German Orthography and Phonology a Treatise With a Wordlist

H m am a gs

GERMAN

ORTHOGRAPHY AND

A TR EAT ISE

W IT H A WO R D -L I ST

GEORG E HEMEL PHD

PROFESSOR OF E NGLI SH P H ILOLOGY A ND

G E NE R A L LINGUI ST ICS IN T H E

UN IVE R S ITY OF M ICH IG A N

PART FIRST — THE TREATISE

G INN COM PA NY

BOSTON NEW YOR K CH ICA GO LOND ON

E b: t t n azu m 9 r d ;

PR I E TOR S BOSTON U .S .A .

CONTENTS

PA G E

I l l u st r a tion s

A bbr ew'

a l ion s

Key to C/za r a cter s a ndS ign :

JBOOR j

ORTHOGRAPHY

Chap te r I . T H E A LPH A BE T , p ages 1 — 1 7 .

E a rly A lphabe tsI n flu en c e o f the Go thic S tyleI n flu en c e o f the Re n a issa n c e a ndRo c o c oS tyles o f Ge rm a n T ypeRe t u rn t o the Ro m a n

Ge rm a n Sc r ip tNo t es o n the A lphabe tThe N um e ra ls

Chap te r I I . SPE LL ING , pages 1 8—

40.

T he Na t u re o f Spe l l in gIm pe rfe c t Syst em s

Refo rm Mo vem en ts

Va r ie t ies o f Spe ll in gThe Basis o f Spe llin gThe Cho ic e be twe e n D iffe r en t Le t t e rs Represen t in gSam e o r S im ila r So u n ds

S ign s o f the Len gth o f Vowe lsD o uble Co n so n an tsThe Spe ll in g o f A dopt ed W o rds

Chapt e r I I I . T H E D IV I S ION OF W OR D S , pages 4 1 —

42 .

(7)

c on ten ts

Chap te r IV . T H E U S E OF CA P ITA LS , pages 43 —

48.

Ru les

Chap ter V. PUNCTUA T ION , pages 49 57 .

B ook ij

PHONOLOGY

Chap t e r I . PH ONETICS , pages 6 1 — 87 .

T he Orga n s o f Spee c hThe Physic a l Ba sis o f Spe e c hB re a thVo ic eReso n a n c eSo n o r ity

A n a lysis o f Spee c hSyllables

So n o r ic a nd D yn am ic Syl lablesSyllabic Lim i tsOpen a nd C losed SyllablesLo n g a nd Sho r t Syl lables

S t ress-Gro u psC lassific a t io n o f S o u n dsCha n ges in S o u n ds

Pho n e t ic Cha n gesCha n ges D u e t o A c c en t a ndT im e

Un vo ic in gSho r ten in g a ndLe n gthen in g

Ro u n din g a ndUn r o u ndl n g

Obsc u r in gLo ss a nd In se r t ion o f So u ndsGra da t io n

Cha n ges D u e t o Ne ighbo r in g S o u ndsA ssimila t io nM u t a t io nLoss o f S o u n dsE xc r esc e n c yCha n ges in Q u a n t i tyD issim ila t io nMe ta thesis

Contents ixPA GE

Psyc ho logic a l Chan gesA n a logyCo n t am in a t ionPopu la r E tym o logySpe e ch-M ixt u re

Spo n ta n eo us Cha n gesH igh-Ge rm a n Shift

Chap te r I I . GER M A N S PEECH -SOUN D S, pages 88— 1 06.

The Vowe lsPa la t e Posit io nsT o n gu e Posit io nsNa rrown essRo u n din gQ u a n t ity

S t ressed Vowe lsU n st r essed Vowe ls

T able o f Vowe lsThe D iph tho n gsThe C o n so n an ts

Ways o f Makin g C o n so n a n tsW ith o r witho u t S t oppageW ith o r W itho u t Vo ic e

Pla c es whe r e Co n so n a n ts a re Ma deOra l C o n so n a n tsNasa l Co n so n a n tsGlo t ta l C o n so n a n ts

Q u an t i ty a nd D o uble C o n so n a n tsT able o f C o n so n a n ts

Chap t e r I I I . PR ONUNC IA T ION , pages 1 07— 1 62 .

A S t a n da rd o f Pro n u n c ia tio nS ta ge Pro n u n c ia t io nThe Best Germ a n

The D iffe ren c e be tween Ge rman a ndE n gl ishBasisof A r t ic u la t io nQ u a n t ityA ssim ila t io nFin a l Un vo ic ingGe rm a n So u n ds Wan t in g in E n glish

The Va lu es o f the Le t te rs

Spec im en with Pho n e t ic T r a n sc r iptions

1 07

1 1 0

1 1 1

Pro n u n c ia t io n 1 1 2

1 1 3

1 1 4

1 1 5

1 1 5

1 1 5

1 1 6-1 58

I S9

x Gon tents

Chap te r I . T H E NA TUR E OF A CCENT, pages

Chap t e r I I . P ITCH , pages 1 67- 1 74 .

Cha ra c t e r o f Spe e c h-P itchFixe d P i t c hFre e Pi t c hChie f KeysC hief Fo rm s o f In to n a t io nR isin g In t o n a t io nFa l lin g I n to n a t io nLe ve l In fle c t io n

Com po u n d I n to n a t io nD egre es o f In t o n a t io n

Chap te r I I I . STR ESS , 1 75- 1 92 .

The Na t u re o f S t ressS t r ess a nd So n o r ity

T he Fo rm s o f S t ressD egre es o f S t ressTh

'

e Basis o f S t ress-Pla c in gT ra dit io nS t a te o f M in d o f the Speake r

Psyc ho lo gic a l S ubje c t and Predic a t eD om in a n c e o f a Pa r t ic u la r Ide aC u r re n ts o f Tho u gh tTho ugh t a ndWo rd

C o n side ra t io n o f“

the M in d o f the List en e rA n a logyRhythm a ndC e r t a in Physic a l Co n dit io n s

Preva il in g Rhythm s

C resc e n do, D e c resc en do , a ndE qu a l S t ressS t ress-Gro u psS t ressWe aken e dS t ress S t r en gthen ed

Conten ts x i

PA G E

Chap t e r IV . SENTE NCE-STR ES S, pages 1 93— 2 1 5.

Gen e ra l Pr in c ip leE qu a l S t ress

Mo difie rsMo difie rs o f Ve rbs

Se r ies o f Mo difie rsMo difie rs o f No u n s a ndA dve rbsMo difie r Fo l lowin gMo difie r Pre c edin g

A n ze m ic Wo rdsPrepo si t io n with Pe rson a l o r Reflexive Pro rio u nD em o n st ra t ive a ndOthe r Pro n o u n sNu m e ra ls

Un defin ed Psyc ho lo gic a l S u bje c t a nd Predic a t eT ra n sf e rr e n c e o f S t ressD ispla c em en t o f S t r essIm p u lsive S t r ess

Chap te r V . WOR D -STR ESS , pages 2 1 6— 264.

I . Chief S t ress

S im ple Wo rdsNa t ive Wo rdsA dop te d Wo rds

Com po sit io nNa t ive Wo rdsGe n e ra l Pr in c ipleD e riva t ives fro m C o m po u n dsE x cep t ion s

The Ve rba l PrefixesA dje c t ives a ndA d verbs C om p o u ndedw ith a nOthe r C o m po u n d A dje c tivesS ubst a n t ivesGe ographic a l Nam es

A dop t ed Wo rdsCo n glom e ra t io n

No u n s a ndVe rbsCo n glom e r a t es

D e r iva t ives a ndCom po u n ds o f C o n glom e ra tes

C o n glom e ra tes as Com po u n ds

x ii

Na t ive Wo rdsA dop t e d Wo rds

fil lnst ra t tons

Fo rm s o f the La t in Le t te rsGo thic H a n d o f 1 450

Fa csim ile from the Gu dru n M s. 1 51 7

E a r ly Go thic T ype

Old Fo rm s o f the Nu m e r a lsSpec im e n s o f H a lf-Go thic TypeThe Orga n s o f Speec hS t a t es o f the Glo t t isD ia gram s o f 27 Posit io n sD iagram s o f z

“

a nd 22 Posit io n s

T able'

o f Co n so n a n ts

P r ef a ce .

TH I S book a im s to be a sy stem a tic a ndpr a ctica l tr ea tise on

subjects per ta in ing to t/ze wr iting , pr in ting , u

’

t ter ing

of M oder n Ger m a n . Tkese su bjects lza v e r eceiv ed v a r ious de

gr ees of a tten tion f r om sckol a rs. [ n tbc case of t/zose lka t kad

a l r eady been f u l ly tr ea ted, f or ex a mpl e

,Spel l ing 69° P kon etics,

it wa s my ckief busin ey'

s to select a nd a r r a nge tbc m ost impor ta n t

el em en ts on t lze ot/zer ba nd,in tr ea ting n eg lected su bjects l ike

A ccen t a nd t/ze D ev elopm en t of Germ a n Letter -f orm s,[ f el t my

self wa r r a n ted in pr esen ting m or e or l ef sf u l ly su ck con tr ibu tions

a s 1 bad to m ake . [n tkis way ea c/z su bject ka s r eceiv edwna t

appea rs to m e to be itspr opor tion a te f u l ln ef s of t r ea tm en t .

Wkil e f eel ing con sciou s of tbc sca r e/Zing ey e of t/ze scien tific

cr itic, n ot on ly wken br inging my own skea v es,bu t a lso wken

pr esen ting t/ze f r u its of tbc la bor of otker s, I ka v e n ot a l lowed

t/zis con sciou sn e/s to div er t m ef r om my ckief pu rpose, n a m ely , to

m ake a book t/za t wou ld f ur n isk wna t tbc ser iou s l ea r n er ofGerm a n n eeded

,a nd t/za t in su ck a f or m tka t ke cou ld ea sily

find it in a word,a pr a ctica l book. I n order to a ccomp l islz

tbis,[ ka v e tr iedto su bordin a tewna t wa s n ot of cliief impor ta n ce,

to a r r a nge t/ze m a tter in a log ica l order , to giv e cr o/s-r cy‘

er en ces

x iv p refac e

w/zer ev er t/zey m tg/i t be of af sista n ce , 59° to in corpor a te wit/i t/ze

Word-List , u nder on e a lp/za betica l a r r a ngem en t,a compl ete index

to su bjects, words, a nd sou nds. To f a cil ita te ref er en ce, I lza v e

a lso pr esen ted tke m a t ter of pr on u n cia tion u nder tbc sepa r a tel etter s, in t lze u su a l a lp/za betica l order pages 1 1 6— 158 wit/z

r ef er en ces to t/ze pr eceding section s in wkick t/ze gen er a l su b

jects a nd tbc gov er n ing pr in ciples m ay be f ou nd sy stem a tica l ly

pr esen ted.

I wou ld r epea t t/za t t/ze book pr etends to tr ea t of M oder n

G er m a n on ly . I cou ld n ot af su m e tku t tbc a v er age u ser wou ld

lza v e a kn owl edge of Old (be M iddle f f zg/z Germ a n,a nd it

wou ld ka v e ser iou sly in terf er edwitk tbc a im of til e book bad

I a ttempted to m a ke up f or a l a ck of su ck kn owledge. [l a v e

bad in m ind tbc l ea r n er wko sta r ts f r om tbc pr in tedpage ofa M oder n Ger m a n tex t or tbc spoken words of Ger m a ns ofto-day . Wker e, f or ex ampl e, spel l ings l ike gabrt, $Begier, (Soft,skow kim tbc leng t/z of tke v owel

,ka v e n ot supposedkim to be

l ikely to in qu ir e kow it kapp en ed to be a s it is. To ka v e m ade

distin ction s,su ck a s til a t between tbc ea r l ier a ndtilel a ter m u ta

tion,wou ld a s m a n if est ly ka v e been ou t of pl a ce . [vev er t/zelef s,

wker e a n eeded expl a n a tion dem a nded kistor ica l sta tem en ts,

l l a v e g i v en tkem to M e deg r ee tka t tkoug/zt tkey cou ld be u sed.

M or eov er , in su c/z a m a tter a s tbc dev elopm en t of tbc f or m s oft/ze l etter s

,lia v e n ot kesita ted to del v e in to tbc pa st f or wka t

n eeded ker e to be sa id cou ld be u nder stood wit/zou t kistor ica l

[ tr u st it wil l be obv iou s tka t a m n ot tbc adv oca te of tbc

u n iqu e v a l u e of {be Ger m a n pr on u n cia t ion of a ny on epr ov in ce.

I ka v e a im ed to en a bl e tke l ea r n er to ckoose in ea clz pa r ticu l a r

tka t u sage tka t is m ost gen er a l w/zick n ot on ly wil l oj end tbc

f ewest ea rs,bu t wkic/z a lso sta nds tbc best cka n ce of u l tim a tely

pr ev a il ing . S u ck a‘D u r cksc/zn ittsdeu tsc/z is m ost l ikely tofind

a ctu a l r ea l iza tion in t lze capita l of til e n a tion . especia l ly if t/za t

capita l,l ike London 69° B er l in

,sta nds on t/ze border of t/ze

p reface x v

[Midla nd a nd t/za t pa r t of tbc cou n try tka t lza s ckief pol itica l

a nd l iter a ry impor ta n ce Wker ein m ay ka v e er r ed

wel com e cor r ection to be of v a l u e cr iticism m u st,kowev er

,be

defin ite a ndspecific, especia l ly a s r ega rds l oca l ity . Tbe n ecef sityof br ev ity ka s occa sion a l ly f or cedm e to use l a ng u age lka t on til e

su rf a ce m ay appea r too sweeping . Tbe sta tem en t, f or ex a mple

,

t/za t a cer ta in pr on u n cia tion is N or t/zer n a nd a n ot/zer S ou tlzer n,

m u st n ot be taken too str ictly : it simply m ea n s t/za t t/zedi er en ce

in u sage a s to tbc m a tter u nder con sider a tion is c/zieyly a geo

g r ap lzica l on e a nd t/za t t/ze N or tk f a v ors t/ze on e f or m a nd tbc

S ou t li tbc ot/zer .

I t wou ld be st r a nge if my p lzon etic tr a n scr iption f ou ndf a v or

wit/z a l l . I t m ust be r em em ber ed,kowev er

,t/za t p lzon etic tr a n

scr iption is m u clz m or e difficu l t wken on e is t ry ing to r epr esen t

u sage t lza t is n ot u n iform t/za n w/zen ke'

lza s tbc compa r a tiv elysimp le ta sk of r epr esen ting tbc pr on u n cia tion of a n indiv idu a l

or of a sm a l l com m u n ity . I ka v e tr ied to sol v e on e or two oftbc difi cu l ties by t/ze use of R om a n type, pages x x v . f t , x x v i. f t .

I a n ticipa te objection pa r ticu l a r ly to my u se of a n, en, dy e ,in

adoptedF r en ck words. I n m ost of tkese words S ou t/z G er m a n s

u se t r u e na sa l v owels,andedu ca tedGer m a n sa l l ov er t/ze cou n try

do so in tke tef s common on es, a ccording to tbc deg r ee of t/zeir

f a m il ia r ity witk F r en clz. B u t t/ze r ea son wky S ou t/z Germ a ns

do tbis, gen er a l ly l ies in tbc f a ct tka t l/zey use su ck n asa l v owels

in spea king G er m a n itself , a f ea tu r e of tkeir Ger m a n t/za t is

conf ef sedly dia lectic . Tbe f a ct tka t in t lze Al idl a nd a nd tbc

N or tk n a sa l v owels occu r in pr opor tion to'

t/ze deg r ee of tbc

spea ker ’

s kn owl edge of F r en clz, sta mps tkem a sf or eign . J ser i

ously dou bt wketber a f or eign sou ndka s ev er been adoptedby a

people gen er a l ly in pl a ce of it is su bstitu ted tke n ea r est n a tiv e

sou nd 1 29 c Tbe tr a n scr iption of g a lon wit/z -o’

u sta nds on

a p a r wit/z tbc tr a nscr iption of ima lbeur witk -or . Tbis-b'

77wil l ,

of cou r se,in n o way pr ev en t a ny on e f r om g iv ing tbc r ea l F r en ck

sou nd,l ie n eedbu t look upon 77 a s a sign of n a sa l ity .

x v i p reface

Of wka t defects tbc book may [l a v e [ f a n cy [ a m m or e con

sciou s tk‘

a n a ny on e else ca n be. [n t lie fieldof S en ten ce-S t r e/s

bad, f or t/ze m ost pa r t

,n ew l a ndto plow; tker e a r e stil l m a ny

spots tku t wil l be tbc better f or m or e tkor ougk cu l tiv a tion . [n

t/ze ca se of P itek [pa r ticu l a r ly f eel tbc in sufi cien cy of my tr ea t

m en t . A side f r om tke ev a n escen t a ndpecu l ia r ly dgficu l t n a tu r e

of tbc su bject ev en wken l im ited to M e u sage of a n indiv idu a l,

fi nd tku t tker e is a ta n ta l izing div ersity of usage i n t/ze v a r iou s

pa r ts of tbc Ger m a n -spea king ter r itory . Tker e a r e distr icts in

wkick my sta tem en t 252 b) lka t t lze v oice f a l ls in com m a nds

does n ot bolda t a l l , cf . a lso tbc qu ick r ise in tbc dicta tor ia l order s

of m ost a rmy oj icer s a nd of som e tea c/zers; in som epa r ts t/ze r is

ing p itck a t tlze end of a com m a nd is employ edwit/z tbc impl ica

tion “I’m going to see tku t y ou do wka t say

”

; in stil l ot/zer s it

is r ega rded a s suggestiv e of wea kn ef s or qu er u lou sn e/s, especia l lywken empl oy edby a m a n .

A f ew t/zings t/za t m tg/i t be soug/zt in t/ze book lza v e t r ea ted

bu t br iefly or n ot a t a l l . Tbe G er m a n scr ip t on page 1 2 is in

tended on ly to f a m il ia r ize tke l ea r n er witk tbc f orm s tlza t lie

m iglzt n ot u ndersta nd. Tker e wa s,t/zer efor e, n o n eed of giv ing

a l l tbc v a r iou s app r oa ckes tku t t/ze Ger m a n wr iting is m a king

to tbc R om a n Ger m a n copy -books ca n easily be obta in ed

f r om a ny dea ler in Ger m a n books. lza v e giv en f ewdiag r a m s

of t lze position s of t/ze v oca l orga n s, bu t [ wou ld u rge tbc studen t

to a v a il kim self of t/zose in G r a ndgen t’s

‘Ger m a n a ndE ng l is/z

On M e ba sis of kisjz'

g u r es, ka v e a ttempted,in tbc

ta bl e of v owels to indica te by tbc pl a cing of tbc letter s

tbc position s af su m ed by tiie tong u e du r ing tbc sou nding of tlze

v a r iou s v owels. S til l , a sl zgkt con cef sion is m ade to sckem a tic

r equ ir em en tsby pl a cing ii 69° 6 n ea r tbc u n r ou nded v owels i 6,

wit/i w/zick tkey a r e a/socia ted a cou stica l ly . T/zey wou ld m or e

a ccu r a tely be pl a ced a t tbc lef t of e (5° (i . [f ou nd it dgfi cu l t to

B oston , Gin n 69° Co . , 1 892 .

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

x v ii i p reface

of tbe or igin of t lza t cka r a cter istic type Tbe n ecef sityof il l u str a ting tbc v a r iou s sty lesof type, a swel l a s my person a l

in ter est in su ck m a tters,wil l expl a in t/te som ewka t u n con v en tion a l

typ og r ap/zica l dr ef s of tbis v ol u m e.

Wken study ing t/ze l iter a tu r e of tbe su bject, ka v e a lway s

v a l u edsu e/z inf orm a tion a swr itersf u r n is/zeda s to tkeir per son a l

equ a tion , a nd ska l l ker e add a f ew words a s to m in e. [ wa s

bor n in tbis cou n try a ndE ng l is/z is my m ot/zer tong u e ; bu t

lza v e,sin ce my ckild/zood

,bea rd Ger m a n spoken a t [tom e by my

pa r en ts,wko wer e n a tiv es of D r esden . S in ce com ing to m a tu r ity ,

ka v e spen t a y ea r a nd a ka lf a t B er l in 63° Go'

t tingen , a y ea r

a t j en a (5° D r esden,a nd a y ea r a t S tr af sbu rg (

"

as Tu bingen .

Tbe obser v a tion of tke v a r iou sf orm s of Germ a n sp eec/z t/za t t/zu s

f el l upon my ea r f or m ed t/ze f ou nda tion of tke pr esen t v ol u m e.

I n my a ttempt to do justice to a l l,

lia v e been m a teria l ly a ided

by f r iends, wko ka v e giv en m e v a l u a bl e inf or m a tion a ndkindly

r ead m or e or l cf s of til e pr oof s. B u t,a s [ cou ld n ot a v a il my

self of a l l tkeir con tr ibu tions, tbc r espon sibil ity f or def ects a nd

er r or s is m in e a lon e. s/zou ld m en tion in pa r ticu l a r F or

Nor tk Ger m a ny ,P r of . H oops of til e Un iv ersity of H eidelberg ,

P r of Vof s of til e Un iv er sity of Wiscon sin ,M f s [da G a t/ze of

Ckicago , my cou sin M i s M a r ie Apel of Go'

ttingen ,67° my

co l l eag u es D r . M en sel a ndM r . Tobia s D ieklzoyf ; F or t/ze Al id

l a nd,P r of . S c/zil l ing of H a r v a rd Un iv ersity ,

D r . P a bst of tbc

Gy m n a siu m a t B r em en,M r . R ein lzold A

’

n a u tk of M adison,

Wis , 69° my col l eag u e P r of Z iwet F or tbc S ou tk, P r of . B opp

of tbc R ea lscku le a t T u'

bingen ,M r . P li il . H u ber , P r in cipa l of

the .Ger m a n D epa r tm en t of t lze S agin aw WS . S clzools, M r .

C. E Weiser of til e D etr oit [J ig/z S c/zool , P r of . E r n st Wer n er

of tbc R ea lgy m n a siu m a t Ka r lsr u /ze,63° my col leagu es M r .

Otto Lef sing dos M r . E dwin B oedder . am a lso u nder ob

l iga tion s to P r of . E . M B r own of tbc Un iv er sity of Cin cin

n a ti f or a cr itica l r ev ision of‘

t/ze E ng l is/z sty l e of m u ck ofB ook to P r of . Lloyd a ndM r . George R ebec of t/ze p/ziloz

p reface

sopkica l depa r tm en t of flies u n i v ersity ,wko lza v e kindly r ead

a nd cr iticisedc/zap ters a nd V. on S tre/s a ndpa r ticu l a r lyto P r of . [Ilen e/z of tke Ger m a n depa r tm en t

,wit/z wkom it ka s

been my goodf or tu n e to be a ble to discuf s day by day t/ze v a r iou s

pka ses of til e work,a nd to w/zose sckola r skip a nd sol id good

sen se tbc book owes n ot a l ittle. B u t skou ldf a il to exp r ef s a

gr ea t per son a l obl iga tion if ker e om itted to t lza n k pu bl icly on e

wkose a id kas been ev er pr esen t sin ce my ea r l iest c/zildkood, my

a u n t,M i s Ca m il la H ein tzscke. Tlzis book in pa r ticu l a r owes

m u cli to lier a ccu r a cy a ndker in tim a te f a m il ia r ity wit/z Ger m a n

GE OR GE

A n n A r bo r , M ickzga n ,

M a r cii 1 897 .

N0TE . F or t/ze a n n ou n cem e n t of P a r t I I ., see the endof this v ol u m e .

“

x x iv

B hbrev ta t tona

Bu t f ew abbrevia t io n s have be en u sed tha t n eed explan a t io n . NNo te , R Rem a rk , f t = fo o t ~ n o t e , in dic a tes tha t fu r the r in fo rm a t io na s to a su bjec t m ay be expe c t ed in the A dde n da .

In m a t te rs o f o r tho graphy the va r io us o ffic ia l spe l le rs a re referred t oby abbre via t io n s e asily u n de rsto o d . S e e p 1 8 f t , 20 N .

T he fo llowing abbrevia t io n s a re em p lo yed to design a te dia lec ts &c .

a ndpa r ts o f Ge rm a n y :

H G H igh Ge rm a n

LG Low Ge rm a n

M E M iddle E n glishM H G Middle H igh Ge rm a n

M u E Mo de r n E n glishM uG Mo de r n Ge rm a n

NH G New H igh Ge rm a n iOE Old E n glish , o r A n glo-SaxonOH G Old H igh Ge rm a n

E (G ) E ast Ge rm a n yE M (G ) the e aste r n M idla n dM (G ) the Midla n dNE (G ) No r th-E ast Ge rm a n yN (O) No r th Ge rm a n yNW (G ) No r th-West Ge rm a n yS E (G ) So u th-E ast Ge rm a n y, in c lu din g A u st r

'

iaS (G ) So u th Ge rm a n y, in c lu din g A u st r ia a nd Swit zer la n dSW(G ) So u th-West Ge rm a n y , in c lu din g Swi t ze r la n dW (G ) West Ge rm a n yW M (G) the weste r n M idla n d

KEY TO CH ARACTE RS AND S IGNS

a the lo n g m id-ba ck-w ide vowe l , l ike a in ‘a r t

’

, 1 70, 1 .

a sho r t a‘a r t ist ic ’

, 1 70, 2 .

5 u sage va ryin g be tween lo n g a ndsho r t ,1 59 and 243 a .

n o n syl labic , 1 46 N .

diph tho n g Spe lled ci o r ai, sim ila r t o i in ‘m in e of wo u ld be a

m o re exa c t spe ll in g thanuni, 1 72 .

an , Sim ila r to o n in ‘ho use ’

; m o re c o r rec t ly“no, 1 73 °

lo n g m id-fro n t-wide vowe l , l ike ei in ‘the ir 1 76, 1 . Cf a lso e .

E n gl ish sho r t l ow-m ixed vowe l spe lled u in bu t’a nda in v illa

lo n g l ow-fro n t vowe l , the so u n d o f a in ‘m a n

’ bu t lo n g o r

drawled , as it u su a lly isin A m e r ic a .

d sho r t the so u n d o f a in m a n kin d o r in m an

as t ha t is pro n o u n c ed byE n gl ishm en .

vo ic ed bilabia l stop , b in bo y 1 78.

fr ic a t ive , the m o f M iddle a nd So u th Germ an y ;bu t 6 is m o re c om m o n ,

§ 2 39

7 see be low, abo ve z .

c the vo ic e less t op st0p , k in st ick in g ’as dist in gu ished from the ba ck

sto p in lo oke r Bu t

this dist in c t io n is u su a llyign o red , 205N 1 .

vo ic ed po in t stop , d in dog 1 84.

Con son an ts prin ted in R om an type a re the sam e as the c o rr esponding voic edc on son a n ts prin t ed in I ta lics e xc ept tha t they a re m o re o r less u n voic ed be c a u se n extto a voic e less c on son an t , 1 50 N 2 , o r a re en t irely u n vo ic ed in som e pa r ts o f the

c ou n t ry , 1 50 N 3 , 2 23 N 3 .

x x v i they to Characters ano S igns

the vo ic ed fro n t fr ic a t ive spe lled th in ‘ this, ’ 1 .

sign f o r fill fetm ig, 1 5.

lo n g m id-fro n t-n a r row vowe l , sim ila r t o the first a in ‘a e ria l

1 85, I N 1 .

sho r t wide like e in m e t’

, 1 85, 2 .

u sage va ryin g be twe e n lo n g n a r

row a ndsho r t wide , § 1 59.

n ar row u sage va ryin g 1 59) be twe enlo n g a ndsho r t .

T.

n o n syllabic , be in g n ex t t o a m o r e

so n o r o u s so u n d , 1 46 N ,

77 , 85,

g som e t im es u sed t o in dic a t e a n e tha t has a r ise n o u t o f a by m u t a t io n ,

1 20, 3 , 1 25 e nd.

e the lo n g m id-fro n t-wide vowe l , l ike ei in ‘ the ir I n the Wo rd-Liste is pr in t e d fo r len gthen ed M H G 6, f o r su c hM H G e

’s a nd ae

’

s as a r e

st il l o ften pro n o u n c edwide , a nd a lso fo r e befo r e Ma n y Ge rm a n s

pro n o u n c e it ju st o r

n ea r ly l ike 5, o thers sub

st it u t e e f o r it , 1 85N 2 .

E n gl ish lo n g m id-m ixed in birdsho r t spe lled e in ©abe

’1 86

n ea r ly the sam e as o in

‘villa ’.

vo ic e less den t ilabia l fr ic a t ive , f in fo x 1 92 .

vo ic ed ba ck st0p , g in ‘

go 1 94 , 1 96.

vo ic e less glo t ta l fr ic a t i v e , h in ‘ha n d 1 54, 200 .

t op d) in id) o ft en hea rd f o r kj in

‘hu m a n 1 80, 1 81 N .

lo n g high-fro n t-n a rrow vowe l , e in m e 20 1 , 1 R a .

sho r t wide i in ‘hit ’

, 20 1 , 2 R a .

Ci p xxv f t .1 Vowe ls prin tedin R om an ty pe a re shor t bu t , like the c o rrespondin g lon g vowe ls,

a re n a rrow,1 44 N 2 b

,1 35e nd, a lso 243 a .

use

it!

n

nak

7 1

k ey to Characters anb S igns x x v u

the high-fro n t vowe l, usage va ryin g be twe en lo n g n a rrow and sho r tw ide , 1 59.

n a r row vowe l , u sage va ryin g 1 59) be tween lo n ga ndsho r t .

sho r t high-fro n t-n a rrow vowe l T.

u ( 6n o n syllabic , be in g n ext t o a m o re

so n o ro u s so u n d 1 46

N , 77 , y in ‘

ye t’as

pro n o u n c ed by m a n y,20 1 N 3 , 204 N c .

vo iced top fr ica t ive , a m o re c lose ly a r t ic u la ted fo rm o f j, y in‘

y e as pro n o u n c ed by

m a n y, 204 N a .

stop , g in ‘give ’as dist in gu ished from the ba ck

st0p in ‘

go’. B u t this

dist in c t io n is u su a llyign o red , 1 94 N .

vo ic e lessba ck k in lo oke r 205 N 1 .

vo ic ed side so n o ro u s c o n so n a n t , l in ‘ l e t’

, 206.

syl labic be c a u se n o t n ext t o a

m o re so n o ro u s so u n d,§ 77 , 85, p 1 28 N 5

bilabia l n asa l, m in m e 207 .

se e be low w.

the vo ic e d po in t

Cf p xxv f t .

syllabic bec a u se n o t n ext t o a m o re so n o

ro u s so u n d , 77 , 85,

p 1 28 N 5.

n in ‘n o

’

, 208.

syllabic be c a u se n o t n ext t o a m o r e so n o

ro u s so u n d, 77 , 85,

p 1 28 N 5.

n g in singin g 209 R .

n g in‘su n g ’

, 209 R .

syl labic be c a u se n o t n ext t o a m o re so n o

ro u s so u n d , 77 , 85,

p 1 28 N 5.

1 Cf p xxvi f t .

x x v i ii they to Charac ters anb S igns

0 the l o n g m id-ba ck-n arrow-ro u n ded vowe l , l ike 0 in ‘n o t e bu t c f

2 1 0, 1 N .

sho r t 0 in the N ew E n gla n ddia le c t p ro n u n c ia t io n o f

‘st o n e

’&c , 2 1 0 , 2 N 3 .

u sage va ryin g be twe enlo n g n a r row a nd sho r twide , 159.

n a rrow u sage va ryin g 1 59) be

tween lo n g a ndsho r t .

sho r t n o n syl labic be c a u se n extt o a m o re so n o ro u s

so u n d , 1 46 N , 77 , 85.

9“ lo n g l ow-ba ck-n a rrow-r o u n ded vowe l in ‘ l aw

Q"

sho r t ‘wha t ’

, bu t n o t the d

th a t m a n y A m e r ic a n ssubst it u t e f o r Q

’

.

diph tho n g spe lled eti, tin , &c , sim ila r t o o y in‘bo y

’

; m o re

c o r re c t ly oe, 09, on , o r pf

&c , 1 77 .

lo n g m id-fro n t-n a rrow-ro u n ded vowe l , o ft e n su bst it u t e d f o r e inho ldin g su ch a wo rd as

‘da y’in sin gin g , a nd in

lo n g c a lls t o an im a ls,2 1 6.

2 1 6, 2 .

T.

n o n syl labic bec a u se n ext t oa m o re so n o ro u s so u n d,1 46 N , 77 , 85, 1 77 .

vo ic e less bilabia l fr ic a t ive , the so u n d m a de in blowin g, 239 end.

p the vo ic e less bilabia l st op , p in ‘happy 2 1 7 .

b fro n t fr ic a t ive , spe lle d th in ‘ thick 1 .

r vo ic ed po in t t r ill , 2 2 1 , 1,bu t c f 368.

r *

r syllabic bec a u se n o t n ex t to a m o re so n o ro us

so u n d , 77 , 85, p 1 28

N 5, c f a lso 368.

glo t ta l 22 1 , 3 .

Cf p xxv f t . 1 Cf p xxvi f t

x x x k ey to Charac ters ano S igns

u the lo n g high-fro n t-n a rrow-ro u n ded vowe l o ften su bst it u t edf o r i in ho ldin g su c h a

wo rd as m e’in sin gin g,

a nd in lo n g ca lls t o a n i

sho r t 237 , som e t im es sub

st it u t ed f o r i’ in the c a l lc hick , c h ick , c h ick

n a rrow l

n o n syllabic be c a u se n extt o a m o re so n o ro u s

so u n d, 1 46 N, 77 , 85,

1 77 .

vo ic ed den t ilabia l fric a t ive , v in vea l ’

, 238, 2 , 239.

bilabia l-back w in way a m o re c lose ly a r t ic u la tedfo rm o f. gt , 77 .

was

ta vo ic e less u sed by m an y speake rs f o r kw in

wha t &c .

(15 see abo ve , u n der 0.

X the vo ic e less ba ck d) in ad) 1 80, 2 N 1 , 1 98, 2 .

7 vo ic ed g in fi age’a s pr o n o unc ed in m ost

pa r ts o f NG , 1 98, 1 .

”i f

2 fro n t Spe lled z in ‘zea l 2 23 .

z * c f a lso 2 23 N 3 .

3 . the vo ic ed fro n t fr ic a t ive spe lled S in ‘p leasu re ’

, 1 99 d, 204 N 2 .

c f a lso 204 N 2 .

S ign f o r slowly fa ll in g in to n a t io n , 250.

gra du a l st ress, 262 .

slowly r isin g in to n a t io n , 250 .

abr u pt st r ess (whe n c o n t rast ed with gra du a l st ress), 262 .

c hief st ress, 263 .

se c o n da ry st ress whe n thre e signs a re n e eded , 263.

we ak st ress when thre e Sign s a re n e eded ; f o r sec on da ryst ress whe n o n ly two a re n eeded , 263.

o ve r 1 , 2 1 .

Cf p xxv f t . 1 Cf p xxvi f t .

R eg to Charac ters ano S igns xxx i

o ve r s, c f 3.

vowe ls, 2 2 .

a sign t o sepa ra t e the vowe ls o f a gra da t io n series, 1 1 7-8.

the o ld fo rm o f the c om m a , 57 , 30.

sem ic o lo n , 58.

sem ic o lo n , 58.

c om m a , § 57 .

a post ro phe , 65.

Sign f o r the glo t ta l stop , I 54, z .

u o ta tion m a rks, 66.

H

n sign f o r c om po u n d st ress, 26 1 .II

II

qu o t a t io n m a rks, 66.

S ign m ea n in g ‘cha n ged in t o ’

(o r‘c ha n gin g These signs a lways

in t o be c am e’

,

‘ t o’

,

‘e a r lie r po in t in the dire c t io n

fo rm o f’

,

‘ la t e r o f the c ha n ge , t o

de r ived from ‘ la te r fo rm o f wa rd the yo u n gerfo rm e r ly fo rm .

4 sign fo r swe ll in gsu bsidin g st ress, 260 .

D le ve lequ a ls ‘

. l ike m ean in gthe dash , 62 .

sign f o r chiefse c o n da ry sen t e n c e st ress, 263 .

we akle ve l in t o n a t io n , 250 .

len gth o f vowe l , 1 37 .

subst it u t e f o r m , n , 2 2 .

the hyphe n , 64 .

L S ign f o r qu ickly fa ll in g lI

r isin g jA

risin g fa ll in gfa llin g r isin g

Sign f o r n asa l it y, 1 33 , 207 N R .

u o ve r wr i t t en 11 , 2 2 .

Sign fo r sho r tn ess o f vowe l , 1 37 .

a syllable w ith ve ry weak st ress, 263.

in to n a t io n , 250.

in t o n a t io n , 254, 256.

x x x n k ey to Charac ters ano S igns

sign tha t the so u n d wr it t en abo ve is n o n syllabic ,o f va c illa t io n o f usage as t o qu an t ity, 1 59.

fo r a syllable la ckin g st ress, 263.

o ve r pr in ted u , 2 2 .

the per io d, 56.

t u rn e d per iod , p 1 28 N 5.

m easu res o f degre es o f so n o r ity, 85.

o ve r vowe ls, 2 2 , 1 85N 2 end.

the c o lo n , 59.

hyphen , 64 .

qu est io n m a rk , 60 .

t u rn ed, se e abo ve , be low j.see abo ve , be low s.

the Sign o f a se c t io n in a bo ok .

exc lam a t io n po in t , 6 1 .

dagge r , 68. In the Wo rd-List it design a tes obso l eSign f o r ‘p lus c om bin ed wi thaste r isk , 67.

Sign o f a fo o tn o t e , 63 R .

i-m u t a t io n , § 1 20.

m a rks o f pa ren thesis, 63 .

Chapter i

T H E A LP H A B E T

EA RLY A LP H A BETS

1 . The e a r l iest a lphabe t u sed by the G e rm a n s,as we l l

as by the ir kin sm e n,the E n gl ish a nd the S c a ndin a v ia n s,

was the R u n ic F u t ha rk , o f wh ic h the fo l lowin g a r e c ha r

a c t e rist ic e a r ly fo rm swith the ir v a lu es

m wP R u x y m Pw

lz & x , *n & u, l i, l1 j , Y z , 5s;

TLBB Sz b,No t e . I t is n ow u su a l t o a dopt W im m e r

’

s de r iva t io n o f the r u n icfu tha rk from the La t in a lphabe t . T his, howeve r , do es n o t se em t o be

so c e r ta in ly pro ve d as has be en su pposed . Mo st o f the r u n es m ay as

r ea dily be de r ived from o the r a lphabe ts, a ndsom e o f them , t ha t c an n o tbe de r ive d from the La t in a lphabe t witho u t c o n siderable assum pt io n

H en n in g D ie deu tscken R unenden km a’

l er , 1 889. Pa u l i A l tita l iscke

F or scku ngen , 1 885—

91 . S ieve rs P u n en u nd P u n en in sc/zr if ten , in

Pa u l ’s Gr u n dr iss I ., 1 889. W im m er : R u n eskr zf ten sOp r indelse og Ud

v ikl ing i N orden , 1 874 ; im pro ved Ge rm an edit io n , t ran sla ted by H o ltha u sen , 1 887 .

A m dt La tein iscke S ckr zjf t , in Pa u l’sGr u n dr iss I . 1 889 andS c/zr g

'

f t

taf el n zu r E r l er n u ng der l a tein iscken P a l a eog r ap kie , 1 887— 8. B e ch

st e in D ie deu tscke D r u cksckr if t , 1 884. Bro ckha u s’sKon v er sa tion s~

l ex ikon . D eV in n e , H istor ic P r in ting Typ es, 1 886. M iil l e r : Q u el l en

sckr if ten , 1 882 . Thom pson H a ndbook of Gr eek a ndLa tin P a l ceog r ap /zy ,

1 893. Wa t ten ba ch : D a s S ckr if twesen in t M ittel a l ter , 2d cd., 1 875;

and A n l eitu ng zu r l a tein iscken P a l a og r apkie, 4 th ed., 1 886. D ie B u ck

sckr iften des M ittel a l ter s, Vien n a , 1 852.

Z Crthographg

and m an ipu la t io n , find exa c t c o u n terpa r ts e lsewhere , fo r exam ple , Nan d the t u rn ed 1 u l

“

A in the S abe l l ic a ndVen e t ic a lphabe ts. W iththe in c r ease o f o u r kn owledge o f e a r ly a lphabe ts, it m a y ye t t u rn o u t

tha t the r u n es a nd c er ta in No r th-I t a l ic a lphabe ts ha ve a c o m m o n o r igin ,o r tha t the r u n es a re fro m a n a lphabe t akin t o the S abe l l ic a ndVen e t icbu t m o dified by the in flu en c e o f the La t in .

The pr e va len c e o f Sha rp a n gles ra the r than c u rves, a nd the a vo ida n c eo f ho r izo n t a l lin es, a re du e t o the m a t e r ia l u po n which the le t t e rs we r ea t o n e t im e c u t a nd t o the in st r u m en t u sed the Ven e t ic , a nd t o a lessext en t o the r , le t te rs ha ve the sam e cha r a c t e r ist ic . Som e o f the va r ia ntfo rm s t ha t in t im e a rose we re la t e r em plo ye d t o diffe ren t ia t e so u n ds n o texa c t ly a like (n a nd P = u a nd w, c f . § 1 6 ; I1 a nd X = j a nd 7 ,

1 97 , 1 , 1 98, 1 , The frequ en t c om bin a t io n X u su a lly blen dedin a l iga t u re 0 , o r som e thin g sim ila r a nd thiswas in c o rpo ra tedas a

' let t e r when the fu tha rk was fo rm u la t ed in to thre e rows o f e ightle t ters ea c h .

2 . La t e r,with the in t rodu c t io n o f Chr ist ia n i ty a nd o f

La t in le a r n ing in to G e rm a n y , the La t in a lphabe t was in t rodu c ed. I t c o n sist ed o r igin a l ly o f Ca p it a ls o n ly , wh ic hu su a l ly had abo u t th is fo rm

A E V M N R S T B D H C QBu t in the pro c ess o f t im e the a lphabe t c am e to ha v e o the r

fo rm s,a c c o rdin g a s wr it in g m a t e r ia l v a r ied o r wr i t in g was

f o r diffe ren t pu rposes.

3 . (a ) By 3 00 A . D .,the Un c ia l le t t e rs had de v e loped,

with st rokes ro u nded a nd sim p l ified

(b) Ou t o f the u n c ia l the re a rose,u nde r the in flu en c e o f

the c u rsiv e , the H a l f-u n c ia l

cr e u m N n‘

r‘

t

C rthographn

ha nd o f n e a r ly u n ifo rm th ic kn ess. In books, the n e ed o f

gre a t leg ibi l ity c u l t iv a t ed c le a r a nd dist in c t le t t e rs ; o n e

m e a n s o f‘

a c c om p l ishin g th is was the u se o f the stub p e n ,

wh ic h,howe v e r

,n o t o n ly favo red the de v e lopm e n t o f a bla ck

le t t e r bu t a lso t he disp la c em en t o f c u rv es by c o rn e rs m o re

o r less sha rp . S u ch a p e n , whe n l ift ed o n the c om p le t ion o f

a st roke , was ap t to m ake a c e r iph , wh ic h la t e r de v e lopedin to the c ha ra c t e r ist ic t r ia n gu la r base 1 . M ost o f the l e t

te rs a lre ady c o n t a in ed a perpendic u la r ba r ; the e x t e n sio n o f

th is c ha ra c te r ist ic t o su c h o f the r em a in in g le t te rs as ad

m it t ed o f it,bro ught the wr it t e n c ha r a c te rs in to ha rm o n y

with the pr in c iples o f the G o th ic a r ch it e c tu r e,wh ich had

c om e in du r in g the 1 z ib a nd 1 3 th c e n t u r ies. I t had fo r

som e t im e been c u st om a ry t o add to c apit a ls e x t r a p e rpe n

dic u la r st rokes in red o r som e o the r c o lo r ; the im it a t io n o f

these in bla ck led t o a n in c re ase in the n u m be r o f p e rpe n

dic u la r c o lum n s a nd pr odu c ed a so r t o f la c e wo rk tha t had

a n e ff e c t sim i la r t o tha t produ c edby the syst em o f c o lu m n s

st a nding o u t from the wa l ls o f a G o th ic c a thedra l . The

Go th ic pr in c ip le was m ost c a r e fu l ly c a rr iedo u t in books tha t .

we re in t e nded f o r u se in div in e se r v ic e — m issa ls, psa lte rs,bibles

,e t c .

— a nd in in sc r ipt io n s o n t om bs a nd the l ike ina nd abo u t the c hu r c hes. The fo l lowin g is a n e x am p le o f thest r ic t G o th ic* o f re l ig iou sm anu sc r ipt bo oks o f abo u t 1 450

a r u rn n r i l'

st b b 9 gThis sty le a t ta in ed perfe c t ion in the types c u t fo r the firstbible , 8 .

al‘) The t erm Go thic is o ft en u sed t o in c lu de a l l fo rm s o f bla ck l e tt e r , c f . 9 f t . In o u r pr in t in g o ffic es the wo rd is u sed o f a p la in bo ldfac e le t te r : A B C a b C .

Che a lphabet

6 . Bu t str ic t Go th ic was n o t the o n ly o r even the predomin a t ing sty le in bo oks. I t was m o r e r igid a nddiffic u lt thanwas n e c essa ry fo r legibi l ity a nd proh ibited the indu lge n c e o fthe t em pta t ion t o le t the p e n m ake gra c e fu l c u r v es a ndt ags.

Those o rdin a ry bo ok ha nds tha t a re m o re u n c o n st r a in edbu tst i l l possess som e o f the c ha r a c te r ist ic s o f G o th ic m ay be

gro u ped as H a l f a fi o t h ic a nd c a n be st udied from the typesc ast in im i ta t ion o f them

,se e 9 .

