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DOI: 10.1177/097215090700900105

2008 9: 65Global Business ReviewAshish Pandey and Rajen K Gupta

and Agenda for ResearchSpirituality in Management : A Review of Contemporary and Traditional Thoughts

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Acknowledgements: The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Professor A.P. Arora, Dr. N.C.B.Nath and Professor S.P. Saraswat (all at M.D.I., Gurgaon) and Professor Subhash Sharma (Dean, IBA), throughinsightful discussions held with them. The authors would also like to acknowledge the valuable comments of thethree anonymous reviewers of this article.

Spirituality in Management: A Review of Contemporary

and Traditional Thoughts and Agenda for Research

Ashish Pandey

Rajen K Gupta

This article presents a literature review and agenda for research in the field of spirituality in management.To understand the conceptual underpinning of spiritual aspects of the human self, this article covers thecontemporary thoughts of humanistic psychology, human wellness and traditional thoughts from ancientIndian wisdom. In the later part, the mainstream ‘spirituality at workplace’ literature is reviewed and aconceptual convergence is identified in the form of three strands; harmony with self, harmony in work en-vironment and experience or belief in transcendence. Potential contribution of the study is in conceptual-izing spirituality in business organizations based on synthesis of both traditional and contemporary thoughtsand a detailed agenda for research in this field.

GLOBAL BUSINESS REVIEW, 9:1 (2008): 65–83

SAGE Publications Los Angeles/London/New Delhi/Singapore

DOI: 10.1177/097215090700900105

Ashish Pandey is Research Leader, Pragati Leadership Institute, 301 Beaver Grandeur, Baner Road, Pune 411 045,Maharashtra, India.; Fellow of Management Development Institute, Gurgaon – 122001, Haryana, India. E-mail:[email protected]; [email protected] K Gupta is Professor of Organizational Behaviour, Management Development Institute, Mehrauli RoadSukhrali, Gurgaon – 122001, India. E-mail: [email protected]

The specific experience I am talking abouthas given me one certainty; Consciousness

precedes being, and not other way round, (asthe Marxists claim). For this reason the



66 � Ashish Pandey and Rajen K Gupta

Global Business Review, 9:1 (2008): 65–83

salvation of this human world lies nowhere elsethan in the human heart, in the human powerto reflect, in the human meekness and in humanresponsibility.

—Vaclav Havel(Playwright, dissident, prisoner, andformer President of Czech Republic)

Introduction

In the midst of dynamic economic forces andtechnological breakthroughs, business cor-porations are set to play the lead role in shap-ing and creating modern society (Assadourian2006). In the emerging form of industrialrevolution,1 the source of market value offirms is shifting towards more intangible re-sources (Henson 2003). New sources of com-petitive advantage have been identified, suchas, creativity (Basadur 1992; Woodman et al.1993), innovation (Cho and Pucik 2005;Walker 2005), tacit knowledge (Grant 1997;Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995), and so on.

Different aspects of human potential arebeing explored. In the field of management,the emergence of positive Organization Be-haviour (OB) is contributing to this research.Recent developments in areas like emotionalintelligence (Goleman 1998), hope (Snyder2000), self-efficacy (Bandura 1982, 2000) andoptimism (Seligman 1998) are the contribu-tion of positive OB movement (Luthans andChurch 2002). On the larger canvass, hu-manist psychology or positive psychologystrongly substantiates this trend in manage-ment academics (Roberts 2006). Many as-pects of human potential which were (though)always the concern of human life but not sys-tematically examined in the context of the

emerging social, economic and culturalrealities. ‘Spirituality’ is one such aspect. It issaid to be an existential search for meaningand purpose in human life and the role andfeeling of linkage within the larger schemeof existence.

Management academics had never beentotally blind to the spiritual perspective ofwork. Quatro (2004) posits this point refer-ring to the writings of Follett (1918)2 andGreenleaf (1970) in the classical manage-ment literature. Weber (1958) also calledfor developing management theories andpractices de-emphasizing materialismand individualism.

In more recent years, Nichols (1994) inHarvard Business Review, raised the issueof spirituality by emphasizing that com-panies must find ways to harness soul search-ing on the job, not just gloss over or merelyavoid it. The Academy of Management(USA) has set up an interest group on spir-ituality and religion at workplace. Many aca-demic journals like the Journal of ManagementEducation (2005, 2006), Journal of Organ-izational Change Management (1999, 2002),Leadership Quarterly (2005), Organization(2004), Journal of Social Economics (1996, 1998),Pfeffer annual of Training and Consulting (2004),and so on, have brought out special issues orpublished articles on different aspects ofspirituality.

