo por un pasatiempo

mañanero. Es muy flamenco. -¡Una lástima! -Eso no es para mí -añadió el camarero-.

No veo donde está la diversión en una cosa como ésa.

7. 'Een grote horenwond. En alles voor de aardigheid. Enkel voor de aardigheid. Hoe

vindt u dat?' 'Ik weet het niet'. 'Dat is het juist. Alles voor de aardigheid. De

aardigheid, moet u begrijpen'. 'Dus u bent geen aficionado ?' 'Ik?- Wat zijn stieren?

Beesten. Wilde beesten'. Hij stond op en legde zijn hand achter in zijn rug. 'Pal door

zijn rug. Een cornada, pal door zijn rug. En voor de aardigheid, moet u weten'.[...] En

alles voor de aardigheid van een morgen. Es muy flameco'. 'Het is erg'. 'Niets voor

mij', zei de kelner. 'Voor mij is er geen aardigheid aan'.

example 8

Taken from chapter XVII:

8. "Why he went in and found Brett and the bull-fighter chap in the bull-fighter's room,

and then he massacred the poor, bloody bull-fighter."

8. -Volvió al hotel y encontró a Brett y al torero en la habitación de éste. Le dio una

tremenda paliza al pobre matador.

8. 'Nu- hij kwam hier en trof Brett en die jonge stierenvechter in de kamer van de

stierenvechter aan en toen vermoordde hij die arme, donderse stierenvechter'.

example 9

Taken from chapter XVIII:

9. Pedro Romero took off his heavy gold-brocaded cape and handed it over the fence to

his sword-handler. He said something to the sword-handler. Close below us we saw

77

Romero's lips were puffed, both eyes were discolored. His face was discolored and

swollen. The sword-handler took the cape, looked up at Brett, and came over to us

and handed up the cape.

9. Pedro Romero cogió su pesado capote de paseo, bordado en oro, y por encima de la

barrera se lo entrego a su mozo de espadas, al que le dijo unas palabras. Cuando

Romero estuvo cerca de nosotros alcancé a ver que tenía los labios hinchados y los

dos ojos morados. Todo su rostro estaba amoratado e hinchado. El mozo de espadas

tomo el capote de paseo, miro a Brett, se acercó a nosotros y nos lo alargó.

9. Pedro Romero deed zijn zware goudbrokaten cape af en reikte deze over het hek aan

zijn zwaardknecht. Hij zei iets tegen de man. Dicht beneden ons zagen wij, dat zijn

lippen opgezwollen waren en zijn beide ogen bont en blauw geslagen. Ok het overige

deel van zijn gezicht was dik en zat vol blauwe plekken. De zwaardknecht nam de

cape aan, keek op naar Brett, kwam bij ons en overhandigde de cape.

example 10

Taken from chapter XVIII:

10. Pedro Romero had the greatness. He loved bull-fighting, and I think he loved the

bulls, and I think he loved Brett.

10. Pedro Romero sí tenía esa grandeza. Le gustaba el toreo, y creo que quería a los toros

y también que amaba a Brett.

10. Pedro Romero bezat die grootheid. Hij ging op in het stierenvechten; en ik geloof dat

hij de stieren liefhad en ook, dat hij Brett liefhad.