INFLUENCE OF TH E RENA IS S A NCE A ND TH E ROCOCO

7 . 1 ) I t a l ia n sc r ibes had m a in t a in ed a gra c efu l ro u nd

m in u sc u le a nd, tho u gh th is showed itse lf c apable o f passing

in to a ha ndsom e ha lf-G o th ic 9, its e a r l ie r fo rm was r ev iv ed whe n the R e n a issa n c e m ade it n e c essa ry t o produ c em a n y c op ies o f the e a r l ie r m a n u sc r ipts o f the c lassic s. Th isc om pa r a t iv e ly l ight m in u sc u le ha nd, with the o ldR om a n l e t

t e rs 2 ) as c ap it a ls,c am e to be asso c ia ted with c lassic a l

le a rn in g a nd to be c a l led Rom a n,in G e rm a n Qatein ijd) o r

fln tiqua . H a ndsom e fo rm s o f th is a re‘F re n ch Old-S ty le

’

(c f . the u ppe r ha lf o f the t it le-page o f thisbo ok) a nd, in bo ldfa c e

,

‘D e V in n e ’

(c f . the he adin g o f th is pa ragraph) .

Rem a rk . I t m ay be sta t ed he re tha t the le t te rs c a lle d It a l ics wer ec ast e a r ly in the 1 6th c en t u r y in im ita t io n o f the m o re c u rsive 4) ha n din vogu e in the Rom a n Chan c e ry .

2 ) E v e n be fo r e the Go th ic le t t e r hada t ta in ed its c om ple tede v e lopm en t

,the n ew a r t ist ic spir it had begu n its wo rk .

Wh i le,as we sh a l l se e 1 0

,u ) , the R e n a issa n c e did n o t

Su c c e ed in Ge rm a n y in subst it u t in g the R om a n le t t e r f o r

bla c k le t te r,it had a n in flu en c e u po n the fo rm o f ha lf-Go th ic .

To th is in flu e n c e the c ap it a lswe re m ost su sc ept ible : they

ga v e u p m a n y o f the sha rp a n gles they had re c e iv ed fromthe G o th ic , wh i le m u ch was m ade o f the c u rv es they had

re t a in ed; a nd th is t e nde n c y be c am e st il l m o re pro n o u n c ed

6 C rthographn

Fa csim ile from Gu dr u n M s., 1 51 7 .

du r ing the 1 00000 pe r iod. E x c ept fo r the addit io n o f v a r io u s c ro oks a nd c u r ls, bu t f ew o f the sm a l l le t t e rs (fo r e x amp l e , fin a l a, wh ic h was o r igin a l ly a sm a l l c api ta l 5 wr it te nabo v e the v owe l o f c e r t a in La t in e n din gs) c o u ldbe m odifiedin this dire c t io n ; in t im e the a t t em pt was giv en u p a nd the

G o th ic pr in c iple was a l lowed t o pre v a i l in the sm a l l le t te rswhe r e v e r it c o u ld. H e n c e a r ises a n u n p le asa n t la c k o f ha r

m o n y be twe e n the sty le o f the G e rm a n c ap it a ls,with the ir

r ic h c u rv es a nd c apr ic io u s o rn am e n t a t io n,a nd tha t o f the

sm a l l le t t e rs, with the ir G o th ic po in ts a ndsl im pe rpendic u la rc o lu m n s. S e e 9 , 4 b N 2 .

STYLE S OF (IE R I'

IAN TYPE

8 . The de v e lopm en t o f the m ost u su a l sty les o f G erm a n

type was as fo l lows.

Che a lphabet 7

F irst , S t r ic t Go t h ic u sed in pr in t ing the first bible ,bu t espe c ia l ly in psa lters, m issa ls, e t c . :

39. at i t . uittrni rrg.

Th is is we l l im it a t ed in the ‘A ltdeu tsc h ’o f m ode rn Germ a n

fou ndr ies, c f . the fo re-t it le o f th is bo ok .

9 . S e c ond, H a l f = Go t h ic , c ha r a c t e r ized by the la ck o f a

t r ia n gu la r base 5) t o the first c o lu m n s o f m , 11 , e t c‘

. (bu t

th iswas resto red in F rakt u r , 7 , 2 e nd) . Of the m a n y fo rm s,

it iswe l l to spe c ify1 ) It a l ia n ,

a n im it a t ion of the ha ndsom e bla c k fo rm tha t

the I t a l ia n m in u sc u le had assum ed by the end o f the 1 4th

c e n t u ry I n the ha nds o f the pr in t e rs it so o n deve loped a c ha r a c te r ist ic a r t ist ic fo rm ,

of . c ap ita l a , m ,p,t,a nd

sm a l l v,w

,h,in 3 0 , 4, a lso the se c o nd l in e in 3 0, 5.

No t e . This bla ck le t t er was u sed as a text le t te r c h iefly in La t inbo oks; it was a lso em plo yed in hea din gs t o Rom a n a ndo the r t exts. A

sm a ll size 30, 4) o ft en hadRom a n t ype m ixe d with it . T his cha ra c teris im it a t ed fa ir ly we ll in the n ow po pu la r T u do r B la ck o f o u r pr in t in go flic es, c f . the r u n n in g t i t les o f th is bo ok .

2 ) Bast a rd,a bo ok ha nd in flu en c edby the c u rsiv e (from

wh ic h it a c qu ir ed the lo ops in b, l , h , & c .) a nd showin g a

t e nde n c y t o indu lge in c u r v es tha t a re m o re o r less grac e fu l .

No t e 1 . A fo rm o f this was the m ost u su a l ea rly Ge rm a n type , c f .

30, 3 , a nd the c apit a ls in 30, 8.

8 C rthographn

No t e 2 . The basta rd o f the Low La n ds has Cha r a c t e rist ic f a t

l a ndf ; t ha t t ake n to E n gla n d by Ca xto n a nd u sed in the first bo o ks

Q flfl Q D i“4 8 fi l e 4 6 0 jug”

,

orn ate (lnazflle retrofitpr in t ed in E n gla n d is fu r the r c ha ra c t e r iz ed by the pe c u lia r lo o ps o n

c apit a l (A) , ml , 6 ,e t c . I t is we l l im ita t ed a n d sl igh t ly im pr o ve d in

the m o de rn “ C a x t o n B la ck ”, c f . the dedic a t io n o f t his bo ok .

3 ) (a ) S c hwa ba c h,a de v e lopm e n t o f the ha lf-G o th ic in to

m o r e a r t ist ic,ha rm o n io u s fo rm s

, § 6 . F o r e x am p les se e

a nd the sm a l l le t te rs in 8. F o rm s c u r re n t abo u t 1 650

a s c e r so ss a t m a o pe x e c u n m x y s a s

(b) R e c e n t S c hwa ba c h em phasiz e s those e lem e n ts tha t

we re ~ de r iv ed from the G o th ic,pa r t ic u la r ly the u se o f

st r a ight ba rs. The r e is thu s a gr e a t e r ha rm o n y be twe en

the S c hwaba c h c ap it a ls a nd sm a l l le t t e rs tha n b e twe e n the

c o r respo n din g frakt u r c ha r a c t e rs, 7 , 2 e ra .

a o r a s c s e g s a s a szn n o p

o a s c u h m x g o r n g h o u;a h c b e f g h i j i

‘o r k l m n o p q r f s

t u h w x y

lo r g 5 o r z

,d o ii.

4) (a ) F ra k t u rfi“a m odific a t io n o f the ha lf-G o thic in a n

o the r dire c t io n , § 7 , The sm a l l le t t e rs we r e m ade sl im m e r

a nd the u pr ight st rokes o f m a ny (fo r e x .

, 1, i , j, u , a) we r ebe n t ;po in tswe r e sha rpe n eda nd c u r v es e x t e nded; u n ifo rm lyth ic k st r a igh t l in es we re disp la c edby c u r v es (6 , n) t a pe r in ga t the e nds; flo u r isheswe re added t o c ap it a ls a n d le t t e rs l ike

The t e rm Frak t u r (like “ Go thic , 6 f t) is frequ e n t ly u sed ina m o re ext e n ded se n se , in c lu din g a l l fo rm s o f bla c k le t t e r .

Che a lphabet 9

d) , 5; a nd the thr e e-po in t ed bases o f the st r ic t Go th ic we reo fte n r esto r ed t o som e o f the sm a l l le t t e rs. S ee 3 0 , 2 , 5.

No t e 1 . T hese c ha ra c t e r ist ics a r e in ha rm o n y with the a r t ist ict ast e o f the t im e a nd m a y be se en t o som e ext en t in the ha n d shownin The m o st be a u t ifu l a nd probably the e a r l iest illu st ra t io n o f

this style in type is t o be fo u n d in the le t t e rs c u t f o r the Tkeu erda n k

a ft e r the ha n d in vogu e a t the im pe r ia l Cha n c e ry, 30, 2 .

No t e 2 . Fr ak t u r wa s a fa n c y type a nd was som et im es u sed f o rhe a din gs f o r S c hwaba c h t ex ts, bu t this r e la t io n was so o n in ve r t ed, bN 1 .

(b) M ode r n F r a k t u r,a fu r the r de v e lopm e n t

,fa v o r in g

fu ll,r ic h c u r v es in the c apit a ls bu t r eje c t in g e x t r a flo u r ishes

a nd r esto r in g the st r a ight l in es o f the st r ic t G o th ic t o som e

o f the sm a l l le t t e rs, 7 , 2 e n d. Ca p it a ls o f abo u t 1 650

a s s e s se s s a sm n s ps a e t u s n s v a

F o r e x am ples o f e a r ly m ode r n F rakt u r se e 3 0 ,

c apit a ls ha v e a t pr ese n t a st iff e r,m o r e u n i fo rm

,sty le

e s u s a a g g a o b;a b c b e f g h ii j f i m n o h q r j s t u h

in 1; 1) 6 u , cf = cf, $54 3, § 2 2 e nd.

No t e 1 . Fr ak t u r is the m ost c o m m o n t ext le t t e r a nd is wha t isu su a lly m e a n t by

“ Ge rm a n T e xt . ” Go thic a nd S chwaba c h a re st il lm o re o r less bla ck , o r bo ld-fa c e , a nd a r e u sed f o r he a din gs a nd o rn a

m en t ; bu t S c hwaba c h is n ow aga in (N 2 abo ve) o c c asio n a lly u sed asa t ext le t t er . T he r e a re , o f c o u rse , m a n y a n t iqu e as we ll as m ode rnva r ia t io n s a ndm ixt u r es o f these styles.

No t e 2 . F o r the c o n t rast be twe en the c apit a ls a nd the sm a l l le t t e rs,see 7 , 2 end, a lso 9, 3 b. The o n ly sm a ll le t t e rs tha t la ck the Go thicc ha ra c t e rist ics a r e 6 a nd 3. Na t u r a lly the fo rm o f Z has a lwa ys m adei t ‘

a n obst a c le in the wa y o f the Go thic t en de n c y, a nd S is 7, 2) a

c apit a l a dop t ed in t o the lowe r-c a se se r ies. On the o the r ha n d, theo n ly c apita l l e t t e rs tha t po ssess the Go thic cha r a c t e r ist ics a r e 11 a nd its

de r iva t iv e ll , a nd we sha l l se e tha t 11 is r ea lly a lowe r-c ase le t tera dop ted in to the c apita l se r ies,

10 Crthographn

RETURN TO TH E ROI‘

IAN

10. In G e rm a n y the R e n a issa n c e fo u n d the a r t o f pr in t ingest abl ished, a nd the e a r ly pr in te rs had, as has be e n sa id

,

m ode led the ir types a ft e r the sty le in v ogu e thro ugho u t

E u rope in wr it t e n bo oks, n am e ly the Go th ic , e ithe r in its

st r ic t o r its m o re c u rre n t fo rm . H en c e the sp ir it o f the

R e n a issa n c e c o u ld the re do l it t le m o re tha n in t rodu c e theR om a n le t t e rs in to La t in bo oks

,a nd in G e rm a n bo oks

rem ode l t o som e e x t e n t the est abl ished sty le . I n to o the r

c ou n t r ies the n ew le a r n in g a nd the n ew a r t e n t e red m o re

n e a r ly t oge the r a nd the in flu e n c e o f the H u m a n ists e v e n t

u a l ly su c c e eded in su pp la n t in g the G o th ic c ha r a c t e r (e x c ept

fo r pu rposes o f o r n am en t) wi th the c lassic a l o n e .

1 1 . G e rm a n y , to o , has n o t la cked adv o c a t es o f a re t u rn t o

the S im p le r a nd c le a re r le t t e r . Le ibn it z a nd J akob G r im mhad m o re o r less o f a fo l lowin g, a nd t he la t te r

’

s t e a c h in ge n c o u raged the pra c t ic e o f pr in t in g ph i lo logic a l a nd o the r

sc ie n t ific bo oks in the R om a n c ha r a c t e r . I t is t a ught in a l l

the sc ho o ls a nd e v e n po e t ry a ndbo oks o f ge n e r a l in te rest ,v e ry r a re ly n ewspa pe rs, a re pr in ted in it . Bu t m ost bo oksa nd per iodic a ls tha t a ppe a l to a popu la r a udie n c e a r e st i l lissu ed in wha t has n ow lo n g be e n t e rm ed G e rm a n t e x t

,

§ 9 , 4 5 N. Be in g a t pr ese n t em p loy ed a lm ost o n ly in

G e rm a n yfi“ it has c om e t o be su r ro u nded with a so r t o f

n a t io n a l ha lo in tha t c o u n t ry , a n d this o pe r a t es a s a c he ck

t o its u lt im a t e repla c em e n t by the R om a n c ha ra c t e r . The

R om a n is m o re dist in c t a nd less t ry in g t o the eyes tha n

F r akt u r , bu t it is ha rdly as dist in c t as S c hwaba c h . Tha t

it is as ha ndsom e as the v a r io u s G e rm a n t e x ts, c a n ha rdlybe su c c essfu l ly m a in t a in ed.(G rimm t o the c o n t r a ry n o t with

The Sc an din a vian c o u n t r ies lo n g go t the ir type from Ge rm a n

fo u n dr ies, a nd they st il l u se Ge rm an t ext t o a l im i t ed ext e n t . Swi tze rla n d has c om e o u t fa ir a nd squ a re f o r the Rom a n le t t e r a nd e ven em

ploys it in pr in t in g its R e chtschr eibebiichlein .

”

Che B lphahet 13

The c ap it a ls a re r ic h in c u r v es a nd qu irks, as a re a lso som e

o f the sm a l le r le t t e rs. These,howe v e r

,in the ir st r a igh t

l in es a nd a c u t e a n gles, sa c r ific e pe rsp ic u ity t o e ase o f

wr it in g .

‘

S om e o f the le t t e rs ha v e a st r ikin g r esem bla n c e

t o the a n c ie n t c u rsiv e, § 4 . A t e nde n c y t owa rds sim p l i

fic a t io n a nd appr o a c h t o the R om a n sc r ipt in v ogu e in

o the r c o u n tr ies 4 N) is m akin g som e headwa y ; the

sim ple r fo rm o f $9 is n ow the u su a l o n e,

a nd the

sim p le r fo rm s o f i l l a nd SR a re v e ry c om m o n . The

l iga t u res fo r it a nd B with stu n t ed j a re n o lo n ge r in

gen e ra l u se .

13 . M o re o v e r,a l l G e rm a n c h i ldr e n le a r n R om a n sc r ipt

as they le a r n R om a n pr in t ; a nd it is c u stom a ry t o u se it

in wr it in g the address o n a n e n v e lope,a nd m o r e o r less

c u stom a ry to em p loy it in c e r ta in abbr e v ia t io n s (fo r e x . ,

D r .,bu t n o t 513rof. , § 3 0 , 2 1) a nd prope r n am es

,espe c ia l ly

u n u sua l o n esfi“ Som e ha v e e n t ire ly aba ndo n ed G e rm a n

sc r ipt ; bu t e v e n these em ploy a sty le tha t we sho u ld r ega rd

as o ld-fash io n ed, a nd m ake som e o f the le t te rs,f o r e x

j a nd t, m o re like the G e rm a n sc r ipt tha n l ike tha t c u r re n t

am o n g u s,wh i le i a nd 5 a re n e v e r m ade

,as they ofte n

a r e by u s,in su c h a wa y tha t they . m ight be m istaken fo r

G e rm a n 35.

NOTE S ON TH E A LPH A BET

14 . The n am es o f the le t t e rs a re a a, I) be"

, c tse, b de'

, e e,

j eff , gge, I) kit , i z"

, jjo'

t, f kit

“

, I a , m bu t, n in , 0 b, np c

'

, q ku,

r e'

r, j is, t re, 11 a, n f a u , m 715

, g iks, 1) ip'sil bn (o r

9" A t o n e t im e fo re ign wo rdswe r e pr in t ed.

in Rom a n , aswe som e t im es

pr in t them in I t a l ics : Oebrudt 511 S t . Ma lo , cin e Fam ilie h on , &c . ; a nd

this was c a rr ied t o the absu rd ext rem e o f dividin g a wo rd (som e t im es

in c o r r e c t ly) in to its fo r e ign a ndn a t ive e lem en ts : Cu rie u f en , Vagan ten

30, 1 2 .

14 C ribographg

3 tse’

t ; a a, b

'

ii u ; o r‘m uta t edd d) f e

'

, fisé.

F o r the o the r digraphs, se e 1 7 1 & c .

The n ea rest equ iva le n t in E n glish spe l l in gs wo u ld be : a a ir , 6 bay ,

c tsay , it day , e ay in p ay , f ey, ggay , I) ka k , i c c , jy iit , f ka /z, I u , m bu t ,

it in, 0 ok , 1) p ay , q koo , r Zr in er r or , je

'

s, t tay , 11 ao, 0f an in f ou nd,in v ay , g iks, ,

t) ip’

sil iin , 3 a n .

15. 1 ) When R om a n le t t e rs a re u sed,the o ffic ia l spe l le rs

r equ ir e tha t j be represen ted by 5 (tho ugh f is a lso in u se) ,a by S 7 , if by ss

, {3 by Is o r by B o r B (bu t 55 is a lso

u sed, sz r a r e ly) .2 ) Q o r 5. d. (den a r iu s) , tha t is, Sl ifenn ig. 2c . & c . ,

in

wh ic h 2, l ike (he , was a fo rm o f et ‘a nd

’

,resem bl ing the

se c o nd fo rm o f t , wh ic h a rose a ft e r 0 (see last word in

3 0 , 6)16 . 1 ) The o ld c a p it a l V ,

represen t in g bo th v owe l a nd

c o n so n a n t , assu m edin the u n c ia l the fo rm . u 3 ) a ndbo thV a nd u we re em p loyed a s in it ia ls in c o n n e c t io n with ha lfu n c ia ls a nd m in u sc u les, 3 b e nd. A s in it ia l a nd c ap ita l ,the v a r io u s fo rm s o f V u lt im a t e ly displa c ed

’

the v a r io u sfo rm s o f u (se e nnb, non , v nferer , 3 0 , bu t m edia l lya nd fin a l ly the m in u sc u le u rem a in ed (se e bu rger ,

ba ufiu a ier ; ba uon , 3 0 ,8,

exc ept tha t v was som e t im es

pre fe r red,n e x t u

,n

,a nd 111 . A s the c o n so n a n t was m o re

c om m o n ly in it ia l,v c am e t o be asso c ia t ed with it a nd t o

be wr it t e n fo r it e v e n m edia l ly ; in the 1 7 th c en t u ry , the

diffe r e n t ia t io n (v o r D c o n so n a n t,u o r u v owe l) bec am e

c om p le t e .

-Rem a rk . Befo re 11 a nd it a n jwas u sed ra the r tha n n , 37 , 2 .

2) When a c ap ita l 11 was n e eded, a t first a la rge lowerc ase n was m ade to do du ty in the pr in t in g o ffic es (se e 9,

3 0 , 1 0,1 1 , la te r a c ap it a l was pro v ided by sim ply

m akin g 11 la rge r , hen c e its st r ic t Go th ic fo rm ,in dist in c t ion

to tha t o f the o the r c ap it a ls, 7 , 2 e nd.

Che a lphabet 15

1 7 . W , $153, from VV u u 58 11 (se e e x am p le ina ro se in the M iddle A ges a ndwas a t first c a l led aha o r

‘boppel su’

3 0 , 9 c) , as it st i l l is in E n gl ish . A S it was

ge n e r a l ly in it ia l , it r e t a in ed the fo rm tha t was u sed in it ia l ly ,tha t is

,the o n e l ike v r a the r tha n u . Oc c asio n a l ly it wa s

u sedfo r fin a l 11, espe c ia l ly in diphtho n gs (se e 3W , hewmobts,

§ 3 o , 4 a nd § 3 o ,

18 . E v e n in the e a r liest da ys 1 i) wa s o fte n ”

e x te nded

be low the l in e , espe c ia l ly n e x t I a nd 1,fo r e x .

,in n u m e ra ls

,

§ 3 0 , 3 e nd (a s is st i l l do n e in pr esc r ipt io n s) ; bu t th is wasm o st ly in La t in wo rds, c f . 9 , 2 N la t e r a lso in frej,

jej, & c . 3 0 , 1 0 . F o r the do t o f th is j, o r “ lo n g i,”se e 2 1

19 . I o r 8,se r v ed as a c ap it a l o r in it ia l fo r the v owe l i as

we l l a s f o r the c o r respo ndin g c o n so n a n t (n ow represe n t ed

by j) . Th is c a p it a l le t te r was u sed n o t o n ly a t the beginn in g o f a pa ragr aph , bu t a lso e lsewhe re in it ia l ly : be fo rev owe ls (whe re it was a c o n so n a n t : tar a nd Sat , 3 0 , 4)a nd be fo r e le t t e rs r esem bl in g i

,espec ia l ly n , 11, r (so In

,

3 0 ,1 ; by som e o n ly f o r i) ; a nd th is i

”

; so o n degen e ra t ed

in to(553 (se e Sr, 3 111 , p 6) a ndwas repr ese n ted in the pr in t

in g oflic es 3 0 , 7 e nd) by the j e x pla in ed abo v e (se e jor

§ 3 0 , 3 , inch 3 0 , 5 ; ibm § 3 0 , 9 6, it em , jm , ir , § 3 0 , 6)A s the c o n so n a n t is r a re m edia l ly , a nd twic e a s frequ e n t asthe v owe l in it ia l ly , the fo rm j in t im e be c am e asso c ia t edwith the c o n so n a n t a nd was wr i t t en f o r it m edia l ly (seemajejiet & c . 3 0 , 9) as we l l as in it ia l ly , a nd la t er i was

wr it t e n in ihr, ibm , & c .,wh ic h had lo n g r e ta in ed i (se e

3 0 , 1 0,begin n in g ande nd) . The diff e re n t ia t io n is n o t c om ple te ;

fo r the re is n o sepa r a t e fo rm in the c ap it a l G e rm a n t e x t

(som e dic t io n a r ies u se a c r ossed 8 fo r the c o n so n a n t ; see

also wh i le in sc r ipt a nd in the R om a n le t t e rs

u sed in in sc r ipt io n s a nd o n sign -bo a rds, the c ap ita ls a re

o ft e n c o n fo u nded, J be in g st il l pr ese r v ed as an in it ia l ,fo r e x .,

in J SA AC as we l l as in J OH ANN.

16 C rthographn

20 . The fin a l 11 e x p la in ed in 1 8 was c o n fu sedwith the

do t t ed 1) o f G re ek a nd La t in wo rds,a nd th is “ dou ble i”

(se e 3 0 , 1 ) c am e t o be u sed fo r 1, espe c ia l ly fin a l ly a nd in

diphtho n gs (se e it) , 1691, 3 0 , 3 , a nd 3 3 end) , o c c asio na l ly in it ia l ly (se e y ede r , t) l)ni , nbren , & c . § 3 o , a nd

n ext 11, m , n , r, & c . (se e mnn ters, mnjajagt, 3 0 , 3 ,

hy t ten , jiy rm 3 0 , 6) in it ia l ly a n d t o som e e x t e n t in diph

tho n gs it y ie lded t o j, 3 0 , 7 end,

1 9, e lsewhe r e t o i . S e e

a lso 2 4 1 R b. ij, o r was a lso c o n fu sedwith 11, a nd so 1)was som e t im es wr it t en fo r 11.

2 1 . In the r 1 th c en tu ry the pra c t ic e a ro se o f pla c in g a

sc r a t c h , o r o v e r a n i st a ndin g n e x t to u,a nd la t e r whe n

n e x t to n o r m,to Show

,fo r e x .

,whe the r 111 m e a n t 11i, tha t

is 111, o r 111, tha t is in , a nd tha t m m e a n t in o r 111 a nd n o t in .

La te r the'was p la c ed o n a l l i

’

s (as is st il l do n e in T udo ra nd Ca x to n type) , a nd then the gr adu a l ly (first in the

1 4 th c e n t u ry) ga v e wa y t o the do t,wh ic h y had had sin c e

the 6th c e n t u ry . D o t t ed y m a y st i l l o c c asio n a l ly be seen

o n sign -bo a rds. S e e a lso 2 0 .

2 2 . On the m ode l o f diphtho n gs, digra phswe r e som e t im es

m ade by wr it in g o n e le t t e r a ft e r o r o v e r a n o the r e is st i l lwr it t en a ft e r i 1 95, 2 N I ), bu t o v e r a, 0, 11 (se e fimnen ,QInjprfiche, hhtte, § 3 0 , 1 5) it has dege n e r a t ed in t o two do ts

3 0 , wh i le the 0 o f 110 (fo rm e r ly a diphtho n g, § 2 3 6)o r 11, (se e f lfig, 3 0 , 8) n o lo n ge r a ppe a rs e x c ept as a

c u r l abo v e the sm a l l wr it t e n le t t e r a nd is n ow u sed o v e r a l l

“

Us to dist in gu ish them from w . The o ld pr a c t ic e o f

r epresen t in g 11 o r m by a o v e r a n e ighbo r in g le t t e r

(see m erchwerbigiig bes herré, 3 0 , 4, ba‘

ri, 3 0 , s, cine,

3 0 , 9) espe c ia l ly whe n the l in e wa s t o o sho r t fo r two

le t t e rs,m ay st i l l o c c asio n a l ly be se en in sc r ipt 2 ; o r

fo r a r t -4 4 4 4, ” w ; bu t 115 fo r unb 3 0 , 1

, 5) is n o lo n ge r

u sed. Som e t im es digr a phs a re m ade in to l iga t u res : $18

I 7 , § 9, 4 b end, 2 = €f § I S, 2 .

Che a lphabet 17

Rem a rk . fil e, D e, l Ie, we r e gen e ra l ly r e t a in ed side by sidewith ii o r a &c ., bu t a re c o n dem n ed by the o ffi c ia l spe llers.

T hey a r e st il l u sed by so m e pr in t e rs be c a u se o f t he diffic u lt iesa t t en din g the c ast in g o f QT, &c .

TH E NUM E RA LS

2 3 . 1 ) In the R om a n n u m e r a ls, II) is som e t im es u sed fo r

D,a ndCID fo r u n c ia l M

, 3 . u o r 131 se c u ndo) was o n c eu sed fo r l l = 2

,bu t u u su a l ly = v = 5. F o r i o r j, 11, v i,

& c . , se e 1 8 .

2 ) The A r abic n um e ra ls (o r igin a l ly the first le t t e rs o f the

S a n skr it n am es f o r the n u m e r a ls) we r e in t rodu c ed in t oE u rope in the r o th a nd 1 1 th c e n t u r ies, bu t did n o t c om e

in to u se u n t i l m u c h la t e r . The G e rm a n pr in t ed fo rm s do

n o t diffe r from the E n gl ish , bu t c e r t a in v a r ia t io n s a ppe a r in

the wr it t e n fo rm s. 1 is u su a l ly begu n . with a n u pwa rd

st r oke,so tha t it m a y be t ake n f o r a 7 on the o the r ha nd

,

7 is o ft e n c rossed. A lo n g the F re n ch bo rde r , f o r e x . ,a t

S t r assbu rg, the F r e n c h fo rm o f 5, wh ic h looks m u c h l ikeo u r 9 (c om pa r e those be low) , is in u se . The fo l lowin g o ld

fo rm s,se e n in in sc r ipt io n s & c . (of . § 9 , 2 N) , a re o ft en n o t

u nde rsto od o r m isu nde rsto od :

l"

6 fi f ‘l‘

50147.‘

5. 09

Chap ter 11

S P E L L ING

TH E NATUR E OF S PELLING

24 . W r it in g is n o t la n gu age , bu t a m o re o r less im pe rfe c tp ic tu re o f la n gu age . A pe r fe c t syst em o f wr it in g wo u ldha v e to su pply (1 ) a sign fo r e a c h so u nd a nd o n ly o n e ,

(2 ) a n indic a t io n o f its du ra t io n,o r le n gth , (3) a n indic a t io n

o f the st ress o f v o ic e tha t fa l ls o n a sy l lable a nd the c har

a c t e r o f th is st ress, (4) a n indic a t io n o f the pit c h a nd o the r

m odu la t io n s o f the v o ic e . S u c h a n a lphabe t wo u ld be ve ryu se fu l t o a ph i lo log ist a nd he wo u ld be glad if a l l wr it in ghad be e n m ade in it . Bu t wr it in g is c h iefly f o r pra c t ic a lpu rposes, a nd it is probably best tha t it c o n ta in n o e lem e n ts

tha t the r e ade r c a n m o r e e asi ly su pp ly tha n in t e rpr e t . M ost

a lphabe ts a im o n ly a t the first and in pa rt a t the se c o nd re

qu irem en t above .

IM PER F ECT S YSTEM S

25. I f they su c c e eded in th is,o n e m ight be glad, bu t they

u su a l ly fa l l f a r'

sho r t . F o r the m ost pa r t they ha v e n o t be e n

fo rm ed u nde r favo rable c ir c u m st a n c es a nd,o n c e in u se

,it is

W ilm an n s D ie Or thographie in den Sc hu len D eu tsch la n ds, 2d ed.,

1 877 . The spe llers (“ Rege ln u nd W'

or te r v e r zeichn is”

) issu e d by thego ve rn m en ts o f Ba den (Bd), 7ih ed., 1 893 ; Ba va r ia (B v ); Me cklen bu rg(M), 2d ed. ,

1 885; Pr ussia (P), 3d ed. , 1 887 ; Saxo n y (S x ), 32d ed. ,

1 894 ; W iir t em be rg (W), 4th ed., 1 890 ; A u st r ia (A ), 1 892 ; Swit ze rla n d(S W ), 4th ed., 1 890 ; se e 28 a ndN . D u den : Or thographischesW or

terbu ch de r de u tsc hen ‘ Spra che, 4ih cd., 1 893.

20 Crthographg

m o re u n ifo rm ity . D u r in g the 1 8th c e n tu ry , the system s o f

F reye r , G o t tsc hed a n d Ade lu n g we re m ost est e em ed. I n

th is c e n t u ry two m o v em e n ts we r e obse r v able’

: the t e nden c y

t owa rd a n h ist o r ic a l o r e tym o logic a l spe l l in g, r epr ese n t ed

by J akob G r im m,a n d the t e nde n c y t owa rd a pho n e t ic spe l l

ing, r eprese n t ed by R udo lf v o n R a u m e r . The fo rm e r,

wh ic h c o u ld ha v e p le ased bu t f ew,n am e ly st ude n ts o f o lde r

Ge rm a n,e v en tu a l ly y ie lded to the la t t e r

,wh ic h was in the

in t e rest o f the m a n y . The la t t e r was a ssist ed by the r iseo f the n ew sc ie n c e o f pho n e t ic s a nd by the m o re ge n e r a l

pr a c t ic e o f st e n ogra phy .

2 8 . Or thogr a ph ic c o n fe re n c es we re he ld a nd o ffic ia l spe l le rswe r e issu edby v a r io u s go v e r n m e n ts a ndsc ho o ls m o re

o r less u nde r the in flu en c e o f the h isto r ic a l sc ho o l H a n o v e r

1 854 , Le ipz ig 1 857 , W iir t em be rg 1 86 1,Swit z e r la nd 1 863 ;

m o r e o r less u nde r the in flu e n c e o f the pho n e t ic sc ho o l

Be r l in 1 87 1 , A u st r ia 1 879, Ba v a r ia 1 879 , P ru ssia 1 880 .

S im i la r bo oks we re so o n issu ed by M e c k le nbu rg, S a x o n ya nd Bade n

,o n the basis o f the Ba v a r ia n and P r u ssia n

,

wh i le the W iir t em be rg a nd Swiss bo oks we r e r e v ised.

These spe l le rs ha rm o n iz e in m ost im po r t a n t m a t t e rs de v 1a

t io n s fr om o n e a n o the r wi l l be n o t ic ed in the r u les be low

a nd in the W o rd-l ist .

No t e .— T he r e is m ost ha rm o n y be twe en the spe lle rs o f the

st a t es o f the Ge rm a n E m pire , a nd the ir u n it ed dic t u m will bedesign a t ed by G . (a ) The A u st r ia n bo ok is m o r e c o n se rvat ive , r e t a in in g, f o r e x . , m o st tb

’s, 35N it a lso fo l lows H eyse

a nd Sa n de rs in wr it in g isfin a lly a ft e r sho r t vowe ls, 2 28 N(b) the Swiss bo ok is m o r e r a dic a l , disc a rdin g if) f o r t in a l l

n a t ive wo rds, a ndpr e fe r r in g siren t o z ieren in ve rbs, § 44, 2 N ;

it a lso fa vo rs the u se o f the Rom a n cha ra c t e r .

29 . The o r thogra phy thu s est abl ished is em p loyed in the

pr in t in g o f sc ho o l-bo oks a nd n u m e ro u s r e c e n t publ ic a t io n sbu t m a n y n ewspape rs a n d n o t a f ew books st i l l fo l low som e

o lde r system . The re v isio n is bu t a n im pe rfe c t o n e,su it in g

S pe l ling 21

n e ither those tha t wo u ld ha v e a tho ro u ghgo in g r e fo rm n o r

the c on se rv a t iv es, a nd has be e n the bu t t o f ge n e r a l abu se ,pa r t ly be c a u se o f the u n popu la r ity o f the P ru ssia n M in ist e ro f Edu c a t io n (P u t tkam e r) who had m ost to do with its

prom u lga t io n . The go v e r n m en t tha t est abl ished it in the

sc hoo ls pr oh ibit ed its o ffic ia ls from u sin g it !

VA R IETIE S OF S PELLING

I llu st ra t in g al so S tyles o f a nd D ive rsity o f Usage as t o C api ta ls.

(I )

I t em das V das 5011 I n m it te n n it ste n n u r In a n fa n g a in eswa r t z E x ? v a t e r v e t e r v le ifs v il ipp I t em das u m ag gest e n n

n u nde r t da n in m it des wa r t z od’

z u lest a in e wa r t z E x El

e u c h du a u c h . I tem das y . ist n a c h t e u tsch zwa i i i v n v e r

l e u st se in tha n v nd la ud a u f a in I . E x in. zwa y y e c l iche r yede r

die silbn c h wir t am m a ist e n z u lest de r .wa r t

ge n u c z t E x E sa c h swa c h gsm a c h v n d. ist e in si lbu he r tde u t t ig wa n a l le in sy ka in v o l lkom m e Spr a c h ha t

H u ebe r’s M odu s Leg endi, 1 477.

(2 . The u e rda n k F r akt u r , 9 , 4a N

outfitThe Ebeu erban f o f 1 51 7 .

'

9" The ext ra c ts a r e , m ost ly, pho t ographic o r c a refu l typographic a lrepr o du c t io n s o f the o r igin a ls. (1 ) a nd (7) a r e from M iil l e r

’

s Q u el l en

sc/zr if ten a nd (9) is from Rothe’s edi t io n : I in fe r the o r igin a ls o f (7)

a nd (9) we re in Frak t u r o f the sizes given ; the o r igin a l o f (1 ) is a M s.

probably in ha lf-Go thic .

22 C rthographn

(3 . Germ a n Bast a rd, 9, z .)

13 1l 8611111212 111) 9m merern try! fatf‘

rn in Burm a?

[091: Eel“ See noyn tcrsfumpr/wie root fy96d;nit garv fiffersm /

‘aen gurten fafi’en ry m

‘

emar at?! ale‘Oem pate

mm 80am tonbSagmbozn/oncs‘arm lozBa Bonm/rt licfl

Snubatl’weggn

‘

iny &firn ub Ben in a le

3onnnrswyfifngtlezingt rm (fun nie r 311m ior/

E rasm u s’t ra c t

“ l l él egung be?» 1 . Sja lm en”1 520.

(4 . I t a l ia n H a lf-Go th ic , 9, 1 N.)

'

Bii'

clzoif einbineral lcrbitic i‘

S oiree .

YD dccbrnusbc r i'

scheii

ricbt‘

oer'

i

t icsmonatsBalmsOderhewi jaer.

Ope n in g a nd c lo sin g lin es o f bu ll issu ed (1 520) a ga in st Lu the r .

(5. E a r ly F r akt u r , 9, 4 a ,; exc ept se c o nd l in e , 9, 1 N .)

If amberm a caw.

M ementm ein jod) obergel‘

ats

anfl'

enrb v nnb(m m0011 mit /ban153111111

frinfl’imietig/v iiainesbcnrimgcn 1)“q

onbnicin gefargobrri nnb

mein barbobcrT ext o f a t ra c t o f E rasm u s

’

, 152 1 .

S pe l ling 23

(6 . S c hwaba ch, § 9, 3a .)

D osMichbaben abgevoenbrD on jrem hyt t en v nb her m aybD ubbaben fy h er lafi

'

en bayb

em gangen had) besm e tres

t

frbeyn

U nb feynb cinchna cbgenolget 1111D er jygeftirt ha t mit [titre(5111113in ert ahwegsbiefl

'

in biewiiif eD 11 habensjr fil efiwayb v erlozen

H an s Sa chs,

(7)

3111111111 31111111 111111 t han ] 11111S iblefien /(

“

m oor finite Wiggifter /21111:

1111 311m 2811113111111 tniinbirlit

lyril bent Brier

ibis trial has.

n nnn n innit gemrin lirlj ni r langf hennflirt;iein wit hmen brnnml) meilnnbs innh ernng milIrn

nhber an ti)

dJ

fiirrb l;bulb has I) angrjngt/b1nI)

hrnn nail)i n lien Qinn his geidjirt inn l rinerbnben f 1 1 . nut) 1111 beij(tenet 1118 her :

nnlnnen benn lnn en rhnm zr.

il licit thirb'

m on not has

au rrl rr gen uine bra bet) birl1116 her l rirlyrn

nne Slinbwit h bfarbut gebrancht fibrils

jenmei benn ffirhert.nninlid) rin lanunhisarts an irine fiat fibcl ii nsinir ant belten gefrlli.

F ran gk’s Canhlei) , 1 53 1 .

24 Cr thographg

(8. S chwaba c h with Bast a rd c a p it a ls, 9 , 3 a N .)

S wa th welchcr bcr 6brrflflirffgewefen tit / 1m ban fcj nba wiem a n ansp hrlonr mag nem cn tom bbtcswcy/x

bunbert mt n o: Cbziflgebtirt /angerfehrhey(Carm ina ?ser

'

t .

12s{ff ein 11111311111biicbflit bengeem einenm ewbemi na cha l lereinfla t?tit/heser ci

‘

n cnburger oberhauPuat /xt erQiot t fézmt r

‘

g/from W ibEir‘

igm a t(be/n aeer (1d) gcgéQSot t /(Botswozt /p ricftem /i3:11a mwetb/l

‘r

‘

nbern/efe

grn lrib/gfit er/l‘n echt enn/nacbbarn/

inbE/o‘

bertetwfijcberman

Lu the r ’

s In t ro du c t io n to S ejuéOnrad), 1 533 .

(9)

(a ) 650 in ein e 518021 to bet leste S inhjtab ijt : ober and) than

am enh bes1110216 111111) int nolgen bije Culben er ere eres/e en /ejt ejter ete ijcl) erijche 2c . mirbt b; m gelejenm ie ein 11 . gram .ifganam erfrem ejt bejcbamen gehameteQBilIisom 6 nn tgemijcbe. 6 11151 ijt 111 th an 63 bem an

enH

augejest m oiben . Sl eu th /gr11 11me.(b) C ir 85 i i m erben gebzau cbet n it aIIein a lsS elblau tenbe

Sbii

dfitahen m ic in bijen QBozten : 93 1m bet iBirt mirbt tomm en /m irb id) jbm t e. jonber and) a lsein il ll itjtimm enber v nb mirbt

ftarci 11 l anégejprochen hasm an ha lben tei lssin 11 hbzt bnb

gleicbjam ein i barnnj: Sung jen er h erjehen maiejtet nerie=

jen Sch Sacob breijerig & c .

D

(c) 33116 il ll ittel 58 Iau tet h alt is [11111 a ls ber jen e98 11151111 11

ben m an hasboppel v heiist n em licl) has $18 .

H e lbe r’s Sl eu tjchesCal lahierbficblein , 1 593 .

S pe l ling 25

(E a r ly M ode rn F r akt u r, 9,

50“ i fOD ) 1111151 111 11111111111aWW W3616111116111 111110111 I 11110(11111161 111111111111111 11111 lmmerbar1 iii/WW(1111111111 imm ’

bar fMI 11602c. unb 11111911 gab”wan 111 01112 1111111 11111 bafiiobmfmnemG n icblt in l imcsgemeinfgticb111115131111111111111 auwa bcn/aum

‘

115113111Unrerfwdbcm rbanben 11 111 11111133 .

M i 91511 11111 91531111 11113 1 (11111111 111 manbraucbt am bad/awfrefl fej.9331111 pficgt 11113 11116111 19111 ! ibm . {011661:1111d hasfob fan 1111111111 1111011119111 ! (01101111mugban

-m‘bm/ibr‘ S cho t te l

’s 6 prad) Ran ft, 1 65I .

(n ) tu nb1111111 591111111111 111 1111 chm/11. 1 653 .

(1 2 ) ‘J‘

teueingericbter 111115biélverbefl'

ertet

flben tbeu rlidm

S IM PL IC I S S IM U SQ aé ifl:

251fd>111b11119bcfifiebenseinesfeb13amenV agan ten/genantwtercbim6 te111= 1 669.

(1 3)

91111 micljfter Gielegenbeit 11011 bier mill id) 111 1311111111 13151311 her 530321191 ier) mit eurer fiBeiébeit/1111b iem91115111 13 euer fefteé 65111103/211111311 !

Ger m an /ado” in P en sy /v a m’

a A m er z’

ca e

a’. 7 . A ug . 1 694 .

26 611 113091 11p

(1 4)

21111 1 , 0 5181 1 1, 0116171 11 111 659 11 aflgegenmértig erfennet,

£01111 1111) 11113 51311 11111111 11 1111) 11 116 111111111 1 germ1111 1111111 1 11

fiBeibe 11e, (551111 6 11131911 1 , 1101 hem 111) 1111 111111 11 1111 1bete; & c .

Klopst o ck , 1 749

h as51 111116111 . 6 16mu f fin 1v lc 1111 932111111

fprefim mufi, 01111

1 11161911111) 11110. 111101111111a16 10111111 111 15meat ,1113 11151. 3 111 1131 011 6 1 11 111 1111111111 91061115311111, 0115111 11m 21111111 1111” 11111 einen 932111111

111111111 11151 1 11 11111111 , 0111 1111 0011) 11111 11111: 111191111

11111 11mm 91111111111 611111 . 3 11) 11111 11311 651 :

(1111111111111 ,c51111111111 : 6 11 11111111111 11 1011111: 11111111

Lessin g, 1 770.

(I 6)E s habe n sic h dahe r se it de r W iede rhe rste l l u n g

de r W isse n sc haf te n a u c h m ehre re ge leh r te M an

n e r a n ge lege n sey n lasse n , diese Ke n n t n ifs z u

beforde r n u nd z u v e rbre ite n n u r dafs sie dabeyVe rsc hiede n e W ege gega n ge n sin d . S e it dem

de r It a l ian e r , A n to n Piga fe t ta , u m 1 536 z u e rst

W or te r in de n v o n ihm be r e ise te n Lande r n sam

m e l t e , W as die Z we ckm afsigke it be t r iff t , so

sc hie n m ir e in e so l c he F o rm e l ih r es Z we ckes

ga n z z u v e r fehl e n , we n n sie n ic h t m it ein e r bu ch

st'

zibliche n Ube rse tz u n g v e rsehe n ist .

A de lu ng, 1806.

28 ® rtbograpbg

film uIIem ban fe id) Sgerm ‘Brof. SB a r a cf in ® trafaburg fiir bie

ll bermeifu ng iein er Iegifa l ifcben g amm lungen aué bet Sitterai

tu r be?»

Sabrbunberté, terri er m ein em geehrten fil er leger St a r I i r it b r

n e r in 6 tragbu rg unb Sgerrn D 6 f a r 23 b E) m e in SReicbenbad) i . EB.

fiir SgiIfe in berielben Sl icbtu n g. Sgat t D r . gerb. E’R e n g in 6 traf3:

burg bat ein e (Ergiinau ng ber ERegifter beigeffigt .

Friedrich Klu ge , 1 893 .

TH E BA SIS OF S P ELLlNG

3 1 . Tho u gh the pho n e tic prin c ip le D esign a te ea r/Z sozm a’,

t/za t is fl ea m’in 50r r ect a nd distin ct 671wzcz

'

a tion, &y its app r o

p r ia te sign ,is p la ce d a t the begin n in g o f the Spe l le rs, its

app lica t io n is m u ch re stricted .

I ) The a lphabe t is im pe rfe ct, 25.

2 ) P ro n u n cia t io n i s n o t u n ifo rm a nd the re is n o sta n da rd

o f co rre ctn e ss , 1 58—

9, 1 62 —

3 .