The rationale for this study lies in the factthat people of most cultures in different partsof the world have a spiritual quest. Newlyemerging realities of human civilization positthe need for fresh discourse, empirical en-quiry and theorizing on this field in generaland in the context of management of business



Spirituality in Managment � 67


organizations in particular. In light of the cur-rent status of scientific enquiry in the area,this study is aimed at tracing the conceptualunderpinning of the notion of spirituality indifferent streams of knowledge particularlyrelevant in management. Secondly, it aims tosynthesize contemporary literature and trad-itional knowledge available, particularly intraditional Indian wisdom. The third majorobjective of the article is to delineate the dir-ections for future research.

The article can be broadly divided intofour parts. The introductory part elaborateson the need for a study of spirituality man-agement in emerging business scenario. Thenext part presents a brief account of the spir-itual aspect of the human self, suggested bycontemporary psychology literature andtraditional sayings of the Vedanta and an at-tempt is made to synthesize these two streamsof thoughts. The third part of the article pre-sents a review of mainstream spirituality inmanagement literature. This section gives acondensed view of the evolution of peoplemanagement thoughts and the emergence ofthe notion of spirituality in this field. A con-ceptual convergence in the field of ‘spir-ituality in management’ literature is alsosuggested in this section. This part alsocovers research studies that focus on cer-tainaspect/s of spirituality and its impact onorganizational performance and the job at-titude of employees. A schematic repre-sentation of spirituality and managementliterature is given in Figure 1. The figure rep-resents the three parts being elaborated uponin this article. The fourth part of this articlepresents an agenda for research in the fieldof spirituality in management.

Spirituality: Epistemological Diversity

In contemporary literature, spirituality hasbeen defined in different ways: as intel-ligence, developmental line, attitude andinner experience. As intelligence, spiritualityis defined by Zohar and Marshall (2000) ashyper thinking, meaning giving, contex-tualizing and transformative intelligence.This is considered as the foundation for theeffective functioning of both IntelligenceQuotient (IQ) and Emotional Quotient (EQ).Emmons (2000) suggests that the com-ponents of spiritual intelligence are the cap-acity to transcend the physical and material,the ability to experience heightened states ofconsciousness, the ability to sanctify every-day experiences and the capacity to bevirtuous. According to Emmons (2000), theconstruct of spiritual intelligence enablesspirituality to be viewed as a quality that ismore or less developed in different peopleand may be cultivated.

Spirituality has also been defined as thehighest level of any developmental line, theupper reach (Wilber 2004). For example, ifwe consider cognition, then the higher reachis trans-rational. It has also been consideredas a developmental line in itself much likecognition, or affect or any other line of devel-opment like morality (Kohlberg and Ryncarz1990), faith (Fowler 1981), and so on.

Spirituality has also been explained asinner experiences (e.g., Dillard 1982) and anattitude of openness, care or loving whichcan be practiced and developed (e.g., Miller2004; Wilber 2004).

Epistemological divergence in the field ofspirituality evokes the necessity of examiningthe issue in basic disciplines like psychology

S





and traditional spiritual literature. Thenext section reviews these streams to under-stand the conceptual underpinning of thisphenomenon.

Spirituality: Conceptual Underpinning

According to Sigmund Freud religion andspirituality are essentially products of wishfulfillment and fantasy. Children seekrelief from the ‘terrifying impression of help-lessness in childhood’ (Freud 1961; Zinnbaueret al. 1999) and need a figure in their lives toprotect them. This role of protector is initiallyprovided by one’s own father, but as one

grows older and this sense of helplessnesscontinues, the individual needs a morepowerful protector. This powerful protectoris sought by the individual through the beliefin a Divine Father.

Jung viewed religion and spirituality as areflection of the soul, fundamental to humanexperience and as representing psychic evo-lution. Psychological problems are essen-tially spiritual problems for him. Jung said:‘A psychoneurosis must be understood, ulti-mately, as the suffering of a soul which hasnot discovered its meaning ... the cause ofthe suffering is spiritual stagnation or psy-chic sterility’ (Jung, 1978).

Figure 1

Spirituality in Management: Integrative View and Related Literature





Humanistic (positive) psychology andintegral psychology emphasize on indi-vidual and collective strengths and searchhow such strengths enable human goodnessand resilience (Fredricson and Losada 2005).Taking the positive usage of human potentialin his work On Becoming Person Roger (1961)expressed his belief about people having abasically positive direction towards theirtrue being and the human power to reflectand transcend into a ‘fully functioning per-sonality’. According to Eric Fromm (2003)humanistic alternatives of developmentare only a matter of awareness of a humanbeing. Describing the path of developmentfor mankind in his book On Being Human hewrote that: ‘In this frame (humanistic devel-opment frame) of reference the goal of life isthe fullest development of human powers,specifically those of reason and of love, in-cluding the transcending of the narrownessof one’s ego’.