3 ) Whe re the tra dit io n a l spe l l in g has lo n g be e n fixed,it

ha s n o t be e n c ha n ged : unb zm t, Ell bt ap t ; bu t

SBapft, fo rm e rly‘Babfi,

o r ‘Iiapft .

4) The spe l l in g o f a wo rd m ay be regu la ted by the

a n a logy o f a re la te d wo rd o r fo rm tha t i s diffe re n tly p ro

n o u n c ed : Bob [bblicbwith I) be ca u se o f Sobeé, m agwith 3be c a u se o f m

'

o'

gen . T hi s te n de n cy,wh i le n a tu ra l e n o ugh ,

le a ds t o n o go o d a nd m u ch c o n fu sio n a nd ca n n o t be ca rrie d

f a r a n ywa y : f o r e x . ,we c a n write m ag, whi ch No rth G e r

m a n s pro n o u n ce m ad) a nd So u th G e rm a n s m af, bu t we m ust

write d) in m'

o'

chte.

5) Two wo rds so u n ded a l ike o r n e a rly a l ike m a y be

spe l led diffe ren t ly t o dist in gu ish them t o the ey e .

‘

I ob‘de a th ’

, tot‘de ad ’

; Bib‘eye l id ’

, Q ieh‘so n g

’

; 51611611‘ t o

blu e bleuen ‘t o strike a nd so fo rm e rly Tenn‘ t o be bu t

iein‘his

’

, § 1 9 1 . At first sight th is m ight re com m e n d

S pe l l ing 29

itse lf ; bu t it is eviden t tha t i t wo u ld be im po ssible t o

dist in gu ish by va rie ty in sp e l l in g m o re tha n a few o f the

m a n y m e a n in gs a wo rd m a y have,wh i le

, o n the o the r

ha n d,the co n text wi l l te l l wha t a wo rd m e a n s whe n writte n

aswe l l aswhe n spoken .

TH E CHOICE BETW E EN D IF F ERENT LETTE RS REPRE

S ENTING TH E S AM E OR S IM ILA R SOUND S

No te . F o r ee, eb, e ; te, ib, i , &c ., c f . 42 &c .

3 2 . a, e 1 2 0, 3 ; iiu, cu 1 2 0

, 3 ; 1 77 ,

ii a nd (in a re ge n e ra l ly em p loyed t o rep re se n t m u ta ted a

a nd au when som e fo rm o f the wo rd o r som e ev iden t ly

re la ted wo rd co n ta in s a o r an . So a l ter , Sunber , flifium e,

Iiiuft , firm el , gldubig,— be ca u se o f a l t, Sanb, Staum , lau fen ,

i’l rm , Gilaube.

No te 1 . Bu t a a nd au a re som etim es use d tho u gh therebe n o c o rresp o n din g wo rds with a o r an (so QIbre, rdu fpern );a nd e is so m e tim es used where o n e m ight exp e c t

'

a'

(so bebenbeSganb, (Eltern a lt , fertig $ abrt).

No te 2 . fibre e a r (o f an ftrangen‘ t o yoke ’

, gariehe ifer Edrcbe

‘ la rch-tre e m iibren‘ t o last ’

, bu t (&bre‘ ho n o r an itrengen

‘ t o stra in ’

, gerfe‘he e l ’

, Siercbe

‘ lark ’

,

fiCb m ebren‘t o resist a nd bl au en ‘ t o blu e ’

, gril'

u l icb grayish

’

, bu t bl eu en‘ t o strike ’

, greu licb‘ho rrible ’

, a re distingu ished a c c o rdin g t o 3 1 , 5.

3 3 . (Ii, t i, 1 7 2 , 1 74 , 1 88,

ai (a m o re pho n e tic sp e l l in g tha n ei) is writte n in gai,Raiier , Strain

‘Ca rn io la ’

, Sl u ice, Safa i , Elfiai, Sfiaib, EUlailanb‘M i la n ’

,the city Smil ing, Elfiaié, EmaiidXe) , maiicben . Sbic éBai,

ga in‘

gro ve’

Sa i l) ‘ lo a f ’

,the rive r Emain , Sila in

‘ba lk ’

,

6 um strin g QBaife‘o rpha n

’

,a r e distin gu ished a cco rd in g

t o § 3 1 , 5, from her SBei o r‘bey

’

, bei‘by

’

, gt eumb gein‘de a th ’

, Qeib ‘bo dy ’

, m ein ‘m y

’

,rein ‘ c le a n ’

,the rive r

30 ®rtbograpbg

Sibein , 6 eire‘s ide , page

’

, hie QBeiie‘m a n n e r, tu n e her QBeife

‘ph i lo sophe r " s im i la rly Eaicb‘S pawn ’

, QBaih‘wo a d ’

, bu t

Beicbe co rpse QBeihe ‘

p a stu re , wi l low’.

E lsewhe re oi i s u sed . a t) a nd er) n ow o ccu r o n ly in propern am e s , so SBabern , her EBaber, morhernet) bu t se e 2 0 .

34 ° Br 33

The sam e co n so n a n t i s written fin a l ly*as m edia l ly

,even

if the re i s a cha n ge in the so u n d 4, 81 1 08, So

plump l ike plumper ; Qeib, Ieiblicl) , l ike Seibeé, & c .

b is wri tte n in ab, 915i, (Erbie, gerbft, bubicb, firehé, oh,

D bft , Eliehbubn , felhit, & c .,a lso in QBilhbret, bu t p in SBapft,

sBropft, & c .

35. h, t, ht, tl) 1 84 ,

The sam e co n so n a n t is wri tte n fin a l ly’x‘as m edia l ly

,even

i f the re i s a cha n ge in the so u n d 3 1 , 4, 81 1 08, S o

her i oh, i ohfeinh sifinhe, tohbringenh =fran f smuhe =munh,

t'

o'

hlicb, & c . , l ike SZ ohe§ bu t tot de ad hercl ote, i ntenbaué,

i oticblag, toten .

h: SBerehiam feit (bu t berebi) , flierianh (bu t nerfanht) , unh,

iemanh, & c . , anmeienh (bu t filnmeienbeit) , eilenhé, v ol lenhé,

guiebenhs, 820 (bu t unneriebené, eigene, withou t h ; se e 1 2 2

end) , bofienh, e'

nhlicb (bu t bofien t licb, eigen tlicb, & c .,with t,

cf. be low) , fion firmanh, (iram in anh, bu t n e a rly a l l o the rs am t,

see be low. F o r ieih‘a re

,be bu t ieit

‘ s in ce se e § 3 1 , 5.

t : i’irot , I in te, QDiIettan t , Gm tgran t , boipitan t, & c . (bu t

se e sanh above) , Begieben t licb, eigen tlicb, fleben tl icb, gelegen t

l i tb, bofien t l icb, m ifien tlicb (bu t bofienh abo ve , eigené,

Co n so n a n ts a r e sa id t o be (1 ) in itia l , if the first o f a wo rd, a ndeven if pre c eded by a n o ther stem (as in a c om p o u n d) o r by a p refix(g tein , (Sesitein , 38 ei4piel ,

c

{yreunhzftbaft); (2) m edia l , if fo llowed by a

su ffix o r in fle c tio n a l en din g tha t begin s with a vowe l (gfitig, fliu fbefi,G cbl iifiel); (3)fin a l , if a t the end o f a wo rd (Qiiir , Qierg, gefagt) o r o f a

syllable (Wfihz tben , tdgz litb, lobzte, Sgedy fe). S ee 89 &c .

S pe l l ing 31

en t=, an t=. i on ‘so u n d feit ‘s in ce ’

, bu t i bon ‘c lay ieih‘a r e

,be a cco rdin g t o 3 1 , 5.

inis ra re : er ianhte, geianht , ©eianhticbaft, bereht (bu t i’ierehfam feit) , er Iaht (bu t mirh) , & c . ; a lso n am e s l ike film ht .

F o r 6 taht ‘city ’

, her g tiihter, itiihtiicb, bu t 6 tatt a nd € tiitte‘p la ce ’

, fiatt‘in ste a d fiattfinhen , & c .

, se e 3 1 , 5.

tb: iZbaI, i ba ler , tbat, tbiitig, & c ., i bon ‘c lay ’

, (bu t Et on‘sou n d ’

, 3 1 , s), St bor , tbbritbt , i bran , b riine, tbun , i bun s

fiicb, i bume), l l n tertban ; the n am es éBertba , SD ietber , &i’

mtber ,Botbar , Sotbringen , Ba rber , Elfiatbilhe, i beoba lh,

CI biiringen ,

(

I buénelhe, QBa l t(b)er ; a nd m a n y a dop te d wo rds :‘

I bermom eter, i bron , El bee, S itber, & c .

, cf. 45, 48, 15.

No te . (4 ) I n n a tive wo rds G n ow writes t n o t tb (1 ) bef o re sho rt a c c e n te d vowe ls, diphtho n gs, a n d tho se lo n g vowe lswhose len gth is in dic a ted by do u bl in g o r the l ike (SIZu rm ;

i au ,CJSeil , teu er ;

‘I eer , i ier), (2) in ziam ,

stiim er , stiim

((Siigen tum , ll ngetiim ), (3) m edia lly a nd fin a l ly (QItem , r aten ,(Sieratemobl , Whit, rot , QBirt , m ert). (5) SW disc ards sile n tba fter t in a l l bu t a dop ted wo rds wh ile A reta in s it eve n inm ost cases where it is n ow disc a rded by G . 28, N.

36 fig 1 50 N t6, 3

Be fo re a n s be lo n gin g t o a n in fle c t io n a l syl lable o r t o a n

e lem e n t o f a com po u n d , the h o r t o f the stem is re ta in ed ,

3 1 , 4 Eanhé‘

s, Q auptiacbe, Elléitfel e l sewhe re the so u n d ts is

repre se n te d by 5o r 13, (cf. 46 N 3 ) , bu t ti in Qotie< D u tch.

3 7 f, M I).

1 ) The so u n d o f f i s u su a l ly repre se n ted by f, § 1 92

gelh, feft, forhern , f’

o’

rhern (bu t v orher , gunhrherft) , girlie,

fiil len (bu t r oll), fu r (bu t nor), 6 trafe, Sl ampf ; a lso in the

fo re ign wo rds (i lefan t , Glfenhein , gaia'

n ; a nd in the n am e s

QIhoIf, filrnu lf, Saboli, iliuholf, QBeftfa len .

2) ll 2 38) i s writte n (n eve r be fo re 11, u , cf. 1 6,1 R )

~

(a ) in flict/bf 35 f t) , in Qiater , Q3eilcben , nerz,

’Beré, il etter,

(Gienatter), Qiieb, v iel ‘m u ch ’

(fiel‘fe l l n ier, fil liefa, fliogel ,

32 ®rtboarapbg

Qiogt, iiol f , r oll (bu tc

(girlie, fiiIIen) , non , nor (bu t fiir) , v orhet

(bu t forhern , fiirhern) , born , gunh'

rherft, a nd the i r de riva tive s .

(b) m edia l ly ,in §}renel , ‘Bu lner, a nd ge ograph ica l n am e s

l ike $ ov enhen , .s'

gannoner, gav el , .il lene, Sl av en fsburg.

(5) fi n a l ly ,in fo re ign wo rds l ike bran , Sl ew, (buftah ,

Bento'

ie.

3 ) pbo ccu rs in (Spbeu a nd in fo re ign wo rds , cf. 2 1 9.

38 . g, (I) 1 97 , 2,1 98 , f 2 05)

1 ) The sam e co n so n a n t i s writte n fin a l ly as m edia l ly, even

if the pro n u n cia tio n cha n ge s , Rbnig fibnige, gabn z

rid) gabnricbe, fiber l QBerg QBergeé.

2 ) g i s writte n z

(a ) In n am e s in =mig (t wig, Euhm ig, a nd in som e

n o u n s in =igz (Wig, flafig, Rhn ig, ‘Bfer mig, & c .

(b) In a dje ctive s in z ig : art ig, gfitig, 81 0.

No te . The su ffix sl itbis regu larly written with (b, bu t a fterI o f the stem it has be en m istaken f o r the zig o f beil zig, &c .

Thu s ahel zig f o r ahelsl id) , a nd bi ll ig, obll ig, hudel ig, &c .

(c) In Sagh, Sll l agh, QSogt ; fo r m ag, m agir, bu t m ocbte, se e

§ 3 1 , 4; f o r Sl eig‘do ugh ,

’

Smerg‘dwa rf ’

,bu t St eicb

‘po n d

amercb‘awry ’

, 3 1 , 5 com pa re a lso friegen‘m ake wa r

, ge t’

,

taugen‘be go od

’

, fiegen‘ co n qu e r ’

, nerjiegen‘dry u p

’

,with

friecben‘crawl ’

, fau tb en‘dive ’

, jiecben‘be sick ’

, nerfiecben‘la n gu i sh , exp ire

’

,a ndse e 1 97 , 1 R a

,1 98, 1 R .

3) (I) i s writte n

(a ) in su bsta n t ive s in =ricb (Gu tericb, $ abn ricb, geinricb,a lso in ‘Bfirficb, Sietticb,

C

I eppicb, & c . F o r i eicb, amercb,friecben , jiecben , & c .

,cf. 2 5

,above .

(5) in a dje ctives a nd adve rbs in =Iicb (cf. n o te t o 2 b,

above) , thu s ebrlicb, gliicf licb, & c .,a nd so nerhfien tlicben , & c .

No t ice a llm iiblig gem acb.

(r) in su bsta n t ive s a n d a dje ct ive s in =icbt z SD icficbt,tbhricbt, & c . ; bu t

‘Brehigt‘Brehiget .

S pe l ling 33

39 ° 93! IQ, all (hip (dig) ! L1 ) S tem s in g, f , cf re ta in the se le tte rs be fo re the s o f a n

e n din g o r a dded stem flugé“

E ng, Iin ffi l in f , Sinidé fnicfjenfniden , jtracfé jtracf .

2 ) E lsewhe re the so u n d ks i s sp e l led

(a ) ge n e ra l ly c » Qicbje, Qldjjel ,(

filacbé, c jg, jecbé,macbjen , & c . ,

a l so g acbjen S axo n y ’

, QBeicbjeI, & c .

(b) bu t 2 2 40) in n t ,c

gage, beige, ‘R ig,SJ‘l itje, a nd in

m a n y fo re ign wo rds 48 , re) .

40 . 16 I n (n) , I n, 1 2 2

1 ) IQ» , n é : %el § , Q a lé, Sgiilje, Qiinje, hie 6ia‘

go ose (bu t

gang‘who le Qinje, minieln .

2 ) 15, na: (S u la, S ebma lg, SIBa lge, maigen , gang‘who le ’

(bu thie 6 am ) , grungen , Qanae,

‘Bopang, SJ l angen , Stangel , Gi rlmnge,

v erbungen , fl ange.

4 1 . j, if, fi, 6, F o r a dopted wo rds,cf. 48,

1 ) I n itia l ly 35 ft), o n ly j (ca p ita l 6 ) i s u sed : jagen ,6 um a nd gauptjacbe, C

‘5egen , l l njegen ,so acbtiam , 6 d)irija l ,

lliiitjel .No te . S o t o o befo re i: a nd p, an 1 o r 6 is written f o r

jieben , @piel .

(a ) Be twe e n vowe ls z 2 23 ) is repre sen ted by j @eijell ostage ami ne

‘m u se reijen

‘ trave l ’

, wei fen‘ show’

, hie

j 5 so t o o when e is om it te d , thu s un fret f o r unjerer .

Be twe e n vowe ls s 2 2 8 N) i s rep re se n ted by ifa fte r sho rt vowe ls 46 N 3 e nd) : bafien , efien ; by {5 a fter

lo n g vowe ls : ®eiBeI‘ sco u rge

’

, Elliufse‘ le i su re ’

, reiBen‘ te a r ’

,

meifien‘wh itewa sh

(5) Afte r co n so n a n ts , j i s writte n (Erbie, (éihecbje, gu cbje,emiig, & c .

(a’

) Also be fo re p o r t o f the stem : (fijpe, Ranine, igniten .

34 ®rtboarap bn

(a ) be fo re t o f the stem , j is written 911i, fajt, & c .

(b) fo r e i the r m e dia l 11 o r m edia l B, fg o n ly is writte n (Aa lo n e re qu ire s 16 fo r m edia l fl) : fallen bu t er fain (cf. be low

5,e nd) , taBte, geiaiat , fablicb; gru faen a nd so er griiBt, griiiste,

81 0. No tice a lso m it}: (A re qu ire s jé) in Sfi ifghraucb, m iBIicb,& c .

,a nd even be fo re vowe ls

,so m ifsacbten .

No te . Bu t atré, heel (heaba lb, heéfel hen , mes (mes

ba l b, in sp ite o f an iser, hefien , mefien , so 916 (A requ iresQII‘S) p l . Qlfi

'

e, SBilIet pl . SBilIette, a nd zu ié in sp ite o f zn ifie(n ),c f . 47 .

(t ) fo r m edia l j, 6 is writte n boje bu t hog, hofibaft , $ 306beit bu t i is re ta in ed by G in fo rm s l ike er reijt (f o r reijet) ,rei fte (A re qu ire s 53 , Sw a l lows e ithe r) , tho ugh if be com e s {3in

'

sim il a r ca se s,cf . b

,abo ve .

(a’

) in su ffixe s a nd in fle ctio n s , 6 8 ft) i s writte n Sman

n ee, ien eé, flugé, fil t laé’

o, Qiilhnis (in Sp ite o f 58ilhn ifie), 81 0.

S o a lso in greibeitsirieg, SD ienstag, & c .

(e) in wo rds tha t.

ha ve n o co rre spo n din g m ed 1a l fo rm s, 3

i s writte n : n lé, hié, biéber , maé, es‘

o’

, ha?»‘the

, tha t’

, hag:

ien ige, & c . F o r hat;(A re qu ire s haifi)‘ tha t ’

a s co n ju n ct io n ,

se e 3 1 , 5.

(f ) Whe n wo rds l ike Qajten , Rnoipe, SlBafier, a re divided

49 , the re te n t io n o f j is p re fe rred , bu t u sage va rie s a nd

the o fficia l spe l le rs a r e n o t dogm a t ic o n the subje c t .

S IGNS OF TH E LENGTH OF VOW ELS

F o r a dop ted wo rds se e 48, 1 7 .

42 . When a lo n g vowe l is n o t fo l lowe d by two o r m o re

co n so n a n ts,its le n gth i s ge n e ra l ly le ft u n in dica ted ha , bar ,

bahen . S im i la rly be fore a) , id) , & c . 1 3 7 N 1 ) , a nd e ve n ,

a t t im e s,be fo re seve ra l co n so n a n ts 1 4 1 e nd) .

36 ®rtbograpbp

3) Som e o the r wo rds o f fo re ign o rigin : 5Brief , S(’jiehel ,

‘Briejter, & c . F o r gieber‘fe ve r ’

(bu t fi ber‘fibre SUZien e

‘m ie n (bu t Sfi in e

‘m in e se e . § 3 1 , 5.

No te 1 . I n the in fle c tio n o f wo rds e n din g in ie, a n o ther eis n o t a dde d (so ha‘B Sin ie = zj hie Sl n ie z z

'

o r 7 2 , au f henfin ien = in o r Z

’

en ), u n less it be in ten de d t o c a l l a tten tio n t o

the extra syllable (so hie fin iee

No te 2 . In som e LG n am es, e o r i is a dded t o a vowe l asa sign o f le n gth , so Sggeboe, e oeft , S roiehorf.

c

groan, Goa ls,&c . , E n gl ish , a r e sim ila rly rega rded.

45. b18 o fte n (esp . be fo re I, m , n , r, § 3 0 , 7) u sed t o in di

ca te the le n gth o f a p re ce d in g vowe l i f t p re c ede , the b iswritte n a fte r tha t (i ba l , & c .

,cf. 35 8: N) : 3abri (bu t .S

'

goifart) , fl obl , filinbrn , S obn , i br , Siabt . S e e 3 1 , 5, fo r Qioble‘p la n k (bu t

‘Bom le ‘bowl, p u n c h gebjt

‘

go e st’

(bu t ®eeft),

beb t‘subl im e (bu t Sgeer

‘a rm y be):

‘h ithe r bobl‘ho l low ’

(bu t bolen‘fe tch i br

,leb t en ‘ te a ch ’

(bu t IeerenWabh (bu t Sfiaat), Sfiabl

‘ repa st ’

(bu t gfia l‘ t im e

,

m ablen‘

grin d (bu t m a len ‘

p a in t 9Jiiibre‘m a re ’

(bu tSl l iiire Emebl

‘fio u r’

(bu t Elfi el tau‘m ildew m ebr

‘m o re ’

(bu t Ell ieer wobr‘n egro

’

(bu t‘JJ l oor

S ob le ‘S o le

,s i l l ’

(bu t S o le‘brin e l lbr

‘ tim ep ie c e’

(bu t

l l r QBabl‘ cho ice a nd QBablplatg, (bu t QBa lfta tt o r

QBabljtatt‘ba tt lefie ld mabr

‘ tru e (bu t roar‘was QBebr

(bu t roer who QBergelh) .

No te 1 . Befo re the bo f sbeit a silen t bis dro pp ed, so robbu t Eliobeit ; n o t so in c om p o u n ds, thu s 6 trobbu t , &c .

No te 2 . In so m e c ases sile n t b has a n h isto ric a l va lu e ,havin g o n c e be en p ro n o u n c ed, so jeben , jab, &c . 200

D OUBLE CONSONANTS

F o r the pro n u n c ia tio n o f do u ble c o n so n a n ts see 1 55— 6.

Afte r a sho rt vowe l o f the stem ,a co n so n a n t i s

dou bled if it i s the o n ly o n e the re : fa llen ,

C

(Sti ll ; so t o o eve n

if in fl e ct ion a l e n din gs a r e a dded : hu iiilljt, er fa ll t , he?)‘

ftallh,

S pe l ling 37

her ftraffite, — a nd n imm ft , trifiit , trofi, gri ff, tho ugh the in

fin it iv e has a lon g vowe l .

2) S im ila rly in com po u n ds a nd de riva t ives : bemmjcbub,ga ll tbiir , S amm ler , S amm lnng bu t if the o rigin o r fo rce o f

e ithe r e lem en t is n o t obv io u s the c o n so n a n t is o fte n wr i t

t e n s in gle : Qiranh a nd ‘B run lt — brennen (bu t EBrann troeinbe ca u se o f gebrann t), Sina it a nd fl unhe fenn en (bu t fenn t=

l i tb, fienn tn ie be c a u se o f gelau n t) , (Siejcbaft — jclmfien , jumjenS pinhel

— jpinn en , a ljo a ll , gimbeere, S ingriin ,

QBa lnnB, & c .

No te I . The c o n so n an t is n o t do ubled in m ost m o n osyl l a

bles tha t a re a lwa ys o r o ften u n a c c en ted : in ed, in ,

(c f . 1 44 f t ), a lso m eg, rh ea ; still hann , henn , mann , wen n .

No te 2 . In c om po u n ds two c o n so n a n ts a re writte n f o r

thre e , if a l l have the sam e so u n d henn o tb, Emittag, fD r it teilo r fD rittel , (S clnfiabr t , S t en n efiel . Bu t el l , 135, &c . a re n eversim p l ified Siticl l ebr , g cbubao ll , e cblu fsjab. S e e a lso 49 N 4 .

R em ark . This is the ru le as g ive n in Bv , Bd, a ndA

the o the rs prescribe it o n ly in the fiv e exam p les give nabove ; bu t S x p erm its it in o the rs Qietttu cbo r fi ettud) ,E till lehen o r 6 till eben , &c . , a nd Sw presc ribes a nd W

p erm its the sp e l lin g Qiettsi u cb, S till st’eben , &c .

No te 3 . F o r if we write cl , so SBa'

cl er (fo r SBiil er , c f .

§ 49 N A s 3 = ts, o n ly t is rep e a ted , so 13, tts), thu s

lesen ; g is n ever do u bled ; 1 37 N 1 e nd. D igraphs a nd

trigra phs (Cl) ,’

jcb, &c .) a r e n ever do ubled . Media l if m a y be

regarded as a do uble fa: heiBen , bu t gebifien , &c . 4 1 ,

47 . In su ffixe s ha v in g a sho rt vowe l u n de r a se co n da ry

a cce n t,a fo l lowin g sin gle co n so n a n t is do ubled o n ly whe n

a vowe l is a dded,so Ql t laé, (Sriifin , 8engn i § , — bu t Ql tlafie,

@riifinn en , Seugn ijje, & c .,cf. 4 1 , 3 N .

No te . S t ill the do ublin g o f in is sh irked in Giiham e, fi rau tigam e,CABilgrim e, a nd in §Reicbt tint er , iorgiam er , &c ., eve n by tho se who p ro

V

n o u n c e it a nd ii, c f . 237 , N z e nd, 1 70 , N 3 c n d ; a nd, o n the o therha n d , 15f o r 5is writt en in Riebih, g t iegl ib, Emor itj, fiaujib.

E ve n here there is in c o n siste n c y, f o r cf (c f . 46 N 3) a nd£5a re writte nf o r l a n d 3 in fi ledé, fl u ids, n a tl t , jest , a lso in hru cl fen , gln cl ien , &c .

38 ® rtbograpbp

TH E S PELLING OF AD OPTE D W OR D S

F o r the divisio n o f a do p ted wo rds se e 50.

48 . T he re i s m u c h dive rsity and in co n s i sten cy in the

wr itin g o f fo re ign wo rds . In ge n e ra l , the lo n ge r a wo rd has

be e n in the la n gu age a nd the m o re i t has a ccom m o da ted

itse lf in pro n u n c ia t io n t o the G e rm a n la n gu age , the m o re

ap t i t i s to be writte n as a G e rm a n word .

1 ) i fo r G re ek v,o r y : (Sipéi, S i lbe, S irup, g til , S imbel ;

bu t Ginm najiurn , fibr i l , Elfinrte, Slnmpbe, S bjtem ,& c cf . 2 4 1 .

2 ) ii f o r Fre n ch 11 : iirojcbiire, Sl oitiim , Settiire, i rihu n e;bu t Slieoenue, Ster n e, & c .

3 ) u fo r Fre n ch o u SBluje, (Sruppe, Slu i fe, C‘Buppe, I ruppe,

& c . ; bu t Qiouquet , (Soujin e, Stou te, S ou r, & c .

4) n fo r Fre n ch a u z S cbafiot ; bu t (S au ce, §Bil reau , ‘Blateau , & c .

5) ii f o r fo re ign a n gou tan e, Wigran e, iljtbetit , filtber ,

$ c’

ihagog, & c .,e spe cia l ly in z lin ,

=lit z Siapitiin , C‘Zvouoeriin ,

Slfiil itar , S etretar ; bu t filfiaire, (Sbaije, cf . 1 7 2 R 3 .

6) ii fo r F re n ch (o)e u : St hel , hl ian ooer ,’Bobel, & c . ,

e spe cia l ly in see : n erohe, rel igi'

o'

e ; bu t ahieu , Sngen ieur .

7) f f o r La t . 0 (G re ek K) : Siam el , S‘l anal , fiangler , Rafie,

filafie, Blotter , Sirou e, filhootat , firahitat , al tahemie, SD em ol ratie;<

{sahr irfi ‘JRujil , alritbm etif ,‘a jit ; alrtitel ,

‘D l ustel ; hireft ,‘Rua it , ibia lel t , elettriicb; Sl oa lition , Roll ege, Romm en tar , Ron

grep, Rorruption .— Bu t c rem a in s in cc a nd cqu : fil ccorh,

QIcqu ijition .

Rem a rk . I n the sam e wo rd the k-so u n d m u st n o t be diff e r en t ly represen ted , so n o t correl t n o r l orrect . t ica tioua

has c a s a La tin wo rd , 3nhifatip has i as a G erm a n ized wo rd .

8) G re ek X i s rep re se n ted by 6b, bu t p ro n o u n ced k in

Gbarafter , (Sbor , (Sbora l , Gbrijt , (Sbron if, 820 S e e a lso 1 8 1,1 5.

9) f fo r F re n ch q u (Etifette, Sfiarfe, $ al et ; bu t Qiouquet,Gl iane, & c .

S pe l ling 39

1 0) F o r e ign x m re ta in e d : I antippe, QIgiom , boren , Gram en ,

Grempel , & c .

1 1 ) 5fo r fo re ign c , t , be fo re fro n t vowe ls 8elle, S i t tel ,Sange,

SBoligei, so in the e n din g =gieren , a nd whe n fin a l

fireug,‘Br ing, SD ijtang, SDifiereng, €D u oheg, gojpig. In o the r

ca se s u sage va rie s g u su a l ly in ED egember , Siougert , Sfiehigin ,

D ifigier ; c u su a l ly in Gigarre, (Sirius, jocia l , jpecifiicb. S im i

la r ly 8erter o r © cepter , 1 79 R .

Bu t c i s re ta in ed in ct , fit , a nd gr ; in wo rds o rigin a l ly

G re ek a nd in n am e s a nd t is re ta in e d in still , stie, stion

QIccen t , SDieciplin , (Sgcell eng; (Sntlus, (Snlinher , Stbinoceroe;(Sicero, (Simher ; m artia l iicb,

‘Batien t , St ation , sti l l ©ragie, =h§ .

A nd33, ra the r tha n 13, is re ta in ed in Sn term eggo , C‘Bl igge, & c .

'

1 2 ) if fo r F re n ch 0 : filiafie; bu t c o r g in S au ce, $ aQD n ,

gagahe (o r gafiahe), & c .

The s-so u n d is ge n e ra l ly rep rese n ted as in G e rm a n wo rds

so S etunhe, rajieren ,

‘Benjion , Rafie, fil ajfion ; S pan, jpaBen ,

QSaB, .il ongrefs,‘Bu ls, fibiel an t , fD ieciplin , Selam , Seraelit ,

Sfia f‘

ol e, Ell iuél el , hriiéal . Bu t be fo re p a nd t, j is ge n e ra l ly

writte n : goipig, fibiftang, SD iftrift (sti l l ED iepene, ibiepu t ,1 3 ) id) f o r Fre n ch c h : Qirojcbe, ibepejclw,

‘JJl ajcbin e, & c .

bu t Qbaufiee, (Sbef, & c .

1 4) Fo re ign (r)rh is re ta in ed in Sibabarher , Sibetorif ,rbeumatijcb,

’

Siatarrl) . S o t o o in the n am e s gibein , Slbhn ,Elibon e.

1 5) Fo re ign t h i s re ta in ed in SI beater , I bee,(.I beorie,

SIberm om eter , E bron , fil ritbm etii, Elfietbohe, & c . Al l su ch (e x 1

cep t tea ) ha ve t/z in E n gl ish . No tice filu tor fo r E n gl ish

a n t/zor,in wh ich /z has in tru ded .

1 6) Fo re ign v,whe the r = f o r m (cf . is ge n e ra l ly

re ta in ed : fil eilcben , fliers, ‘Bogt ,‘Ru loer , hrao , 92cm , Qieeper ,

& c ., Sl omin atin , relatio, & c . ; lBaje, a a lier , Siooell e, & c .

Bu t Staraman e, firamatte, Sam in e, & c .

1 7) S ign s o f Q u a n t ity e t c

40 ®rtbograpbg

(a ) In fin a l a ccen ted syl lable s we write (1 ) som e t im e s ee,som e tim e s é — even if the re st o f the wo rd is written in

G e rm a n le tte rs QIllee,‘l lrin ee, Shee,

C.Ebee, a nd, with se co n d

a ry a ccen t , fiafi’ee'

;'(Safé, Goupe

’

, Eliegligé; (2 ) it 5)(Sbemie, dia lerie,

‘Bbiloiopbie.

(b) In (1 ) fin a l a cce n ted syl lable s,the fo l lowin g co n so

n a n t i s gen e ra l ly do ubled if the vowe l is sho rt Q uell , reell ,

Qia llett , n ett , (Sl a lom) , barocf ; so t o o befo re 9 : (Signrre, (iti l ette,©ruppe ; bu t gotel , Qiillet , Qiouqu et , SBuhget, se e 1 38 , N 1 2 .

In (2 ) u n a cce n ted syl lable s the fo re ign do ubl in g i s som e

tim e s s im p l ified Qiajonett , ‘Bionier,‘Bomahe.

Chap ter iii

TH E D IV IS ION OF WOR D S AT TH E END OF’

A LINE

R em ark . There is m u ch less u n ifo rm ity in the ru les the vario u sgovernm en ts have issu ed as t o th is m a tter tha n in tho se o n sp e l l in g.

F o r the pho n e tic divisio n o f wo rds in to syllables, see 88 &c .

a ) N a tiv e We r a'

s.

49 . 1 ) Com po u n d wo rds a re div ided in to the ir e lem e n ts

SD ienez tag, au fziteben , oo ll =enhen , berz'

aue, bin sein , oorzilher ,

harzau f, wa t zum ; 58e=griff, ger=itort, l l n =art , en t=arten (bu t

em spfangen , s hiang, 9 1 N 1 a ) .

2 ) Beyo n d th i s , wo rds a re so div ided tha t .the n ew l in e

begin s , if p o ssible , with a sin gle co n so n a n t (cl) , jcb, pb, 3, fl)repre sen t bu t o n e so u n d a nd c o u n t as s in gle co n so n a n ts ;fo r ng, cf. n o te se e 89, 9 1 loh=te,

c

{'

yriibsl ing,‘l romnt

ler , ©t h=ie, SD recbader , lozhen , éBu =cber , ma =icben so" tapsfer ,

frat zgen , lafz ten a nd lii=peln.

o r laesten a nd liespeln , sf .

So uh=l ig, tho u gh the pho n e t ic d ivi s io n i s a zhlig, 9 1 , N 2 .

No te 1 . D o uble c o n so n a n ts a s we ll as hi a nd ng, tho u ghreprese n tin g bu t a sin gle so u n d a r e divided , a nd Cl

bec om es il "‘z S rom sm el , miislen , S tahzte,<

{yin sgen EBatr fer .

'No te 2 . F o r gun sftig, a'

nn tigen , fum zpfig, Sl ampfen ,

se e 9 1 , 2 .

No te 3 . W ha t is c u t o ff m u st c o n ta in a t le ast o n e syllable ,a nd a divisio n m u st be avo ided if bu t o n e le t ter is therebyse t o ff , so n eve r {tzreng, ill zhel .

Bv W pu t ngwith the pre c edin g syl lable (gingzer); A , Bv , Sw

p u t in, it, 15, cf , pf, as we l l as cb, jcb, g, &c . , with the fo l lowing syllable(l asiten , lizipeln , ba zcl en , tra zben , &c .) P S x do so with ht (S tashte.S erman shte), a nd P W with pf (f lospfen ) ; W a lso spe c ifies tha t it o fa sup erla tive sho u ld n o t be divided (treu zfte, hesite).

42 ® rtbograpbp

No te 4 . Mo st (n o t Bd) o f tho se who dro p o n e o f thre ec o n so n a n ts in c om p o u n ds 46 N 2 R ) resto re it whe n the

wo rd is divided (6 cbifisfabrt , exc ep t in EUl it r tag, hen zn ocl) .

a) A a’

op tea’ We r a

’s.

50 . F o re ign wo rds a re d iv ided abo u t ”

as n a t ive wo rds a re .

1 ) Com po u n ds a re divided in to the ir e lem en ts (n empel ,

Sn tersefie, SD eni ostrat , 9J liiro=jl op,‘ll rozhlem (a nd u su a l ly SBro

jelbt , i ranazattion (bu t obse rve St ran =fit a nd tran

jpirieren , a nd so abzitratt) .

2 ) (a ) A sin gle co n so n a n t go e s with the fo l lowin g vowe l

(Wiester , firiz til , pinscbijcbSBrowbet , cf . 49, (b) two co n

so n a n ts a r e sep a ra ted (ilfiagm olie, e itbz tnetil), bu t a sto p

co n so n a n t go e s with a fo l lowin g I o r r, 9 1 , 3 (‘Bwhlifunn

Siesgligé,‘Ba z troz t lus, SDl a =trat3e, Ell iez trum , Gm isgran t) ; (t ) o f

thre e co n so n a n ts the la s t two go to the n ew l in e (elef=trijcb,05=jfur), a nd j go e s with fo l lowin g tr (Winidtran t) ; (a

’

) twovowe ls o f diffe ren t syl lable s a re sepa ra te d (Sirem tur ,

44 ®rtbograpbp

her 3 0 , 1 4 . G o ttsched cham p io n ed the ca u se o f the

capita ls a ndm ade a gre a t sp lu tte r a t'

tho se tha t wo u ld ha ve

re l ieved the la n gu age o f them .

53 .' J akob G rim m was the m o st ra dica l oppo n e n t o f ca pi

ta ls,disca rdin g them excep t t o m a rk n ew pa ragraphs o r

l in e s o f tho ught a nd to de sign a te p rop e r n am e s, 3 0 , 1 7 .

H e has be e n fo l lowed by m o st ph i lo log ia n s in the m a tte r o f

com m o n n o u n s a nd pro n o u n s 3 0 , a nd by the o fficia l

sp e l le rs in the ca se s o f som e o f the pro n o u n s 55, bu t

the co rre c t u se o f c a pita ls st i l l fo rm s a n u n n e ce ssa ry ta sk

f o r the le a rn e r. Tha t the fre qu e n t o ccu rre n ce o f the fraktu r

capita ls am o n g the G o thic sm a l l le tte rs is u n ha rm o n io u s,

has be e n p o in ted o u t,

8 e nd; a nd n o th in g c a n be m o re

d isagre e able tha n a who le wo rd p rin te d with the se p u re ly

in it ia l le tte rs SS S US , QCESRER, 3 0 , 1 1,

1 3 .

RULE S

54 . A ca p ita l le tte r is nOw u sed t o begin

1 ) A se n te n ce,u su a l ly a l in e o f po e try

,a nd a qu o ta t io n

pre ce ded by a co lo n . (Bu t n o t in’Q» (536 o r i3ms.)

2 ) S u bsta n t ive s Qilaube) a nd wo rds u sed as sub

st a n t iv es (her Ell eicbe, Giu tee uuh S tiles, has Sl icbte, iehem has

S ein e, has (Erbebenhe, (Siehru cl tea, Beien unh S chreiben , has

SIBenn unh ha?» filber , hasfllhc, fibeu tjcb lernen in c lu din g a n

a dje ctive u se d a fte r etmaé, oiel , & c . (etmaé’

aElleuee, n icbtd(bu teé) .S im i la rly a fte r in c om p o u n ds se e exam p le s in 46 R ,

64 , 5.

3 ) Adje ctive s a n d n u m e ra ls fo l lowin g a n o u n as a c og

n om e n (Sl arl her (Sirofae, SBiIbelm her (t rite) .

4) Adje ctives a nd p ro n o u n s in t it le s (S e. filiajeftat , hie

Sl aijer licbe ‘Bojt , her QBirf licbe S ebeim rat), so t o o in has

S cbmarge Sl icer , hie Qierein igten S taaten .

9“I n this, SD eu tjcbis a n o u n the G erm a n lan gu age bu t in heu tfcbinrecben the wo rd is regarded as a n a dverb.

(the“

(use of Gap it a ls 45

5) The p e rso n a l pro n o u n s S ie, Sbrer , Sbn en , a nd the

possessive s Sbr , Sbre, Sbr, & c .,whe n these fo rm s a re u sed

f o r the se co n d p e rso n (to dist in gu ish them from fie‘ they

i b r ‘ the ir & c .) in le tte rs a lso the fo rm s o f £911 a nd $D ein ,

sin gu la r a nd p lu ra l . 52 .

No te . S im ila rly whe n the se c o n d p erso n p lu ra l is u sed fo rthe sin gu la r (Sbr , S u er, (in ch), o r the third p erso n sin gu la rf o r the se c o n d (m asc . (Er , S ein er, Sbm , Sbn , S ein ; f em . S ie,

Sbrer , 3br) . F o r (Sin se e 263 N 3 .

6) Adje c tives de r ive d fro m the n am es o f p e rso n s. (hie

S rimmjcbenSJJ l iircben , hie t

'

gom erijcben S chicbte, hie S euer licbicbe

Qiu cbbanhlung, Eu tb'er(i)icbo r Bu tb

'

(e)rijcb 3 1 0 ,a ndadje c

t iv es in ser from n am e s o f p la ces (her Rhln er 330m , S cbmeiger

Rifle) . S e e 55,

55. Cap ita l s a r e n o t u se d in o the r c ase s

1 ) S u bsta n t ives tha t ha ve pra c tic a l ly be c om e o the r p a rts

o f sp e e c h

(a ) P rep o sit io n s angelicbté, ft aft , u in

h on megen , & c .

(b) Co n ju n ctio n s : fa ll , gu in a l .

(r) I n defin ite n u m e ra ls : ein pour‘a f ew

’

(bu tgBaar

‘pa ir ein hifscben a bi t (bu t Qiificben‘sm a l l bite

(a’

) Adve rbs inorgene, oorm ittag‘

a, 81 0. (bu t he?» Ell iorgene

& c .,a nd S on n tage beu te ahenh, geftern friil), & c .

,-an :

fangs, recbte, tei le, ein eateile, iehen fa lle, & c . (bu t icbliinmiten

galls) , gu terhinge, m ein erjeite, geit lehene, einm a l ,hieam a l (bu t has eine Ema l , hieiee Sfia l , oiele Sll l ale) , herart ,

gliicl licbermeiie, & c . , hiemeilen , geitber , a ll egeit , gemifierm afaen ,herm afsen , & c . (bu t ilher a ll e SDl aBen) , heigeiten ,

oorherbanh‘ fo r the pre se n t ’

, hergau f, jahrausiabrein , hurthmeg, ohn egleichen , non a l teraber , gu t ecbt , bei leibe n icbt, benign

tage.

(e) P a rts o f ve rba l phra se s acbtgeben a ndid) gebe acbt & c .,

tei lhaben , banhbahen , ftanhba lten , bauebalten , hohn lachen , bobn

46 ®rtbograpbp

jprecben , preisgeben , ra ticblagen , ftattfinhen , teilnebmen , mabr=

n ebm en , oon nhten "a nd im jianhe jein , in jtanh a nd gurecbt

ietgen , gu ftanhe a nd gu flatten tomm en , uherbanh n ebm en , gu

leihe a nd gu l iebe tbun , gu nu tge a nd gu n i chte m acben , gumege

br ingen , oon flatten geben , gu tei l wet hen , in acbt n ebm en , augeracbt lafien .

* S im i la rly leih (a n d n ot, roeb) tbun , freunh (a nd

feinh, gram , jcbahe, icbu lh, wi llene) jein , es iii m ir angit (so'

leih, n ot , m ebe, mobl), ea geicbiebt m ir recbt, es iit m ir ein er lei .Thu s 3d) n ehm e hran tei l , bu t 3d) n ebm e fein en SEeil hran .

SD ae l ief; er au fgeracbt bu t €D a€1 lieia er auBer a ller Sl cbt . QBann

finhet has itatt ? bu t S in gu tes Short finhet eine gu te S tatt .

Sit er’

e n icbt im itanhe ? bu t ‘D as pane ill in mobn licbem

S taube. (536 that ibm leih bu t (Er that jicbein Seih an .

No te . W he n the e lem en ts o f su ch phrases a re supp ose dt o reta in the ir in dividu a l val u es, the su bsta n tive reta in s the

c ap ita l {yo lge leiften , SRehe fteben , S a l t ba lten , i ronhieten ,‘Bla tg, greifen , im S ticbe l afien , im

‘l iegriff iein , guC

{yil fgenfa l len , gu EUlu te iein , gu .

‘lBerte geben , & c . Bu t th isdistin c tio nis very diffic u lt, se e 53 .

2 ) Adje ctive s tha t a r e de rive d from the n am e s o f pe rso n s,

bu t ha ve com e t o ha ve a se co n da ry, m o re ge n e ra l , m e a n in g

* T he o ffic ia l sp e llers a re in c o n siste n t a nd se lf-c o n tra dic to ry as t o

these wo rds. P a t -first favo re d writin g prep ositio n a nd n o u n as o n e

wo rd a nd the verb sep a ra te ly (a ndwas fo l lowed by Bd) bu t la ter, a lo n gwith W , de c ide d t o sep a ra te the prep ositio n t o o in m ost c ases a nd S x

pre f ers this sp e ll in g still in som e c ases n o t eve n the verb is sep a ra ted .

P W prescribe a nd S x re c om m en ds in a cbf n ebm en , auger a cbt l afien ,gu nube m a cben , im a ndauger fianhe jein , in ftanh lesen , gu ftanhe tomm en , oon ita tten geben , gu {tatten tomm en ,

'

gu tei l m erhen , sim ila rly W(P is silen t) gu l iebe a nd gu leihe ibun , a nd P (W here jo in s Bd) oonn hten jein wh ile in a l l these Bdp resc ribes a ndS x a llows in a cbt n ehm en ,gunu tge m acben , &c . Bu t P , W , S x , Bd prescribe gu recbt m acben orietgen (bu t the Bd wo rd-l ist presc ribes gu recbt legen stomm en sm eiien ) ,a nd W S x (P silen t) prescribe gum ege br ingen , while Bd prefersgum egehrin gen . W presc ribes (P silen t) gu n icbte m acben , S x prefersgu n i chte m a cben , while Bdp refers gu n icbtem a cben sgeben &c . On the o therha n d , P S x presc r ibe iiherbanhn ebm en , W Bd ilherbanh n ehm en ,

B has, with P , iiherbanhn ebm en , gu itanhe lomm en , gu tei l werben , bu tis silen t as t o the o thers.

(t he“

(use oi c apita ls 47

eine lu tberijcbe (Siem einhe, ein m obamm ehaniicberc

(writ , bom erii e§ (Sieliicbter . Cf . 54 , 6 .

3) Adje ctive s a nd adve rbs de rived from the n am es o f

co u n trie s o r

“

districts : h ie engl iicbe S pracbe, hie rhm ijcbenSegion en , hie heu tjcbe $ lotte, ben tiri) iprecben 54 , hie

rbein iicben S tiihte, hie hahiicben S cbu len , jcbmeigerijcl) bu tS chweiger, 54 , 6 .

4) Al l the pro n o u n s a nd n u m e ra ls n o t sp e c ified in 54 ,

3 , 4 , 5, thu s her , hieier , ien er , herjen ige, herjelbe, ein er , l ein er,

jeher , ieglicber , heihe, hie heihen , her n am licbe, her cin e, her

erfte, her eritere, her gmeite, her leigte, a lle, jiim t licbe, ein ige,etlicbe, m ehrere, h iele, eingeln e, wen ige, anhere, oerjcbiehen e,hie anhern , hie iibrigen , m an , jem anh, n iem anh, jeherm ann ,

m an cber , etmas, n icbte, ein iges’

, m cbr, wen ig, has

m eijie, has geringite, hasm en igjte, has anhere, folgenhes, n acl)

itebenheé, ohigeé’

s, a lle heihe, a lle hrei, her erfte hefte, jeher

bel iebige, l ein anherer , n iem anh anhere, a lles’ m oglicbe, a llee‘

a

anhere, n icbtsanbet ee, m an cher lei , oielerlei. So t o o in a llem ,

oor a llem , un ter anherem , im folgenhen , im ubrigen , hei o r

trotg a llehem , im ooritebenhen , fare erlte, gum lebten , his ins

eingeln fte, n icbt im m inheften . S im i la rly : a lle n eun werfen ,

auf a llen o ieren fr ied) en , m it lecbjen fabren , gu gm eien geben .

I n (i t ift immer n od) her a lte, her a lte herjelhe; bu t in (56 iii

her Ql l te, il l te‘o ld m a n

’

.

5) Adje ct ive s a n d a dve rbs,su ch a s: grofsunh f lein , gleicb

unh gleicb, arm uuh reicb, jung unh a l t, bocbunh n ieher , hurcbhicl unh hu nn , iiher furg oher lang, oon f lein auf, au f o r gu

heu ticb; jcbh'

nitene, friibejtene, au fe hefte, au fs jcbonjte, an tsn eu e, am o r gum hejten (bu t gum a llgem ein en Qieften) , m it n iicb

item , oor tu rgem , obn e m eiterea‘a t o n ce ’

, hei weitem , hisauim eiteree ‘ fo r the p rese n t

’

, oon n eu em ,fei t langem , im a ll ge

m ein en , im gangen , im gangen unh groBen , im grofsen gangen ,im m eien tlicben , ineheionhere, um ein heheu tenhee, n icbt im

geringiten , un term beu tigen beu te) , hes n ilbern , hes hftern ,

48 ®rtbograpbp

in gu tem o r im gu ten , es iii m ein eigen , es ift has r ichtigericbtig) , 66 iii has belie am beiten), ea jcbein t has her :

nun ftigfte; jein m'

oglicbjtee tbun , gu tbaben (so zbeiben ,sjagen),

gu eigen geben , fei lbieten , ieilba l ten , mabriagen , gum bejtenbaben , gu gu te ba lten , oorlieb n ebmen , beim a lten lafien , hen

tiirgern gieben , insrein e br ingen , im reinen 01 im tlaren jein , im

jtillen bleiben , im triiben fijcben . Bu t 3d) bin au f hasfiluberfte

geiabt . 8u gu ter Sebt o r gugu terl etgt. 3m‘

Zyreien jein . QBir

iprecben oon fil l tem unb ‘J leuem . S ei n icbt blobim S rofaen treu !

(Zba p ter p

P U NC T U A T ION"

56 . The P e r iod is u sed a t the e nd o f de cla ra t ive se n

t e n c es,a n d o f he a din gs o f c hap te rs a nd the l ike

,a lso

ge n e ra l ly a fte r abbre v ia t io n s a nd the o rdin a l n u m e ra ls.

fihn igC

{yriehricb QBilbelm I I I . her S ritte] , m el cber am 1 6 .

Wooember 1 797 fein em i’Sater auf hem EI brone

gefolgt mar , hielt , ro ie hiefer , an her sJ ieu tra litiitspo litit feft .

g.

”B . gum SBeifpiel , u . f . it) . unb fo weiter . Bu t the pe r iodis ge n e ra l ly om itted a fte r abbre v ia t io n s o f the de c im a l syst em m Sl l eter, m m Sfiill im eter , cbm Q ubifm eter ; a lso

a fte r 9Jiarf (M .= 9Jieile) a n d Q

SI‘sfenn ig, 1 5, 2 .

M a n y (fo r e x .,W ) u se the p e rio d a fte r I

,I I

,81 0. o n ly bef or e

substa n t ives. F o r the de c im a l p o in t, se e 57 , 1 N 5.

57 . The Com m a (n ow fo rm e rly 3 0) is u sed

1 ) Be twe e n c o-o rd in a te p a rts o f a se n te n ce,bu t n o t ge n

e ra l ly be fo re uuh u n less the c o -o rd in a te p a rts be c la u ses.

3d) babe lnrifcbe, epifcl)e unh hram atifcbe (Sehicbte oerfafet ; icbbabe iiber ftun ft , uber

‘Bbilofopbie, iiber SIbeologie, iiber‘Bolitil

gefcbrieben S ott oergeib’

e l Bu t ibie fl unft ift lang, unh

lurgift un fer Seben . Cf . a lso the se n te n ce s in the fo l lowin gNo te 1 . W he n c o -o rdin a te c l a u ses have o n e o r m o re e l e

m e n ts in c o m m o n , n o c o m m a is u sed be f o re u nh in its o rdin a rym e a n in g (‘Bertrau e au f S oft u nh n icbt au f fil leii fcben ), u n lessit is in ten ded thereby t o se t them o ff f o r sep a ra te c o n siderat io n (SD rin n en m a l tet hie gil tbtige Sgauefrau , u nh berrfcbet

welfe im bduélicben Streife, uuh lebret hie Ell ta'

hcben , u nhwebt ethen Stu aben , &c .) bu t o n e is gen era lly u sed befo re aber, hocb,

On the basis o f the ru les in W ; the o thers in G do n o t tre a t thesubje c t o f p u n c tu a tio n .

50 ®rtbograpbp

a ndu nhwhen aber (fD er l enhmar fcbon , aber etmaé tilbl).Tho u gh a c om m a is gen era lly u sed befo re u nh when there isn o c om m o n e lem en t in the c la u ses (S cb ergiiblte ibm hie S e:

fcbicbte, u nh hann tam er gleicl) m it , see a lso u uh has in

6 be low), it m a y be om itted in sho rt sen ten c es (Q ie gifcbefpringen u nh haé fil iafferbubn tau cht u n ter).No te 2 . No r is a c om m a n e ede d befo re oher , the c om

p a ra t iv es a lfi ‘tha n ’

,

‘a s

’

, a nd mie‘as

’

,

‘ like ’

, teilé teilé,

ba lh — ba lh, fomobl — a la au cl) , en tmeher ober, m ehern od) , &c . (esm u fe biegen oher brechen . 3d) bin beffer a lem an ben it . S ci) l iebe ibn mie m ein en Qiruher . SDu m u fsten tmeher fteigen oher fin ten . 58 t la

'

fst er ha ba lh hort einS tud. B u t a c om m a is u sed (6 be low) befo re a lfi ‘when

’

(a nd as’

when mie when how a nd the p a ren the tic‘as a lso befo re a lé ha fs.No te 3 . D istin gu ish be twe en S in f r il f t i g e r junger

Ell lan n a ndGain in n g e r , f r a f t i g er Sil ian u , in wh ich la tterthe a dje c tives a re c o -o rdin a te .

No te 4 . T he c om m a is n o t n e eded in Sgaupt : Seit: u nh(Sigen fcbaftfimhr ter a nd the like , bu t som e u se it.No te 5. I n G erm a n the c o m m a ra ther tha n the p erio d is

u sed as a de c im a l p o in t, o r sep a r a trix bu t the de c im a l figu resa r e gen era lly m ade sm a ller ‘

t . o rgll fh. lb.

2 ) Be fo re a nd a fte r pa re n the t ic sta tem e n ts (c f . § 6 2 a nd

l l nh ibr , icb boff’

ea, ftebt m ir wi ll ig bei.

3 ) S im i la rly be fo re a nd a fte r vo ca t ive s a nd su ch exc lam a

t io n s as do n o t requ ire a n exc lam a tio n p o in t, a nd a fte r in ,n ein , freilicb, n un , a nd s im i la r wo rds begin n in g a se n te n ce

3a , ia , m an m u fa hasS ein e beifamm enba l ten . (ii,‘Bater , ma §

fiebft hu fo b'

o'

e 921m , es finh horb tiicbtige Sente un ter ibn en .

4) Be fo re a n d a fte r a pp o sit ive s , a nd a dje ct ive s a nd p a rt i

c ip les tha t fo l low the ir n o u n s a s a pp o s it ive s : §D en D berbefebl

iiber hie taifer licbe‘l lrm ee ubern abm hee fiaifersS obn , 3

’

et hi

n anh, Ronig hon §Bhbm en unh l l ngarn . (No t so whe n S obu& c . a re o fte n u sed with a n am e a nd be com e a lm o st a pa rt

o f i t Sl lein S obu C

{yerhinanh unh hein e S cbmefter'

SUtarie.) S ie

fl ircbe i fi’e, hie beilige, hie bobe, hie gu hem gimmel uns hie

Qeiter bau t . S o be fo re a pa rt icip ia l c la u se tha t fo l lows the

m a in ve rb : a hem l l fer fteb’icl) lange St age, has Sanh her

52 ® rtbograpbg

fl irfcbbaum e; iBeigen , (Sierfte, bafer . Sher ib au , in hem her

R'

o'

n ig fcbliift , beftebt aus .s‘

golg; S trob’

unh ‘Becb l iegt gmifcbenhen illianhen u nh un ter hen S ielen . SDie

’

e’

» ift aber au cb a lles,was id) Sbn en beu te fcbreiben fann ; henn iiber hen wrange

m en te ift m ir her Ropf gang miifte geworben . Cf . examp lesu n de r 57 , 1 a nd6. (3 ) I n su ch ca se s as 559, 3 , (cf. n o te

the re) : S5 ift ein ftill es unh ein facbes pehan tifcbea Beben im

ban fe; hie ‘JJiu tter fcbiittel t hen Si‘

ori iiber S ellerte fcbioehifcbe(Siriifin , hie S orbier l ieft en tgiicl t in .ii leifte

C

{griibling unh fingtam fi laoier oom fil eilcben unh oom 8amm her

c

{slum unh her

SBater-triigi hie Sieher hes (Siren ahier’

s’ in her

‘

I’

afcbe. Cf . $1 66 ,

1,last e x am p le .

59 . T he Co lo n is u sed

1 ) Be fo re a dire ct qu o ta t io n . 50a iggie her erfte z. $ 11

tonn teft m ir ein en (Sein ll en tbun .

”

No te . T he wo rd o f saying, o r the l ike , is o ften om itted(see 66, 1

,first e x am p l e ), a nd su ch se n ten c es bo rder o n those

u n der 3 , be low; sim ila rly : ’J ia tb et l icben E ugen erbiel t itbmieher ein gericbt l icbee S cbreiben : hie

‘Brioattl age roar au f:

geboben .

2 ) Be fo re a n exp la n a to ry a pp osit ive , e spe cia l ly if it c o n

sists o f a se rie s tha t sta n ds in app o sit io n to som e p re ce din g.

ge n e ra l wo rd o r give s exam p les o f a p rin c ip le sta ted . Cf .

the first exam p le in 60 . §Bon ifaciu § erricbtete iin Sabre74 1 oier n eu e SBiétum er : QBu rgburg fiir t fran ien ,

§8uraburg

fiir beffen , S rfur t iiir i bu ringen , (i icbftiiht flir hen SIlorhgau an

her (Sit enge S aberne. glue Eu tbere S pracbe fcbhpften bemufit

oher unbemu fzt hie erften heu tfcben S ramm a tifer : gabian grangt

Ql lbert S l inger Soban n eé (Stains

QBeftgerm . a i m irh gu ii a‘

a’

(Sih, stan S tein ,Iza

'

t bcifs, & c .

3 ) Be fo re a c la u se tha t is to be rega rded a s the re su l t o r

as exp la n a to ry o f wha t pre c edes,tho u gh thi s re la t io n i s n o t

exp re ssed by a n y co n ju n ctio n : (Sem iBroar (Sirabbe ein e gangfran lbafte Sialur , unh au cbun ter giin ftigeren l l m ftiinhen m iire er

p unctuation 53

n icht anheré gemorhen a ls m ir ibn beu te fenn en : er muBte fid)n icht guiam rnenauba l ten m ie fein Qiorbilh, geinrid) non Stieiit ,er being gar fein Giefiibl fu r hie $ orm , unh ih flofa ibm her

reicbfte g ru ff auéeinanher oher wirrte fir!) an ein em Bnauel .

No te . Bu t in su ch c ases it is n ow m o re c om m on t o u se

the sem ic o lo n (c f . 58,

4) Occa s ion a l ly as a m e a n s o f sep a ra t in g c la u se s who sem em be rs a re subdivided by sem ico lo n s .

5) T o in dica te a co rre la t ive o r opp o s it io n a l re la tio n be

twe e n wo rds , & c . : hind) fomnien Sieiin e m ie fi n d) i n g

unh 6 n d i n g nor .

“

60 . The In t e r r oga t io n Po in t i s u sed a fte r a dire ct qu e s

t io n,e ve n if tha t i s a n in co rpo ra ted p a rt o f a se n te n ce

filnf hieC

{grage z 18a?) ift fiBabrbeit ? giebt ea r ericbiehen e 91mmorten . On ly o n e

‘

3 is u se d with two o r m o re c lo se ly c o n

n e c t ed qu e stio n s Sit b ier ein SIBunher geicbeben , ober babenm id) m ein e hingen getiiuicbt ? S e e a lso 6 1 N .

The in te rroga t io n p o in t i s u sed a fte r a n in dire ct qu e stio n

o n ly whe n it sta n ds by i tse lf a nd is thu s e qu iva le n t t o a

dire ct qu e st io n D b fie an éBergfeIt (Sm i l hachie ? Bu t (fir

fragt , ob has un ier (Srnjt iei.6 1 . T he E x c la m a t io n P o in t i s u sed a fte r a n exclam a t io n

o r a sta tem ent tha t the write r wishe s t o ca l l sp e cia l a tte n tion

t o in ge n e ra l i t i s u sed in Ge rm a n m o re lav ish ly tha n in

E n glish, be in g o fte n em p loyed e ve n a fte r the addre ss a t the

he ad o f a le tte r hid) ! hie @attin ift’

é. D mie fcbhn iii hieie

QBeIt ! QBenn ea hie fihn igin m iire ! 33a?» bah’

ict) hir gum

Iegten EDl aI geiagt ! Behen ©ie recht mot)“ ”Sch merhe m ir

hoci) non ein em Bn erbt n icht fa llen befehlen Iafien iagte Soggel i.SBafiagiere hab in fteigen b ier um (wenn her QInicq Bn icht pain,hann hefier in Sena l) , heéba lh targer Q q en tbaIt !

S ieber {greunh l

fD ein «

SBrief D om & c . Cf . a lso exam p le in 57,

54 ®rtbograpbg

On ly o n e exc lam a t io n po in t i s u sed with seve ra l c lo se lyco n n e cted exclam a tio n s : S iebet , aiebet , beht ! € ie bewegt

ficl) , ichmebt !No te . A n exc lam a tio n p o in t m a y be a dded t o an in terro

ga t io n p o in t t o express asto n ishm en t, in dign a tio n , o r the l ikeiBie aber, wenn hie 6 d) il l er hie ichh

'

n en , ftim rnbaften i in

iiiuieln oher r iefeln n i cht 311m Qluéihru cf bringen unb meifaemie m eife oher reigen mie reifen

62 . The D a sh is u sed (1 ) to in dica te a dram a t ic bre ak in

a se n te n ce (se e exam p le u n de r 57 , x) , a nd e spe cia l ly

in e leva ted style,in p la ce o f the com m a 57 , 2) o r a m a rk

o f pa re n the sis : Qinhlicl) icbau te er m id) an m it einem t iefen,ahgrunhtiefen , flebenhen iBIicf — icl) nerftanh ibn — unh hann

ian f fein fgaupt berab au f hie i romm el .By som e a prefixed da sh i s u sed (3 ) t o in dica te a cha n ge

o f situ a t io n (o f spe ake r, o f po in t o f view,o f tra in o f tho u ght)

a ndso m ay take the p la ce o f qu o ta tio n m a rks

il lehe heu t licber , Ql l ter ; mie bat er e?» gemacht m it hein er

6 ecle‘

3 (Sr ichm ieg lange, enhl icl) iprari) er z'

QBarum hie?»

eraiiblen , i br Sberren‘

6

63 . T he M a rks o f Pa r e n t hesis a r e ge n e ra l ly u sed in

ca se s whe re som e th in g n o t a t first in te n ded is thrown in

p a re n the tica l ly, whe re a syn o n ym o r exp la n a tio n i s t o be

added o r a re fe re n ce m a de t o a n a u thority. They co rre

sp o nd t o o u r a ndge n e ra l ly t o o u r (Cf . a lso 57 ,

Sci) frage (henn bieriiber mu le icl) nor a lleni (Bemifabeit baben)bift hu her

cI biiier ? $D ie filitronomie oher Geftirn

funhe) iii ein e erhaben e QBiiien fcbaft . SBie hitht nor hem (Ericbeis

n en bat begel n oel) haran geidnieben (©egelé Qiriefe I . So

abo u t crit ica l com m e n ts in se rted in the writ in g o f a n o the r,whe re we u se fiberbaupt br inge id) nielleicln ein e (Sjeiell

irhnit Ell iiinner guiammen , hie Sbnen fil rcbterlicl) genugfein fe ll .

R em a rk . A is o f ten a dded t o a referen c e t o a fo o t-n o te ,thu s are) o r

’

r) where we use on ly o r T.

p unctuat ion 55

64 . The H y phe n in » G e rm a n text,som e tim e s

S chwaba ch) is u sed

1 ) At the e nd o f a l in e,t o co n n e ct the pa rts o f a divided

wo rd (se e the en ds o f som e o f the l in e s be low) .2 ) To repre sen t tha t p a rt o f a wo rd tha t is com m o n t o

seve ra l , bu t expre ssed in bu t o n e, o r tha t n eed n o t be e x

pre ssed a r a l l Qiielleicbt nirgenh? tam hie?» alle? 10phan tafie= unh

poefienoll mie im 6 cl7malien = anh Sran fen lanhe gum 2lu ?»hru cf .

ibum it hie Bruit hurri) Sun s unh filufare?» hringt . Cf . 57 N 4 ,

a nd exam p le s in 35.

QBerner bem erft in {ein er D ribograpbie (1 629) 6 . 6 1 and) ,

hair m an che fiir n e r imm er v o r icbreiben .

3 ) T o co n n e ct the pa rts o f a com p o u n d wo rd tha t i s c ompo sed o f p rop e r n am e s o r o f m em be rs ha vin g e qu a l fu n ctio n ,that is p a rt ic u la rly lo n g o r has as o n e m em be r bu t a le tte r

o r two (c f . a lso 46 N : R )SD ie SBeipgig=SD re?»hn er (iiienbabn .

9Jiener=2iibcl e.

SBapfb fii’

mig. thniglicl)

faiierlicl) . SD er GinjiibrigSreimill ige. SD er unier ®oetbe=Sabrhu cb hie?»m a l icbmiicfenhe

Qicbthru ct reprohugiert ein e Seiclmung, melcbe ficl) im (Shetbe

Eliation a lfll iuieum r orfinhet . Sm Sau fe he?» Ell ionat?» merhen

$ rinathocen t D r . Sol) . QBa liber=Sen a D r . QBa ltber an?» Sena]iiber Gioethe?» geologiiche 6 tuhien unh 6 amm lungen , iomie SBrof.D r . Gr id) 6 ®m iht=§Berlin iiber hen i annbiiuieréllintbu ?» ipredwn .

Bugleicl) gewann ibn Goethe fiir hie humorifiifcly popu liire

SBitieratur he? 15ten unh 1 6ten fi n?»

ha?» her g zfiau t . QIfl Du r , 6 =SJioH=6 nmpbon ie.

No t e . No t o n ly a re the wo rds o f a n im p o rta n t o r em

pha tic sen ten c e so m e tim es sep ara ted by wide spa c es, as is

do n e with u s ; bu t the le tters o f a n im p o rta n t o r a qu o tedwo rd a r e o f ten sp a c ed , where we sho u ld u se ita l ics, see

exam p les in 59, 5, 64, 2 e nd.

In su ch m u l tic om po u nds the hyphen sep ara tes o n ly the chiefm em bers.

56 ®rtbograpbg

65. The Apost rophe is u sed

1 ) To in dica te tha t o n e o r m o re le tte rs u su a l ly writ tenhave be en dropped the se le tte rs a re ge n e ra l ly su ch as a r e

ap t n o t t o be he a rd in sp e akin g . Sci) Iieb’

ihn , run

bei l ger oim (cf. exam p le u n de r 57 , mar e’ma l

’n e

a lte Sran . Cf . a lso 67 ,

No te . (a ) In the c o n tra c tio n s o f the a rtic le o r the

dem o n stra tive ha(r): with prep ositio n s (tué, beim , hr au f, &c .,

the ap o stro phe is n o t u sed . (6) A nd so in the

c ase o f o ther wo rds havin g two fo rm s in c om m o n u se

i hitt (e), hem u ni(e)re, &c . S o , t o o ,

in prop er n am es : Qioetbefi, g cbill eré’

a, n o lon ger

(as stil l re c o m m en de d by S a n ders) ; bu t se e 2 be low, &c .

(c ) The se o f the im p era tive o rigin a lly be lo n ged o n ly t o

weak verbs a nd a f ew stro n g verbs with sim ilar presen ts,bu t it has n ow spre a d t o m a n y stro n g verbs. I t is c u stom aryt o u se a n a p ostrophe f o r a n : e dropp ed from we ak verbsa nd those stro n g verbs tha t u su a l ly have ze : erbarm

’

hid) ,mad)

’

au f, bitt’

, my , &c .; bu t even in these , W wo u ld dowitho u t the ap ostrophe . (d) The sp e llersprescribe the writin g53efiingfcbe Sabeln ,

‘Bofiicbe geitung, &c ., bu t Siefiing

’

icbe &c .

a r e stil l very c om m o n a nd a r e re c om m en ded by S a n ders.

2 ) T o in dica te the ge n i t ive o f n o u n s a lre a dy e n din g in 3 ;

so QSDB’

S tri fe, fibemoitben e?’

Eliehen bu t se e N 5 abo ve .

66 . r ) Q u o t a t io n M a rks a r e u sed abo u t as in E n gl ish ,bu t the ir fo rm va rie s thu s o r U le ss com m o n ly in

G e rm an text,a nd “

o r o r o r in R om a n .

l l nmillig ftief) ibn her Sgergog non ficl) : lBift hu ein ganh,haf;hu mir hie SitBe lecien m i llit 2

”

fil ll e Sl iann an §Borh

icha llt her filiuf in her Giefabr .

>>M e in G eschaf t n,sc l1 r ;ibt e r e in a n de re s M a l

, » geht

gu t ; ich habe so v ie l G e ld , G ewa lt, Ve rsta nd, M en sche n

u ndG e sch ick da zu ,a ls n otig i st , u nd da ka n n

’s woh l n icht

feh le n « .

2 ) Som e,e spe c ia l ly ph i lo log ia n s , wh i le u sin g fo r rea l

qu o ta t io n s,em p loy o r fo r s in gle wo rds o r t it le s

,whe re

we do the sam e o r u se ita l ics : F o rm en wie ebam’ ‘

Ebe n e’

,

p unctuation 57

66427107 1‘

ebn e n’

,kam e n ha u p tsa c hlich du rch An a logiebi ldu ng

z u sta n de .

(D er 92mm ‘Q eu ticb’

gi lt & c . 6 cblief3t lid)‘

Ggmon t’ feinem l l riprunge n acl) an hen 10 muraeln

‘

Spbigen ie’

unh‘

i afio’

gang in hen QBeiin arer .

‘Berba l tnifien .

3 ) Som e tim e s the co lo n i s rega rded as su fficie n t (Ginti

ipracl) : merhe Eicbt l), o r a da sh 62, o r spa cing

64 , 3 N), is em p loyed .

No te . W hen a qu o ta tio n o c c u rs within a n o ther, the u su a l m arksm ay be em plo yed o r the y m a y be do u bled : ”S ufi filth Die S l itterhie er n eben m ein en (S l ang bangt, a l?» mo ll te er fagen : finhm ein e Giahen n icht hocl) {cbhn er fiber icbn ell finh fie v erronn en”

67 . The Ast e r isk i s u sed (1 ) t o m a rk the . om iss io n o f a

le tte r o r wo rd (2 ) to re fe r t o a fo o tn o te,whe n i t is u su a l ly

a ccom pa n ie d by a thu s 63 R ; (3 ) as a s ign o f e x

c e l l e n c e , e spe c ia l ly in gu ide bo oks ; (4) t o de sign a te , in

ph i lo logica l books , a re co n stru cted o r the o re tica l fo rm .

68 . The D a gge r is u sed (I ) t o re fe r to a foo tn o te,

63 R (2 ) as a s ign o f de a th (be ca u se o f its resem bla n ce

t o a cro ss) : T 1 6 . San . 1853 =

geftorl>en 1 6 . San . 1 853 .

Tg tepban Suhmig Sl oth‘The la te S tepha n Lu dwig R o th.

’

0

i bapter 1

P H ON E T I C S

69 . The P H ONOLOGY o f a la ngu age is tha t pa rt o f its

gram m a r wh ich sta te s a nd c la ssifie s the so u n ds o f the la n

gu age ; in the pho n o logy o f a n h isto rica l gram m a r, the

de v e lopm e n t , o f the sou n d-system i s a lso g iven .

70 . P H ONE TICS is the scie n ce o f spe e ch so u n ds . The firs t

a ttem p ts a t pho n e tic a n a lysi s we re n a tu ra l ly dire cted towa rd

the a u dible e ffe cts o f the so u n ds,he n ce the te rm s “ l iqu ids ”

,

“ ha rd ”

,

“ so ft ”

, & c . Whe n pho n e tics ro se to the dign ity

o f a scie n ce,it was the phys io logica l a ndm e chanica l

,o r the

o rga n ic, s ide that re ce ive d m o st a tte n t io n he n ce the te rm s

a nd c la ssific a t io n s n ow in vogu e . The scien tific stu dy o f

the a co u stics o f hu m a n spe e ch has o n ly begu n a nd i s bese t

with m u ch diffi cu lty. A n a cqu a in ta n ce'

with the e lem e n ts

o f phon e t ics is e sse n t ia l to a co rre ct u n de rsta n din g o f

the so u n ds o f a la n gu age , a nd is o f gre a t a ss ista n ce in

a cqu irin g them .

7 1 . TH E ORGANS OF S P E ECH

The u ppe r pa rt o f the win dp ipe i s te rm ed the La ry n x°

se e figu res in 96 . H e re a r e two e la stic m em bra n e s ca l led

Be l l : Voca l P /zy siol ogy a n d Visibl e Sp eee/z. Bra n dt : Germ a n

Gr a m m a r , 4th cd., 1 888. Brem er : D en ise/wP /zon etil ’

, 1 893 . Gra n dge n t : Ger m a n a nd E ng l ish S ou n ds, 1 892 . Llo yd : Sp eee/z S ou nd: (inPho n etische S tu dien 1 890

— 2 . Meyer : T/ze Org a n s of Sp eee/z, 1 882 .

P a u l : P r in c ip ien a’er Sp r a cfigesenie/zte , 2ded., 1 886 . S ievers P non eti/é,

4th ed., 1 893 ; a nd P fion etie in P a u l ’s Gru n driss I ., 1 889. S to rm :

E ng l isene P /zil ol og ie I . , 2d ed. , 1 892 . Swee t : P r im er of P /zon eties,

1 890. T e chm e r : P /zon eii/é, 1 880. Tra u tm a n n : D ie Sp r a e/zl a u te, 1884— 6.

V ieto r : P fion etik, 3d ed., 1 893—

4. P /zon etise/ze S tudien .

62 D bonologg

the Voc a l Cho rds. They a re a tta chedt o the in te rio r wa l ls

o f the la ryn x a nd a t the ba ck t o two m ovable ca rt i lage s

ca l led the Aryten o ids . The op en in g be twe e n the cho rds

is ca l le d the G lo t t is,m o re spe cifica l ly the cho rd glo tt is , a nd

tha t be twe e n the ca rti lage s the ca rt i lage glo tt is . Abo ve the

la ryn x is the so ft bo dy ca l led the E piglo tt is , wh ich, o n the

appro a ch o f fo od,cove rs the glo ttis so tha t the fo od wi l l

pa ss in to the gu l le t a nd n o t in to the win dpipe . The p as

sage be twe e n the la ryn x a nd the m o u th pa ssage is the

Pha ry n x . The pha ryn x,the m o u th pa ssage , a nd the n a sa l

pa ssage s m ay co l le ct ive ly be ca l led the D e l t a . The roo f

E E p iglo ttis (Reblhecl el) G G u llet (6 peiferfibre) H H ardP a la te (barter (Sjaum en ) ; LL

’

= Lips (S ippen ) ; N = Nasa l Passage(Waienbh

’

ble) S S o ft Pa la te (meicber (Sl aum en );T = T o n gu e (81 mge)U = Uvu la (gapfcben )

‘

V = p 1a c e where the V o c a l Chords (6 timm :

biinher) a re a tta ched ; W W in dp ip e

p honet ics 63

the m o u th is te rm ed the Pa la t e the fro n t part is ha rd, be

ing stre n gthen ed by bo n e , wh i le the ba ck pa rt is so ft a nd

m ovable as m ay be fe lt with the fin ge r. The so ft p a la te

e n ds in a pe n du lo u s bo dy ca l led the Uv u la it m ay be seen

with the a id o f a han d-gla ss . The rem a in in g o rga n s o f

spe e ch a re m o re o r le ss in sight andso a re fam i l ia r.

TH E PH YS ICAL BA S IS OF SPE ECH

B r e a t h

7 2 . The e ssen tia l e lem e n t o f o rdin a ry spe e ch is bre a th,

wh ich i s dire cte d aga in st the o rga n s o f sp ee ch in bre a th

im pu lse s .

No te 1 . R a re ly a wo rd is sp oken with in sp ira tio n (c omp a re a sob) in ste a d o f exp ira tio n : th is m a y happ en in the

c ase o f ia y es, n ein n o , a ndsom e exc lam a tio n s, f o r exam p le ,ha ! t/zer e .

’ a ndmy !

No te 2 . S o u n ds m ay be m a de by the o rga n s o f sp e e ch

witho u t in sp ira tio n o r exp ira tio n , f o r e x ., by su dde n ly sep ara tin g two m o ist su rfa c es : the l ips — a kiss; the fro n t -o f theto n gu e a nd the p a la te the expressio n o f m ild disapprova lsp e lled tu t ; the ba c k o f the to n gu e a nd the p a la te — a c lu ck .

A we ll trilled r , a t , &c . m ay be m ade wh ile the m o u th p assageis en tire ly c loseda t the ba c k by the ra ised to n gu e , the a ir ba cko f the t ip o f the to n gu e be in g fo rc ed o u t by the risin g o f the

m iddle o f the to n gu e , a nd this m ay be do n e even when the

l ips a re c losed.

Vo ic e

73 . The ch ie f pho n e t ic a ctiv ity o f the bre a th is the

produ ct io n o f vo ic e . Th is i s the so u n d produ ced by the

vibra t io n o f the vo ca l cho rds, 7 1 , 96 o . I t m ay be oh

se rved by so u n din g a n y vowe l , o r by a lte rn a t in g a n s-h is s

wi th a z,a nd is m u ch p la in e r if the e a rs a r e stopp ed . As it

ca n n o t com e o u t witho u t pa ssin g thro u gh a nd be in g m odi

fied by the re so n a n ce s o f the p a ssage s o f the de lta , it do e s

n o t o ccu r pu re .

64 p honology

No te . W hen the vibra tio n s o f the vo c a l chords a re so slow tha tth ey c a n be distin gu ished from o n e a n o ther, the so u n d pro du c e d is n o t

c a l led vo ic e bu t the glo tta l r , 2 2 1 , 3 . This so u n d requ ires lessbrea th-imp u lse than vo ice a n d c o n sequ en tly o ften takes the p la c e o f

vo ic e when o n e is tired, u su a lly a t the endo f a lo n g vowe l , bu t a t tim es

thro u gho u t the vowe l. A n a ffe c tio n o f the thro a t o r exc essive be erdrin kin g m ay c a u se a tem p o ra ry o r habitu a l su bstitu tio n o f th is trembl in g [SBierbaB] f o r vo ic e ; it is eve n affe c ted by som e m en o n the

su pp ositio n tha t it is m o re im pressive .

74 . (a ) The lo u dn e ss o f vo ice depe n ds u po n the am p l i

tu de o f the v ibra t io n,a nd th i s u pon the fo rce o f the bre a th

im pu lse . (5) I ts pitch depen ds u p on the rapidity o f the

vibra tio n s a nd thi s u po n the e la sticity a nd sho rtn e s s o f the

cho rds ; hen ce the h ighe r pitch o f the vo ice s o f wom e n a nd

chi ldre n . The p itch m ay be ra ised by stre tch in g the cho rds

a nd the reby in cre a sin g the e la sticity,o r by l im it in g the

vibra t io n t o a pa rt o f the cho rds (fa lse tto vo ice , se e 2 2 1,

2 R, 3 R I) . (e) L ike o the r m u sica l so u n ds, the vo ic e c o n

s ists o f a fu n dam e n ta l a n d va rio u s o ve r-to n e s ; u po n the

n u m be r a nd in te n s ity o f the la tte r dep e n ds the qu a l ity o f

the vo ice .

Reso n a n c e

75. The pa ssage s o f the de l ta a c t as re so n a n ce cham be rs .

The re so n a n ce m ay be a n im a ted by the so u n d pro du ced a t

the glo tt is (n o rm a l ly vo i ce,ra re ly wh ispe r o r bre a th) ; i t

m ay be ro u se d by the so u n d p ro du ced a t the p la ce o f a r tic u

la t io n ; o r i t m ay be excited in bo th p la ce s a t the sam e

tim e . The cha ra cte r o f the so u n d tha t strike s the e a r

the re fo re depe n ds u po n the cha ra cte r o f the o rigin a l so u n d

a nd u po n the shape o f the reso n a n c e cav ity tha t it excite s .

76 . In the ca se o f the vowe ls,the re be in g n o lo ca l so u n d

o the r tha n vo ice,the re so n a n ce i s o f gre a t im po rta n ce ,

1 3 2 . Thu s a diffe rs from i o n ly in re so n a n ce a nd the

sam e i s tru e o f e in no a n d ii in bi,a nd o f the v a rio u s

n a sa ls . The a rt icu la tio n o f /i a ndX i s a lm o st ide n tica l a nd

p honetics 65

so the diff e ren ce be twe e n them is a lm o st who l ly o n e o f

reso n a n ce . On the o the r ha n d, f a nd s diffe r a lso in the

c ha ra cte r o f the lo ca l so u n d,the bre a th be in g d iffe re n tly

dire cted aga in st the te e th a nd the l ip s ; a nd so do p a nd A),

in tha t the o rga n s m akin g the exp lo s io n s diff e r su fficien tly

t o g ive in e a ch ca se the lo ca l so u n d a diffe re n t cha ra cte r.

S o n o r it y

7 7 . So n o rity,o r the fo rce with wh ich a so u n d strike s the

e a r,is prom o te d p a rtic u la rly by vo ice a nd is redu ced by

obstru ctio n . The m ost so n o ro u s so u n ds we re e a r ly oh

se rved a n d ca l led “ vowe ls o f the se the highe s t a re the

le a st so n o ro u s,he n ce i n (u n syl labic i u ,

1 46 N,2 04 N 1)

we re ca l led sem i-vowe ls The n ext m o st son o ro u s

so u n ds a r e ca l led “the so n o ro u s con so n a n ts ”o r

“ vowe l

l ike co n so n a n ts ”

; the le a st so n o ro u s co n so n a n ts a re the

vo ice le ss stop s .

ANALYS IS OF S PE ECH

78 . Ou r a n a lys is o f o u r sp e e ch i s ve ry im p e rfe ct, in fa ct

the va st m ajo rity o f p e op le wo u ld n eve r m ake a n y c o n scio u s

a n a lys is a t a l l we re it n o t fo rced u p o n them ’

in le a rn in gt o re ad . M o re ove r, the a n a lys is thu s m a de is o fte n a n

e rro n e o u s o n e the writte n wo rd is n o t a tru e pic tu re o f the

spoke n wo rd , bu t o n e im ag in e s it is a nd tha t he spe aks as

he write s . A nd when he disco ve rs tha t he do e s n o t,he

im agin es tha t he i s wro n g a nd the writin g right . The

a n a lysis tha t o u r writ in g shows, wa s o rig in a l ly im p erfe ct,a nd has be com e m o re so be ca u se o f the cha n ge s the

la n gu age ha s u n de rgo n e , 2 4 & c .

79 . The a n a lysis o f hu m a n spee ch is by n o m e a n s a n

e a sy m a tte r . J u st how m u ch sha l l be rega rded as o n e

so u n d ? a n d H ow m u ch dive rge n ce m a y a so u n d p re se n t a nd

ye t be rega rde d as the sam e so u n d ? a re diffi cu lt qu e stio n s,

66 D bonologg

a nddepen d fo r the ir a n swe rs la rge ly u po n pra ct ica l c o n side r a t io n s. Tha t va rio u s a nd in co n siste n t a n swe rs have be en

g iven n eed n o t ca u se su rprise .

80 . When a sen te n ce is spoke n,the o rga n s o f spe e ch pa ss

thro ugh a n in fin ite se rie s o f cha n ge s o f po s it ion ,du rin g e a ch

o f which m o re o r le ss sou n d is pro du ced . In som e po s itio n s

the o rga n s o f spe e ch rem a in,if f o r o n ly a m in u te sp a ce o f

t im e,a nd the sou n d is re cogn ized by the e a r a nd i s ca l led

a S o u n d. Thro u gh the in te rven in g po sit io n s they pa ss

with l ightn in g rapidity a nd the e a r u su a l ly fa i ls t o pe rce ive

the sou n d produ ced ; su ch a tra n s itio n so u n d (o r se rie s o fso u n ds) i s ca l led a G l ide .

8 1 . A syl lable co n s ist in g o f two o r m o re vowe ls i s som e t im e s

m o re o r le ss co rre ct ly a n a lyz ed in to it s e lem e n ts,a t o the rs it

i s rega rde d as a so rt o f u n it a ndca l led a diphtho n g o r a t riph

thon g. A D iph t ho n g 1 46) u su a l ly co n s ists o f two vowe ls

(o n e syl labic a nd the o the r n o t) a nd a n in te rve n in g gl ide

bu t itmay con s ist o f o n e vowe l a nda gl ide . The u n syl labi c

pa rt (o ften in dica te d by a subo rdin a teA ) is u su a l ly sho rt , bu t

it m ay be lo n g, fo r e x ., Sl it ! a il as a n expre ssio n o f pa in .

82 . In $ er le o n e firs t c lo se s the l ips , the n keep s them

c lo sed,a nd a fte rwa rds Op e n s them a s the so u n ds produ ced

du ring the se stage s u su a l ly a ccom pa n y o n e a n o the r, they a re

rega rded as a u n it a n dwe sp e ak o f “ the so u n d 1) a nd ca l l

it a S t op , 1 49. W e u su a l ly rega rd the two co n so n a n ts inSl lapa as the sam e

,bu t o n ly the stre ssed o n e i s a spira ted ,

1 49 N . A n Asp ir a t e i s ge n e ra l ly rega rded as a u n it ;a nd th is i s o ften the ca se eve n a fte r the brea th gl ide deve lops

1 49 f t) in to a frica t ive cogn a te with the stop , the co u p le

be in g ca l led a n Af f r ic a t e,f o r e x . , pf in SBfunh.

83 . S o u n ds o ften va ry a cco rdin g to the ir n e ighbo rho od

bu t su ch va ria t io n i s frequ en t ly ign o red . F o r e x

am p le,we do n o t u su a l ly dist in gu ish be twe e n the 12

’

s in fiien

a ndRut), tho ugh they a re m a de som e dista n ce apa rt, 2 05N.

68 p honologg

a rra nged , f o r exam p le , as in batten l ia in , tha t is , in wh ichthe two ve ry so n o ro u s so u n ds a re sepa ra ted by a le ss so n oro u s o n e

,a ndthe wo rd is the re fo re fe lt t o be dissyl labic e ven

if i t be u tte red with bu t o n e bre a th-im pu lse . Syl lable s du eto prom in e n ce o f so n o rity m ay be ca l le d S o n o r ic S y l la bles.

No te 1 . A n y so u n d by itse lf is syllabic : D SUE! (a n e x

pressio n o f sa tisf a c tio n ), a nd hisses like 6 6 ! 5d) ! In a

gro u p o f so u n ds the m o st so n o ro u s is syllabic : th is is u su a llya vowe l (Sganb), o ften a so n o ro u s c o n sona n t (Sgabhn), so m e

tim es a sp ira n t (g t ! Ellit rare ly a stop be tween o ther stops(the l o f p r a et

’ea l ly ) .

No te 2 . M in o r prom in en c es a r e ge n era l ly n o t n o tic ed .

thu s, t o m ost p erso n ssu ch a wo rd asWeb n ets is m o n osyl labictho ugh the u n so n o ro u s i rea lly bre aks the wo rd in to two

so n o ric syl lables.

86 . A wo rd l ike geben m ay be pro n o u n ced with o n e bre a th

im p u lse a nd i s o r with two,a

he avy o n e a nd a l ight o n e , a nd i s the n d issyl labic z ge'on o r

gar-a. S u ch syl lable s m ay be ca l led D y n a m ic S y l la bles.

The wo rd batte m ay be p ro n o u n ced with o n e bre a th-im p u lse

a nd the n has two so n o ric syl lable s , o r with two bre a th

im pu lse s,a nd the n its two sy l lable s a re dyn am ic syl lable s

as we l l as so n o ric syl lable s .

R em ark . I f the n ew brea th-im p u lse begin s after a n in terv en in g c o n so n a n t has begu n , the c o n so n a n t is sa id t o be

do u bled , o r gem in a ted , 1 56.

87 . I n G e rm a n,a s in E n gl ish, the syl lable fo l lowin g a n

u n stre ssed syl lab le o r a lo n g stre ssed syl lable i s a dyn am ic

syl lable : ge=bracbt’

bezrein’Gia

’be, Q an

’he, bei

'lig ; tha t fo l

lowin g a sho rt stre ssed syl lable is u su a l ly a son o ric syl lable

©a l'le, Giaf

'

fer , biit'ten , & c .

, § 85.

No te . (a ) D ia le c tic a lly (esp e c ia l ly in Switz erlan d and o n

the S lavic bo rder) a dyn am ic syllable is pro du c e d a f ter sho rtsyl lables t o o . (5) On the o the r ha n d , in p arts o f G erm a n ya syllable c o n sistin g o f a , o f a a so n o ro u s c o n so n a n t (o ro f a syl labic so n o ro u s c o n so n a n t, 1 87 , 2 N 5), o r o f a we aksu ffix (l ike zig, sifcb, &c .) is o n ly a so n oric syllable , whethe rthe prec edin g syllable is lo n g o r short.

p honet ics 69

S y l la bic Lim its

88 . 1 ) When a co n son a n t ca u se s its m o re son o ro u s n e ighbo rs to div ide in to two so n o ric syl lable s 85, it fo rm s

the bou n da ry be twe en them, o r , we m ay say , the bou n da ry

l ies in the con so n a n t batten lzcit '

n, bat er na

’

l '

r, e t c .

2 ) Whe n ,howeve r

,a n ew syl lable is fo rm ed by a n ew

bre a th-im pu lse 86,

the n ew syl lable begin s when then ew bre a th-im pu lse do e s .89 . When on e con son a n t sepa ra te s the syl lable s

,the n ew

im pu lse u su a l ly begin s wi th the co n so n a n t . I n G e rm a n a nd

E n gl ish th is n o rm a l ly o ccu rs o n ly a fte r lo n g stre ssed syl lable s

a ndwe ak syl lable s , 87 .

No te 1 . (a ) E tym o logic a l c o n sc io u sn ess ofte n in terfereser za cbten , ner za l ten . (5) S till it yie lds in m a n y fam iliarwo rdsa ndgro u ps, esp . if the c o n so n a n t is so n o ro u s 1 49, 2 e) a nd

pre c edes the stress : bezr au f’

, bizn ein’

, hazraue’

, ma zrnm’

, mo:

run’ter, h a zru

’

ber , miehezrum’

, h asll en’

hen , nieslleicbt’

, a z llein’

,

ei: n an’

her , mobz l an’

,

<

{yrie'hesn aufi in Ql cbt’zV

am ( t e

’ci ga tesn i’l

’

benh, ra re ly in c om po u n ds : D 'zbacbt’

, SQC’:

bam’

m e, fiel 'l esrai’

iel , § 1 54, 2 . (e) So , t o o , in M iddle a nd

S o u th Germ a n y in tibezra ll’

, ezro’

bern , e: rin ’

n ern , El lesrein’

,

a nd in S o u th G erm a n y in m a n y m o re .

No te 2 . (a ) Com po u n ds (f o r e x ., Iiebzau geln with b = p ,

1 78, 2 , Sugsan fer with g X o r e, 1 94 , 1 6, 1 98, 2) ge n era llyshow a m arked c o n trast to (e) deriva tives (fo r e x . , hiezbifcb,

au t gig, Sm il ing, e t c .) a nd (e) c o n glo m era tes like those in N 1 6,

Cf . § 9 1 N 1 .