In the same vein Frankl (1978) in his bookThe Unheard Cry for Meaning recognized thatthe search for meaning is a core concern ofhuman development.

Maslow (1971, 1996) expressed his humandevelopment views referring to the ‘beingvalues’ like wholeness, goodness, self-suffi-ciency, and so on. He considered these valuesas part of the human self. Being-values arenot deficiency-needs. These are meta-needsor growth-needs with which we can neverget bored. This is in direct contrast to thebasic needs, which can definitely satisfy.Under good conditions, people can integratethese values in daily life. Maslow (1971) de-scribed such integration in terms of the tran-scendent self-actualization. For him, trans-cendent self-actualization carried a spiritual

significance and manifests in the recognitionof the sacred in life.

Positive psychology has significantly in-fluenced theorization in the field of man-agement (Roberts 2006) and has receivedmuch wider attention of management aca-demics in the recent years. It provides an im-portant strand for research in spirituality inthe field of management. Another strand ofresearch in spirituality in management comesfrom human wellness. The next sub-sectionelaborates on this aspect.

Theorists in the field of well-being(Bensley 1991; Dunn 1961) believed that thespiritual dimension is an innate componentof human functioning that acts to integratethe other components. Therefore a subsectionon the humanistic view of wellness follows.Charlene (1996) deciphers four componentsof spiritual wellness—meaning and purposein life, intrinsic values, transcendent beliefs/experience and community relationship.

Most of the modern knowledge streamsdealing with the ‘human self’ have startedrecognizing the spiritual aspect of the humanpsyche, though spirituality had always beena prominent concern of traditional wisdom.Vedantists, Confucians and Buddhists haveemphasized the spiritual aspect of humanbeings. The importance of these traditionslies in the fact that these were evolved onboth philosophical and experiential pillars.In the form of meditation, Zen or Yogathese traditions have produced many time-tested experiential methods to experiencespirituality.

Vedanta is a reflection of the pure in-quisitiveness of the human mind to under-stand life and the essence of humanness. Itprovides a systematic and holistic account





of the human self. One can hope for a com-prehensive and integrative understanding ofthe nature and potentiality of the ‘humanself’ and its relation to the larger existence,by surveying this ancient tradition. The nextpart of the review section presents a brief sur-vey of views from the Vedanta about humanlife and human self.

Brief Survey of Indian Traditional Wisdom

Vedanta teaches that there is a unitary un-broken consciousness which expresses itselfin different forms of exiestence and that isour real self.3 Atman (soul or spirit) is beyondthe buddhi and is sometimes known aspurusha. Buddhi is related to the objective ex-pression of existence. Purusha is the subjec-tive aspect of consciousness that is reflectedin different forms of existence. Traditions ofspiritual disciplines affirm that beneath the‘I’ and ‘me’ there exists an unchanging ‘self’that is beyond the personal empirical self,beyond duality and distinction, and is onewhich can be known by immediate intuitiveexperience. This self lies at the depth ofstillness. Such stillness is experienced whenhuman beings actively attempt to harmon-ize their life with the unitary consciousness.Generally, we become aware of this statein moments of deep observation of self ornature, in moments of meditation or total im-mersion for some positive cause, in the mo-ments of study or when listening to wordsof the scriptures or in the presence of someenlightened master. The commonality amongall these moments is that these are momentsof deep immersion, concentration and tem-porary forgetfulness of the immediate ‘self’.These are moments when we feel expansion

and become aware of our level of beingwhich is much less fluctuating and muchmore calm. Being in touch with our ‘real self’,which is the result of self–awareness, makesus more relaxed, energized and committedtowards our goals.4

This is the potential with which everyhuman being is born. That’s why the Upani-shads have an extraordinary phrase for thehuman race, Amritasya putrah (children of im-mortality). The Vedanta says that not onlycan this be realized in the depth of forests orcaves, but by men in all possible conditionsof life (Vivekananda 1896). The Upanishadstell about people who discovered these truthswho were following ordinary vocations oflife, who led the busiest of lives and who hadto command armies and sit on thrones.

Spiritual life integrates the individual, col-lective and the whole of mankind. Spirituallife does not necessarily mean somethingmetaphysical or transcendental; man, societyand humanity are all graded aspects of thesame dynamic spiritual events. Thus, spir-ituality can be understood as harmony withself, with social and natural environmentand capability or belief in transcendence.