No te 3 . A vo ic ed c o n so n a n t befo re e lided fin a l se, regu larlyp asses t o the vowe l o f a fo llowin g wo rd o n ly in the c ase o f a

verb a nd a we a k p erso n a l pro n o u n : bab’

tel) lzd’

bi/i, bab’

e?»

na’

oas, merh ’

icb tiim ’

icbée’

m i’

fi (like tam eé ed’

m x ),[ef

’

itb l e’

zm , a lso po e tic her Qbm’

ift l o’

o i’

st bu t‘

m erh'

imm er we'r t ’i’

n r r , bab’

a lle? lid]?’al or , 1 08, 2 . A nd so in

Sgab’

u nh 65m, S ieb’

u nh Su it, Srenh’

u nh Seih, Qlug’

a nh D br ,m ost Germ a n s have p , t , &c .

90 . This d ivi sio n is a lso ge nera l ly fo l lowed in the p ro n u nc ia t ion o f La t in a ndo the r fo re ign la n gu age s a ndso in adopted

wo rds : prozni=io=riicb, Ellie=tbo : he,

70 D bonologu

Thu s su ch ov owe lsbe com e lon g when stre ssed, 1 4 1 , 1 38N 2,

a nd n a rrow 1 35) vowe ls rem a in n a rrowwhe n u n stre ssed,tho ugh sho rt, 1 44 N 2 .

No te . E tym o logic a l f e e lingm ay preve n t this 1 26, 2 end);thu s u su a lly with in : inn s : Sn zunhation with i' n o t i, e bn zohe

with if n o t ii ; so m etim es with lube : S uborhin ation pro

n o u n c ed zu -bor o r zap-on , 1 35 end.

9 1 . 1 ) When m or e t/t a n on e conson a n t in te rvenes, the n ew

im pu lse a nd syl lable u su a l ly begin with the la st con son a n t :

b Iecly te,SB

i

iicly le. Bu t

2) Affrica te s (pf , ts, tfl e t c .,

82) u su a l ly go to the se c

o nd syl lable : fgh=pfen ,bestien , tlii=ticben ; s t i l l , the se co n d

syl lable i s o fte n o n ly a so n o ric syl lable,the division lyin g in

the s top , 87 N 5. A nd

3 ) (a ) In de riva t ive s in =er a nd m ust, a stop u su a l ly go e s

with the fo l lowin g so n o ro u s con son a n t : Ell ie-

idler, Qieg ttler ,§Bfi=ttner, a nd (with h = o

’n o t t ) gun shlung, i

'

giin zhler . (5)S o in the Sou th a nd the E a st in de riva t ive s in slein , z licb,=l ing, =ni? z Rin shlein , l ie=hlicb, 8ie=hling, fil ibhnis,

fo r kin t-l ajn & c . (c) S im i la rly, in adopted wo rds,a st0p

u su a l ly goe s with the fo l lowin g I o r r , 50 , 2 : SBr ublifum ,

Ellie=trum , gry hra , ill i=hliotbet ; le ss o ften befo re m o r n

91=hn er, som e t im e s hiria=hn e, SDm gma ,Sl ble=gnt a, bu t fil tbbtb

So befo re i a nd n u sage va rie s : t v erb’c

‘

i-a’f

oe’

ryfi o r

’a

’

t-ve’

rp , ahieu’

c‘

i-a’

jo7o r

’a

’

t so filhnotat , hlhieftir , t intant ,t jun tt, a ndm a n y m o re .

4) Afte r a so n o ro u s co n son an t, pf, ft, 3 ts) , & c .

’

go t o

the se co n d sy l lable : ham z ipfen , Q arzpfen , em zpfinhen , N

er=ite‘

, angsftigen , Sen ziter , 5man z

gig tsBa’

n

No te 1 . (a ) E tym o logic a l c o nsc iou sness u su a lly in terferes1 26, z en d) in the c ase o f n a tive c om po u n ds : en tsfagen ,

Sganhzarbeit (h t ), &c . , bu t the ra rer emp: has yie lded(§ 91 , 4)a nd o n e o fte n he a rs Sgani hficbub, &c . (b)D eriva tives regu la rly yie ld 89, N 2) : fin=hifd) , leben zhig,©n =hnng, &c . S o t o o jel sbanher .

72 D bonologu

(1 ) S t a t e o f t he G lo t t is

96 . (a ) A so u n d p ro du ced whe n the glo tti s 7 1 ) i sope n a nd the bre a th pa ss in g fre e ly thro u gh i t , is ca l led a

B r ea t hed S o u n d; se e figu re a . (o) A so u n d pro du ced

whe n the cho rd glo tt is i s c lo sed a nd the bre a th is fo rce d

thro u gh the ca rti lage glo tt is is ca l led a W h ispe r ed

S o u n d se e figu re 5.

No te . Bre a thed a ndwh isp ered so u n ds m ay a lso be c a l ledvo ic e less so u n ds, a nd as wh isp ered so u n ds a r e rare , the termVo ic e less S o u nd is gen era l ly u n dersto o d t o m ea n bre a thedso u n d .

(c) A so u n d produ ced whe n the glo tt i s is a lmost c lo sed

and the bre a th i s p u tt in g the vo ca l cho rds in vibra t io n ,i s

ca l led a Vo ic ed S o u n d se e figu re c .

(2 ) Pl a n n e r o f App ro a c h o f t he Orga n s o f S pe e c h

97 . A so u n d va rie s a cco rdin g as the o rga n s m e e t a nd

stop the bre a th o r le a ve a la rge r o r sm a l le r Op e n in g,

77 , 1 49 . S ou n ds m ade in the sam e way a re ca l led

Coiirdin a t es.

(3) P la c e o f App roa c h

98 . I t m ay be the l ips,a l ip a nd the opposite te e th

,

the to ngu e a nd the pa la te,the p a la te a nd the ba ck o f the

pha ryn x , o r the two vo ca l cho rds , tha t appro a ch ; 1 51 & c .

S o u n ds m ade a t the sam e p la ce a re ca l led Cog n a t es.

p honet ics 73

(4) The P a ssa ge Used

99 . I t m a y be the m o u th pa ssage , the n a sa l p a ssage , o rbo th

,1 52

—

3 .

(5) The D eg r e e o f F o r c e

100 . I f the bre a th-im pu lse 72 ) i s co n side rable , the

so u n d is c a l led a S t r o n g (o r Fo rtis) So u n d , if in co n side rablea W e a k (o r Len is) S o u n d . Th is d iffe re n ce in fo rce m ay be

du e (a ) t o diffe re n ce in the o rigin a l im p u lse 1 50 N) ,

(b) t o the situ a tio n o f the so u n d in the bre a th-im p u lse

(c) t o the am o u n t o f obstru c tio n the bre a th-im pu lsem e e ts (fo r e x .

,in vo ice a nd wh isp e r) be fo re i t p ro du ce s

the lo ca l so u n d 1 50 N r) , (a’

) t o the am o u n t o f bre a th

spe n t in m akin g p re cedin g o pen co n so n a n ts 1 50 N r t) .

(6) The P it c h

10 1 . So u n ds m a y va ry in p itch , e ithe r be ca u se the len gth

o f the vo ca l cho rds is m ade t o va ry a ndhe n ce the rapidityo f the v ibra tio n s o r be ca u se the shap e o f the vo ca l

p a ssage s va rie s as the o rga n s o f sp e e ch a re sh ifted in o rder

t o produ ce the differ en t so u n ds .

(7) Q u a n t it y o r D u ra t io n

102 . A so u n d m ay be he ld fo r a gre a te r o r le ss t im e.

The re a re m a n y degre e s o f qu a n tity o r le n gth, bu t we c a n

u su a l ly ge t o n with the de sign a tio n s Lo n g a nd S ho r t .

At tim e s it i s n e ce ssa ry t o re cogn ize the gre a te r le n gth o f a

vowe l in a m o n osyl lable l ike i ba l as Ov e r-lo n g 93 ,

tho u gh we u su a l ly ca l l i t lo n g ; a nd the qu a n t ity o f the

vowe l in su c h wo rds as Q inhu N 45) a nd warm as

H a l f = lo n g ,tho u gh we u su a l ly c la ss the fo rm e r as long

a nd the la tter as sho rt .

74 [phonology

103 . Co n so n a n ts,t o o

,m a y va ry in qu a n ti ty, bu t G e rm a n

co n so n a n ts a r e u su a l ly sh‘

o rt,

1 55— 6 ; c om pa re the ] in

bilf with tha t in nelp a nd the n in ganh wi th tha t in lza n a’

.

CH ANGE S IN SOUND S

1 04 . Tha t sp e e c h cha n ge s a nd m u st co n tin u e to cha n ge

i s evide n t t o a n y o n e who ha s give n se rio u s co n side ra tio n

t o the subje ct . I n o rde r tha t i t sho u ld n o t be so,a l l

pe op le m u st be ju st a l ike a nd m u st n o t cha n ge , they

m u st ha ve had the sam e exp e rien c e s in the p a st a nd l ive

n ow u n de r the sam e co n dit io n s , ke epin g a n e ve n te n o r o f

age , he a lth , a nd tem p e ram e n t .

1 ) Bu t a l l th i s i s n o t so . T o take bu t o n e o r two o f the

po in ts m e n tio n ed . A com m u n ity co n s ists o f o ld a ndyo u n g.

A ch i ld le a rn s the sp e e ch o f its pa re n ts by (co n scio u s o r

u n co n scio u s) obse rva tio n a nd im ita t io n . Th is obse rva t io n

a nd im ita t io n i s m o re o r le ss im pe rfe ct,a nd the ch i ld ’s

spe e ch diffe rs, p e rhap s im pe rceptibly, from tha t o f its

pa re n ts ; bu t su ch sl ight de v ia t io n s , if m o re o r le ss in

the sam e dire ctio n,am o u n t t o som e th in g in the co u rse o f

se ve ra l ge n e ra t io n s . Be side s,pe op le a re n o t a l ike a p e r

so n o f n e rvo u s tem p e ram e n t sp e a ks m o re ra p id ly a ndwith

diffe re n t p lay o f stre ss a nd p itch from tha t o f a ph legm a t ic

p e rson he wi l l exe cu te som e a rticu la tio n s m o re com p le te ly

tha n a m o re s lu gg i sh p e rso n ,a nd

,o n the o the r ha n d

,he

wi l l g l ide o ve r som e tha t a s lowe r sp e ake r wi l l obse rve .

On e pe rso n g ive s su dde n a nd u n p rem edita tedexpre ss io n t o

the sen sa t io n u pp e rm o st in his m in d,a n o the r re fle cts , a nd

co n s ide rs his subje ct , his l iste n e r, a nd the va rio u s circu m

sta n ce s,

2 7 2 , 2 79. E a ch p e rso n va rie s from day t o day in

he a lth a ndSp irits a ndso sp e aks diffe re n t ly a t diffe re n t t im e s .

2 ) Thu s a wo rd o r a so u n d va rie s in the m o u ths o f diffe r

e n t pe op le a nd in tha t o f the sam e p e rso n . A n y in dividu a l

76 D bonologg

PHONETIC CH ANGE S

106 . Pho n e t ic cha n ge s a re gradu a l , progre ss in g thro ughin n u m e rable im p e rcep t ible stage s . They m ay be m o st c o n

v e n ie n t ly c la ssified a cco rdin g t o the ir ca u ses, tho u gh in som e

ca se s m o re tha n o n e ca u se is p re se n t , 1 05.

CH ANGE S D UE TO S TRE S S , P lTCH , AND T111 5

Pit c h

1 07 . R a isin g the p itc h du rin g the p ro n u n cia t io n o f a

vowe l, g ive s tha t vowe l a diffe re n t cha ra c te r ; if the vowe l

fre qu e n t ly o cc u rs with th is h igh p i tch , the e a r be com e s a c

c u stom e d t o i t a nd,sho u ld th e pitc h in t im e be redu ced

,

p re se rve s t he n ew vowe l qu a lity by c om p e n sa to ry cha n ge in

the po s it ion o f to n gu e o r l ip s . F o r gra da t io n ,se e 1 1 7 .

Un vo ic in g

108 . 1 ) The bre a th-im p u lse i s so o n spe n t in su ch a wo rd

a s E n gl ish ba r! the im pu lse ge t s so we a k tha t it c a n v ibra te

the vo c a l c ho rds o n ly ha lf thro u gh the fin a l a’

,wh ich thu s

c lose s vo ice less bu t we a k,

1 00 5. I f the ta sk o f vibra tin gthe c ho rds be g ive n u p with the e nd o f the vowe l

,the fin a l

co n so n a n t is vo ice le ss (a s in G e rm a n §Bah) a nds tro n ge r tha n

the o ld a’

1 50 N ra ) , bu t we ake r tha n in it ia l t .2 ) (a ) I n th i s way al l G e rm a n fin a l 35 f t) vo iced stops

a nd frica t ives ha ve be com e vo ice le ss,tho u gh the vo iced

so u n d sti l l be writte n . Thu s 5, h, Q a re fin a l a nd=

p, t , cl)o r t, in Bob, loh=te, R inh, tinh=licb, fganh=arheit , S ag, tiigz licb,Rhn ig (bu t n o t in Sm il es, hieshijcb,

"

I asge, fin zhil ) , .fih'

n ige,

n o r in ii=hler uheler, & c ., 9 1 N 2) . S im i la rlywhe n fin a l se

i s e l ided : icl) bah’

hir , icb merh’

m id) , icl) bah’

? gejagt, & c .

F o r bah’icb & c . ,

se e 89 N 3 . (6) In va rio u s pa rts the

so n o ro u s co n so n a n ts a nd e ve n u n stre ssed vowe ls (e spe

c ia l ly a) ten d to be com e m o re o r le ss vo ice less when fin a l,

p honetics 77

1 3 2 N 2 . S im i la r ly u n stressed syl lables l ike gez , he= , =ig,

sight , see, eé, her , hen , & c .,a re ap t t o be whisp e red , o r

we a kly bre a thed 1 00,a nd n o t vo ic ed , 96 , cf. to in to-a

’ay ,

to—

getner , wa n t to go , & c .

S ho r t e n in g a nd Le n gt he n in g

109 . The syl lable with m o st stress u su a l ly ge ts m ost tim e,

a ndsyl lable s le ss he a v i ly stresse d ge t le ss. Thu s u n stressed

vowe ls be com e sho rt,a nd we a kly stre ssed vowe ls te n d t o

Sho rte n OH G scr t’oa'r i> scr t ’ba

'r e> scr t’bce

'r e> scr i’ber >

NH G 6 cbrei’her . S e e a lso 1 4 2 N a .

1 10 . (a ) In stressed op e n syl lable s a vowe l is ap t t o

le n gthe n ,1 3 7 , r

,I 4 I a ge

i l en géhen , ta-gc> El asge,

SBfiz len

bu t ph’

l zn ijcb, jcbl t’

t zgen bu t 6 cbliicbt . (o) I n a stre ssed c lo sed

syl lable a lo n g vowe l i s a p t t o be com e sho rt be fo re vo ice less

co n so n a n ts,

1 3 7 , 1,1 4 1 5 : we sti l l say D jiern bu t u su a l ly

SOften , oftlitb, & c . a nd a lways Eitht , harbte, & c . ; bad) a nd

bfibe? bu t fghcbgeit , Ell i—

rt bu t in W iir t em be rg Slatjel , & c . S e e

1 3 9 N,a lso 1 40 .

Na r rowin g a nd W ide n in g

1 1 1 . Vowe ls tha t a r e p ro lo n ged (“ lo n g vowe ls te n d t o

n a rrown e ss, § 1 35, wh i le sho rt vowe l s do n o t n e ed th is

e co n om ica l adju stm e n t o f the o rga n s.

Ro u ndin g a nd Un ro u ndin g

1 1 2 . The ba ck vowe ls u a nd 0 a r e ro u n ded a nd the ba ck

vowe l a ten ds whe n lo n g e ithe r t o be com e a fro n t vowe l

o r t o a cqu ire ro u n din g (se e 1 3 6 , 1 70 N 1,a nd cf.

I E 5 G C 5,a ndOE a M n E whi le the ba ck ro u n ded

vowe ls o a nd n te n d whe n sho rt,esp e cia l ly if u n stre ssed , to

lo se the ir rou n din g (cf. IE‘

o’

G c a,a ndOE 5 M n E a, a t

le a st in the spe e ch o f the n o rthe rn S ta te s , whi le OE 17 a lso

has be com e u n rou n ded a ndhas m o re o r le ss appro a ched a) .

78 D bonoloau

Obsc u r in g

1 13 . Whe n t im e a nd stress a r e la ckin g, the Spe cific to n gu e

posit io n re qu ire d f o r a vowe l m ay be in com p le te ly a tta in ed

thu s , we ak ly stresse d vowe ls te n d to be so u n ded with the

to n gu e in the n e u tra l p osit io n ,tha t is

, as a 1 87 , r — bu t

if su ch a syl lable a fte rwa rds ge ts stress, i t m a y ge t the

m o re e n e rge tic a rtic u la t io n o f a fro n t o r ba ck vowe l (as

a n o f gemunhen , 1 1 7 , a ro se o u t o f on < Na t ive u n

stressed fin a l vowe ls,as a ru le

,lo n g ago be cam e e a)

OH G er a'

a t e, nonz> .b e, Iza so S afe, f a r n fabre,§ 365. I n SG dia le c ts th i s a has ge n e ra l ly be com e s i le n t

1 87 , r N r) , a s in E n gl ish . The it o f u n stre ssed unh o fte n

be com e s .7,

a nd the we a k a rt ic le ein m ay be com e (9)n1 88 R 2) ; bu t we a kly stre ssed vowe ls (o the r tha n e) a re

n o t ge n e ra l ly obsc u re d,

1 66 c,wh ich i s du e t o the fa ct

tha t they lo n g re ta in ed som e stress, 3 65.

Loss a n d In se rt io n o f S o u nds

1 14 . Vowels a nd c o n so n a n ts,e sp e cia l ly if u n stressed

m a y in ra p id sp e e ch e n t ire ly disapp e a r (in p a rt du e t o

1 2 1 ) h(a)rani, i(a he)m , an (id)) bab(e ha)e

Eicbt umgeworfen , id) ba l)(e ma?»'

baj(t) h(u hen )n

m er ba t (ib)n gejeben ill rot Sl iild) , (ei)n e a lte

Srau , To (ei)n e, (Cha te)n Qibenh l'

(o r ndm t, e? mar

einm a l ein hei l igerSmaria , (

’

o)s weir (3)m al°n lzeil (i g

'

r m a n,

ha?» tKt) n i ct)(i) m ei(n ) i later 2 3 1 1 z,

2 08,N 25), fie frin f(t)

tein QBafier . In No rth G e rm a n y o fte n 6 aper(in te)nhen t ,S om e o f the se — the co n tra ctio n s

o f prepo s itio n s a n d a rt ic le a nd o f ha(r) : with p rep o sit io n s

a r e a lso go o d l ite ra ry fo rm s , § 65N a ; a n d su ch p ro n u n

c ia t io n s as Wenhelfifiobn , 97301(t)fe, & c . a r e e stabl ished,o r a t le a st com m o n

,cf. 2 2 3 N 5, 1 56 , 3 , 1 2 1 . The o the r

co n tra ction s m a y be he a rd in the ta lk o f pe rso n s who se

80 p honology;

o r p e rio d. S o lzistor'ica l lzis

’tary Izis

'try l es’

son Gira'

gie

gragih’

a ; gfi'

ail ; mir'mir tn

°

r ; & c . 1 44 N 1 .

No te . H ere we c a n e asily o bserve the c om p l ic a tio n s tha tm a y a rise in the pro c ess o f tim e , 1 1 7 N . Oldstro n g nav eregula rly be c am e lzejo in ‘behave ’

, a nd o ld wea k liar/e bec a m e na y ; bu t n ow this la tter is re ta in ed o n ly as a stro n gf o rm o f have a nd has by its side va rio u s n ewwea k fo rm s :

i n , 71 . D ia le c tic Elf a nd il f a re n o t we ak fo rm s o f stro n gau f bu t o f the o lder fif, o f wh ich au f is the regu la r m o dernrepresen tative 1 73 ,

CH ANGE S D UE TO NE IGH BOR ING S OUND S

R em ark . S o m e o f the cha n ges m o st c o n ven ien tly a rra n ged u n derth is he a d a r e , o n u ltim a te a n a lysis, m o re o r less du e t o o n e o f the

p re c eding c a u ses. S e e a lso IO5.

Assim ila t ion

1 19 . If we rega rd su ch a wo rd as 3melf as m ade u p o f the

vo ice le ss stop t the vo ice le ss frica t ive j the vo iced frica

t ive in the vowe l e the vo iced l the vo ice le ss frica t ive

f, we se e tha t in p a ss in g , fo r e x .,from j t o m ,

n o t o n ly m u st

the to n gu e po s it io n a nd the l ip po s it io n be cha n ged , bu t

a lso the sta te o f the glo tt is . Tha t a l l the se cha n ge s m ight

n o t be m ade s im u lta n e o u s ly Sho u ld n o t su rprise u s ; a nd

y e t a s l ight tem po ra l disp la cem e n t in su ch a ca se is the be

g in n in g o f a cha n ge in the cha ra cte r o f the sou n d . If the

po s ition o f to n gu e a nd l ip s be sh ifted be fo re the vo ca l

cho rds a re p u t in to vibra t io n ,a pa rt a t le a st o f the in i s

vo ice le ss,

1 50 N 2 if the to n gu e p o sitio n fo r to be cha n ged

t o tha t fo r e be fo re the l ip p o s it ion has be en cha n ged , the

vowe l wi l l be m o re o r le ss ro u n ded,tha t is

,it wi l l be com e

'

o'

,a n d so the wo rd is n ow so u n ded a nd spe l led amblf. I n

th i s way so u n ds gra du al ly a ss im i la te t o o n e a n o the r .

Assim i la tio n m a y be m u tu a l thu s,sé se (c : pa la ta l k)>

snl (Spe l led jeb) the pre se n t so u n d , st i l l spe l led jcb.

Cf . a lso the vo icing of m edia l frica t ive s , 2 23 , 1 .

p honet ics 81

M u t a t ion

120 . 1 ) Assim i la t io n m ay p a ss o n thro ugh seve ra l sou n ds ,fo r e x . in m u ta tion (G e rm a n ll m lau t) . I n su ch a wo rd as

OH G ga sti the to n gu e bega n t o a ssu m e som e thin g o f the

po sitio n o f i be fo re the t was com p le te , la te r eve n be fo rethe s was fin i shed , a nd sti l l la te r wh i le the vowe l a was bein g m ade . Thu s s a nd t be cam e som ewha t p a la ta l iz ed a nd

a cam e t o be fo rm ed with a to n gu e p o sit io n m o re a nd m o re

l ike tha t o f i ; th i s it re ta in ed , tho u gh s a nd t in tim e

rega in e d the u su a l fo rm o f s a nd t .

2 ) By m u ta t io n we u n de rsta n d,the n

,the cha n ge produ ced

in a vowe l by a fo l lowin g vowe l o r sem i-vowe l . The h igh

fro n t vowe l i (o r the co rre spo n ding sem i-vowe l j ) e a rly m ade

a pre cedin g m id-fro n t e h igh , tha t i s , ju st l ike i tse lf ; a nd

la te r m ade pre cedin g ba ck vowe ls fro n t , tha t is, som ewha t

l ike itse lf . The i (o r j ) has in m o st ca se s lo n g sin ce

cha n ged to e = a 1 87) o r disapp e a red .

R em a rk . )i is a c o n ven ien t sym bo l fo r i-m u ta t io n : thuse)i m ea n s e a ffe c ted by i-m u ta tio n .

”

3 ) Thu s e)i> i; a)

ia t first > e, la te r a o)

i> 0;

u)i> ii; an)

i> iiu (8 3 2 ) n immft n imm t < OH G n im is

n im it,o lde r n em is n em it

,bu t m ir n ebm en < OH G n em am e

‘

s,

65aft p l . Gaffe< M H G geste < OH G gesti. So bocb bu t

bhber , QBu rf bu t QBiirfel , fgaus bu t S iiujer ; a lso jengen‘ s in ge

’

, fiillen‘ fe l l ’

,& c . sa ng/an

‘t o m ake s in g

’

, & c . ;

miinn licb. Cf . E n gl ish m a n m en, oc older

,str ong str eng t/z,

Wa l es Wels/z,a

’r a n le a

’r en cn

,sa t set

,wizoje nea l , a

’oom a

’ecm .

No te . (a ) Mu ta tio n has Sprea d by a n a logy 1 26 &c .) t o

som e fo rm s tha t did n o t have i o r j : so fiill en n ow has fiill te

gefa'

llt < 7/a l te gev a l t , c f . n enn en n ann te &c . (b) On the

a n a logy o f o ld deriva tives in -ja n l ike fen ten , fiill en , &c .

above , som e n ew o n es have been fo rm ed with m u ta tio nbafien < bafi, brau n en < br aun , &c . (c) A s m u ta t io n t r e

qu en tly app ea red in the p lu ra l (Giiifte, S limm er, it c am e

t o be rega rded as a S ign o f the p lu ra l , a nd sprea d to wo rdswhose p lu ra l n ever hadi Samm er, Qipfel , &c .

82 p hono logy

Loss o f S o u n ds

12 1 . T em po ra l d isp la c em e n t a n d c o n se qu en t a ss im i la t io nm a y le a d t o a lo ss o f a c o n so n a n t if in su c h a wo rd a s langeg

l a ngas the ba ck Of the to n gu e drop ju st be fo re the so ft

p a la te has c lo sed the pa ssage t o the n o se,n o Q wi l l be

p ro du ced ; thu s m ed ia l g be cam e si le n t a fte r n . S o

baben lzab°

n o fte n nab'

m (with ha lf I) a nd ha lf m ) h im ;

in No rth G e rm a n y jagen zay'

n o f t e n > zay a nd

26mm > l om ; so jc sts) > ss o r ts § 1 79 a R,

1 55 R ,cf .

i(ft e)? m hglid) an d ltit> lst 2 3 1 N 2 ; a n dE n g l ish of (t )en ,

zonis(t)l e, & c . S ee a lso 1 1 4 .

E xc r esc e n c y

1 2 2 . T em p o ra l disp la c em e n t m a y a lso le a d t o the u tte r

a n ce o f a n extra c o n so n a n t,

e sp e cia l ly a stop : M H G

E n glish ev en (ing) bu t albenh, je=m ann >

iem anh, ein (e)? einjt, dia le ct ica l ly anher? anherft ; cf. E n gl ish aga in st a nd vu lga r on ce wi th fin a l t . S o o c ca s io n a l ly

in su c h wo rds as § 4 o ; bu t n o t n e a rly as

c o m m o n ly as in E n gl ish . I n u n stre sse d e n din gs (m iner :

jeben e, aujebenhé, § 35) u sage“

va ries,som e in se rt in g a we ak

stop , som e n o t,witho u t rega rd t o the Sp e l l in g .

Cha n g es in Q u a n t it y

1 23 . 1 ) The t im e Sp e n t o n o n e so u n d m ay be de cre a sed

.t o the a dva n tage Of a n e ighbo rin g so u n d , R , p . 80 : thu s ,the stre ssed vowe l be fo re a fin a l r regu la rly be c om es lo n ghei r ,

’

e'

r , nor, & c . I 40 a ; a nd tha t be fo re r co n so n a n t ve ry

fre qu e n t ly : 3art , mErhen , Oebfirt, & c .ii 1 40 6.

2 ) S im i la rly a gl ide 80) m a y be c om e a regu la r so u n d ;a nd a vowe l o r a co n so n a n t m ay be re du c e d t o a g l ide

1 87 , 2,o r disapp e a r 2 00 6

,1 54 , 1 R .

84 lD bono loag

PS YCHOLOGICAL CH ANGE S

An a l ogy

1 26 . 1 ) The pro n u n ciatio n o f a wo rd m ay be cha n ged to

a cco rd with o n e tha t i s a sso cia ted with it in the m in d the

stre ssed vowe l o f fl a zge, QBezge, mhzgen , & c . be cam e lo n g bya pho n e ti c prin cip le a nd n ow m o st G e rm a n s u se

the lo n g vowe l in i ng,fil let}, a nd m ag as we l l

,1 3 8 .

M H G sp rai n a’r ase/z > jpr t

'

1 cb hrajcb by a n a logy t o sp r ac/zen

a’r asc/zen . 3melf amblf by 1 1 9 n ow m a n y by a n a logy to

ambl'

fsay off f o r elf. M edia l gbe cam e S i le n t a fte r it by 1 2 1,

a nd fin a l ng fo l lowed the a n a logy o f m edia l ng, 2 09 81 N 3 .

2 ) S im i la rly, m e n ta l a sso cia t io n o fte n preve n ts pho n e tic

c ha n ge : thu s,we sho u ld exp e ct a lo n g vowe l t o sho rte n

whe n in in fl e c tio n the n u m be r o f co n so n a n ts fo l lowin g i t, is

in cre a sed bu t th i s do e s n o t o fte n ha ppe n ,be in g

p re ve n ted by the a n a logy o f the fo rm s witho u t the a ddit io n a l

co n so n a n t,

1 39.N . Cf . a lso 1 82 en d 81 R 1 87 , 2 N 4 .

The stru ggle be twe e n the pho n e t ic a nd the psycho logica l

prin cip le s is co n sta n t ly go in g o n in a l l la n gu age s .

Co n t a m in a t io n

1 2 7 . An a logy m ay resu l t in co n tam in a tion ,o r the blen d

in g o f two s im i la r wo rds , phra se s , o r ca tego rie s . So M H G

acne ‘ to ad a nd n n c sn ake Un fe ‘ to a d o r‘sn ake

F re n ch c/zon ette ‘owl

’

l l bu‘owl ’

> 6 cbubu‘owl

’. The

pa st p a rticip le o f efieii was ge=efien , bu t whe n th is had c o n

tra cte d t o gefien , the a n a logy o f pa rticip le s l ike gegeben led

to the pre se n t fo rm gegefien .

P o p u la r E t y m o l ogy

1 28 . A Spe cific fo rm o f co n tam in a t ion re su lts from m iS

ta ken e tym o logiz in g . Pe op le o f a l l c la sse s in du lge , c o n

P honetics 85

sc io u sfly o r u n co n scio u s ly, in m e n ta l asso ciatio n o f wo rds o fS im i la r so u n d o r m e a n in g, a nd they o fte n cha n ge the p ro

n u n c ia t io n t o m ake it a cco rd with a su pp o se d de riva tio n .

P op u la r e tym o logy m o re com m o n ly a ffe c ts fo re ign a nd a n ti

qu a t ed wo rds , a nd m ake s them m o re l ike com m o n wo rds .

Thu s 311 gu ter 8615‘as a fa rewe l l (drin k o r fe a st)

’ was

co n fo u n ded with 3u let§t‘ la st ’

a nd be cam e 311 gu ter Sebt .The o lde r (S influ t

‘u n ive rsa l flo od ’

be in g co n fo u n ded with

g huhe ‘sin ha s be com e 6 finhflu t . Fre n ch v a l ise > M H G

wel ts a nd this §Belei6 (a s M H G m in m ein 1 88 R 3) , bu tby a sso cia t io n with Sell

‘h ide ’

a nd Q ijen‘ iro n ’

,it has

a ssu m ed the fo rm Sell eijen . Th is e tym o logiz ing m ay e ve nbe e ru dite aswhe n the Sp e l l in g

C.L

’

biiringen (with G e rm a n ic

frica t ive t/z,o r p) wa S

'

su bst it u ted fo r the H G fibu ringen

1 3 1 c) a nd p ro n o u n c e d with t . S u ch e tym o logiz ing m ay

be n o t o n ly u n co n scio u s bu t a lm ost in c redibly absu rd,as

whe n ergeben be cam e erghgen u n de r the in flu e n ce o f (550158.

S pe e c h = M ix t u r e

129 . A m o re o r less co n scio u s c ha n ge m ay take p la ce in

o n e’s p r o n u n c 1a t io n in 1m l t a t io n o f tha t o f a n o the r district

o r c la ss,o r o f in div idu a ls who l ike t o se t fashio n s in su ch

m a tte rs . Th is i s e sp e cia l ly im po rta n t in the ca se o f tho se

se ekin g t o spe ak a m o re ge n e ra l o r l ite ra ry dia le ct . (a ) I to ften le a ds t o except io n s ”

,the n ew p ro n u n cia tio n be in g

a cqu ired o n ly in tho se wo rds tha t a r e in ge n e ra l u se in the

so c ie ty

'

sp e akin g the su p e rio r dia le ct, wh i le the o lde r p ro

n u n c ia t io n i s re tain ed in te chn ica l a nd lo ca l wo rds a nd

tho se tha t a r e a vo ided in go od so cie ty. (6) On the o the r

ha n d,in the ca se o f a p e rso n g ive n to gen e ra l iz in g, it le ads

t o the ign o rin g o f spe c ia l ca se s a nd o f ju st ifiable excep tio n s

t o the su ppo sed ru le,a nd m a y brin g abo u t com ica l re su lts

a pe rson who n a tu ral ly so u n ds au as o 1 73 R 3) , when

86 D honologg

trying t o spe ak fin e , i s ap t t o substitu te an f o r his 0 n o t o n ly

in and) bu t a lso in D fen , & c . S e e a lso 2 25 N r e n d. (c) I to fte n le a ds to the substitu t io n o f s im i la r fam i l ia r so u n ds f o r

the n ew o n e s he a rd : -50 f fo r 3 in wo rds o f F re n ch o rigin ,

§ 1 99, 1d ; se e a lso 2 07 R 1 87 , 1 N m end. This 15 ca l led

S o u nd-S u bst it u t io n .

R em ark . S im ila r phen om en a o c c u r in a c qu irin g o n e’s

m o the r,to ngu e . A c h ild , e ither be c a u se o f in a c c u ra c y in

hea rin g o r be c a u se o f in su ffic ien t abil ity t o repro du c e , su bst it u t es sim ila r so u n ds f o r tho se he ard. These m ay be bu t

slight devia tio n s fro m the o rig in a l so u n ds, 1 04 , 1 , o r theym a y be so u n ds pro du c ed by e n tire ly differen t o rga n s, aswhenthe u vu la r a ndglo tta l r

’s a r e su bstitu ted f o r the fro n t r, 2 2 1 .

Then aga in , as the ch ild gra du a lly gives u p his baby-tal k f o rthe sp e e ch o f grown p e op le , he is lea rn in g a n ew dia le c t ; a ndtho u gh he ge t so u n ds c o rre c tly in the n ew wo rds tha t helea rn s, he is ap t t o reta in the wro n g so u n ds f o r som e tim e in

the wo rds he has lo n g kn own . H e m ay even pro n o u n c e'

a

wo rd c o rre c tly in a n ew sen se a nd in c o rre c tly in a fam il ia ro n e , thu s givin g rise t o do ublets.

S PONTANEOUS CH ANGE S

130 . We m ay de s ign a te as Sp o n ta n e o u s cha n ge s tho se

wh ich,wh i le do u bt le ss du e t o som e p sycho logica l co n ditio n ,

to tem p e ram e n t,o r t o cl im a te

,a re as ye t n o t tho ro ugh ly

exp la in ed,

1 05. S u ch a re ca se s o f m e ta the s is l ike dia le cticSBurnel fo r iBue r, 1 25 e nd; the cha n ge o f z? to an in Ge rm a n

a nd E n glish nits Sane, lzonse ; the vo icin g o f in it ia l frica

t iv es in so u the rn E ngla n d , H o l la n d,

a nd n o rth-we ste rn

G e rm a n y,

2 2 3 2 a ndsu ch n a sa l iz a t io n as a pp ea rs in o u r

n o rthe rn S ta te s S ca n din avia,a nd p a rts o f G e rm a n y.

H e re to o m ay be c la ssed m o st o f the cha n ge s in vo lved in the

H igh-Ge rm a n S h if t o f Co n so n a n ts

13 1 . Th i s is a n im po rta n t m odifica t io n o f the G e rm a n i c

co n so n an ts,fo rm ing the ch ie f distin ctio n be twe en Low G er

Chapter 11

R em a rk . I t is c o n ve n ien t t o reta in the tra ditio n a l-divisio n o f so u ndsin to vowe ls a nd c o n so n a n ts a nd t o a dop t u n der e a ch som e o f

the m o re exa c t c lassific a tio n s as t o m an n er o f pro du c tio n .

TH E VOW ELS

113 2 . A vowe l is vo ic e m od ified by the reso n a n ce 75— 6)

o f o n e o r m o re o f the p a ssages o f the de lta . F o r exam pl e ,

The H igh-fro n t-ro u n de d V owe l if in Sgiite ; showin g the two wa ys inwhich it m ay be f o rm ed .

in the form a t io n o f a n o ra l vowe l,the to n gu e is so p la ced

tha t the pa ssage i s d ivided in to two cham be rs : e a ch o f

Germ an S peec hsfi ounhs 89

these has i ts reso n a n c e , a nd the qu a l ity o f the vowe l is det e rm in ed by the re l a t ive re so n a n ce o f the two cham be rs

, o r

o f the sm a l le r c ham be r o n the o n e ha n d a n d the two toge the r

o n the o the r . I n the ca se o f som e vowe ls,fo r e x .

, ii, the

p ro tru sio n o f the l ip s p re se n ts a third cham be r ; as do e s

a lso the lowe r in g o f the so ft pa la te in the case o f n a sa l

a nd n a sa l iz ed vowe ls .

No te 1 . A s the essen tia l th in g is the r el a t iv e reso n an c e o f

the cham bers, it will be se e n tha t the shap e a nd siz e o f the

cham bers m ay va ry (a nd a c t u a lly do , even in the sam e in divid u a l), p rovided the ratio rem a in c o n sta n t, se e c u ts above .

No te 2 . I f whisp er 96) o r bre a th takes the p la c e o f

vo ic e , we have the ’

so -c a lled “whisp ered vowe ls”o r

“ bre athedvowe ls ”

, 1 08, 2 6.

Pa la t e Posit io n s

13 3 . M o st vowe ls a re o ra l,tha t is

,the p a ssage t o the n o se

is c lo sed by the'

so f t p a la te , 7 1 . I f the so ft p a la te ha n gs

lo o se,so tha t som e bre a th p a sses thro u gh the n o se

,the

vowe l is sa id t o be n a sa l iz ed . I n the “n a sa l twa n g

”c om

m o n in the n o rthe rn S ta te s,the so ft p a la te do es n o t ha n g

so low a s in the Fre n ch a nd SG Na sa l Vowe ls, § 2 o 7 N.

9" These figu res, aswe l l as those in 1 34 , a r e taken from Gra n dgen t’s

Ger m a n a n dE ng l is/z S on n a’s. A s t o his drawin gs Mr. Gra n dgen t sa ys

The la rge drawin g in e a ch c u t represe n ts a lo n gitu din a l se c tio n o f the

m o u th ; the to n gu e-lin e in dic a tes the p ositio n o f the c en tra l gro ove o f

the to n gu e n o t tha t o f th e side edges, which a r e n ea rly a lwa ys lowertha n the m iddle .strip . The re la tive he ight o f the edges a nd o f the

m iddle o f the to n gu e m a y be se en from the u pp er o n e o f the two sm a lle rdiagram s g iven ; in the c ase o f the fro n t vowe ls, the drawin g represe n tsthe p assage betwe e n the fo re p art o f the to n gu e a nd the ro o ts o f the

te e th , as it app ea rs when the he a d is thrown ba ck in the c ase o f 77 , the

figu re shows the h ighest p art o f the to n gu e tha t c a n be se e n , a nd the

se c tio n o f the p a la te tha t is over it. The third diagram giv es a fro n tview o f the lips.

90 D honologn

To n g u e P osit io n s

13 4 . 1 ) I f the to n gu e is p u she d fo rwa rd wh i le a v owe l is

bein g so u n ded , the vowe l i s a F r o n t Vowe l ; if the to n gu e

The H igh-fro n t V owe l i

The H igh-ba ck-ro u n ded V owe l 12 in

is drawn ba ck,the vowe l i s a Ba c k Vowe l ; if the to n gu e is

in a n e u tra l posi tio n,the vowe l is a M ix ed Vowe l, 1 87 , 1 .

2 ) I f the to n gu e l is ra i sed ra the r c lo se t o the ro o f o f them o u th wh i le a vowe l i s be in g so u n ded , the vowe l is a H ig h

Vowe l if the to n gu e i s m o de ra te ly lowe red , the vowe l is a

M idVowe l if the to n gu e is c o n side rably lowe red , the vowe l

is a Low Vowe l . The v o‘

vv e ls in the f o l-lowin g wo rds a r e :

p it , h igh-fro n t p et , m id-fro n t p a t , low-fro n t . Cf . 77 , 1 35.

9" S e e fo o tn o te o n p age 89.

T I n risin g as in fa l l in g , the to n gu e a nd the lower jaw gen era l ly a c tto gether.

92 p honoloan

in som e o f the n o rthe rn S ta te s) . In m a kin g vowe ls , it i s

n e eded the m o re the fa rthe r ba ck the p la ce whe re the

to n gu e a ppro a che s the r'

o o f o f the m o u th,

1 1 2 .

2 ) H e n ce ro u n din g is cha ra cte rist ic o f ba ck v e ls,fro n t

vowe ls be in g u su a l ly m a de with a som ewha t lo n g open in go f the l ips. Whe n ba ck vowe ls be com e fro n t 1 2 0

,2) they

ke ep the ir ro u n din g f o r som e t im e , bu t te n d t o lo se it thu s

6 ii ha ve becom e e i in m o st o f S o u th a nd M idd le G e rm a n y

a nd in pa rts o f No rth G e rm a n yfi" Th is p ro n u n cia t io n i s n o t

y e t , howe ve r, re cogn iz ed a s go o d u sage , the re st o f the

co u n try yie ldin g in this, as in o the r p o in ts, t o the co n se rva

t ism o f the No rth . Bu t eve n No rth-G e rm a n po e ts se ldom

he sita te t o rim e ro u nded with u nro u n ded fo rm s : Ell ieere

gebh’

re (H eyse , SJJiiihcben lieher) , mei t beu t (Tie ck, gerhjtlieh) ,S iehe truhe (Vo ss , SD er QBecbiel) .

Q u a n t it y

13 7 . I f a vowe l i s so unded qu i ck ly, it i s ca l led Sho rt ; if

it is pro lo n ged , i t i s ca l led Lo n g . S e e 1 0 2 .

1 ) S TR E S S E D V0WE LS

I n G e rm a n a stre sse d vowe l is ge n e ra l ly lo n g in a n ope n

syl lable a nd sho rt in a c lo sed o n e (bu t.

se e 1 4 1 ) lo n g in

ha, (Sba'

os, ba'hen , QBe

’

ge? sho rt in has, S per’l ing, bat'te,

1963 .

R em a rk 1 . F o r the defin itio n o f op en a ndc losed syl lables,se e 92 fo r syl labic divisio n , 88 &c .

R em a rk 2 . In c ases o f syn c o p e l ike e’

hl er , u ’

br ig, (Siefrorn es, Oegn er , regn en , Eiign er , t ler M H G a a’el — a r , the

stresse d syl lable rem a in s Op en a nd its vowe l lo n g, 9 1 N 2 .

No te 1 . I t is n o t c u stom ary t o do ubl e a digraph'

o r a

trig’raph 46 N 3), a n dso it is n o t e asy t o t e l l when the p r e

c edin g syl lable is c lo se d a nd its vowe l sho rt . Be f o re il g

(fo rm erly : 77g ) a ndgen era l ly befo re jcb(f o rm erly = sk) a ndCb

9" The sam e c ha n ge hadbegu n in the e a rliest E n glish kn own .

o erman 5peech=50unhs 93

(f orm erly X X fix ) a vowe l is sho rt, bu t gen era lly lo ngbefo re fo re ign pb f ) and tb t), 90. The vowe l befo re5 i s) is, o f c o u rse , short, a lso tha t befo re 8(Sglbe, 46 Nbu t n o t befo r e 3 Co n trary c aseswill be exp la in edu n der e a ch vowe l , 1 70 &c .

No te 2 . A Sho rt vowe l o c c u rs in som e exc lam a tio n s in a n

op en syllable o r o n e tha t is c losed o n ly by the glo tta l stopU

1 54 , 2) ha ‘there n ow . n a‘we ll ? ’

o r‘

qu it l’

, ia , ba ,hfib, pfib.No te 3 . In som e wo rds a n o ld lo n g vowe l befo re two o r

m ore c o n so n a n ts has rem a in ed lo n g su ch c ases a r e rec o rdedu n der ea ch vowe l , 1 70 &c . Th is is m ost c om m o n befo re(1 ) ts (wh en sp e lled 3 1 37 N 1 end) : 58 re3el , hu3en , Suspia

’

,

ill ite3e,‘Jior n

’

36, a nd eve n befo re 13 in the n am es Gi l ab a nd

©1755; a lso in E ast M iddle G erm a n y in m a n y wo rds tha te lsewhere have 13 a nd Sho rt vowe l (anim asen , igubeI, 6 cbm ub,S pas, (2) st : hiifter , baiten , t ern , i roit, miift, &c .

(3) t/ (sp e lled tjcb) in a n um ber o f wo rds, m o stly o f S lavico rigin : litid) o r et-ftt)

‘aha !

’

(in gril tjcbe(l)ri,griitjcbhein ig, &c . , Siarhatlcbe, R arh

’

atjdw, fiart’

dtfcbe, a nd in

E ast M iddle G erm a n y in abo u t a do zen o ther wo rds (hati ett ,‘

b'

citjcbeln , fi lahherahatfcb, firetfgbam , Siretjcbm er , Iatfcben , &c . ,

Shiatjcbe, n utjcben , niitjcbeln , tiitjcbeln , tr'

atfcben , matjd)eln ,which a r e m o st c om m o n there a nd a r e ap t t o be p ro

n o u n c ed with a sho rt vowe l when u sed e lsewhere . Bu t

a lwa ys f l a tjcl) , qu a tjcb, patjd) , $ a tjcbe, pa tjcben , pl a tjd) ,platjcben , p latjcbern , &c .

138 . Whe n a wo rd,

has its stre ssed syl lable ope n in som e

fo rm s a nd c lo sed in o the rs,the o p en syl lable preva i ls , o r , as

i t is ca l led,the c lo sed syl lable is “ leve l led to the open ,

F o r e x .,in i ug, St asges, fl ame, S ag; I a=ge,

‘I asge

fl a =gen , $ a =ge, the two c lo sed syl lable s co u ld n o t ho ld the ir

own aga in st the six op e n o n e s ; so QBégfi‘

Sfif, gal) , gieh

be ca u se o f wa ges, Shzie, ga=hen , ge=hen .

.No te 1 . I n No rth G erm a n y the vowe l stil l o ften rem a in s

sho rt'

in the c losed syllable . E ag taglicb bu t g a sgee» , 805

at Bu t n o t the a dverbia l a c c usa tive 10’

n awa y wh ich , be ing iso latedfrom the n o u n ,

re ta in ed the sho rt vowe l a nd, t o a la rge exten t, the o ld

fin a l n-so u n d , 1 94, 2 R . S im ilarly fliigs, a dverbia l gen itive o f S lug.

94 D honologn

l'

oh: lid) bu t 20: Orah fibegrahn is bu t (Siraher , gram bu t

gr‘

am en , m ag bu t m'

o'

gett . The o n ly c ases tha t a re c om m o n

t o a la rge p a rt o f G erm a n y a r e grbb a nd S cbm i’

eh as aga in stgrhzhes gr6: her (Sirhshian a nd S cbm fehe ; bu t the regu la rgrhh a nd 6 cb111 i§ h a r e hea rd in S o u th Germ a n y. grhbl icb iso n ly No rth G erm a n :

No te 2 . (a ) In a dop ted wo rds o f m o re tha n o n e syl lablea stresse d vowe l befo re a sin gle c o n so n a n t is gen era lly lo n ga c c o rdin g t o § 9o z bel le

’

n ifd) , tan n iha’

lijd) , pbilo lh’

gijd) ,531)

’r ifer, Ell ifi’

jiter , QIt’

,58a3ar

’

, (Sinil’

, fD iii t’

, hisl ret’

,

S ispat’

, gen ial’

, Roitiim’

, Sia tfir’

, hot fis’

,‘Brohlém

’

, &c .,

a lso in 5Berl i11 ’

, S tettin’

, &c . the S lavic .

R em ark . I t will be observed tha t in wo rds fro m Gre eka nd La tin , l ike Sl ata r, flirohlem , &c . , the fo re ign e n din gis lost. R ea l Gre ek a nd La tin e n din gs, l ike sa6, : e6, $ 16,=os, éor ,

have the vowe l sho rt : S ul a ? »Ql cbill es, Sris, (Sbao? (bu t huricbith

‘

s fo rm erly p rin tedhurlcbis D n in ihus, illuhl itiim , .ft an on .

(6) Bu t befo re f , t (less f requ en tly p, a a nd i a r e ge n era llysho rten ed in M . a nd S . G erm a n y, e, 0, 11 &c . o c c asio n a llyhram at

’

ijd) , hiplom a t’

iid) , Ellia tbem at’

iter , (fin a l c at ra re lySD em otra

‘

t’

, Qiriftofr a t’

, SD ipIom a t’

, S on iu lat’

, S ofha t’

,

Sahrit’

,SBernenhil

’

el ,‘Brofit

’

, frit’

ijd) , z if’

el , &c . (se e20 1 N 6), il la triht

’

, patriht’

ijcb stil l , in Middle G e rm an yu su a lly l petit

’

, ilringfip’

, 59061313 , a nd o ften SUiu fif’

, &c .

(c) In No rth G erm a n y th is is do n e in bu t f ew : (55m m

m at’ it , Sia t’

er , Rapir’

el , 81tb’

er , Gt t’

o , befo re 111) m Ell ietapb’

er ,

g anb’

113, a nd o ften in sc ie n tific te rm s in sit , se e 20 1 N 6 .

Likewise m diel t ef’

, 6 tepb’

an ; befo re I inSl inr

‘

il’

, .firofohil’

; see a lso 1 44 N 3 6. W o rds l ike.‘B au fett , S l an ell , &c .

, tha t a re n ow ge n era l ly sp e lled withdo uble fin a l c o n so n a n ts, n e e d n o t be n o tic ed.

R em a rks. (a ) The o rig in a l qu a n tity o f the vowe l m a

c lassic a l wo rd is n o gu ide t o its qu a n tity in G erm a n, a n y

m o re tha n in E n gl ish . Gm pb'

aje, ©0j16, Qljt) I, &c ., 2em 1106,Ql tn a with a , 65l0fie, 92011 le116, &c . There is, however, ap eda n tic te n den c y in som e scho o ls t o re fle c t in G erm a n

o n e’s kn owledge o f the o rigin a l qu a n t ity (as som e p e op le

sa y‘esthetic ’ ‘H e lle n ic ’

, a nd ‘ero tic ’

in E n glish)an tt lepttjd) , (Silo? e, &c . This is p a rtic u la rly stro n g in

the c ase o f a : id)1) lu6, filsfu l ap, Ql ftbetif, fgepbaftus,Emen it cbm en , &c . , a nd m ay here preva il . (o) In the c ase

o f wo rds ado p ted fro m m o dern la n gu ages, the a ttem p t isu su a l ly m a de t o re ta in the o rigin a l qu a n tity o f the

stressed syllable . S ha ft, Sia ter , S a lt, &c .

96 p honologn

SBrh’

m zheere, SDa'

m zhod, Sl i’

a'

rsjta ll , 6 cbmi’

hzhogen ,11866 11 113, a nd n am es like Ohhsbarh, fillin zfrieh, &c . , the firstsyllable o f which n o lo n ger o c c u rs as a n in dep en de n t wo rd ,o r a t least n o t in the sam e fo rm . (Cf . 46, 2 e nd.) I n som e

p arts the ie o f QBieshahen = i3 as it do es in a nd abo u t thep la c e , 1 58, 3 f t . S om e o f the wo rds u n der (1 )may be du e tolen gthen in g 1 4 1 a , 1 l o) a ndsubsequ en t Sho rten in g, a ndsobe lo n g u n der

140 . The vowe l o f a stre ssed clo sed syl lable i s le n gthen ed

(a ) be fo re r, har= , h6r , ber , hir , empor , jfir , a r=;

Dfir, & c . ; bu t se e 1 44 N 1 ; o fte n be fo re r + po in t

co n so n a n t (h, t , 3, j, jd)) 1 2 3 , 1 36rt , 1311 13 81 0. 3artlid)

a ndo the rs with d< a fbérhe, wérhen (bu t i do e s n o t le n gthe n

mirh & c .,excep t o cca sio n a l ly in fgirje), & c . SBebBrhe,

§BBrje, & c . ; (Sehfirt, & c . ; bu t the re i s sti l l m u ch diffe re n ce

o f u sage (se e the va rio u s vowe ls, .

1 70 (c) be fo re

in a nd n in the p ro n o u n s hém , hén , ibm , ibn , them , mén*

;

(cl ) be fo re I, m , r, u n de r se co n da ry stre ss , in =ja l , =jam ,=har,

1 70 N 3 e nd.

14 1 . T he ru le give n in 1 3 7 , 1 was n o t a lways a s tru e as

n ow ; bu t (a ) the sho rt vowe ls in op e n syl lable s be cam e

lo n g , 1 1 0 6 (o r the co n so n a n ts do u bled) , a nd(6) m a n y lo ngvowe ls in c lo sed syl lable s be cam e sho rt

,1 1 0 6 : bracbte,

bh’

rd)en , Sicbt , .filafter , blien (exc ep t in p a rts o f No rth G e r

m a n y) , ‘Bfriinhe a nd (excep t in pa rts o f S o u th G e rm a n y)fing, ging, bing; lo ca l ly in t i, Sll iiiter , Ell iagh, & c . S e e

1 3 7 N 3 .

142 . (a ) Tho u gh , in com po sitio n o r de riva tio n,the lo n g

stre sse d vowe l o f a n a t ive wo rd ge t s o n ly se co n da ry

stre ss,i t is ra re ly sho rte n e d : 6 iinh’flfit

'

,

frei’ge’

big, i‘

ir’

jpriing’lid) , 6 8’

m erei’, nu n’= niel

’

m ebr’

(ie = z) , bu t film'hhfa’

, m’

a'

br’

baf’tig, Sabr’

bun ’hert, hficb’

jtahie’ren .

9" iin bin bin fdn n non fin : &c . a r e dia le c tic ,“

an a nd an : ve ry c o m m o n

in the S o u th a ndp a rts o f the M idla n d .

Germ an 5peech=S ounos 97

(b) In the fo l lowin g, has ber= & c . ha ve l itt le stre ss a nd the

vowe l is u su a l ly sho rt : hiitnit'

=hei’

srani’& c .

, be’

rein'

nad)ber'

,

bierb’

ér'

nhran’

=hei’

, v hr lieh’

un ’nfirjicb’tig ;

a lso the fo l lowin g, fo r whi ch se e 1 44 N 2 6 e nd : if) :

3tima l'

=er ft’ , Ul éll eidfi’

,a n d so d) a nd cl tsena

’81 0. (bu t the

less u su a l pb fo r d) 6 _ tsE’na é

'

s’ se e 2 78, r . The

te e n s, f o r e x . , hrei3ebn , a re a’r a z’tsen

’o r a

’r a i

’ts n

, & c .

No te . (a ) There a r e a n u m ber o f c o m p o u n ds (in c lu din gn u m ero us p ro p er n am es) who se c om positio n is obsc u re , a ndsom e wo rds havin g the app e a ra n c e o f c om p o u n ds these .o ftengive the lea rn er diffic u lty in the m a tter o f qu a n tity a ndsha ll ,therefo re , re c e ive trea tm e n t u n der e a ch vowe l , 1 70 &c .

(6) W hether o ther syllables o f G erm a n wo rds h ave a lo n g o r

a Sho rt vowe l c a n ge n era lly be se en f rom the sp e ll in g, 46—

7fo r a do p ted words see 1 44 N , 1 6, 2-4, 1 38 N 2 , 90 N.

143 . The fa ct tha t a vowe l i s lo n g is som e t im e s in dica ted

by do u bl in g i t 43) o r by addin g a s i len t b 45, 2 00 6)fo r ie i

,se e 44 , 2 02 .

2) w asTR E S S E D V0WELS

144 . The vowe l in a n u n stre ssed wo rd "o r syl lable i s

u su a l ly sho rt , 1 09 bin , m it , S h’ni

’

g, iin enh’lid) , iimiijan t

’

Bu t se e 1 66 6 N 2 .

R em a rk . A t the No rth a

.

lo n g vowe l m ay stil l be heardin the fin a l syllables o f filhler , Qiettler , Sl iign er , &c . F o r

Sgeim at , jel tjan1 , e t c . , see 1 42 N a .

No te 1 . (a ) There a re som e wo rds tha t a re so m e tim es

stresse d a ndso m etim es n o t , a n d tha t have a lo n g o r a sho rtvowe l a c c o rdin gly, 1 1 8. A t tim es it is em phasis tha t gives awo rd stress a nd thu s a lo n g vowe l , c f . a lso 243

'

a , a nd 295:

W o rds tha t a r e u su a l ly o r o ften u n stressed a re , f o r the m ost p art,m o n osyl lables a nd in c lu de (1 ) the fo rm s o f the a rtic le ; (2) m an , e6 ;

(3) ob, u nh ; (4) the prep o sitio n s, f o r e x ., ab, an and ant , 516, fur , gen ,in a nd 1m , m 1t , iim , n on a nd n om , 311 , 311m a nd 31313, &C (5) hwt

bat, &c . F o r jiir, 311 , n ad) , see a lso 1 44 N 1 .

98 p honology)

her’

hen’

&c .

‘ tha t ’bu t her hen &c .

‘ the ’

; ifi"yes

’o r

‘bya l l m e a n s

’

bu t 1a‘

y o u kn ow’

, 311’

adv . bu t aii prep . so a lso$111 , m ar , ha , paar, hu , er , ibn , ibr , 111 11 , fie, ichon , 10, nor,wohl , &c . M iddle a nd S o u th G erm a n s distin gu ish be twee nstro n g n a ti) a ndwea k n a ti) , a nd m a n y do the sam e with ge:11 111} bu t No rth G erm a n s a lwa ys sa y n a ti) a nd m a n y a lwayssay gen iig, 1 04 , 2 e n d. F o r 2 in the adj. 51em licf) bu t z o r i

’

in

the adv . c f . W o rd-List. S o m e distin guish be twe e n QIr'thi‘

rr’

a nd e’

tbilr 277 . T he m ilitary sa lu te 9351 ’ ha ?

u su a lly has a“

. (b) F o r (551 6 3113 131551363 Sn tri’

gu e in trigie’

ren , &c ., see 1 18, 3 1 5.

No te 2 . (a ) I n a dopted wo rds u n stressed vowe ls a nd

eve n vowe ls u n der se c o n da ry stress a r e ge n era lly sho rtV V V

©en er a l 1i’

11111 116 (17) Bu t in a n Op en syllable 92 , 90) theya re u su a lly n a rrow if n a rrow whe n lo n g , 90 : relativ

’

(se e186, D ran ’

ge, Sl ilogramm’

9 1 , 3 c ), SBiireau’

, ftuhie’

r en .

A n a rrow sho rt vowe l m a y a lso be he a rd in n a tive c om p o u n dsa nd c o n glom era tes : in : augIeicb

’

, aum a l’

&c ., d) tse/zd

’

, &c .

1 85N 3 . (c ) Bu t in so m e c o m m o n wo rds er = 3 r o r 7

571511101 6106, Gbo’

lera ; a nd (esp . n ext to f) 0 is som e tim es a

wide sho rt vowe l : a fohil’

, g chofo la’

he, Rom itee’

, finm et’

,

fiolonie’

, folofia l’

, &c .

No te 3 . (11) S u ch a n a rrow vowe l ge n era l ly bec om es lo n gwhe n the sylla ble , e ither regu larly 3 1 3) o r occ asio n a lly

ge ts c hief stress : R t'logr amm’

,‘Blfi

’

ra l ,

mfi'm in atin’

, bu t a lso $ Em ': (8511 ’s, o c c asio na lly 3 1 3 R 6) f o r 6 13111 613 (Sen erfil

’

.

(5) U n der the sam e c irc u m sta n c es, the wide vowe l a u su a llyrem a in s sho rt . R an

’

ena6, Elia l’

etot ,‘Bap

’

a , &c . 1 70 N 3 ; bu t

u su a lly a in ED a’

tw e fi’

mn , C‘Bcbd’

fa l , i fi’

ba f ; a nd

som e say Ra’

n apee. S e e a lso 1 38 N 2 5.

No te 4. (a ) Na tive u n stressed fin a l vowe ls, as a ru le , lo n gago bec am e : e = 3 1 1 3 , 365. (5) Lo n g 1 66 b, o r half-lo n g1 02) fin a l vowe ls o c c u r (in wo rds o ther tha n m o n osyllables)

o n ly in fo re ign -wo rds (9111 11 6 , 911513116 1 87 , 1 N 3 , Sginhfi, 81111,

351111 0, Sgarr'

rj), OldG erm a n a nd dia le c tic wo rds Sofi,S ago, 9 110, 3b10, &c .

, 31110111 , ggo l tr) , &c . im ita tivewo rds (11511 , beifa), c om po u n ds(a lio , eben fo), a ndwo rds rem o de led o n the a n a logy o f o thers(beith < hefte thro u gh the in flu e n c e o f 11 111

by a n a lo gy to La tin geo graph ic a l n am es in z a). I n S E G

-d m a y be hea rd fi frifa , QIlgebra , &c ., a nd, esp . in the SW ,

-i’

: 351111, 3 11111, Eliuohi, QIIabi, &c .

100 p honology

147 . The re a re in G e rm a n thre e gen e ra lly re cogn izeddiphtho n gs , e a ch ha v in g the stre ss o n the first e lem en t

Ba ck an o r n o Sp e l led 11 11, ©a116, 1 73 .

112o r a; spe l led at a nd QBaiie‘o rpha n QBeife

F ro n tei ‘

m a n n e r ’

,1 72 , 1 88 .

on o r 0g sp e l led an a nd 13am f skin s beu te ‘to

811 day’

,1 77 , 1 90 .

No te . T he diphtho n gs a r e c lassed as fro n t ”a n d “ ba ck

a c c o rdin g as the se c o n d e lem e n t is a fro n t o r a ba ck vowe l ;the first e lem en t is in a l l thre e c ases a ba c k vowe l . F o r U} ,se e 235; f o r 9a , se e 2 1 3 c ; f o r ju , jo, ja , 329 , se e 204 N 1 0

a nd 20 1 N 3 .

TH E CONSONANTS

148 . I f the bre a th i s (1 ) im p ede d in its flow bu t sti l l

a l lowe d t o pa ss through a m o re o r le ss n a rrow ope n in g (astha t be twe e n the two rows o f te e th — s

,o r the n a sa l

pa ssage m,

o r i s (2 ) e n t ire ly shu t o ff fo r a m om e n t

(as by the l ip s — p ) a nd the n su dde n ly exp loded ; the

sou n d is ca l led a Con son a n t, 77 . S e e a lso R em a rk above

§ 1 3 2 .

W AYS OF MAKING CONSONANTS

(1 ) WI TH OR .W[ TH OUT S TOP P A GE

149 . 1 ) A co n so n a n t p ro du ced by stopp in g a nd then

exp lodin g the bre a th i s ca l led a S h u t Co n so n a n t o r a S t op

(a lso a M u te) , 97 p ,b,t, & c . S e e a lso 1 53, 2 .

No te . A stop m a y be sim p le (as in Fra n c e a ndsom e p artso f Germ a n y), o r be asp ira t edfl‘ tha t is, fo llowed by a m o re o r

A n asp ira ted stop m u st n o t be c o n fo u n ded (as is o ften do n e) witha fric ative 1 49, 2 a ) ; bu t a n asp ira te is a p t , in the c o u rse o f tim e , t o

chan ge in to a n a ffric a te 82) a nd then (the st0p assim ila tin g t o the

fr ic a tive) in to a fric a tive . Thu s the asp ira ted t in E n gl ish to is l ikean c ien t Greek 0, bu t 0 la ter be c am e a fric ative , l ike E n glish 11: in ”risk.

German S peecb=50unhs 101

l ess n o t ic e able 1 o r brea th , 83. V o ic e less stops are m ostn o tic eably asp ira ted befo re a stressed vowe l (with 12, 1 54)a nd, if fin a l , a f ter a stressed vowe l (with brea th , 72 ,

This is tru e o f E n glish (very distin c tly m arked in Irish p ro

n u n c ia t io n ) a nd o f G erm an as sp oken a t the No rth ; so p op e,kick, Rap, 135116 (the stressed Bu t se e 1 50 N 1 6.

2 ) A co n so n a n t pro du ced by a l lowin g the bre a th to e scape

thro u gh a n op en in g i s ca l led a n Ope n Co n so n a n t , § 97 .

(a ) I f the ope n in g i s ve ry n a rrow so tha t the re is m u ch

frict io n o f the bre a th aga in st the wa l ls o f the passage , the

co n so n a n t is c a l led a F r ica t iv e (a lso a Sp ir a n t) : f , s, f ,x , a nd 71

,2 , j , y .

(i) I f the op en in g i s n o t so n a rrow as t o ca u se m a rked

frict io n,the c o n so n a n t i s ca l led a S o n o r o u s Co n so n a n t ,

77 thu s,the N a sa ls 99) m ,

n,77, a nd the L iqu ids, Z, r .

No te . T he l in e dividin g fric a t ives a n d so n o ro u s c o n so

n a n ts is a n in defin ite o n e , a nd a n o p en c o n so n a n t easilyp asses it. Thu s r in E n gl ish t ry a nd o f t en in G erm a n 58 11 1 1

2 2 1 , 2 e nd) is a fric a tive . S im ilarly , the fric a tive j is bu tl ittle d ifferen t from u n syl labic i , o r the ‘

sem i-vowe l, ’ 77 .

(2) WI TH OR WI TH OUT VOI CE

150 . 1 ) At the sam e tim e tha t the co n so n a n t is be in gso u n ded

,the vo ca l cho rds m a y be v ibra tin g, tha t i s , p rodu c

in g vo ice S u c h a co n so n a n t is ca l led a Vo ic ed

Co n so n a n t (a lso a S on a n t ) .2 ) I f the vo ca l cho rds do n o t vibra te

.

wh i le a co n so n a n t

i s be in g so u n ded , i t i s ca l led a Vo ic e l ess Co n so n a n t (a lso

a I n G e rm a n as Spoke n a t the No rth , a nd in

E n glish , vo ice le ss co n so n a n ts'

a re brea thed , tha t is, the

vo c a l c ho rds a r e re la xed 96 a ) .No te 1 . (a ) A s p art o f the en ergy issp en t in vibra tin g thevo c a l cho rds, there is less left t o pro du c e the lo c a l so u n d o fa vo ic ed c o n so n a n t tha n there is whe n a bre a thed c o n so n a n tis pro n o u n c ed ; he n c e vo ic ed c o n so n a n ts a re gen era lly (as inE n gl ish a nd No rth G erm a n ) we aker o r so fter tha n bre a thedc o n so n an ts (se e a lso 1 49 N a nd N 3 be low). (5) S im ilarly,

102 mbonologn

a v o ic e less sto p whe n fo l lowing a fric ative is weaken ed1 00d) a ndn o t asp ira ted 1 N), se e 225

— 6 & 1 3 1 a N ;a nd, if u n stressed, it m ay qu ite disapp ear, 23 1 N 2 .

No te 2 . (a ) A c o n so n a n t n ext a vo ic e less c o n so n an t, as

in E n glish , gen era lly be c om es m ore o r less vo ic e less, 1 1 9 :

so fitnhe6 (with h vo ic ed) when c o n tra c ted be c om es Situh6,tha t is t in ts (with the h a nd a part o f the 11 vo ic e less befo rethe vo ic e less fin a l 6, sim ilarly the g in 111 131, the I) inIiebft, the I in e i11 , &c . (o) The u nvo ic in g o f a so n o ro u sc o n so n an t a nd o f j a nd m u su a lly exten ds o n ly thro u gh tha tha lf tha t is n ext the vo ic e less c o n so n a n t, a nd the p a rtlyu n vo ic ed c o n so n a n t rem a in s weak , 1 00 . Th is p a rtia lu n vo ic in g m a y be in dic a ted by the u se o f R om a n typ e(c be low), bu t in the c ase o f so n o ro u s c o n so n a n ts is bestleft u n expressed, 24 e nd. (5) A n in itia l fric a tive gen era l lybe c om es u n vo ic e d after a vo ic e less fin a l c o n so n an t : (1 ) inwo rds l ike Stat ion n a tsjo

'

n , QIh’

ju tan t’, abiicbt licf) , auéiu chen

2 23 N 5), fugiam , D bmobI, &c . , (2) in en c l itics l ike bat lid) ,OI) fie, &c . ; bu t as it u su a l ly rem a in swe ak 1 00) like vo ic edc o n so n a n ts, this u n vo ic in g is in dic ate d in the pho n etic tra nscriptio n o n ly by prin tin g su ch c o n so n an ts in Rom a n , ra therthan Ita lic , letters. (d) In som e p arts th is happ en s a lso in

the c ase o f stOps : a116giebig, un le6bar , ob hie, 136 gent , id)hen fe, esp ec ia l ly in su ch wo rds as (Sjeliibhe, Wiiighe, 810Thu s kg o ften or k 1 56, 3 a ) in Siticfgr at .No te 3 . I n M iddle a nd S o u th G erm a n y c o n so n a n ts a re

n o t gen era lly vo ic e d a t a l l , bu t som etim es p— I) , &c . , a re dis

t in gu ished as stro n g a nd weak . S u ch we ak , vo ic e lessc o n so n a n ts (the stops a r e c a l le d {11111 111 10112 ElJl ehien

”o r

“

fcbma cbe a r e gen era lly brea thed , with , howeve r,less o rigin a l bre a th-im p u lse than the o rdin ary brea thedc o n so n an ts The E n gl ish-sp eakin g lea rn er will , o f

c o u rse , fo llow the u sage o f No rth G erm an y a nd the stage ,as his n a tive pra c tic e wo u ld lea d him t o do

PLACE S W H ERE CONSONANTS A RE M AD E

151 . Co n so n a n ts a r e m a de (1 ) in the m o u th-pa ssage ,

(2) thro u gh the n o se, (3 ) in the thro a t .

152 . OR AL CONSONANTS a re m ade (a ) by the l ips , LipCo n so n a n t s

,o r Labia ls : B il a bia ls if m ade with bo th

l ips , D en til a bia ls if m a de with lowe r l ip a nd u ppe r te e th

104 ID bOflOIOQQ

2 ) The G lo t t a l S t op i s p rodu ced by stoppin g the bre a thin the thro a t a nd exp lodin g it the re , as o n e o fte n do e s inm akin g a n u n u su a l e ffo rt

,as in pu sh in g. I t i s gen e ra l ly

em p lo ye d by N 8: M G e rm a n s be fo re in it ia l stre ssed vowe ls :

i18a11h’

11I)t ,’

ab’

dnhet n , (n o t in e n c l it ics

ha’ 16, bat’ rr , m u fa’ id) , & c .,n o r in c a se s l ike aIIein , I)1nab,

noran , D bacbt , feIhanher , & c .,

se e 89 N 1) , a nd som e

t im e s a fte r stre ssed m o n o syl lable s e n din g in a sho rt vowe l

(the im p a tie n t ha’

a nd n ii’

a nd the do u btin g s im i la rly

be fo re 11 in cross ’

n ii l a nd’

n ein ;‘

bu t they n eve r write i t,

a n d a r e ge n e ra l ly u n awa re o f its ex i ste n ce . In bo oks o n

pho n e t ics i t i s som e t im e s expressed by a s above .

R em a rk . Ma n y A m eric a n s a nd(a c c o rdin g t o Llo yd) m a n yE n gl ishm en u se the glo tta l sto p befo re the stressed in itia lvowe l o f a n em pha tic wo rd . Ch ildre n in le a rn in g t o ta lk a r e

ap t t o su bstitu te it f o r o ra l sto ps, esp e c ia l ly f o r fin a l 6 , t , &c .

Q UANTITY A ND D OUBLE CONSONANTS

155. While the qu a n t ity o f co n so n a n ts va r ies som ewha t,

the 111 o f .fiamm be in g lo n ge r tha n tha t o f Shimm er 93 , 2 end) ,sti l l a G e rm a n co n so n a n t tha t fo l lows a vowe l o r is fin a l

m a y be co u n te d sho rt whe n c om p a red with a n E n gl ish

co n so n a n t in the sam e p o s it io n , § 1 66 e . E n gl i sh-sp e akin g

p e rso n s n e e d t o be p a rt ic u la rly ca re fu l n o t t o ho ld fin a l

a nd m edia l so n o ro u s c o n so n a n ts as lo n g a s they do in

E n gl ish : Siamm , .s‘

ganh, 531m, hart, aIIe.

R em a rk . A lo n g s m a y som e tim es be hea rd f o r sis in

6 cen e &c . 1 79 R 1 ) o r f o r fef in Iiefeft &c . 1 87 , 2 N4 ) .

156 . 1 ) In m o st c a ses whe re a co n so n a n t is n ow writte n

do u ble in G e rm a n o r E n gl i sh , it was a t o n e tim e he ld a nd

a n ew bre a th-im p u lse bega n in the m idd le o f it, § 86 R .

Th is is,howe ve r

,n o lo n ge r tru e in e 1the r la n gu age , a nd the

fa ct tha t two co n so n a n ts a re writte n m a y be rega rded m e re ly

as a s ign o f the shortn e ss o f the pre cedin g vowe l

German S peecb=S o11nhe 105

2) Whe re the two co n so n a n ts be lo n g to diffe re n t e lem en ts

o f a co m po u n d wo rd o r t o two a djo in in g wo rds , they a re

bo th p ro n o u n ced (n o t , howeve r, a s two sepa ra te co n so n a n ts ,83 e nd

,86 R ) : fort’trei’ben , QBart’turm

’

,

SBact’tn edfi’

,

Gmman ’n ejt’

, QBabI’Iij’

te, tam m it , Q ieh t'

on t , jdflief feft ,trin t(t) teins, & c .

3 ) Bu t the lo n g co n so n a n t is fre qu e n t ly sho rte n ed :

(a ) In com p o u n ds tha t a r e ve ry fam i l ia r,a t le a st by tho se

who u se them m o st frequ en t ly :

9Jl i(t)tag, Qire(n)nefiel , ha(6)jelbe, he(6)jelben ,

& c . (b) Whe n the re a re n e ighbo rin g co n so n a n ts

baKt) hu , & c .

(5) Whe n o n e syl lable is we akly stre ssed : 6 1 11(n1)m et ,QBo(I)Iujt ,

3e(r)reifien , & c . Bu t (a’

) if a n o the r

(ridicu lo u s) m e a n in g wo u ld be su gge sted , p a in s a re u su a l ly

taken to keep the co n so n a n t lo ng: é cbu IIebt er , Ginnebmer, & c .

106 D bonologn

S H UTCONSONANTS

108 p honology;

cla im to ge n e ra l a dop t io n tha n tho se o f o the r dia le cts

a nd tho se who a re wi l l in g to aba n do n a l l,se ldom su cce ed

in fre e in g them se lve s o f m o re tha n the m o st m a rked pe c u l

ia rit ies o f the i r n a tu ra l spe e ch . E ve n tha t a n y co n s ide rablepa r t o f the pop u la t io n o f M idd le a ndS o u th G e rm a n y wil l e ve r

a rt ificia l ly a cqu ire vo i ced [1 h g & c . is a n id le fa n cy . M o reo ve r

,it is bu t n a tu ra l tha t e a ch pro v in c e fa vo r the em p loy

m e n t o f n a tive te a che rs,a nd thu s the lo ca l te n de n c y is n o t

dist in ctly o pp o sed a nde ve n whe n a diffe re n t pro n u n cia t io n

i s le a rn ed a t scho o l,this se ldom p e rs ists o u t o f scho o l ho u rs

o r whe n scho o l days a r e o ve r. The re su lt is tha t f ewG e rm a n s who grow u p in the ir n a t ive town s a nd fo l low in

the fo o tstep s o f the ir fa the rs e ve r be ca u se o f te a ch in g sp e ak

m a te ria l ly diffe re n t ly from them wha t the scho o l has take nyea rs t o in cu lca te i s re se rve d fo r s ta te o cca s io n s a nd i s

ge n e ra l ly so o n fo rgo tte n . On the o the r h a n d,tho se tha t

sh ift t o o the r c la sse s o f so cie ty o r com e m u ch in co n ta ct

with p e op le o f a n o the r c la ss,a nd tho se tha t m ove t o dis

ta n t p a rts o r trave l abo u t , a r e ap t t o m o dify the i r n a tu ra l

spe e c h a nd t o cu l tiva te a m o re ge n e ra l o r se le ct p ro n u n ciat io n the fa ci l ity with wh ich the p ro ce ss o f cha n ge go e s o n

in e a ch individu a l dep e n ds u po n ce rta in m e n ta l qu a l it ie s .

3 ) Be twe e n the m em be rs o f the highe r c la sse s o f so cie ty

o f the va rio u s town s a nd districts the re i s m o re in te rco u rse,

dire ct a nd in dire ct,a nd he n c e the re is gre a te r u n ifo rm ity o f

spe e ch am on g them . Thi s i s,o f co u rse

,a ided by m o re c o n

sta n t te a ch in g bu t stro n ge r tha n tha t o f a l l o ra l te a chin gi s the in flu en ce o f the writte n la n gu age . I n cha n g in g p ro

n u n c ia tio n th is,n e ve rthe le ss

,u su a l ly Op e ra te s o n ly whe n

de cided ly diffe re n t from the lo ca l u sage e lsewhe re o n ly in

the ca se o f wo rds tha t a re m o re frequ e n t ly se e n tha n

S im ila rly o n e gen era l ly pron o u n c es the n am e o f a dista n t p la c ea c c o rdin g t o its sp e l l in g (n o t su sp e c ting tha t this m ay be a n tiqu a ted o rdia le c tic ) o r stresses it as dem a n ded by the m etre o f a fam il iar c lassic

p ronunciation 109

The u n ifo rm ity tha t i s thu s bu i lt u p by the m o re gen e ra l

spre ad o f edu ca t io n , is, howeve r, u n de rm in ed by the ve ry

sam e in flu e n ce . The m a in te n a n ce o f a sta n da rd is the

e a s ie r the sm a l le r the co u n try o r the circ le to which it is

l im ited : if,fo r e x .

,o n e i s wi l l in g t o disrega rd the va st

E ngl ish-speaking su rfa ce o f the globe a nd ca re s o n ly fo r

Lo n do n ,he m ay find a sta n da rd tha t su its him

,— tha t is

,

a fte r he has shu t o u t the la rge r p a rt o f the pop u la t io n o f the

p la ce ; so,t o o

,whe n the bo dy o f sp e ake rs wo rthy o f c o n

s ide ra t io n co n s isted o n ly o f the co u rt circ le a ndits im m edia te

co n n e ctio n s,a fa ir u n ifo rm ity o f se le ct spe e ch co u ld be

m a in ta in ed . Bu t n ow tha t u n ive rsa l edu c a t io n has e n la rged

the c irc le,

‘

a nd e ve r-growin g dem o cra tic te n de n cie s bring i t

abo u t tha t tho se who t o-da y a re the ch i ldre n o f hum ble a nd

obscu re p eop le wi l l t o -m o rrow be te a che rs , p ro fe sso rs, a nd

pre a che rs to the best in the la n d,to le ra n ce o f dive rs ity o f

u sage i s in ev itable .

159 . W e c a n n o t bu t re cogn iz e tha t the re is m o re tha n o n e

go o d u sage o n va rio u s po in ts in a n o the r gen e ra tio n i t m ay

be tha t the se two o r thre e u sage s wi l l s ta n d abo u t as they

do t o-day , o r tha t o n e has ga in ed m a te ria l ly o ve r the o the rs

wh i le,o n the o the r ha n d

,wha t we t o-day de sign a te as

p ro v in c ia l , as vu lga r, o r as peda n tic,m ay ha ve ga in ed e qu a l

re cogn it io n with wha t ' i s n ow g o od u sage , a nd m ay in

sti l l a n o the r ge n e ra tio n com e o u t ahe a d . The re i s n o

sta n da rd,o r we m ay say the re a re a n in fin ite n u m be r o f

sta n da rds,ha rm o n iz in g in m o st th in gs bu t va ryin g in n o t

a f ew. Whe reve r they ha rm on’ ize they wo rk fo r u n ifo rm ity,

a nd v ic e u v e rsa . Wha t re a l sta n da rd the re i s is ra the r a

n ega t ive o n e,in tha t

,wh i le som e dive rs it ie s o f u sage a re

m ost p e op le n o t l iving n ea r the p la c es say fiBieébahen (fo r o f » ) a nd

$ 11’

i6b111‘g (f o r dai s) , a nd stress 6 tra ljunh’

(fo r 6 11 11 I’

j1111h) as theyr em em ber it in S chiller.

1 10 p honolootz

to le ra ted,m a n y a re shu t o u t as vu lga r o r provin cia l.

Tha t the re is o n e po s it ive sta n da rd which is obse rved bya co n s ide rable body o f edu ca ted pe rso n s

,wh ich it i s

o n e’s du ty to a im a t

,a nd tha t sta n ds a cha n ce o f be ing

som e day ge n e ra l ly a tta in ed,i s a de lu s io n tha t i s in n o ce n t

e n o ugh so lo n g a s i t do e s n o t dive rt the m e n ta l e n e rgy fromm o re u se fu l pu rsu its a nd le a d t o the e n te rta in m e n t o f a

bigo ted opin io n a s t o the spe e ch o f o the rs .

STAGE PRONUNCl A T lON

160 . Tho se who m ake a pro fe ss io n o f sp e akin g, cu lt iva te ,with m o re o r le ss ca re

,a n a rtificia l sp e e ch , a

‘cto rs m o st

su cce ssfu l ly, te a che rs , pre a che rs , a nd po l iticia n s m u ch le ss

so . The re a re seve ra l go o d re a so n s why pe rso n s tra in in gthem se lve s t o spe a k in la rge ha l ls a nd be fo re m ixed a u di

e n c es,sho u ld cu lt iva te a n a rtificia l ly distin ct a nd u n ifo rm

a rt icu la t io n bu t t o in tro du ce su ch a style o f sp e aking in to

the drawin g-ro om o r the wa lks o f da i ly l ife,wo u ld be n o

m o re a ppropria te tha n t o pre sen t the re the fu l l o rche stra

a nd the wa rdrobe o f the stage . The stage u sage [Qiiihnen

heu tfch] is the o u tgrowth o f ce rta in schem e s o f pro n u n cia tio n

co n stru cted fo r the u se o f a cto rs by m e n who had l itt le

kn owledge o f pho n e ti cs o r the h i sto ry o f the la n gu age .

Thi s u sage i s ba sed , con scious ly o r u n co n scio u s ly, u po n the

fo l lowing prin cip le s

(1 ) Tha t pro n u n cia tio n is a dopted wh ich is in

m o st ge n e ra l u se (so fin a l 11g 77, 2 09 81 N 3

in it ia l ft, in = f t , fl) , 2 25 N x ; i ag, 811g, 550i,

gram , & c .,ha ve lo n g vowe ls , 1 3 8 8: N 1 : tho u gh

con tra ry u sage p e rsists in pa rts o f the No rth) ;

(2 ) Whe re u sage is p re tty eve n ly divided,a n a logy

o r o lde r u sage i s a l lowed t o preva i l (fo r e x ., g, l ike I)

andh, i s so u n ded as a stop,

vo iced when in i tia l

1 12 p honology

n u n c ia tio n o f tha t dis tric t from be in g rega rded as n o rm a l

by the n a t ive s o f o the r pa rts .

163 . I n the No rth,whe re the n a tive dia le ct d iff e rs m o st

strikin gly from the l ite ra ry la n gu age , the la tte r, be in g p r a c t i

ca l ly a fo re ign to n gu e , has requ ired a nd re ce ived m o st ca re

f u l s tu dy in the scho o ls ; as a re su lt,o n e c a n he a r a t the

No rth a G e rm a n tha t is m o re bo okish,o rthographic , a nd

“ co rre ct,tha n tha t com m o n ly spoke n e lsewhe re . The

prom in e n c e o f the'

No rth in l ite ra ry and p o l it ica l m a tte rs

fo r the p a st o n e hu n dre d ye a rs , has te n ded t o e stabl i sh the

go od rep u te o f No rth G e rm a n . Tha t the sp e e ch o f H a n o ve r

sho u ld ha ve ga in ed in E n gla n d the rep u ta t io n o f be in g the

be s t G e rm a n,is n o t stra n ge tha t th i s repu ta t io n la te r had

a vogu e o n the co n t in e n t, i s n o t so e a s i ly exp la in ed . I t is

n ow ge n e ra l ly re cogn iz ed tha t H a n o ve ria n G e rm a n i s in

m a n y re spe cts pro v in cia l . The spe e ch o f the u pp e r c la sse s

in Be rl in has m u ch h ighe r c la im t o be in g“the be st Ge rm a n

,

”

fo r i t agre e s in m o st po in ts with wha t i s the m o re u su a l

thro u gho u t the co u n try ; a n d if Be rl in rem a in s the capita l

o f the E m p ire , i t m u st u ltim a te ly have a n im po rta n ce a nd

in flu e n ce s im i la r to tha t lo n g exe rted by the spe e ch o f

Lo n do n a nd P a ris. As rega rds in to n a t io n a nd som e po in t s

o f a rticu la tio n (cf. 1 50 N 3 c n d ; § 2 39, 2 5 ; 1 85, 2 end,2 0 1 2

2 1 0,23 3 N 1) , the G e rm a n o f the No rth (a nd o f the stage)

sta n ds n e a re r t o E n gl ish tha n o the r G e rm a n do e s . E n g l ish

spe akin g peop le ge n e ra l ly su cce ed be st in le a rn in g G e rm a n

in No rth o r M idd le G e rm a n y.

TH E D IF F E RENCE BETW E EN GE RM AN AND

ENGLIS H PRONUNCIATION

164 . F rom wha t has be e n sa id above as to the cha n ge s

tha t spe e ch u n de rgo e s a nd the va rying propen sitie s in

diff e ren t com m u n itie s 1 04 i t m ay be in fe rred tha t

p ronunciation 1 13

the spe e ch o f o n e people diff e rs from tha t of an o the r n o t

o n ly in de ta i l s bu t p a rticu la rly in ce rta in ge n e ra l ten de n cie s .On e com m u n ity is in c l in ed t o u se ce rta in o rga n s o f spe e chin a m o re a n im a te d wa y tha n a n o the r do e s

,a nd le ts them

fa l l in to a diff e re n t p o s itio n when a t re st,a ndo n e com m u n ity

m ay be le ss exa ct in obse rv in g the t im e o f the va rio u s

e lem en ts o f a so u n d, § 1 1 9 .

Ba sis o f A rt ic u la t io n

165. T o G e rm a n s E n gl i sh so u n ds du l l a nd m u ffled,a nd

they a re wo n t t o say tha t we do n o t ope n o u r m o u ths wide

e n o u gh in sp e akin g. W e do,in fa ct

,m a n age o u r l ip s a nd

to n gu e diff e re n t ly .

1 ) I n so u n din g the ro u n ded vowe ls 1 3 6) m a n y o f u s

do n o t pro tru de the l ip s as the G e rm a n s do,a nd in so u n d

in g u n ro u n ded vowe ls m o st o f u s do n o t ope n the l ips in a

n a rrow s l it a lm o st to the ve ry co rn e rs o f the m o u th as i s

do n e by m a n y G e rm a n s tha t is,in bo th ca se s we le ave the

l ips com p a ra tive ly in a ctive . Th is m ake s a l l o u r vowe ls le ss

c le a r a nd le ss distin c t from o n e a n o the r tha n the co rre

spo ndin g G e rm a n. vowe ls a re which i s p a rticu la rly n o tice

ab le in the c a se o f the fro n t vowe ls .

2 ) (a ) I n E n gl ish the to n gu e , whe n m a ctio n,is n o t m ade

a s ten se a s in G e rm a n,n o r is i t drawn as f a r ba ck in so u n d

in g the ba ck vowe l s n o r p ressed as f a r fo rwa rd in so u n din gthe fro n t vowe ls . Whe n a t re st

,i t i s le ft fla t a nd a l lowed

t o l ie low, be in g m o re o r le ss ho l lowe d in fro n t, a nd se ldom

e xte n ded t o the te e th . (o) Th is s lu ggi sh co n d itio n o f the

to n gu e favo rs wide , low,a ndm ixed vowe ls G e rm a n has n o

su ch low vowe ls as tho se in ba t,l aw

,& c . a r e , a ndbu t o n e

m ixed vowe l a nd tha t u n stre ssed,wh i le E n gl ish

has a lso tho se in en t,Ii i/r t

,a nd

,in the p ro n u n c ia t io n o f

m a n y, not a ndp a r t . (e) In m akin g G e rm a n shu t

'

c o n so

1 14 D bonologn

n a n ts , n o t o n ly a re the p a rts tha t m ee t m o re ten se , bu t n otas m u ch su rfa ce to u che s ; th is m ake s the G e rm a n so u n ds

n o t so m u ffled a s the E n gl ish a r e a p t t o be . (a’

) The fa cttha t the to n gu e to u che s the te e th in so u n din g G e rm a n

1, h, I, n , & c . ,a lso te n ds to give the se a Cle a re r

,m o re i-l ike

so u n d .

Q u a n t it y

166 . a ) E n gl ish lo n g vowe ls te n d to be com e,01

,m o re

co rre c t ly, ha ve ge n e ra l ly be com e,diphtho n gs whe re a s the

co rresp o n din g G e rm a n vowe l s show n o su ch te n de n cy.

Th i s i s m o st n o tice able in the c a se o f Z (§ 1 85 N 1) , 52 1 0 N 1) , 2 ii 2 3 3 N 4) .

R e m a rk . \Vher e su ch cha n ges have be en m a de in G e r

m a n , they a re re c o gn ized in the sp e l l in g : 5911 116 1 73, 3 ,

m ein 1 88 R 3 .

b) G e rm a n fin a l vowe ls (except se, 1 86 —

7 81 N 3) a r e

lo n g : 9111 116 81 0. 1 44 N 4 .

e) U n stre ssed vowe ls (excep t se, 1 86~ —

7 N 3) in a dopted

wo rds a nd in n a tive prefixe s a nd su ffixes,do n o t be c om e

obscu re as in E n gl ish they re ta in the ir tru e so u n d tho u gh

qu ickly u tte red St anal’

, hlt eft'

,‘Brnfej

'

jur , .Iih'nigin ,

1 1 3 e nd.

“

Cf . a lso 1 44 N 2 . F o r n a tive u n stre ssed wo rds

a nd syl lables,se e 1 44 , 1 4 2 .

R em a rk . B u t the we ake n in g o f sh it t o or o r 7 is veryc om m o n .

a’

) In E n gl ish , lo n g vowe ls a re s l ightly sho rte n ed be fo re

vo ice le ss co n so n a n ts ; so the vowe l a ppe a rs c u t sho rt in

r a ie,r op e , & c . ,

com pa red with r a in’

,r obe

, & c . No su ch sho rt

e n in g take s p la ce in G e rm a n ; cf . geichieht with s/zeet .

e) The co n so n a n t a fte r a sho rt vowe l i s m o re or le ss

le n gthe n e d in E n gl ish ; whe re a s in G erm a n i t i s n o t a nd

the le a rn e r m u st take p a in s t o c l ip it sho rt, as“

i t we re

Ramm , ElJ tann , Iang, Q anh, ha lt, & c . 1 55.