Synthesis of Traditional

and Contemporary Thoughts

According to Vedic literature truth has twomeaning; dharma and rta (Bhattacharyya1995). The first meaning corresponds tosatyadharma ‘the vocation of truth’, or simplydharma. Dharma is that which sustains allbeings according to their own nature andin harmony with each other. Vedic wisdomsuggests that the search for truth involves





harmony with self and existence.5 The worddharma originated from the root word ‘dhri’meaning ‘to uphold’. Derived from the rootdhar (dhri) to uphold, sustain or support, theterm dharma denotes that which holdstogether the different aspects and qualitiesof an object as a whole. Ordinarily, the termdharma has been translated as a religiouscode, as righteousness, a system of morality,duty, charity, and so on, but the originalSanskrit term is ‘the law of being’, meaning‘that which makes a thing or being what itis’. For example, it is the dharma of the fireto burn, of the sun to shine, and so on. TheBhagwad Gita (3–35) teaches that to find andfollow self dharma (swadharma) is the ideal ofhuman life. Mana, buddhi and ahmkara, thedimensions of human self (explained earlier),act as modifiers in this search. One’s ownswadharma gives maximum satisfaction andjoy to oneself. Performance of one’s swadharmafinally leads to making the mind quiet andstill. Work, which leads to agitation, is notswadharma. Deeper connectedness with workis a reflection of swadharma at the workplace.In contemporary literature, this state is indi-cated in the book of Maslow (1971) Psychologyof Being. He refers to the ‘intrinsic conscience’and writes that: ‘This (intrinsic consciousness)is based upon the unconsciousness and pre-conscious perceptions of our own “call” in life.It insists that we be true to our inner natureand that we do not deny it out of weaknessor for advantage or for any other reason’.

The Rogerians and the personal growthpsychologists also talk about ‘discovering’the self and of ‘uncovering’ therapy. In theliterature on organizational change andleadership, Quinn (1996, 2005) talks about the

‘fundamental state of leadership’ and ‘mo-ments of greatness’ and explains that lead-ers are at their best when performing for thedeepest values. It is like being aware of ourtrue nature or dharma and finding ways toexpress this on the job.

Other than dharma, ‘truth’ has been ex-plained in the Vedic literature and is calledrta. Rta, also understood as vrata, is theeternal path of divine righteousness for allbeings, including humans and gods, whichmust be followed in thought and action todiscover and maintain oneself in the truth.This may be termed as the unseen order ofthings. This experience is termed as egotranscendence or expansion of awareness.

In contemporary literature Dhiman (2000)suggests that spirituality may be describedas the awareness of the divine principle ofour being, as characterized by our effort tolive in harmony with the divine principle.And, spirituality in the workplace is an at-tempt to get connected to this divine prin-ciple in the context of the workplace.Quantum physics, chaos and complexitytheories have demonstrated the reality of theunseen order and have shown that every-thing is connected to everything else (Zoharand Marshall 2000). In his work Wholenessand the Implicate Order, Bohm (1980) pro-pounded the view of totality of existence;the unbroken whole, enfolded within eachfragment of space and time. The work ofCsikszentmihalyi (1990) and Mirvis (1997) isspecifically relevant to understand the con-ceptual underpinning of the aspect of tran-scendence6 in the field of management.

Psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi(1990), in his research on optimal experience(flow), has identified the characteristics of





work (and life) experience that can liberatethe human spirit and transcend the ego. Suchexperience results in refinement of awarenessand the cultivation of wisdom (Butts 1999;Walsh and Vaughan 1993). Mirvis (1997), inhis account of the community-buildingworkshop of Scott Peck (author of The RoadLess Travelled) identified a similar aspect incommunity building at the workplace. Theyidentified ‘group consciousnesses’ and real-ization of the ‘unseen order of things’ as thecornerstones of community building. Inlight of these notions, we take rta, anotherumbrella construct from traditional litera-ture for explaining spirituality in businessorganizations. Construct Lokasangraha, i.e.,working for maintenance, emanate from thissection.

Spirituality in Management

A cursory view of the dominant approachesin management at different points of timesuggests that it is the saga of recognizing dif-ferent aspects of the ‘whole person’—a mech-anical man, social man, emotional man andnow spiritual man. The evolution of the re-sources based view (Penrose 1959) to the po-tential based view (Kalra 1997; Zohar andMarshall 2004) of ‘man’ signifies this point.

Changing demographics, potentialsources of competitive advantage and indi-vidual aspirations have all contributed to-wards change in the orientation of workerstowards work, what Daniel Yankelovichcalled an ‘instrumental’ view of work, wherework was a means to an end, to a more‘sacred’ view, where people seek the ‘intrin-sic’ benefits of work. In search of the pos-sibility of manifestation of spirituality at

work, Gupta (1996) asked if there was anyplace for the sacred in the organization. Now,the field of management is ready to talkabout spirituality (Zohar and Marshal 2000).Nurturing the ‘whole person’ and develop-ing ‘wholesome leadership’ (Wakhlu 2000)is gaining increasing importance in the cor-porate world.