1 16 D bonologg

t io n (fo r e x . ,

‘he lpfu l a , e 1 76, 1 ) is a frequ en t Germ an

so u n d , while its n e a rest E n gl ish c o rresp o n de n t o c c u rs o n lybefo re r (

‘the ir ‘ha ir ’

,

No te 2 . S o m e G erm a n letters a re ap t t o be wro n gly in terp r e t edby the E n gl ish-sp e akin g lea rn er. Thu sG erm a n I a nd1:

a r e qu ite diff eren t fr o m E n gl ish 1, r 206, T he g o f ng

has r egu la rly be c om e sile n t in G erm an, tho u gh o fte n reta in edm edia lly in E n glish , c f .

(

{ginger a nd. [fin ger with ‘fin ger’and

‘ lo n ger’The ii o f La tin wo rds ha s in G erm a n be c om e tsjwh ile in E n gl ish it has be c o m e f c f . Station with

‘n a tio n .

’G erm a n a , 0, 11 m u st be c arefu lly distin gu ished

from E n gl ish a , o , u .

TH E VALUE S OF TH E LETTE R S

170. a i s the m id-ba ck-wide vowe l 1 3 4 & c . ,

1 ) Whe n lo n g i t isl ike a in ‘a r t

’: 936161 , 9Bage11 , ©6 6 1 8,

%ahn e, i 6a, 168, E h’

pba, (596 06 , tig

2 ) When sho rt it i s pro n o u n ce d ju st the sam e,o n ly m o re

qu ickly,abo u t a s in ‘

a rt ist ic ’

z ganheI, aII, fl are, 9In atom’

1 44)No te 1 . The “

sta n da rd G erm an a has the qu a l ity o f

E n glish a in ‘a r t

’as sp o ke n in m ost o f so u thern E n gla n d a nd

o u r n o rthern S ta tes. Bu t in p arts o f No rth G erm a n y it ten dst o be c om e a m ixed vowe l , a s in e astern New E n gla n d , o r evena fro n t vowe l resem bl in g a in ‘ha t

’

,f o r e x .

, in H a n over. Onthe o ther ha n d , in m o st p a rts o f M iddle a nd S o u th G erm a n ya nd in som e p a rts o f No rth G erm a n y, it has be c om e som e

wha t lower a nd has a c qu ired m o re o r less ro u n din gas in o u r so u thern S ta tes.

No te 2 . The learn er sho u ld be c a refu l n o t t o pro n o u n c esho rt a lo n g, as_E n gl ish-sp eakin g p eo p le a re ap t t o do (971611 11n o t 93161111 , Sg611h n o t Sgfinh) ; n o r l ike a in ‘ha n dle ’

o r a in‘a l l

’se e N 1 .

No te 3 . F o r Rarbfiticbe a nd o thers with 6tjcf), a ndf o r then am es (55I615, (551 615, se e 1 37 N 3 ; f o r 11176 11) (adj. a ndverb),6 cbm 6d) , fp1

‘

6d) , 6 pr6Cbe, M 6711) (a lso 6 in the No rth)

p ronun cia tion 1 1 7

se e 1 37 N 1 , 1 26, 1 , 6561116 11) is ra re , f o r 11 6 11) se e 1 44 Nf o r $ 666 (o fte n er S6gb), 9316611 (a lso 6 in the S o u th), 51116666bu rg (u su a lly 51361311, se e 1 39 6 ; f o r 61111611 , 6bI1g, QIbI61T,&c .

, se e 1 37 R 2 ; 91611 61 , 91512666 111 , 9111 6116, 926 11 011, &c .

have 6 a c c o rdin g t o 9 1 , 3 , bu t 916 66,g136 1111013 a nd o thers

with stop n asa l, have 6, al so 6 6117011 bu t u su a l ly ilfrifaf o r 911 1, $ 6171, 5361 1 (as a n am e a lso written Sg6rbt ; bu t theadj. 6 6161 16 (bu t 6 161 1, 561 1, 53613 ,13 116175, 5861716) (bu t se e 1 40 6, in the n am es QIr l z ,911 116 , 6 111 1 11 1161 11, a nd in 6 1116 1 16, 6 1611161 16, 21151, 93 61 36,516 1311, 6 isstil l o ften heard . I n H ebrewwo rds 6 6 o ften two

vowe ls : .116’

116611 , 5866I o r 61116 351661 o r z'

za é, &c . F o r

(61 6 111 11161 11 41b 516616136 61 , 6 6111161 3, M-SG br am6t’iicf) ,

9111106 612 81“ se e 1 38 N 2 6, c ; f o r 616 11561 , 51116111

’

6 ,SB66 6

(bo th a lso 3 1 3 R ), 65616 , 52111)6f’

6 , R6f’

ab6 , 51616 1 161,6 611 6 1166, 51611 6116 13 , 2136113101, $ 66 61 o r 6 611613 se e

1 44 N 3 6 ; f o r6

3 166 61 , 56 66116, &c ., see § 1 38 N c 6 ; f o r

D6 ‘ there 116 ‘we l l ? ’o r

‘

qu it l’

,the a n gry I)6 ' the

im p a tien t 16, the c o n tem p tu o u s b6I) , 116I), see 1 37 N 2 f o r

6B, 611 a n d 6 111 , 1166 a ndb613, I)6h’

, I)61, 16‘

yo u kn ow’

, 111611 ,11166, a nd the m ilita ry sa lu te 11 66 1161 , se e 1 44, a lso a in

p a rts o f the S o u th a nd the M idla n d in 6 11 , 111 6 11 , D66, 1066,

1111 1; fo r 5863, $ 613, the n am e 536111 , 5161) (a lso se e 1 38N 3 ,

bu t u su a l ly (51566, 6 1163 (a ndso f o r 2691 see 4 1 , 3 N ;

f or NG (S5I66 &c . se e 1 38 N 1 ; f o r b61 111fi, 265

111 1, &c . , se e 1 39 a , N f o r 311615116 1 , 9166111111166 (bo th

a lso 636111506 , 93161 116 6 , QS6I111CI) , the n am e $ 6m berg, &c .

se e 1 39 11 N 2, 3 f o r 51611611 16, 6 13611 1611 , &c .

, se e 1 39 s t ;

f o r the 6 in 116 61? &c . se e 1 44 N 1 f o r 111 65105’

bu t

651 6’

516 , &c ., se e 1 44 1N 1 6 ; f o r $5661

?

I)1111’b61:1 &c . se e 1 42 .

Un der se c o n dary stress 6 is o ften sho rten ed in a dje c tives ins16111 (6) bu t n o t in wo rds in 55612, =1611 , 16I ; it is a lwa yssho rtin n am es like 5861 1176111 , 11530616111 , u su a l ly sho rt in 98 116111 ,18 1 6111166111 47 N), (5166111 , 916 165611, som etim es in §BaI16111 ,26 15116111 , 93201161, 6 1 111166 61116, n o t in (551 166111 6111 , 536 11161

(bu t 6 in the S o u th), 521611 61, 8161 61, I 42 N . S ee a lso the

a dop ted wo rds in 3 1 4.

R em ark . Un stressed 6 is o c c asio n a l ly dropp ed, 1 1 4 .

1 7 1 . In G re ek zmd La t in wo rds ac i s u su a l ly two vowe ls

(the diphtho n gs a t. a ndde be in g p rin ted 6 in G e rm a n ) Zi'e

in 9161011 11 111 , d'e in gegaebronmdé

’in Q egaeber , SUIicb

’

aeI, air? in

$ 6 61" 36'1116 6I in som e D u tch n am e s 6 6 = Zi z 536 61611 ,

1 18 D bonologg

imaeftricbt (n ow u su a l ly SDIaaftriét) , r a re ly il laem en a nd

nIaem iicI) (m ore u su a lly QSIam en , n liim iid) , wi th A s a spe l lin g f o r ii, ae m a in ta in ed itse lf lo n ge st as a ca p ita l , 2 2 R .

1 7 2 . ai (‘é — i’ i s a diphtho n g (z 1 o r g, 1 46 N,

a nd

has abo u t the so u n d o f E n gl ish‘ I

’

,

‘e y e

’

,bu t the first

e lem e n t is a pu re r a -so u n d in G e rm a n tha n in E n gl ish, a nd

o n e o r bo th e lem e n ts a r e ap t t o be lo n ge r tha n in E n gl i sh

ElJ lai, Q aiier , her Emain . Cf . 1 74 .

R em a rks. (1 ) Th is so u n d is u su a l ly represen ted by ei,

1 88. (2) In et’

m iiig a nd in so m e fo re ign wo rds, ai = two

vowe ls, tho u gh the m o st f am il ia r m a y have the diphtho n gnfiin

’

, filolfiif’

, Elifi’

in , Ra’

tn o r éajn . I n wo rds from the

Fre n ch ai = ii (6 in il a l a ié’

p a l e; ii in QDraiii’

n e a nd E n glishfD rain a

’

ge, which is pro n o u n c ed Fren c h), § 48, 5. F o r ail

see 206 N 2 , f o r ain see -207 N x .

17 3 . an (‘d

’— z7”) i s a diphtho n g = a y o r 0

,1 46 N ,A

a nd has the so u n d o f o u in ‘ho u se ’

é'

gaué, El ia’

um , lau t ,C

(gran , Iau fen .

R em arks. (I ) G erm a n au begin s with a v n ea rly p u rea -so u n d (wh ic h is a p t t o be lo n g), a fa c t tha t m u st n o t be

o verlo o ked by tho se who do n o t p ro n o u n c e E n gl ish o u so .

(2 ) In so m e Gre ek-La tin wo rds, au = two vowe ls : Slim e:

[a 116, R aper’

ttfifim , Wifo lfi’

iifi o r zaug’

. (3) In o lder G erm a n

som e o f the wo rds that n ow have an had 031 , o thers 27,

a ndsim ila r p ro n u n c ia tio n s a re he ard in the dia le c ts t o-da yl ogf

-n o r f o r Iau fen , 11 27s f o r gains. (4) In wo rds from

the Fre n ch , ou .

—

o a nd, if a c c en ted , is lo n g : (Shaufieefi nk”

,

6 m m 48, 4 . S o eau in gBl ateau &c .

174 . at) ai, bu t is n ow u sed o n ly in p rope r n am e s

SBapern , S om e pe rso n s tha t ha ve the n am e Smaier

o r inane): (re a l ly the sam e asWeier < La tin m ajor (lam in a r :

‘stewa rd in si st o n ha v in g it p ro n o u n ced m d’

j‘r,t o dist in

gu ish it from Smeier o r wlener wh ich is o fte n a J ewish n am e

(H ebrew M e) ?

175. um c? in é bam l E n gl ish .

120 p honology

178 . I] is the bi labia l stop,

1 49, 1 52 6.

1 ) I t i s u su a l ly vo iced 1 50) E n gl ish b (bu t see

1 65, 2 c) : 9311613, SBrot , baben , b e, fi’

bler;fi’

brig, Rnfi’blaud) ,

D’

brigfeit , SI eu'

bn er , fi lihbbift’

, e fi’

bbat . Bu t se e 1 50 N 3 .

2 ) Whe n fin a l 1 08,z) . o r n ext a vo ice le ss co n so n a n t

it be c om es vo ic e less, p : fib’ge

'

ben , fft—

iv89 N 3) , 05, fib

'lid) , Iau t , Grb

’

ie, 915’te, Eab

’

ia l , trfi’

b’ielig,Ieb

’loé; gébiibt

’

, gerbft , D bft .

R em a rks. (1 ) In m a n y dia le c ts m edia l 1) is a n o p en c o n

so n a n t 1 49, tha t is, m ; in , so m e p a rts bilabia l , in som e

de n tilabia l , 2 39 : am er ,C

5am (e)r it, c f . 30, 9 e nd. Th is 11) iso c c asio n a lly vo ic e less, esp e c ia lly in the S o u th-W est. (2 ) A b

m ay be lost thro u gh assim ila tio n ,1 2 1 QIbenb, baben , &c .

1 79 . c o c c u rs o n ly i n the d igraphs (1) C1 a nd in

ado p te d wo rds.

R em a rk . Ma n y wo rds f o rm e r ly writt e n with c a re n ow

writte n with f, 5, o r 1, a cc o rdin g t o the so u n d , 48, 7 , 1 1,1 2 .

g,”

in Fr en ch wo rds s, 48, 1 2 .

1 ) Be fo re fro n t vowe ls in a f ew wo rds from the

(a ) La tin a nd e a r ly R om a n ce,a lso n ow in m o st wo rds

from the F re n ch (se e 1) be low) , c = is z

(Siftem e; (Sen tim eter , Gigarre, & c .

R em a rks. (1 ) {C be f o re fro n t vowe ls sis, bu t som etim es

be c om es 51 , tha t is, lo n g 1 1 55R ), 1 2 1 en d : fD iéciplin ,

Git en erie, o r ts : g a me, 6 cepter o r S epter, 48, 1 1 . (2) ccbef o re f ro n t vowe ls bis (with ha lf k a nd ha lf 1, § 83)91ccen t , D cciben t ; bu t the t o ften c o m p lete ly assim ila tes t o

the k . (3) re befo re fro n t v owe ls = ésts bu t is o fte n c o n

tra c ted t o ks : (Ssgcefs, (igcell ena, egcen trifct) .

p ronuncia t ion 121

(5) F ren ch, c = s n ow m o st ly o n ly be fo re -9 : 93a1an ce,

6hance, (Sapt i'ce, & c .

, 48, 1 2 ; fo r m o st F re n ch wo rds n ow

fo l low the a n a logy o f those in (a ) abo ve , tho u gh 3 m ay st il l

be he a rd in (Sigarre, D fficier 2 4 2 f t), & c . The o cca s io n a l

p ro n u n cia t io n o f c as 1 in ste a d o f is in (gleftricitiit , (Elafticitiit, & c . is du e t o dissim i la tio n

,1 2 4 .

(5) I ta l ia n , c = f z (SeIIift, & c . ; bu t som e sp e ake rs

u se the I ta l ia n 17 (espe cia l ly f o r cc : (Sapriccio) , wh i le Giceron eu su a l ly fo l lows the a n a logy o f La tin wo rds (se e abo ve) a ndis p ro n o u n ced tsitsar é

’fl a.

2 ) Be fo re k in Po l ish n am es, c is g lomacfi, Qipn icfi, & c .

3 ) E lsewhe re , c le, 48 , 7 (Sounert , Gaprice, 91m m,

91t c0rb. F o r c ) , se e 1 8 1,2 a .

(1 ) NA TI VE WOR D S

180 . d) (‘ tse-fici 1 44 N z é e nd ; less com m o n ly ‘fié

’

,cf.

a lso 1 8 1 R e nd) I S a vo ic e less fric a t ive,

1 49, 1 50 .

R em a rk . The so u n d o f (1) is n o t just the sam e a f ter a n ytwo vowe ls, bu t it will su ffic e t o distin gu ish a fro n t a nd a

bac k 83 . Cf . a lso 1 80 , 2 N 3 .

(Ii) 1 ) Afte r fro n t vowe ls a nd co n so n a n ts, d) is fro n t, o r

pa la ta l,

1 52 , tha t i s , l ike y in‘

ye t’

bu t vo ice le ss, 1 50

id) , (Echo , 93acbe, iBu cber , Ieicht , end) 037i, @ebrau c1)e;

iolcbe, m an cbe, & c . S o a lso a lways in the su ff ix when , tha t

A p u p il sho u ld n o t be aske d t o pro n o u n c e n icht, o r o ther c om bin atio n s o f u n til he c a n p ro n o u n c e cf) with a vowe l o n ly, as in id) ; whenhe c a n pro n o u n c e icf) we ll , he m a y l e arn n icht by pro n o u n c in g n icf) a ndp a u sin g befo r e he a dds the t. I n tim e he will n o t n e ed t o p a u se ; bu tif a begin n er th in k o f the t wh ile he is pro n o u n c in g the he is su re t osp o il it a l l .

122 D bonologg

is,eve n a fte r ba ck vowe ls gfihnchen ,

c

{yrau chcm filfiama’

chen ;n o t

,o f co u rse , in wo rds l ike rauchen , 91achen , & c .

,in which z en ,

n o t schen , i s the en din g (bu t cf. (Siracchen in the W o rd-l ist) .

No te . T he so u n d m ay best be le arn ed by wh isp erin g k ey

a nd dwe ll in g o n the so u n d tha t fo l lows the k. S o m e sp eake rs begin hu m a n hu ge

’

, &c . with Ii,in st e ad o f Izj .

R em arks. (1 ) In c erta in p a rts o f M iddle G erm an y ,p a la ta l ch appro a ches in so u n d t o j p artic u la rly after1 o r 11 : ich, m ahche, a nd this pro v in c ia l ism m a yeve n be hea rd o n som e stages. S ee 2 N 2 be low. F o r

ich ix , (Echo’éx fi, se e 2 N 3 R . (2) In Qhem n ih a S axo n

town a nd Ghu t‘

a Swiss town , ch = é. F o r n i’

t see

23 1 N 2 .

(X ) 2 ) Afte r ba c k vowe ls, ch is ba ck, o r ve la r,

1 52 1:

(the so u n d he a rd from S c o tchm e n in ‘ lo ch ’

la then ,

80th, au ch.

No te 1 . The so u n d m ay best be le arn ed by whisp erin g‘ko o ko o r kah

’

, a n d dwe ll in g o n the so u n d tha t fo llowsthe k .

No te 2 . The le arn er m u st be very c a refu l n o t t o u se a

k-so u n d o r a n f so u nd f o r x o r ii. The habit o n c e fo rm ed isse ldo m o verc om e , a nd is e qu iva le n t t o a G erm a n

’

s sa yin g‘ f issles a nd t o rn s

’

, o r‘sissl es a nd so rn s ’

fo r ‘thistles a nd

tho rn s S o m e stu den ts a re ap t t o lea rn o n e o f the (1)-so u n ds

a nd the n u se th is f o r bo th ; f o r e x . , so u n din g au ch a u /i f o ra u x , o r m an che M a nx ; f o r 7720”l S o m e begin n ers, havin gc o n qu e r ed chin tt iCht &c ., substitu te it f o r k in 11161, au riicf, &c .

Cf . 1 29 end.

No te 3 . A fter it , a x p a rta kes o f the ro u n din g o f the u ,

1 1 9 (the sam e c o m p o u n d so u n d tha t serve d as the

tra n sitio n be twe en the g/z o f M iddle E n gl ish a nd the f o f

Mo dern E n gl ish in ‘c o u gh The so u n d m a y be he a rd

from S c o tchm en f o r 7012. Cf . a lso 1 80 R .

R em a rk . I n Switz erla n d a nd a djo in in g p a rts o f G e r

m a n y, x is stil l u sed a f t er fro n t vowe ls a nd c o n so n a n ts,f o r e x ., ich i

’

x o r fi x f o r m ; in NE G erm a n y x is u sedafter fro n t vowe ls if a ba ck vowe l fo llows : @Ch0

’é

’

x fi

fo r

124 p honology

machien‘wa x ’

,o r

‘

grow’

; bu t ch u su a l ly rem a in s a frica t ivein tho se wo rds tha t ha ve a re la ted fo rm wi tho u t 1 o r Q

1 2 6,z) 93nch=6, mach=iam , El lach=ficht , n iidy it, & c .

’

R em ark . The o lder pro n u n c ia tio n o f ch§ as x 1 is stillheard in Switzerla n d . There is a (NW ) dia le c tic zé

’

fis du e t o

the in flu en c e o f ze/itr z'

l i & c . 1 26, 2 ) o n the o ther ha n d,in

the S o u th the a n a lo gy o f n ach is n o t stro n g en o u gh t o ke epn iiChft fro m bec o m in g n c

‘f

ést . The pro n u n c ia tio n 71 1265 f o r

n i ch(t)s3 is vu lgar, as is a lso m’

fist < n ichté by m e ta the

S iS , 1 25 e nd.

183 . (f tsE-K’d k, 46 N 3 gadel , 91nd. S o t oo

(H;in the n am e fliedh.

184 . hOde”

) i s the p o in t stop , 1 52 5.

1 ) I t i s u su a l ly vo i ced 1 50) = E n gl i sh (1 (bu t se e

Sl inber , bu , Q u iche, ebel ,‘l robbel , QBibber ,

asbbie’

ren , (S’

bba , 6 a’

bbu ca’er ; so a lso 1n é'

bler f o r é’

heler ,an

’brer , a

’

blig, 91 11161 , Sh’

bler , & c .,

1 3 7 R 2 .

2 ) Whe n fin a l o r n ext a vo ic e le ss co n so n a n t

i t be com e s vo ice less,

z i z fiinb, finb'lich, 9501)

‘de a th ’

ju st l ike tot‘de a d ’

, enb’

lich, m ib’

m en , ooflenbé,

hlinb’

l ingfi, € fib’

enbe, Sheb’

m ig, Bub’mig. S o oi z z z geianbt ,

(Btabt .R em a rk . I n so m e wo rds from the Fren ch , b is silen t

(

fyonbéf mfls) . A lso in iiit (b) bie a nd o f ten in u n (b) befo re a

c o n so n a n t, as in E n gl ish 1 1 4 .

185. c whe n stre ssed,is the m id-fro n t vowe l,

1 3 4 & c ,1 45.

1 ) Whe n lo n g i t i s (the m id-fro n t-n a rrow vowe l , § 1 35)l ike e in ‘ they ’

: Iebig, g ee, Behm , Rafi'ee, SBafét’

, ohé’

,

Ban tiér, 2 2 1

'

N x

p ronun c ia tion 125

2 ) When sho rt, it i s ju s t l ike sho rt a 1 76, 2,tha t is

,the

m id-fro n t-wide vowe l) hehcnbe, &Itern , theft , 53m bu t it i s

o ften m o re o r le ss n a rrow in So u th G e rm a n y.

No te 1 . E n glish ‘they ’

,

‘

p ay‘

p a te &c . a re o ften p ro

n o u n c ed with a diphtho n g (m ost distin c tly so in so u thernE n gla n d , som e p a rtso f Massa chu setts, abo u t Ph ila de lphia , &c .)which begin s with a n e-so u n d bu t e n dswith z

“

, o r begin swithe a n d e n ds with é the G erm a n e is a p u re vowe l , e n din g as

it begin s, 1 66 11 . The G erm a n 6 is u su a lly som ewha t higher1 34, 2) tha n the c o rresp o n din g E n gl ish so u n d .

No te 2 . I n o lder G erm a n there were two e’s, o n e o f which

we sho u ld n ow exp e c t t o be p ro n o u n c ed'

e'

(n arrow), bu t theo the r ii (wide : so , ge

’

ben , Giehet’

, er), a nd th is distin c t io nis still kep t u p p re tty we l l in pa rts o f G erm a n y ; bu t , in

ge n era l , gre a t c o n fu sio n has a risen , a n d the best thin g a f o r

e ign er c a n do is to fo llow the u su a l p ra c tic e o f the stage a nd

pro n o u n c e a l l é’s as 5 (a llowin g o n ly m o re o f a n t

'

i o r wideso u n d bef o re as in

'

e'

r , 93férb, &c . c f . E n gl ish ‘a ir

’

,

‘there ’

, &c . , as c o n trasted with ‘ they ’

, as, in f a c t, m a n yG e rm a n s do . Neverthe less, th is wide so u n d o f 6 wil l bereprese n ted by if in the W o rd-l ist.No te 3. The c o rresp o n din g distin c tio n be twe e n n arrow a nd

wide s/zor t e is m u ch less c o m m o n . B u t a n arrow, o r c lo se , 3is h e a rd in fo re ign wo rds, 1 44 N 2 6 so the first e in i hefi

’

ter ,

(E’

IeftriCitiit’ &c . ; so a lso in ch‘tse jch

‘é’

s’-tse-Izci ’

Mo re over,‘

e’

is u su a l ly wider befo re 1 tha n e lsewhere . S e e

a lso 1 1 1

No te 4 . Be c a refu l n o t t o p ro n o u n c e e befo re 1? as in E n gl ish ‘he r thu s £96171? has he: as in ‘he lp

’

, a nd SB’

érIin’

is n o t

pro n o u n c ed in G erm an Biir’

lin n o r Biir lin’

No te 5. I n a do p ted wo rds in 9Irm ee’

, 3bee’

, fir a

feel’

,‘Ban eel

’

, a lso in St af’

fee; E o r in fiam ee, Bon a cce ;eé

”in ibcel l

’

, reel l’

;eé’

o r é’

in SBeeIaehu h;z“

in SBeefitea f , 6 p leen ,

Q an fee, & c . é z é o c c u rs in fo re ign wo rds (Garré) a nd é isso m etim eswritten in G erm a n n am es lest the e be sl ighted o rdro pp e d (hdn t ldaé, SafiélNo te 6. I n the f o llowin g o rigin a lly S lavic n a m es the e is

lo n g : SD réében , (Eithe, (ift l iinber , Stégn ih, 6 tégn ih,556111115, i rébn ih, f o r som e c f . 1 39 5 (a l l o ften have 5 awayfrom the p la c es) ; a lso in g chmébt , g chm

’

el}, &c . F o r 516116:

m eih, firéhé, n'

chif , berébt (a l l a lso in the S o u th), jt‘

e’

té,

(551116 (n ow gen era lly sho rt, bo th the town a nd the river), se e1 39 a , f o r begégn en ,

'

ébler , regn en , the town D ucbl inbu rg,

126 p honology

se e 1 37 R 2 , e is a lso lo ng in Smocflenhu t g ; fo r Ble’

trum ,

8’

é’

b1 a , &c ., see § 9 1 , 3 , so t o o Beth: has'

e'

in H ebrew n am es

l ike Bethl ehem ; f o r B efchmerbe, (Siroe, Sg‘

erb, Bierb, merben ,6 chtoert , 913m a nd ro

'

ér t, a nd the n am es Berben , SIB’

e'

cben ,5311 1161 61 : Elionn enmeuh, &c .

, se e 1 40 6, in (531 3, e1 ft, gerje,Be1 6, less c om m o n ly 6 thme1 i, E is stil l o ften hea rd ;Bijchof &c . have 3. F o r (536, fi es, &c ., (Shef, g ent ‘Shem

’

,

se e 1 38 N 3 ; fo r B i llet, Bouqu et, Sgotel ,_Be[ief. se e

1 38 N z c fo r g tephan bu t @pheu , a ndoften (Ephefuéi, see

1 37 N 1 , 1 38 N z e f o r b’

e'

r , hes, bem , ben , es, gen , toes,se e 1 44 N 1 ; f o r breiaehn , herab &c ., se e 1 42 6 e nd; f o r

Sget herge, Sgeraog a nd n am es l ike Sgecm ann , hectorb, &c ., bu t

beer, jen feit bu t jen er, Ssenaig bu t Sen a , etwas, &c . , Beb

f o r the n am es . (Eliafi, ($5ebha1b, (Sierharb =,t1 ub

Sgebtoig, S chl eémig, &c ., se e § I 39 4 N ; fo r m eg se e § 1 38 f t .The e is u su a lly sho rt u n der se c o n da ry stress in Q lijabetf),a nd in Greek-La tin fin a l sem =e§ .

186 . Un stre ssed e i s a lways sho rt , a nd

1 ) in the prefixe s he: ge: (le ss o ften in fo re ign be=, ge= 3 2,N 2 6) ;

2) in the e n dings =e =eI =em =en =enb sen t =er zern =e1 t =e§

ejt =et ;

3 ) in the pro c l it ics oer , beéi, bent , ben , a nd in e

4) m edia l ly in som e G e rm a n a nd Fre n ch wo rds

it i s ve ry qu ickly a nd obscu re ly 1 1 3 ) pro n o u n ced , m u ch

as i s fin a l -a in E n gl ish, as in com m a’

Behiiltcr , gegangen ,

gen ieren , Befm in 9 1 , 930c , 9l lhert , a ll eé, in bet ganb’

,

Biificthat , Bojcmicht , gilbcbranb, (giijchcnen , Beinete, Bppartc

m en t , Ram clott, Brom enabc .

187 . Th is so u n d is repre se n ted by 9 when i t is de s ired to

distin gu ish i t from 5. I t i s n o t a lwa ys the sam e so u n d

1 ) F in a l se a nd the e o f e§ a r e the m id-m ixe d vowe l

1 3 4 , 1 45, I t i s eve n m o re l ight ly dwe lt u pon tha n

E n gl i sh fin a l -a,be in g o fte n u tte red o n ly with wha t i s le ft o f

9" In the sp e e ch o f very m a n y p ossibly o f m ost —

p eop le , the sta tem en t is t ru e o f a l l u n stressed e

’s in n a tive wo rds, fo r e x ., in empfing,

erm efilich, en troat f, Berbanb, get teilt, e tc .

128 D bonologg

No te 4. In su ffixes, th is e is o ften qu ite silen t providedthe a djo in in g c o n so n a n ts c a n re a dily be pro n o u n c ed n ext o n ea n o ther with pra c t ic a l ly n o glide , a nd the rhythm o f the

sen ten c e do es n o t requ ire the syl lable : hab(6)t, gab(e)ft,o ften a nd, in the S o u th , a1t(6)§i still it isu su a lly re ta in ed, o r resto red 1 26, if the adjo in in g c o n

so n a n ts a r e iden tic a l o r wo u ld be c om e so when n ext o n e

a n o ther : Sgafies, £0165, reitet , jchabet (the sho rt fo rm ichh'

bt

is c om m o n en o u gh , esp e c ia l ly in [C553] jchabt 1111t ‘ I t’

s n o

(a ) Thu s in the su perla tive o f a dje c tives a nd ad

verbs the 6 is gen era lly reta in ed after a n .r-so u n d : jiiBejte,ft ijchefte, (bu t n o tic e bejte< 11af3, a nd grbfite ra ther tha ng1 6fiejt6) ; stil l ej is u su a lly dropp e d after the u n stressedsu ffix sijch : 1161 11 111 1 1t 6 &c . (6) Bu t ej o f the verba l e nding zejt is frequ en tly om itted a f ter a n s-so u n d : bu 1 eij6jt o r1 6111, bu fafiejt o r fain, bu {theft o r 11131, bu roa

'

jcheft, rotijchjt,o r majcht . S e e a lso 1 55R .

No te 5. Befo re 1, m , 11 , 1 , the glide be c om es in sign ific a n to r e n tire ly disapp ea rs, wh ile the so n o ro u s c o n so n a n t be c om es

syllabic a nd m a y be written °l , 7 11 ,‘

n , Thu s, as E n glishtem p le is temp

-l , ryh thm r ib-m , a nd hight en lzag'

t 'n withn o vo c a l ic brea k be twe en t a nd n so 116301111611 is p r o

n o u n c ed éag on'

n o fte n er tha n éag on an , heifaen bair n , B iicheI:

then bit 561 itt611611 a nd Bogel fi g' l , a nd so

written in Bava ria n a nd A u stria n n am es : Bogl , Q anbn ,6 cibl , &c . S im ila rly b‘

r , ban , a nd b°

n Blann’

. Of tenassim ila tio n takes p la c e , 1 1 9, 1 2 1 .

R em a rk . In fau’

Icnaen , &c ., the e

has a slight stress a nd is e n o t a ; am en is d’

m é’

n o r

d’

w°

n in sp e e ch , d’

m é’

n o r d'

m é’

n in sin gin g.

eau , 1 73 R 4 .

ci (‘E

’— i ’ is a diphtho n g, the sam e as ai, which

cf. a lso 3 3 . S o cin e, gei'er , {greiheih m ein .

R em a rk 1 . 61 is n ow distin gu ished in pro n u n c ia tio n fromai o n ly dia le c tic a lly . There is n o diphtho n g in geit r t < it =

1 611 , &c . , n o r in 91theijt’

, 9 616311 1113 , &c . F o r Fren ch eil se e

§ 206 N z, ein , em , 611 , § 2o 7 N . The n am e o f the town

916111 13 is p ro n o u n ced G erm a n r ain : o r , in im ita tio n o f the

Fren ch , r é’

m , 207 R .

Rem ark 2 . The u n st ressed a rtic le 6111 1 1 3 e nd) m ay be

c om e m o r v z a nd, befo re a c o n so n an t, a ; a nd ein e m aybe c om e o r m .

p ronunciation 129

Rem ark 3 . In o lder G erm a n som e o f the wo rds tha t n owhave ei aj 1 47) had 61 (n ea rly as in e ight o thers had

a nd Sim ila r p ro n u n c ia tio n s a re he a rd in the dia le c ts t o-day ,f o r e x ., ejm o r 2m f o r 611153 ajm ), gam én f o r gem ein ;m in , J r ? f o r 1116111 , 111 61.

189 . cu r - E’o in fl heobor & c .

190 . cu (‘E

’— z? ’ i s a diphtho n g, the sam e a s an , which

se e cf. a lso 3 2 . S o heu te,c

{yeuen Scu te, (iuro’

pa .

No te . This so u n d (611 o r (in ) differs from 61 (o r ai) in ha vin g the lips ro u n ded 1 36) du r in g the f o rm a tio n o f a t le astthe first ha lf o f the diphtho n g , a distin c tio n tha t is, however,gen era l ly n egle c ted in the M idla n d a nd the S o u th , 1 36, 2 .

In 136111 16111, &c . , 611 is n o t a diphtho n g, n o r in I ebe’

um ,

B a cca l au’

rezus, &c .

R em ark . In wo rds f ro m the Fre n ch ,'

abieu’a o r

’a t-jb

"

; se e a lso § 48, 6 .

19 1 . ctj= ei ; it was fo rm e rly u se d t o dist in gu ish som e

wo rds graph ica l ly, a s jehn‘t o be

’ from jein‘his

’

, 5.

I t stil l o ccu rs in n am e s gehn e, (‘Epehen & c . ,

a lso in som e fo re ign wo rds 301161) (019562 o r Cf . 1 74 .

f is the de n t i labia l vo ice less frica t ive E ng‘

fort , frei , .S'

gafen , hofien , (Echifi.

R em a rks. (a ) A distin c tio n o f stro n g f G erm a n ic p.

hofien ) a n dwe a kf G erm a n ic f : finben ) existsdia le c tic a l ly,f o r e x ., in the SW . (6) The so u n d f is a lso written 11, whichse e ; c f . a lso 37 .

193 . g The p ro n u n cia t io n o f g is n o t u n ifo rm

throu gho u t G e rm a n y. I n tre a tin g o f the va rio u s so u n ds

repre se n ted by the le tte r the re i s n e ed o f va rio u s sym bo ls

130 D bonologn

g wi l l be u sed t o repre se n t the vo i ced st0p 1 94 , 1 N),j y 6 X t o repre se n t the ope n co n so n a n ts

,o f wh ich j a ndy

a re vo iced, /i a ndX vo ice le ss , wh i le a nd63 a re fro n t (m o re

spe cifica l ly, top , o r pa la ta l) , a nd y a ndX ba ck.

(I )

194 . 1 ) The sta n da rd o f the stage 160) i sa ) Be fo re a vowe l a nd be fo re a vo iced co n so n a n t the

vo iced ba ck stop g ,l ike E n gl ish g in

‘

go’

,1 49, 1 96 , e t c . :

gehen , jagen , gleich, 9Bagn er, 9l h’ga'he;

No te . A s in E n gl ish , the g before a fro n t vowe l is m adefa rther fo rward in the m o u th (the to p , o r p a la ta l , g : (Siift ,geben , (Sate, give , gave , &c .) tha n tha t befo re a ba c k vowe l(the ba c k g : gab, Giott , gu t, G od, go o d , c f . 205Nbu t as every sp eaker in vo l u n ta rily m akes the distin c tio n , itn e e d n o t be fu rther regarded 24 en d), a ndso g is u sed f o rbo th g a nd g in the phon etic tra n scrip tio n .

(6) Whe n fin a l o r be fo re a vo i ce le ss co n so n a n t,the vo ice

le ss ba ck stop 6 , l ike E n gl ish 6 : QBeg, Sl ag, jagte, Bug,Bogt , Sagb;In the e n din g 1g

(5) The vo iced frica t ive j (cf. 1 97 , 1 ) when be fo re a

vowe l : Stonige, bi ll iger, a nd

(d) The vo ice le ss frica t ive [i (cf. 1 97 , 2) a t the e nd o f a

wo rd o r be fo re a vo ice le ss co n so n a n t : .a igs, bi ll ig.

R em a rk . Mo re over, the m o re ge n era l u se o f the frica tive ,as sta ted in 1 97

-8, is m akin g som e headwa y even in go o dthea tres.

2) Th is i s the n a tu ra l pro n u n cia t io n o f the provin ce o f

S i le sia,a nd the pra ctice o f S o u th G e rm a n y is abo u t the

sam e (bu t cf. 1 50 N 3) , tho u gh sig is n o t eve rywhe re dis

t ingu ished from (a ) a nd In the a rt ificia l pron u n cia t io n

of H igh G e rm a n in H a n ove r, M e cklenbu rg, a nd o ther p a rts

132 D bono logiz

(j) 1 ) Befo re a vowe l,th is fro n t frica t ive is vo iced

,tha t

i s, j , a so u n d m u ch l ike y in ‘

y e t’bu t m o re dist in ct ly c o n

so n a n ta l : wen iger ,‘

Rbn ige, 9Bege, Berge,CI a lges, horgen ,

(Sgge (R 6) a lso regn en fo r regenen (se e R e) , Giegn er, & c .

R em a rks. (a ) This so u n d is the sam e as tha t o f NG .j ;it differs from (2)

'

be low in tha t it is vo ic ed , a distin c tio n tha tis o ften n egle c ted in the M idla n d, § I SON 3 . (6) S o u thG erm a n s a nd m a n y No rth G erm a n s a lso m ake gg in wo rdsfro m Low G erm a n the st0p : vo ic ed (= g in ‘

go’

) in

Gigge, g chm u ggler , Boggen , &c . ; vo ic e less 6) in Brigg,flaggt, &c .,

a nd the SG 951 11 16gg. A nd m ost G erm a n s do

the sam e in a do p ted wo rds : n regat , B igger, QBaggon .

(c ) In wo rds l ike 1 6g11 611 , 9Bag11 61 , &c ., the fric a tive g (tha tis, j o r

'

y) o ften jo in s the pre c edin g syl lable, a nd thu s, be in gfin a l , is pro n o u n c ed vo ic e less (tha t is, fi o r X ). W hen p ro

n o u n c ed as a st0p , g go es with the fo l lowin g so n o ro u sc o n so n a n t a nd rem a in s vo ic ed .

(Ii ) 2 ) Whe n fin a l 1 08,2) o r n ext a vo ice less con so n a n t

i t be com e s vo ic e less fi, 1 80,1) wen ig, Sibn igé,

986g, Iegte, Berg, SZ aIg, borgte, S eug 1 47 N) , S eug’nis,

folg’

jam .

R em a rk . Bu t g u su a l ly : 6 in Low-G erm a n B t igg (R 6 abo v e)a nd o ften in the a dverb meg, 1 94, 2 R ; se e a lso 1 98, 2 R.

198 . Afte r ba ck vowe ls, g i s a ba ck frica t ive , 1 52 c

(y) 1 ) Be fo re a vowe l thi s ba ck frica t ive i s vo iced a nd

so u n ds l ike a n E n gl i sh y f a r ba ck in the m o u th : B age,

logen , fragen ;‘

fylagge, Boggen 1 R a) ; a lso Biagn er <

9Bagen er (bu t se e 1 97 , 1 R e) . S e e a lso 2 2 1,2 e nd § 1 99 a R .

R em a rk . Th is so u n d differs from (2) be low o n ly in tha t itis vo ic ed , a distin c tio n tha t is o ften n egle c t ed in the M idla n d

N 3).

(x ) 2 ) When fin a l 1 08, 2) o r n ext a vo ice le ss co n son a n t

g be com e s vo ice le ss X , 2) 3 6g, 153, 85g,

fragt , QBag’

n is, 9Iug’apiel , roa

'

g’

ha lfig. S e e a lso 2 2 1,2 e nd.

p ronun c iat ion 133

Rem a rk . B u t g R m the o rigin a lly LowG erm a n wo rdsahlu gien a nd bu gjieren , in the n am es Bugsbu rg, 3 agit,D 'bag 1611 , &c .

, a nd u su a l ly in the a dverb fliigfi, § 1 94, 2 Rse e a lso 1 97 2 R .

F o r 11g se e 209 No tes.

b) A D OP TE D WOR D S

1 ) g (a ) I n wo rds from the G re ek , La t in,& c .

,

m edia l g begin n in g a syl lable ha v in g ch ie f o r se co n da ry

stre ss,i s u su a lly tre a ted as in it ia l tha t i s

,it is the

vo ice d stop (= g in‘

go agrarijch, 91gr)oten , SBhiIoIogw,

megijter , Bilgrim ,& c .

,so t o o gg : 9lggregat . (6) Be fo re

a we a k vowe l , g is tru ly m edia l a nd,so

,ve ry frequ e n tly a

fric a tive 1 97— 8) y in Sogif , fI m gif, & c .

, j o r y in (Egoijt ,A nd m a n y No rth a nd M iddle G e rm a n s u se a fric a t ive e ve n

in the wo rds in a abo ve . (5) Fin a l ly g equ a ls /i, X , o r R

1 97 , 2,1 98, 2

, iUl ag=baIen e, B ogan a , Bhlega na , & c

bu t som e o f these m a y be o the rwise.divided

, § 9 1 , 3

B o=gm a , Bhle=gm a, & c . with g

(d) I n wo rds from the Fre n ch, 9 be fo re .a fro n t vowe l

(so to o ge be fo re a ba c k vowe l) is p ro n o u n ced 3 (like 5 in

‘p le a su re bu t the n a t ive f is o fte n su bstitu ted (se e1 2 9 c cf. 2 04 N 2) Bagage bag r

’

i’

3 a a nd o the rs in sage,

gen ie’

ren , D range Bo’

ge, Bogis’

, Ba’

ge, ge’

n er'

fis’

(a lso g), Gien ie’

, Begie’

(bu t n o t in gen ial’a nd (Sie’nius,

regie’1 611 a nd megie

'

rung, wh ich a re from the La tin ) ;6 ergean t zerj cm t

’. GugEn a nd (Sugen ie ha ve Fre n ch 3 ,

bu t

a lso G e rm a n g o r j . E lsewhe re g in Fre n ch wo rds = g

in ‘

go’: (garbewhe, B eglem en t, & c .

(e) I n wo rds from the E ng l ish o r the I ta l ia n, 3 be fo re a

fro n t vowe l (©en t leman ; 91ba'

gio , (Bi'

ro, & c .) i s som e t im e s

(e sp e c ia l ly if do ubled : 91rpegg’io) so u nded (Z3 o r zy,bu t p e r

hap s m o re com m o n ly 3 o r j, a s in F re n ch wo rds,cf. abo ve

,

§ 2 04 N 3 . E lsewhe re in wo rds a dop ted from o r thro ugh

1 34 p bonologg

E n gl ish a ndI ta l ia n , g g in‘

go’

: ©arbin e, (Su ttaoercha , B igger ,QBaggon , & c . In Sgu tnbug zg

=

X o r R,in 6 15g a nd 853 R.

2 ) g!) in fo re ign wo rds = g z (Shajel , ©betto ; in Low

G e rm a n n am e s it i s tre a ted ju st as g wo u ld be : Behaghelwi th y o r g , germegh with fi o r k

, 6 Ch511111g1) with jzé o r 77X ,

2 09 N 3 , bu t a lso with 77 o n ly.

3 ) 311 (a ) I n wo rds from the G re ek, La tin , & c .,a nd in

som e Fre n ch wo rds ha v in g La tin fo rm , gn= mz, in a c c o rd

a n ce with the pro n u n cia tio n o f La t in fo rm e r ly in vogu e

Ell iagn et m a nn ét'

, (S ign a l Z imzdl’

, in togn ito, inbign ier t, 91gn e¢3’ v ’ v

m y fi es ; bu t in som e p a rts the wo rds a re G e rm a n ized

z z’

fi— ndl’o r z zlg fzci l

'

1 97 R c en d) ,’

d’

X’72611

,& c . (a ndgn IS o ften

ta u gh t in scho o ls in Opp o sit io n to n a tu ra l wh i le in o the r

pa rts the wo rds a re tre a ted a s F re n ch (cf. 6 be low)z z

'

fljci l'

,& c . (6) I n m o st Fre n ch a nd I ta l ia n wo rds

, gn= 7gj

(Shainoagn er fd’

mpd’

n yw, Emign on 7722727577, Gompagnon R5m’

pan/6775bu t (Sompagn ie (a lso writte n .Rompan ie)4) 311 be fo re fro n t vowe ls in fo re ign wo rds = g 1n

‘

go’

SDrogu ijt dr ogz’

st’

, ©uitarreg ird/ 9 , Sn trigue i’

n tr i’

ga, Gu i l lot ine,Giu irlanbe.

200 . [j se e 1 54 . I t is u su a l ly pro n o u n ced m o re

distin ct ly in G e rm a n tha n in E n gl ish , a nd do e s n o t , as in

E n gl ish, app e a r to die away ju st be fo re the fo l lowin g vowe l .

I t o ccu rs m o st com m o n ly a t the begin n in g o f a wo rd a nd

a lways has m o re o r le ss stre ss : D ’heim'

(bu t D hmwith si le n t h) . Fin a l 11 m ay .

som e tim es be he a rd in hiih!