Spirituality in Management:

Strands from Leadership Literature

An important strand that feeds into therelevance of spirituality in the field of man-agement is leadership (e.g., Vaill 1998;Wagner-Marsh and Conley 1999; Wheatley1992, etc.). Leadership literature in man-agement reflects lot of work related to‘being values’ amongst successful leaders.Chakraborty (1991) suggested the Rajarshimodel of leadership incorporating spiritualand social values in performing the job ofleader of a business organization. Servantleadership (Greenleaf 1970) also emphasizeson a wholistic approach to work, personaldevelopment and shared decision making.Level five leadership (Collins 2001) and de-velopments in transformational leadership(Benefiel 2005; Kanungo and Mendoca 1994;Kriger and Seng 2005) are all indications to-wards human values of emotional intel-ligence, humility and spiritual awareness.Wakhlu’s (2000) conceptualization and de-velopmental work in the organizationon ‘wholesome leadership’ have a clearspiritual basis of leading self and others. By‘wholesome leadership’, he refers to self-awareness and self-mastery and harmonywith the social and natural environment fordelivering value to the corporation. Spiritual





leadership theory, a newly coined term, is acausal leadership theory for organizationaltransformation designed to create an intrin-sically motivated, learning organization(Benefiel 2005; Fry et al. 2005).

Spirituality at Workplace:

The Conceptual Convergence

Viewing the fundamental conceptualizationof spirituality and the definitions given incontemporary literature, it could be said thatspirituality is a multidimensional, multilevelphenomenon. Acknowledging that consen-sus is lacking in spirituality literature on howspirituality should be defined (Ashforth andPratt 2003; Benefiel 2003), we nonethelessproposes a conceptual convergence in work-place spirituality literature, that is, harmonywith self, harmony in social and natural en-vironment and transcendence. Spirituality isa dynamic balance of these three factors.Figure 2 represents the proposed conceptualconvergence.

Figure 2

Three Dimensions of Spirituality

Harmony with Self

Organizations are sites where individualsmake meaning for themselves and have theirmeaning shaped (Dehler and Welsh 1994;Fineman 1993). Dehler and Welsh (1994) pro-posed that spirituality in organizations re-presents a specific form of work feeling thatenergizes action. It is about finding meaningand purpose in work7 (Ashmos and Duchon2000; Milliman et al. 2001; Mitroff and Denton1999; Quatro 2004; Sheep 2004). Variables likequest for feeling good (Morgan 1993), a pro-found feeling of well-being and joy (Kinjerskiand Skrypnek 2004) at work also indicate thetheme ‘harmony with self’ in literature. Innerlife at work, self-actualization (Ashforth andPratt 2003; Giacalone and Jurkiewicz 2003;Pfeffer 2003) or the development of one’s fullpotential (Krishnakumar and Neck 2002) areall parts of this aspect of literature.

Harmony in Work Environment

The second dimension of spirituality asliterature suggests is relational. This is mani-fested in relation to the environment in gen-eral. This spiritual dimension is manifestedin community (Ashmos and Duchon 2000),being comfortable with the world (Morgan1993), work place integration (2004), con-nectedness (Ingersoll 2004), compassion(McCormick 1994), respect, humility andcourage (Heaton et al. 2004), common pur-pose (Kinjerski and Skrypnek 2004), andso on, with inclusiveness and intercon-nectedness (Kinjerski and Skrypnek 2004;Marcqus et al. 2005) amongst its members.Such an organization shows a greater kind-ness, fairness and industrial democracy





(Biberman and Whitty 1997) and shared re-sponsibility (Marques 2005).

Transcendence: The Underlying Aspect

The third dimension of spirituality literatureis transcendental. Transcendence refers toheightened spiritual states of consciousness(Emmons 2000) and is the result of medita-tion (Freshman 1999). This is a glimpse ofunitary awareness, the state of bliss generallyassociated with peak experience (Maslow1971). This is the direct experience of beingconnected to existence ‘unpolluted’ by emo-tions or intellect. Generally, these are themovements when individuals transcend theiregos. Based on teachings of Maharshi MaheshYogi, Heaton et al. (2004) indicated tran-scendence as the most settled state and de-scribed it as ‘pure spirituality’. Eastern andwestern traditions describe an underlying‘field’ of spiritual potentiality, which is inde-pendent of and devoid of discrete activities,an all pervasive ‘imminent and transcendentground of all being’ (Wilber 2002).

Connection to something greater than one-self (transcendence of self) is a firmly embed-ded component of spirituality in manage-ment literature (Ashforth and Pratt 2003;Dehler and Welsh 1994; Sheep 2004). Ashforthand Pratt (2003) explain that the ‘something’can be ‘other people, cause, nature, or a beliefin a higher power’. McCormick (1994) talksabout meditative work and describes it as anexperience of being absorbed in work, losingany sense of self and becoming one with theactivity. Mirvis (1997) note that transcendenceof self expands outwards in four concentriccircles of consciousness (1) consciousness

of self; (2) consciousness of others; (3) groupconsciousness; and (4) to organize in har-mony with the unseen order of things.8

Mirvis (1997) embed all of these levels intothe concept of ‘company as community’. Acommunity is built upon a transcendence ofhuman differences rather than common-alities. Such transcendence will allow an em-ployee to rise above traditionally divisiveboundaries of hierarchy, demography oreven spiritual orientation (Sheep 2004).

Impact of Spirituality in Management

The impact of spirituality on the businessorganization has been studied in terms ofoverall organizational performance and jobbehaviour of the employees. Several studiesmaintain that organizations high on spir-itual values outperform those without it, onthe parameters of growth, efficiency and re-turn on investment than those without them(Nur 2003; Scott 2002). Some of the empiricalstudies provide the clues for relation of or-ganizational performance with variables in-cluded in our key construct of spiritualityin a work organization. Fortune magazine inits analysis of ‘Best Places to Work’ in theUS, though it does not use the word spiritu-ality, writes that these are places where peoplefind a purpose to work other than their paycheques (Colving 2006). Nur (2003) found inhis study that organizations managed byspiritual values (MBV’s) earned better returnswithin a period of five years. Meta-analysisby Dent et al. (2005) showed the positiveassociation of spirituality with productivity.





The effect of spirituality at the workplacecan spill over into employees’ home life, mar-riage, social interaction, and so on, which inturn, positively affects their work perform-ance (Bromet et al. 1990; Jurkiewicz andGiacalone 2004). Marques (2005) suggeststhat spirituality results in a unified pleasantperformance and quality orientation of theworkforce which in turn results in excellentoutput and community orientation. Theliterature correlating workplace spiritualityrelated factors with performance can beshown to converge into three areas; mo-tivation, commitment and adaptability(Jurkiewicz and Giacalone 2004).

Discussion

In the earlier sections an attempt was madeto present an exhaustive review of con-temporary and traditional literature for bet-ter clarification of conceptual underpinningof spirituality and its traces in management.The literature review provided major insightsand made us aware about the nature of thephenomenon and its scope, diverse epi-stemological stances and numerous possi-bilities to design and conduct the research.The major insights from the literature reviewwere as follows:

1. Psychology and well-being literaturetake sufficiently clear stances on thespiritual aspects of personality. Thepsychodynamic school reduces spir-ituality to the level of regression of‘childish narcissism’ whereas humanisticand integral psychologists accept it asa higher realm of human consciousness.

2. Manifestation of spiritual aspects inhuman personality indicated in con-temporary literature (generally writtenin the west) is not different from thatof traditional Indian literature. Someexamples in this regard are worthreiterating. When Maslow suggeststhat all human beings have somedegree of ‘sainthood’ it naturally re-minds one of the ‘gunas’ trilogy sug-gested in traditional literature. Jung’selaboration of psychological sufferingas ‘lack of meaning and purpose’ in lifequickly reminds one of the four es-sential purushartha (Dharma, Artha,Kama and Moksha) of human life. Suchsimilarities of understanding resultedin our attempt at synthesis of these twostreams of thought. Differences in the‘western’ and ‘eastern’ perspective didnot seem to be very pronounced in‘spirituality at work’ literature. Thissynthesis suggests that ‘spirituality atwork’ may become a powerful unitingforce across societies.

3. The third major insight from the litera-ture was about the manifestation ofspirituality at different levels and formsin human affairs. By ‘levels’, we meancollective and individual levels and‘forms’ here means the objective andthe subjective. Literature suggests thatspirituality is not only a personal andsubjective experience but also hasmanifestations in the objective form atboth the individual as well as the col-lective level.

4. The review also points out the followingresearch gaps in the field of spirituality





and management which if approachedin the true spirit of scientific enquirycan bring result in better awarenessabout, enlighten and substantiatetheorizing in this field.

• Conceptualization of spiritualityand related constructs is a foun-dational requirement for bettertheorizing in the field of spiritualityin management.

• The potential contribution of wis-dom traditions has been acknow-ledged in literature at many placesbut the systematic attempts for lo-gical and scientific enquiry in trad-itional literature are few in numbers.

• The possibility of integrating trad-itional wisdom with contemporarythoughts and its application in dayto day management is another lessexplored area in spirituality in man-agement literature.

• Most of the individual level studies,particularly linkage research studiesin the available literature are withinorganization studies which likelysuffer from the ‘same source bias’.

• Very few are predictive studiesexamining the association of spir-ituality with organizational per-formance outcomes, particularly atthe collective level.

Spirituality in Management:

Agenda for Future Research

Spirituality in management literature is stilldominated by conceptual studies. For asound theoretical foundation in the field of

spirituality in management, logic should bereplaced with date. Developing less am-biguous ‘spirituality’ and related constructsis the primary challenge for researchers inthis field.

Most of the existing studies are centred on‘what’ questions and aimed at locating spir-ituality in terms of attitude, behaviour andas a solution to having greater equanimityat workplace, while interacting with dif-ferent stakeholders. Fewer studies are avail-able delineating pattern and exploring ‘how’and ‘why’ questions for suggesting certainlevels of causality amongst variables relatedto it. Even fewer studies present concep-tualization of ‘spirituality’ or closely relatedconstructs with the underlying dynamics ofthe psychological basis of human nature inthe light of organizational requisites andsocial processes.

Descriptive studies and exploratorystudies are critical for an academicallyemerging field like this (like spiritual infras-tructure by Quimet 2002). Generally, descrip-tive studies make less theoretical contri-bution but may be very useful for selectionof research units for further scientific studies,modelling, and so on. Descriptive and ex-ploratory studies are also useful for locatingthe boundary of spiritual interactions, deter-mining indicative variables of spirituality inmanagement and for developing empiricalindicators.

Traditional literature available in most cul-tures can inform as well as enlighten aboutspirituality and its manifestation in man-agement. Propositions and models are beingdeveloped based on the traditional wisdom.‘Giving model of motivation’ and Rajarshimodel of leadership by Chakraborty (1991)





and numerous propositions and models bySharma (1996, 2006) are available for empir-ical evaluation. Many deductive as well asinductive empirical studies can be designedaround these propositions and models forbuilding a theoretical basis of spirituality inmanagement.

Inductive studies are also required forfresh discourse in order to understand thespiritual aspect of management. Inductivestudies (like Miles et al. 2005) would be ofspecial relevance for bringing out the nu-ances of manifestations of spirituality in dif-ferent social settings.

Another interesting area of research couldbe the relationship and comparison of IQ andEQ with spirituality. Spirituality is also beingexamined as an intelligence as Spiritual Quo-tient (SQ). IQ is relatively stable in an adultwhereas EQ has been reported to be de-veloping with time even in adults. Similarstudies about SQ can be useful. Relation ofSQ with IQ and EQ can bring new insight onindividual competence. Such studies can bepursued further to bring greater insights on‘personality types’. These studies could an-swer the question on whether people withcertain personality type are more or less spir-itually inclined or spirituality could bringabout a new personality type in the existingtypologies, thus enriching the personalitytheory.

Agenda for Intention and

Extension Research Strategy

Both intention and extension research stra-tegies would be important in the field of spir-ituality in management. As defined by Weick(1989), intention strategy gives partial ex-planation of the whole domain. For example,

a study of Darwin, Freud and Bateson comesunder this category. In the field of spiritualityin management, ‘intention’ studies will beuseful for mapping the terrain. Such studiesmay be in the form of generating typologies,stages of development of an individual andorganization in terms of spiritual orientation,and so on. Extension studies as described byWeick (1989) provide relatively complete ex-planation of a part of the area. Such studiesshould be undertaken for in-depth under-standing and nuances of spirituality in man-agement at individual and collective levels.For example, for studies like antecedents oforganizational spirituality the circumstancesresponsible for spiritual orientation of organ-izations and that of their members’ can beundertaken.

Agenda for Integral Approach of

Research in ‘Spirituality in Management’

The integral approach proposed by Wilber(2002) can be a useful guide for research inthe field of spirituality in management. Theintegral approach proposes that any phe-nomenon has two fundamental dimensionsof existence. These are the interior–exteriordimension and the individual–collectivedimension. The interior–exterior dimensionrefers to the relationship between the in-tangible world of subjective experience andthe tangible world of objective behaviour.The individual–collective dimension refersto the relationship between the individualworld of self-agency and the collective worldof social communion. The interaction of thesedimensions produces the fundamental do-mains or quadrants of reality. The domain ofindividual interiors is the personal-subjective





quadrant, the domain of individual exteriorsis the behavioural quadrant, the domain ofcollective interiors is the cultural quadrantand the domain of collective exteriors com-munality is the social quadrant. Since, thisapproach facilitates the social event to be ana-lyzed in terms of its multilevel nature, thatis, its micro, meso and macro forms, organ-izational theorists have started using thisapproach in the field of organization develo-pment, leadership, change management, andso on. The four quadrants of reality shownin Figure 3 can give an epistemological de-vice to set an agenda for research in the fieldof spirituality and management.

Figure 3

Four Quadrant View of Reality (Wilber 2002)

Source: Wilber (2002)

Generally speaking, for objective levelstudies the analytical approach and for sub-jective studies the interpretive approach isappropriate. Studies for the individual-subjective level are conducted in the contextof counselling (Sandage and Schults 2005),health (Brink 1993; Greenstreet 2006; Mathewet al. 1994), addiction (Jay 2006), and so on.Research studies can be designed coveringboth; objective and subjective aspects of

spirituality. For the studies focusing objectiveaspects analytical approach and for studiescovering subjective aspects interpretiveapproach is appropriate. Neurosciences haveconducted studies at the individual-objectivelevel. Recent developments in brain research,neurological science and quantum physicscan significantly contribute to our under-standing of different levels of cognition,learning and consciousness. ‘Spirituality inmanagement’ research can be enriched bythese fields.

‘Linkage research’ studies focusing onassociation and directionality of the re-lationship of spirituality with other vari-ables like learning, creativity and employeeengagement can be of special interest tomanagement—academic as well as prac-ticing managers. At the individual level,studies in the field of lifestyle changes canbe useful in this area. Studies may be de-signed to observe the impact of small inter-ventions in lifestyle like change in operatingbeliefs, moderate interventions in lifestylelike meditation and major intervention likeadopting Astang Yoga. Impact of meditationon emotional intelligence of working exe-cutives is one the examples of plausible stud-ies. In the field of management, such studiescan give insights into designing training anddevelopmental intervention.

Studies at the collective level are scarce inspirituality and management. Identificationof variables, boundary assumptions and de-velopment of unambiguous constructs atindividual, group and organization levelspirituality are the major challenges for aca-demics in this area. Many other issues, likepermeability of spiritual awareness from one





level to another level, whether one level sub-sumes another level, still remain un-answered. The dynamics and evolution ofhuman collective systems and the role of spir-ituality or spiritual interventions can also beuseful in the management arena. Collective-subjective level studies (like Gragnolati andStupak 1997) are needed to bring out the mani-festations of spirituality in the nature ofhuman interactions resulting in specificshared beliefs, values, feelings, and so on.Studies of group or organizational level spir-ituality can form the foundation for studiesof collective consciousness (e.g., Gustavssonand Harung 1994). These studies can providea primary understanding of how to createcollective consciousness in a collectivehuman system and possibly a fusion pointbased on positive forces like love and com-passion. These studies can also give insightsinto mechanisms to expand the human con-sciousness or awareness from a limited egoto an existential and transpersonal level.

Spirituality as subjective experience needsto be studied in the context of meaning madeby the subjects in their ‘weltchschung’, i.e.,worldview. Along with grand narratives,many context embedded discourses are alsoequally important for a comprehensiveunderstanding of spirituality in manage-ment. For example, Quakers community,which has been quite successful in business,is reported to have approached its businessas a social activity that has a part to play inbenefiting the whole community, not as ameans to itself (Grace 2001). Similarly someother communities in India and abroad canbe identified which are particularly suc-cessful in business and have lived certainhigher order values. Certain spiritual elem-ents can be located in the shared worldviewof these communities and this can be a lessonto management academics and the prac-ticing world.

NOTES

1. Peter Senge (2000) discerns three elements ofchange as harbinger of the new form of industrialrevolution. The first element stems from seeingknowledge and knowledge creation as the corner-stone of competitive advantage and success of anyorganization. The second element is recognizingorganizations as embedded and interdependentwith the larger natural and social system. The thirdelement is recognizing the necessity of runninghuman collective systems (not against) but as partof nature. In the same vein, Sharma (2006) givesthe vision of a sacro-civic society.

2. When human being work together in organ-ization harmoniously with their talent and in spiteof their distinctiveness, in interdependent and

interconnected way it is witness to a visiblemanifestation of ‘God’. (Follett 1918)

3. Aikyam Tayorlakshitayoh, Na Vacyaya|NigadyatenyonyaViruddha DharmiñohKhadyota Bhanyoriv Rajbh—atyayauh|KupamburashyohParmañumevoh||The divine source of the (existence of the) cosmosand every creature or particle in the universe aresubliminally linked together and are similar in thesense of the similarity between ‘the sun and a glow-worm’, ‘an ocean and a well’, or ‘a mountain andan atom’ (Vivek Chudamani, 3, 32).

4. Swami Vivekananda used the phrases ‘apparentman’ and ‘real man’. In the writings of Chakraborty(1991) this concept is further explained with terms





‘empirical’ lower, vyavaharika self and ‘trans em-pirical’, higher, paramarthika (spiritual) self.

5. Catholic spirituality has two equal major concerns:Prayers and actions to improve the world and toincrease social justice (Carmody and Carmody 1991).

6. Contemporary literature on spirituality in manage-ment (e.g., Ashmos and Duchon 2000; Milliman

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