(a ) No n -in itia l stre ssed 1) o ccu rs in aha'

, oho'

, l l’hu

’

,

91'horn’

, 9l l'fohol’D 'heim

’

Seho’oa , Sohann

’

, con’trahie’ren ,

juh’trahie’ren , & c . ; in the e n din gs =heit a n d éhaft, a nd

,o f

co u rse,in com pounds su ch as roo=hin

’

, ha=heim'

, ab'ha l'ten ,

[36 D bonologg

i’

, bu t has gen era lly be c om e u n syllabic (j cf . 204 N 1 c , a

so u n d so sim ila r t o the fric a tive j tha t it n e e d n o t be distingu ished from it, 1 49, 2 N e n d), so

C

511 111 1 116 = j2 , 2111161 16,6 117 11111111 y

'

zfm , 111113 11’ W11111011 111 ’

, 511111561 111 1" &c .

bu t n ext 21 vo ic e less c o n so n a n t it, t o o , gen era l ly be c om esm o reo r less vo ic e less (c f . 1 50 N 56) : 2361111011 = p a 7ys 51111 11011

n a ts Usage isn o t abso lu te ly u n ifo rmin these c ases f o r e x . , som e u se j o n ly a f ter 1, e lsewhere i

’

, &c .

No te 4 . (a ) In M iddle G erm a n y a n d t o som e exten t inNo rth G erm a n y, 1 in the en din g z1g, less o ften in =1ft1) , t en dst o be c om e silen t, p artic u la rly when a vowe l f o l lows; a nd

these fo rm s a re a l lowed in p o etry : 61n5’

g61 = 611131g61 ,6m

’

ge = ém1ge, (b) I n S o u th Ge rm a n y,a f o l lowin g 6 is m o re ap t t o be om itted, 1 87 , 2 N 4 : 6111

m u tig’

s SHOE.

No te s. F o r 9111156, 91116361 (bo th a lso 1) see 1 37 N 1 ;

f o r m1b1 1g 101b61 , &c . see 1 37 R 2 ; f o r 1 in1116116116 se e 1 39 a N ; f o r 9911 16 se e 1 40 5, observe 11 111111) bu t61 1 113. In W iir t em be rg the p re terit o f the I . c lass o f stro n gverbs frequ e n tly has 1 : 511; f o r &c . F o r 2316, (516, &c .,

(55111, 511 1111 , se e 1 38 N 3 ; f o r 1 in 6 6)111 16b se e 1 38 N 1

f o r the frequ en t 1 o f g1(6)1)11 &c ., 11611511} z561)11 , the t o f 3 1 111 111)

(bu t the 1 o f adv . 516111 11c1) , se e 1 39 a N 1 f o r the 1 o f

361mm (bu t friegft &c . (bu t 1 in friegen‘

ge t 11 1611611‘m ake wa r ’

has 1 in a l l its f o rm s), the 1 o f 13161 161 556511 =51g

(less o ften in 13161 161 , se e I 39 a N 2 , f o r 591111 11661 6,6 ®m1bbogem 6 1ng1 1

’

1n , a nd the n am es iB1n frieb, (551 11111111 1 1, &c . se e 1 39 a N 3 , f o r QBieébaben se e a lso 1 58, 3 f t ,

f o r 1 in 59161111ag se e W o rd l ist f o r (dia le c tic11111 , 1011 , 116, 1116, se e 1 40 , a , c , a nd 1 44 N 1 ; f o r 1 in

hierher’

, 11161161c , iiiel l ieb’

cben , se e § 1 42 ; 1 is u su a l ly lo n gu n der se c o n dary stress in su ch n am es as 911111131 , 58 11 11111111 ,

6911111111 , 911111 1111 , it is sho r t in 3516111 1111 a n d the su ffixes : 1g =111

=1115, &c . : Qidu 61 111 ,c

51111161 11173, &c . , a nd u su a lly in 911 111111 ,“5011 151111 , a nd $ 11g1 1111 N); se e a lso the a dop te d wo rdsin 3 1 4 ; f o r 1116, 111 , &c . , se e 1 44 . F o r 1 be f o re 13, se e

2 28 N ; f o r 9111’

11 a &c. se e

No te 6. There a r e a n um ber o f wo rds o f fo re ign o rigi nhavin g as the last syllable o r the syl lable befo re the last astresse d : 1: fo llowed by a sin gle c o n so n a n t. (a ) A c c o rdin gt o the c om m o n ru le f o r a do p te d wo rds N 2) th is 1sho u ld be lo n g, bu t (b) befo re 1, 1 a ndsom etim es 1, the vowe lis o ften pro n o u n c ed sho rt in M iddle a nd S o u th G erm a n y

p ronunc ia tion 137

1 38 N 2 b) : gabr it’

, fiatbo l if’

, Rritif’

, filJluiif’

, SBbpfif’

,

EBoIitif’

, fi rtif’

el , SBerpenbif’

el ; Qianbit’

, iirofit’

, frit’

ifcf) ,pol it

’

iid) , fionbit’

or , E it’

er, i it’

el , il lifit’

e; ill rinaip’

, &c .;

bu t i is m o re c o m m o n in M iddle Ge rm a n y in l petit’

, Q ip l)tberi

’

tié, bospia’

, Ell l ufif’

, SBrinaip’

, a ndin the S o u th in R t itif’ ,SBbtflif

’

, $ 0Iitif’

; (c) in the No rth 1 38 N 2 6 ) the i is sho rto n ly in QIpril

’

, Eil’

a , (Sit’

o, Rapit’

el , a nd

chem ic a l a nd m in e ra lo gic a l n am es e n din g in sit, so (Siran l t’

,V

(Sererit’

(bu t (Sererin (Sil iqu e has i o r t,

é pr it < 5pir itu § u su a lly has 1.

202 . it -E’ S e e 2 0 1,N 1

,

1 ) Un de r c h ie f st ress, ie is (a ) ge n e ra l ly i 2 0 1

,r ; f o r

ie 2 2’

se e § z o r N 5) , regu la r ly so in n a t i ve wo rds,a lso in m a n y

F re n c h wo rds : D ffigier , (Sbem ie, ftubieren , & c . ; bu t n o t ic e

F re n ch Sfiarie'

g opbie'o r (b) La t in Emart

'e g opbt'e, a nd

always 6 h Emar'

i'e, 6 h 6 om)? e a nd de r i va t i ves l ike SJfiart

'en :

6 0pm'en firdw=Burg & c .

,plu ra ls l ike Rolom en ha ve o r i

,

§ 44 , 3N x ; (5) i2'in n iene, je be fo re si le n t r o f F re n c h

wo rds fil telier , Qian fier ; (d) f o r the ie o f F re n c h wo rds,ié

’

:

filarriere, (Sarriere, o r jé’

:C

l an tiem e ; (5) be fo re m o re tha n

o n e c o n so n a n t in fo re ign wo rds, ié’

o r if? i rienn ium , 6 6x

niette, El liettgi, i rieft, fé’

o r j e : QIubieng, p ffigiell ,SBatien t .

2 ) U n de r se c o n da ry st ress, te u su a l ly

= ie iBiebefta l'

,

i’a o r i

“

: l’

gierogl t)’

pben , bu t 1 fin a l ly . g efl’

erie.

3 ) Whe n u n st ressed , ie = za z Gilorie, Sta’lien , Emagier ,

Fliequ iem (a lso 6 ociet£it’

,o r jg .

c

[yam i’Iie, 6 tubien , W ife .

F o r the in te rc ha n ge o f Z a n d f se e 2 0 1 N 3 .

203 . ieu = eu = oj o r ou in wo rds f rom the F re n c h

Sieu te-nan t, wr i t ten also Seu tnan t .

204 . j is the vo ic ed top fr ic a t ive a t ight lysqu e e z ed E n gl ish y : jung, iener , Elfiajfir

'

, 851)‘io din e ’

,

D raniefluia.

138 D bonologg

No te I . (a ) In the No rth , j is, as sta ted abo ve , a distin c t lysqu ee zed fric a tive c o n so n a n t. (b) I n the M idla n d it is o ftenvo ic e less N 3) a nd n o t distin gu ished fro m Ii. (c) I n

the S o u th , i t is (as En glish y u su a lly is) the sem i-vowe l jse rv in g as the u n stressed pa rt o f a diph tho n g o f which

the fo llowin g vowe l is the stresse d pa rt. S e e 1 46 & N ,

201 N 3 . (d) D ia le c tic a l ly j is so u n ded g .

No te 2 . In wo rds from the Fren ch, (bu t the n a tive

[ is o fte n su bstitu ted, se e § 1 29 c § 1 99 x d) : Soum fil , S a loufie,3 o r j in S aém in .

No te 3 . In words from the En glish , j : En gl ish j, tha t is,a

’

3 (bu t 3 o r f is o fte n su bsti tu ted , 1 29 c ) :

Su rf) 2 (c f . 1 99, r e), less o ften Germ a n iz ed joiéa z’

,

205. f Ch ? ) is the vo ic e less ba c k stop,

1 49 , & c .,

E n gl ish k (bu t se e 1 65, 2 c) : fran f , fa l t , mafia fip ie (do

n o t n egle c t the A? as in E n gl ish ,se e N 2) .

Rem a rk 1 . Th is so u n d diffe rs from g in tha t i t is vo ic eless, I 50, a n d o ften aspira te d 1 49 N ; the aspira tio n m a y

e ve n de ve lop into a fric a tive , thu s m a kin g wi th the pre c edin gstop a n a ffric a te , 82 . F o r cf se e 1 83 .

Rem a rk 2 . I n M iddle a nd S o u th Ge rm a n y f is o fte nso u n de d we ak 1 50 N 3) a nd n o t distin gu ished from g, bu t

n o t in itia lly be fo re a vowe l in S o u th Ge rm a n y .

No te 1 . The f be fo re a fro n t vowe l is m a de fa rthe r f o rwa rd in the m o u th (the t op , o r pa la ta l , c ,

-

1 52 6, 1 57 : E ir cbe,fecf , kick , Ka te , c a t , &c .) tha n tha t be fo re a ba ck vowe l (theba ck la, 1 52 c : fa l t , find) , Ru ben , c a u gh t , c o o k ,c f . 1 94 , I N ; bu t , as e ve ry spe ake r in vo lu n ta rily m a kes thedist in c tio n ,

i t n e ed n o t be fu rthe r rega rded a ndso k is

use d f o r bo th k a nd c in the pho n e tic tra n sc riptio n .

No te 2 . (a ) The f o f in it ia l ftt z , tho u gh u su a lly pro n o u n c e das k, has in som e pa rts (f o r e x . , in S a xo n y) sta rted o n the

c o u rse i t has c om ple ted in En gl ish : tha t is, k é] I 53 , 2)

{f > n asa l lx silen t . (é) A s in En glish , é assim ila tes dia l e ctic a lly t o fo llowin g 1 : M afia bl ingen f o r Riafie, f lingen , &c .

Cf. 1 96 R end.

140 D bono logg

207 . m is the l ip-n a sa l,

= E n g lish m (bu t se e

I 66 e) z Sll lebl , SD a’m e, am , l ommen , fiumpf.

No te . In wo rds fro m the Fre n ch , (I ) am , an , em , en ;

(2) ain , ein , im , in ; (3) om , on ; (4) um , u n ; when n o t

fo l lowe d by a vowe l , “a spira te ft ,” m , o r n , a re re n de red in

the S o u th , a s in Fra n c e , by the n asa liz ed vowe ls : a , e , o , o

ju st a s the n a t ive fin a l 11 is ap t t o be 208 N 2) ; inthe N o rth a nd gen e ra l ly in the M idla n d by (I ) (577 : a an ce:

m en t illen fion p a ns bu t 5” in (Sbar’

latan

(c f . a lso a nd befo re I) o r p a n m is m o re c o m m o n lypro n o u n c ed m (Sham pagn er a nd be fo re b o r i

an rt is o ften pro n o u n c ed n : ©u ir l anbe g ir St an te ;

(2) Ell efr ain’

,

‘

l r ain , fBafiin’

, bu t in in Sgar’

l efin ; (3) 57a el , (Sbam

’

pign on ; bu t m befo re 5 o r p is gen e ra l ly p ron o u n c ed m : S

’

bom bre a nd =0n = 5n z SBatailIon

Ciéfabrfin’

, (Siarn iffin’

, &c ., bu t fiBa l fon has an '

o r (777a ndSl apo

’

l eon has 512 ; (4) 577; bu t su ch wo rds a r e ra re ;‘Bar :

fum’

has 52771 m o re gen e ra l ly tha n 577 a nd is .o ften wri ttenSBarfum . In som e o lde r wo rds, the S o u th t o o ha s m

(Sham pagn er), 72 (Git tir l anbe, i an te, s ion), o r

'

7y (D n l el) .

Rem a rk . Nasa l vowe ls a r e n o t Ge rm a n exc ept dial e c t ic a l ly a nd the su bstitu tio n , in Germ a n , o f the

n ea rest n a t ive so u n d is n a tu ra l a ndprope r, 1 29 c .0

F o r zen wz, a ndf o r sent '

m ,

'

n , 7 7, se e 1 87 , 2 N 5,

1 67 a ; f o r vo ic e less m , I 50 N 2 6.

It is the f ro n t (o r po in t) n asa l,

= E n gl ish 72

(bu t se e 1 65, 2 d,I 66 e) : nun , nennen ,

§Banb, Rn ocben .

No te 1 . Be fo re a l ip-c o n sona n t tt is so m e tim esso u n ded mflin t, Su l un ft , u n nerfcbiim t ; c f . the sim ila r assim ila t io n in

empfinben < . enpfinben en tfinben , 1 1 9. F o r n 77 se e

p ronunciation 141

§ 209 ; f o r : en =-n ,

'

777 , o r 7 7, s , I 67 a ; f o r n in

Fre n ch wo rds, 207 N f o r vo ic e less 77 , 1 50 N 2 5.

No te 2 . (a ) In m a n y SG a nd MG dia le c ts, fin al n has

be c o m e sile n t o r is represen ted o n ly by the n asa l iza tio n o f the

pre c edin g vowe l , 1 33 . (é) I n the Midla n d a nd the No rth ,

fin a l it o ften disappe a rs befo re c o n so n a n ts, in the weak fo rm s

1 1 4) o f ein , m ein , &c .

209 . it be fo re f a nd represe n t the , ba c k n asa l 77 = E n g

tig l l ish n g in‘sin ge r ’

(bu t se e 1 66 2)n o t n g in

‘fin ge r ’1 69 N z

,1 2 6

,l e nd) : g inger , ginger ,

Eliang, ibipbtbong’

Sngmer ; 58 1m l , jen l en .

Rem a rk . The n asa l a fte r a ba ck vowe l is ba ck (77 : gejungen ), while tha t a fte r a fro n t vowe l is m o re fro n t o rpa la ta l jingen ), ju st as the g in gu t diffe rs from tha t in(Sfifi 1 94 N) ; bu t th is diffe ren c e will be ign o red in the

pho n e tic tra n sc riptio n , 24 e nd.

N o te 1 . (a ) I n som e Ge rm an n am es ng befo re ba ck vowe lso r r = 77g z (Engabin , Sngo l ftabt , Synge , Sngraban . S o in

fo re ign n am es like ll ngarn , Rongo, Ql lba longa , (Bungee?

(a lso &c .; bu t m o st fo re ign n am es ha v m g 119 be fo re ea r e tre a te d as n a t ive wo rds a ndha v e 77 u ngern , Sngerm an :

l anb, &c . (b) I n so m e fo re ign wo rds n g = 77g z S ingu ift,Qingelué, enangel ijcl) (77g o r ryg), &c .

No te 2 . In c om po sitio n it do es n o t ge n e ra lly be c o m e 77befo re ba ck c on so n a n ts exc ept in an : and t in : a nd the fo re ignc on so eingebett wi th 77 (less frequ e n t ly bu t an gelomm en ,

u ngefiibr a nd Ron grefi’

, fon l r‘

e‘

t’

with 77 o r 77, still u ngerna lm o st a lways has 77g . Fo re ign in : ra re ly be c om es £77 u n lessthe n ex t syllable is stressed in forreft a ndSn ic njequ enawi thin , bu t in fogn ito with in o r { 77. 77 o f t e n > m in Sungfer ,a ltj

'

tingfer licl) , &c . Assim ila tio n t o a fo l lowin g wo rd is n o t

u n c o m m o n in som e c o llo c a tio n s o f frequ en t o c c u rren c efan n m an éa (m )m a 7z, m an gebt m a 77 gét , &c . , c f .

f o r ‘By a ndby.

’

No te 3 . In m a n y pa rts o f the N o rth (H a n o ve r, Bru n swick , &c .) fin a l ng is pro n o u n c ed 77k, a lso in pa rts o f the

M idla n d wi th a ve ry we ak b ; bu t the u sage o f m ost pa rts a ndo f the stage is as give n a bo ve . I n som e pa rts o f the No rth(S ch leswig-H o lste in , W estpha lia ) sttg = 77x . In so m e pa rts(f o r exa m ple , W estpha lia ) m edia l rig is st il l so u n de d 77g .

Cf. 1 26, 1 e nd.

142 Ibbonoiogg

210 . n is the m id-ba c k-ro u n d vowe l,

1 3 4 & c .,1 45

whe n lo n g i t is n a r row,whe n sho rt i t is w ide . Bu t a t the

S o u th i t is n a r row e ve n whe n sho r t ; f o r o the r c ases o f

sho r t n ar row 0, se e 1 44 N 2 5.

1 ) Whe n lo n g, 0 is l ike E n gl ish 0 in ‘kn ow ’

: fifen , 6 0m,

SBoot , 23671 , a l’

ifi, Qiacl ’fi’

jen2 ) Whe n sho r t

,it is sim i la r t o the o in ‘fo r ty ’

bu t sho r te r

a nd m o re l ike Ge rm a n l o n g 0 : D rt , 6 1m m , ofien , D gngén'

.

No te 1 . En gl ish ‘kn ow ’

,

‘ tho u gh’

, &c . , re a lly c o n ta in a

diph tho n g e n din g in 7: 49 N) ; this is m o st pro m in en t inBritish En gl ish . Ge rm a n

"

0"

is so pro n o u n c e d o n ly dia l e c t ic a l ly, a n d the le a rn e r sho u ld e n de a vo r t o pro n o u n c e i t a s a

sim ple vowe l , § 1 66 a . Mo re o ve r, in m akin g Ge rm a n 6 , the

to n gu e is highe r a n d its t ip is drawn fa rthe r ba ck than in

m akin g the En gl ish so u n d .

No te 2 . Be fo re r a lo n g 0 is o fte n wide r, o r ope n e rtha n befo re o the r so u n ds i bm , D ljr .

No te 3 . Sho rt 0 is, pe rhaps, the m o st diffic u l t vowe l f o ra n En gl ish-spe a kin g pe rso n t o a c qu ire . H e m u st be c a re fu ln o t t o su bsti tu te f o r i t the o in n o t

’

, c oppe r &c . f o r th isso u n ds t o a Ge rm a n l ike a , 1 1 2 . The sho rt 0 he a rd in N ew

En gla n d in su ch wo rds as‘ ro a d ’

,

‘c o a t ’

,

‘sto n e ’

, &c ., is

pre t ty n e a r the Ge rm a n so u n d bu t the le a rn e r m u st a s c a refu l ly a vo id u sin g En gl ish 6 as En gl ish a : t o pro n o u n c e150

—

st is as u npa rdo n able as to pro n o u n c e Giott l ike En glish“

go t . F o r n a rrow ii se e 1 44 N 2 6 ; i t o c c u rs thre e tim es in

8oo logie tso’

o -l o -g z"

No te 4 . F o r fi lfifter , S jtern , D jter l anb srobe sm a lo &c .

(n o lo n ge r t , t eit , exc ept in pa rts o f'

the No rth), flifift‘ho n ey-c om b ’

(bu t SRbTt‘ ru st ’

, filfift‘

gra te i rfift, 25116,912m m, Ell lon tag, a nd the n am es Sfibft , Sfift a nd 17551211 , se e

1 37 N 3 ; f o r bad) (bu t Sgb'

cbaeit), se e §§ 1 37'

N 1 , 1 39 a N z ;

f o r D bft, ‘Brfipfi, Qifigt (as a prope r n am e a lso spe lled

1 395; f o r Sn’

bl er , D’brigl eit

’

, D’

brift, & c . ,

1 37 R 2 (sim ila rly in finfi’

bn ilfi, fifi’

bleng the first syllable isopen ), so

‘Bair

'

o’

f lufi § 9 1 , 3 , bu t‘

D‘

égm a ; f o r éBfiréborfer, ,

144 D bonologn

tho n g is n ow c om m o n,p . 1 08 f t), so a lso in the n am e 5130igt

a nd the F re n c h (Somptoir, a lso w r i t te n Ron tfir'. (c) In m ost

wo rds from the F re n ch, 01 I S p ro n o u n c e d a m

,o r ra the r get

1 46 N), the 2 be in g lo n g if the d iph tho n g ha s the st ress

i nfla te to a lé’

t’a, El liem oiren m é

’

m odm'

; 01) is m o re c om m o n ly

of tha n o aj : lona l l ojfil’

, Sioua l ijt . (d) 0i = two vowe ls in

filibomboib’

, & c .

run , on , se e 2 07 N .

2 14 . on in F re n ch wo rds : G e rm a n 11 : u in $ 0111 , 6 in

(Souuert’

, SDou cb’e, c f . 48, 3 .

2 15. nin in LG n am es a nd a f ew fo re ign wo rds = 5 °

Qiit clwm ,SBom le. F o r in in S la v ic n am es c f . 2 39, z R f .

2 16 . n o r‘m u ta t e d 5 1 2 0

, 3) is the m id-fro n t-ro u n dvowe l

,1 3 4 & c .

,1 45. Whe n lo n g i t is n a r row

,whe n sho r t

i t iswide r c o n side rab ly a t the No r th,m u c h less so a t the

S o u th . D u r in g the fo rm a t io n o f the vowe l,the to n gu e is in

the posi t io n fo r e,bu t the t ip

:o f i t e i the r sin ks o r is d rawn

in,a nd the l ips a r e n o t o n ly n e a r ly c losed

,bu t a lso som e

wha t p ro t ru ded : in th is wa y the fro n t reso n a n c e-c ham be rs

(that is, the spa c es ju st beh in d a nd in f ro n t o f the fro n t

te e th) a re e n la rged,

1 3 2 . S in ge rs som e t im es p ro du c e t his

so u n d in p ro lo n gin g su c h a wo rd a s‘days’

1 3 6, x) ; it m ay

also be obse rve d in a n in do le n t a n d som ewha t a ffe c te d”

p ro

n u n c ia t io n o f a nd in kaa’

b’

fo r kaa’é

'

,a c a l l t o she ep

c om m o n in the n o r the rn S ta tes.

1 ) I t is lo n g in bbblen (d ist in gu ished from beblen by

ro u n d in g) , R'

o'

n ig, blen , Gioetbe, (Srbiil ; a nd

2 ) Sho r t in g'

o'

lle, fbt men (d ist in gu ishe d from .

‘

éell e, fenu en

by ro u n din g) , 656tter, & c .

P ronun ciat ion 145

No te 1 . 0 sho u ld n o t be pro n o u n c ed a s a diph tho n g z— t q ,

n o r l ike En gl ish iir in ‘f u r’

, f o r e x . ,

‘G iir ty’ f o r Go e the . I t

wo u ld be be t te r t o u se 25 in ste a d ; f o r a l l Ge rm a n s wo u ldu n de rsta n d th is, a ndm a n y u se i t 1 36,

No te 2 . F o r glotta l rojien Eli'

dfte (bo th o ften 0, espe__cia llyin the No rth), tro

’

jten , bfter licl) , D jt(er)reici) (ra re ly b),_D jtersberg, &c ., (Bil l iglz is stil

m

he a rdM at fi tbf

e N o rth), ilr'

o'

pftin ,5130916, a nd o the rs with (obse rve tha t o ha s gen e ra l lybe c om e

V

in t , Elioft, &c .) c f . N 3 ; bbjcbett _a ndD ownin g

0

ha ve 0o r 0'

1 37 N 1 f o r hb‘

clfit bu t m bcbte m'

o’

gen

se e I 39a N , sim ila rly (Seboft o ften has sho rt 0 even in

the S o u th , § 1 39 N r e nd,f o r 53315en , § 1 396 ; f o r

i r’

o’

bler , il loglein , Sl ld’

bl ing, se e § 1 37 R 2 , f o r m'

o'

blie’

ren

§ 1 44 N 2 6; f o r §Bebfirbe (a lso NG fiiorbe, 580rt, a nd

280_rbing, 280m ,

S§0rje (a lso Slldrjer (a lso the n am e

fi lm“) (lo c a lly D on aumort l), a nd NG n am es l ikeSBrem eru

'

orbe, Ra lub'

rbe, se e § 1 4o 6 ;f o r Qiifcbofe, Sgera

'

o'

ge, &c . se e § 2 1 0 N 4 Obse rve6 ®ofil ing< 6 cb03

‘a sho o t , a nd 6 cbofilm g< 6 cbfifi

‘

p e t’

,

a ndse e 2 28 N .

2 17 . 11 is the vo ic e less bi lab ial stop,

1 50,

1 52 4,

E ng l ish p (bu t se e 1 65, 2 c)‘Iluber , g uppe, plump .

No te 1 . This so u n d diffe rs fro m I) in tha t i t is vo ic e less1 50) a ndo ften aspira ted 1 49, 1 N).No te 2 . In som e wo rds from the Fren ch fin a l 1) is silen t

6 01 m (5201 116 M r , so t o o (Som ptoir Ron tor’

. I t is n o t

silen t in ‘Bla lm , SBjeubonum ,

‘Bjucbologie, &c .

F o r in it ia l jp, see 2 25.

2 18 .

'

pi (‘

p E’-é

’

f ' = p + f (se e 1 69 N 1) 6 11mm ‘Bfunb,‘Bferb, flopfen .

No te . The p o f pf is o ften so fa r assim ila ted to the f tha ti t is, l ike j, m a de wi th the uppe r tee th a nd lowe r l ip , in ste a do f with bo th l ips, o r , a t le ast , bo th uppe r l ip a nd te e th to u chthe lower l ip . When in i tia l o r a fte r 111 , pf is frequ e n tlyso u n ded f m the N o rth a nd the M idla n d : ‘

l lferb, pfl egen ,fdmpfen , e ehimpf.

146 llbbono logg

pl): o c c u rs in (&p‘

ljeu a nd in a f ew fo re ignwo rds ; i t = f :

CLfielegrapl) , éBljo

’iogrdpbie

’, Sll letapb

'

er . S ee

1 3 7 N 1 . phil) = fl : D iph thong, D iphtheri'iié, Wapbtba .

In C‘Et’

ippbo the fi rst p is ge n e ra l l y si le n t .

2 20 . qii kv o r M3 (w i th f r ic a t ive m o re o r lessvo ic e less bu t we ak

,1 50 N 2 2 & c . e n d

,2 39, 2 c) Q uart ,

D uelle,N o te . I n som e Fre n ch wo rds qu z l e : Ema?

qu i’

je, iiiqué; but n o t in qu il t , D u ittung, &c .

2 2 1 . r D r'

o'

t , Sill arl t , ja l nen , rot, fil aier . The let t er 1is p ro n o u n c ed d iffe re n t ly in d iffe re n t pa r ts o f Ge rm a n y a nd

am o n g d iffe re n t c lasses o f pe ople o r ra the r,the re a r e two

o r th re e d iffe re n t 1 ’s in ex te n sive u se in Ge rm a n y

“

,a f ro n t 1 ,

a ba c k r, an d a glo t ta l r .

1 ) The F RONT r (the po in t-t r i l l , o r Sungen fpigem r, t ransc r ibed r ) is l ike the S c o t c h r

,o r l ike r in ‘

r a t’ t r'i l le d

(gerollt) . Tha t is,the t ip o f the to n gu e is ra ise d a nd p u t in

rap id v ibra t io n . I t is u sed in m a n y pa r ts o f Ge rm a n y,a nd

a c to rs a n d sin ge rs a im t o em ploy it ; bu t i t se em s t o be

ra p idly lo sin g gro u n d be fo re the ba c k 1 , 1 2 9 R .

2 ) The BA CK 1: (the u vu la r-r , o r d fcbem r, t ra n sc r ibed z)is the “ No r thu m br ia n bu r r . ” D u r in g its fo rm a t io n

,the

fro n t o f the to n gu e l ies down,wh i le the

]

pa r t fa r the r ba c k

assu m es the fo rm o f a t ro u gh,in wh ic h the u v u l a l ies a nd

,

a s the b re a th st r ikes i t from beh in d,v ibra tes u p a nd down

148 p bonologg

nur 77275, gar gd. Th is u sage se em s to be ga in ing : it is su re lyless o bje c t io n able t o a Ge rm a n e a r tha n the ha rsh glo t ta l rhea rd in o u r n o rthe rn S ta tes, RNo te 3 . In som e pa rts, r is ap t t o assim ila te t o a fo llowin g

po in t c o n so n a n t 1 52 6, 1 57) a nd so t o disappear : (Sja’

ten ,

Ra’

tofiel , Sma’

jcl) , &c . Cf. its loss by dissim ila tio n , 1 24.

(r)r l) see 200d.

2 22 . j, 3 is the po in t fr i c a t ive .

(1 )

When fin al o r n ex t a vo ic e less c o n so n an t

1 50 N 2) , i t is vo i c e less, a s in E n gl ish ‘sin

’

: $ 106 , Q3i§ =

m arcl , SD reézben , iii, a nd so e v e n be fo re vowe ls : hh’

fi'

artig,

(firhle’erpsa , SBiiclfle ézfésa (d ist in gu ish these c ases from those

in 2 2 3 N 4) .

2 23 . 1 ) I n e n t i re ly vo ic ed n e ighbo rho od (that is, be twe envowe ls o r be twe e n a vowe l a nd a vo ic ed c o n so n an t) m edial 1has be c om e vo ic ed

,2 (c f . E n gl ish 5 in ‘r ise n ’

,

‘rosy ’

,

in m ost o f No r th Ge rm an y : reilen , © liiler , gemej(e)ne

(9 1 N 2) , h'

o'

jer , $ filljel , & c . S e e 1 1 9 81 R p . 80 .

2 ) Be fo re a vowe l in i t ial 1 has be c om e m o re o r less vo ic edin pa r ts o f No r th Ge rm an y

,espe c i al ly in the No r th-West

,

1 3 0 S ic = zi o r 6 0m, leijen , & c . ; sim i la rly in c om

po u n ds 6mmieger10bn , v erleben , bu t se e'

N 4 . I n , c ases l ikeba fie= fld

'z f

, jisp ra c t ic al ly m ed ial a n dbe lo n gsu n de r 1 above .

No te 1 . (a ) In c ases o f syn c ope l ike gemej(e)n e, in whichthe fu l l fo rm is st il l c u rren t , f = z (o r so t o o in $ a§ ler23am, a nd som e tim es in Ell il fsn er : bu t i t is u su a lly vo ic e lessin o the rs : (Si l eién er , R iauén er , &c . a nd

.

in su ch fo rm a t io n s as

fllfis’

lein . (6) be c om es z .in’

6 ift, n o t in’

93 gebt,’

6 mbcbte, "3 mar .

p ronunciation 149

Rem a rk . In n iejen vo ic e less j is c om m o n in the

No rth , pe rhaps in im ita t io n o f the so u n d o f sn eezin g.

No te 2 . In c e rta in wo rds from the Fren ch , No rth Ge rm a n s

o ften re ta in the Fren ch vo ic e less j frequ en tly in D ergean t ,6 eruice, g erniette, D ilbou ette, D D unemn ; u sua l ly n o t in

g ellet te, S eren abe, ®on ett , e ouper . 6 afram en t has 2 , bu t

as a Fren ch o a th it has 5. 6 an § f0u ci, the pa la c e a t Po tsdam ,

ispron o u n c ed sa 77’susz

"

.

No te 3 . In the M idla n d a nd the S o u th and in pa rts o f the

No r th ,'

j is gen e ra lly )" vo ic e less in an y po sit io n 1 50 N

a nd in the No rth , in itia l j be fo re a vowe l o ften has the firstpa rt vo ic e less a ndo n ly tha t n e a r the vowe l vo ic ed . I t , the refo re , se em s best to represen t the jtha t is a lwa ysvo ic e less by sin the pho n e tic tra n sc riptio n s, a nd t o u se z ra the r tha n 2 f o r

the j tha t is m o re o r less vo ic e d in the No rth o r , even ifvo ic e less, IS weak , 1 50 No t es.

No te 4. When the j fo l lows a vo ic e less c o n so n a n t and'

begin s a syllable tha t so m e tim es o r a lways has ch ief o r se co nda ry stress, i t , t o o , is gen e ra l ly so u n ded vo ic e less, e ven bythose who e lsewhe re ha ve 2 bu t a s i t is o ften we ak (c f .§ 1 50 N z c ) l ike a vo ic ed c o n so n a n t , i t is m a rked 2 (n o t z)

’

ra the r tha n 3 in the pho n e tic tra n sc riptio n , N 3 : en tha lti’

am ,

S abfa l , bugfieren , bat fie, 00 he, er ni a cin itch’

sfatter . Bu t

Grbfe, Qdi el , illdtjel , Ql cbje, &c . ha ve 3 , 2 2 2 end.

No te 5. s r , z , o r 2 , o r lo n g s in filuéjicbt , anéfu chen ,Ell lenbeléjobn , &c . , 1 50 N 2 2 , 1 1 4, .g/o r lo n g/ in Qluéjpracbe,<il tififtell ung, &c .,

r

f in ?B im § ftein , a nd so gen e ra lly in su ch

gen it ive c om pou n ds as flnbamtéfiunbe, gl ecbifiichlufi, &c . ,

fif z : in(

gu fsftapfe, a nd the spe ll in g‘

fyu fatapfe is san c t io n ed .

No te 6. Fin a l 3 is silen t in som e Fren ch wo rds : (Sierras607 , $ a la i§ pdlé

’

, &c .

(3)

2 24 . In it ial ly be fo re an o the r c o n so n an t j is always vo ic eless, bu t i t is n o t always 5.

No te . Ge rm a n fo rm e rly had 5 in i tia lly befo re va rio u so the r c o n so n a n ts, as Low Ge rm an a nd En gl ish ha ve t o-day .

W e ha ve the sta tem en ts o f gram m a ria nso f the 1 6th c en tu ry

9" Bu t z o r 2 m ay o c c asio n a lly be he a rd a t the S o u th be tween vowe lsfo r e ithe r i o r 3, so reiien , du fser licl) , auBerorben t licl). &c .

150 p honology

tha t in H igh Ge rm a n this .r had by tha t tim e changed to j,’

a nd tha t t o o befo re p a nd t as we ll asbefo re o the r c o n so n an ts.

Gradu a lly the o rtho graphy m a de the sam e cha n ge : sl im‘sl im e S chl eim , sm a l ‘

sm a ll ’

ichm u l , m ? sn ow ’

6 chn ee, swa n > 6 cbmam Bu t the frequ en t o c c u rren c e o f

fp a nd it, m edia lly a ndfin a lly, a nd the in flu en c e o f the m a n yGre ek a nd La tin wo rds begin n in g wi th in a nd ft, su c c e ededin establ ish in g a n in c o n siste n c y in

“

the spe ll in g, wh ich ,be in g

m isu n de rsto o d , o ffers t o those o f Low-Ge rm a n sto ck (c f .2 25N 1 ) a pla u sible exc u se f o r a dhe rin g t o the LowiG e rm a n

pro n u n c ia t io n in these c ases.

2 25. (a ) jps ft : = fp (wi th we ak p a nd t, § 1 50 N 1 5)

jpiit, e piel , lprecben , 6 tetn , ftill , jtebett ; also in c om posi t io n

EBei=jpiel , lie=jprecl7eu , uer=jtebeu , (Sezjtein (n o t in the n am e

Galsteiu) , politeiu , él l aftatt , Stojtocl (also w i th s). So , to o , in

fo re ign wo rds : 6 paf3, lpectell , C‘Bpebiteu t , 6 tat i0n ; a nd

u su a l ly,bu t n o t u n ive rsa l ly

,in fo re ign c om po u n ds

,if the

fi rst par t is a fam i l ia r o n e ‘Bev ipettiue, Slie=jpett , Sn =firum eu t ,fon =ftatieren (o f c o u rse n o t in D i § =pu t , ®i§ =tin fti0m & c .)also in fam i l ia r p rope r n am es S pan ieu , Guin ean , 6 t0ctb0lm ,

6 tuart, & c .

Rem a rk . I n wo rds re c en tly a dopted o r prese rvin g a

distin c tly fo re ign appe a ra n c e , the fo re ign 1p st is som e

t im es re ta in e d : e uleeu , jtacca to, &c .

No te 1 . In Brem en , H a n o ve r, a nd o the r No rth-Ge rm an

distric ts, in itia l 1 befo re t a ndp is stil l so u n de d s 2 24 N),n o t , howeve r, in the the a tres the re . When these No rthGe rm a n s u n de rtake t o a c qu ire j?j} , they som e tim es m isu nde r

stan d “ in itia l ” t o m ea n o n ly a t the ve ry begin n in g o f a wo rda ndso so u n d 6 ptel wi th j} bu t §Betfptel with 175, 1 296.

No te 2 . In the M idlan d , t il t) is o ften pro n o u n c ed 7f (t )erft, QBu t

‘

j'

t, m tt’

é; a nd in pa rts o f the S o u th , eve ry it jp isso u n de d /2fl : .ftifte, 9 110199, &c . bu t the lea rn e r will a vo idthese as c a re fu l ly as in it ia l sp st .

2 26 . (6) A s Germ an ic sé had e arly be c om e jcl) = f1 1 9 e nd), adopt ed wo rds begin n in g with .jtz o r jc: have

gen e ral ly re t ain ed the fo re ign p ro n u n c i at io n : ifaubieren ,

152 p bonoiogg

2 30 . if) = f o c c u rs o n ly in wo rds from the E n gl ish a nd

tho se su ppose d t o be f rom the E n gl ish ‘

Zyalbiou , g bam l fiz‘

l,

‘n e c k-t ie .

’

f}, se e if, § 2 28 .

2 3 1 . t a nd tl) (VF § 35 81 N) rep rese n t thevo ic e less po in t stop , E n gl ish t (bu t se e 1 65, 2 c) batte,ifit , i hom oe, i bee, i bat , Sltlnn ués, Gioetbe, Ei ther .

No te 1 . This so u n d diffe rs from D in tha t it is vo ic e less1 50) a nd o fte n a spira ted 1 49, 1 N ) .

N o te 2 . I n the No rth a nd the M idla n d, t is, in c o l lo qu ia lspe e ch , ge n e ra lly silen t a fte r the fric a t ives o f tft a nd n icht :$ 3116 ié

’

u tcl)’

m ei (u ) Slinter (§ l 5o N 1 6; S o u th Ge rm a n s a re

ap t t o sa y n i’

t o r u e’

t), a lso 1 2 1 ) in bu gtl (t)lt,WWW WWW, ba lm bu r bu , bel lmau fage;

&c ., El lio l(t)fe, c f . 1 1 4 a nd 242 , d . F o r ft,

se e 2 2

No te 3 . (a ) I n som e wo rds from the Fren ch (o r su p

posed t o be fro m the Fren ch) t is sile n t : Ell a l etot p ct/ e ta"

,

5Bubget biiafgé’

(bu t a lso , a s from the En gl ish , 67td’

3 et ),e ran gem eu t (Sitablifiem en t

’

, &c . ; (6) bu t weha ve -7zt in D ir igen t

’

, Ssu ftrum eu t’

, in tell igeu t’

, &c . , th esebe in g from the La t in .

23 2 . ii be fo re a vowe l,in wo rds f rom the Lat in ,

usual lyfsj 2 0 1 N 3) Sel tifin

’

, Sl atifin’m art ial’ ‘Baiien t

’fil f

’

tie,

(Exerci’tium , gelue

’tieu ,

5860’t ien . No t in F re n ch wo rds w i th

te 2 : firifiol raiie’

,sBurtie

’

, & c .

i;(‘tE’-tsé

’

t’

se e 5.

233 . u ( u ) is the h igh-bac k-ro u n d vowe l , 1 3 4 & c . ,1 45.

Ge rm an u is h ighe r than the c o r respo n d in g E n gl ish so u n d ,a nd the f ro n t pa rt o f the to n gu e is d rawn farthe r back ;m o re ove r , the l ips a re m o re p ro t ru ded , 1 65, 1 .

p ronunc ia t ion 153

1 ) Whe n lo n g, it is l ike E n gl ish 00 in ‘bo o t ’:

'

6 cl7u le,

gu t , D lume, gu bu , l l 'bu’

(bo th u’

s) , gelb’li lu’m e.

2 ) Whe n sho r t,i t is n e a r ly the sam e as E n gl ish 00 in ‘fo o t ’

SUlu tter, Gilu cl , bumm , gumbolbt , &hlbung, Elitetrum ,

‘D u =ell’

No te 1 . I n the No rth , it is wide r tha n a a nd m a y e venappro a ch 5 in so u n d ; in th e S o u th , it appro a ches ft in

n a rrown ess.

No te 2 . A n a rrow sho rt it (tra n sc ribed u n o t 21 , 1 35 end)o c c u rs in u n stressed open syllables in a dopte d wo rds,1 44 N 2 6 : 6 tatu e, Stomm un ilt, &c . ; so m e , howeve r, u se a

wide vowe l in ste a d , espe c ia lly n ex t a stressed syllable .

No te 3 . Be c a refu l n o t t o pro n o u n c e Ge rm a n ii l ike E n gl ish u in ‘du st ’. Be c a refu l a lso n eve r t o pro n o u n c e Ge rm a n

u befo re i: a s in En glish ‘bu rr ’: so SBu t lcbe has $8 11 : as in

En gl ish bu ll’

, 1 67 6. F o r uub 3 7z(t ) o r see 1 1 3 end;

f o r gu = g , se e 1 99, 4 .

N o te 4 . B e c a re fu l n o t t o pro n o u n c e Ge rm a n 3 l ike E n gl ish u in ‘

u se’

,

‘c u be ’

, e t c . ; f o r this begin s wi th a j-so u n d(as tho u gh the wo rds we re written ‘yo u se ’ wh ich the

Ge rm a n a do es n o t ha ve , 1 66 . F o r dia le c tic ztg c f . 236 .

No te 5. F o r wo rds ha v in g {its a nd a nd f o r pfifien ,Sgiiften , 6 Cbfifter , bu t n ow gen e ra lly QBiift, m ilcbé, fl it

/

1&6, se e

§ 1 37 N 3 ; f o r Qiru cl)‘a so rt o f bre e ches ’

a lso ‘bog’

(bu t581m l)

‘bre a ch ,

’6 teinbru cl)

‘ 58 q ) , 5811698,

St u cben , lumen , i t a cbjefi, St ud) , SIBu cbero

, SBabu lcbe, Q uiche

(NE G ), t u ldfiln , maid) (bo th o fte n ii, in the No rth), se e

§ 1 37 N 1, in the M idla n d i udy, $ 113, a nd in the SW

.‘Bu cb, i nd) ,

C

{gl it cho fte n ha ve u ; f o r ©ebu t t , ra re ly ‘

fgu rt , se e

§ 1 4o 6 ; 11 11 : has it , e xc ept in pa rts o f the S o u th a nd the

M id la n d , bu t u t : has 11, § l 4o f t , exc ept in l l rtet l , 1l r tel ,1 39 a N . Un de r se c o n da ry stress, u o c c u rs in il rm u t , 5133t

ftbur , a nd the n am es e tbur , Gubrun , D r tt u tt , &c ., a lso (e xc ept a t th e S o u th) in : tum , a nd by a n a logy fi tttum , bu t n o t

in La t in sum ,sué, 810

° f o r SBu

’

bl tfum &c . , se e § 9 1 , 3 . The 11

issho rt in the n am e Su ther, a lso in f o r the adoptedwo rds R lub, p lu ‘fi , mum , fapu t(t), se e 1 38 N 3 ; f o r No rthGe rm a n Bug, &c . , se e 1 38 N 1 ; f o r 33 , 3am , aut , see

1 44 N 1, so genug gen e ra l ly has it when u n stressed, a nd

in som e pa rts e ven whe n s tressed, 1 04 , f o r Smith, m ufi(a lso ii in the S o u th), se e 2 28 N ; f o r i rutbabu , $Bugjprtet ,a nd n am es like $Brunbtlb, Q u il tin g, ll lr tcl), se e 1 39 6 N 3

° f o r

SG t u’

te, see 1 38 N 2 6 ; buaen a ndbuj(e) lig o ften ha ve u,espe c ia lly i n the No rth . F o r u in qu c f . 2 20.

154 p bonologg

23 4 . 119 as a spe l l in g fo r u m ain tain ed i tse lf lo n gest as a

c a pi tal , se e 2 2 R . u e ué'

in SDuell , .Q ongruengg, u luell’

,

guerft u ?” in 6 a’mu el 17 6 in 65m g z? in the n am esflogebue,

H ecbtlanb. F o r gu e gu t, se e 1 99, 4 .

235. iii (a diph tho n g —r m i,wi th bu t l i t t le m o re st ress

o n u than o n 7) o c c u rs o n ly in the exc lam a t io n sbu t a ndpju i.

No te . (a ) In som e Low-Ge rm a n n am es l ike EDu iéburg a ndSu ift , u i u , p . 1 09 f t ; u ie 27

°

in EBaraplu ie’

; (6) in D u tchn am es, u i o r 111) oj gu iberjee, S luué. (5) Elsewhe retit two vowe ls : Slui

’

ne, Sfii’

jen tba l , Q fi’

itpo lb, &c . ; o r , in

rapid o r dia le c t ic spee ch ,° a diph tho ng 747“

o r 721 .

2 36 . no (a diphtho n g = zig o r has ge n e ra l ly be c om e

u (flinch , S chu b , & c .,

2 2 ) bu t st i l l o c c u rs in the S o u th,

a nd in c e r ta in So u the rn n am es (l ike Q uoin , Sinobi) is o fte nren dered 77 0 o r u é

’in o the r parts o f Ge rm an y

,p . 1 08 f t .

2 3 7 . u u o r‘m u ta ted 1 2 0) is the h igh-f ro n t-ro u n d

vowe l 1 3 4 & c . ,Whe n lo n g i t is n a r row

,whe n

sho r t w ide c o n side rab ly a t the No r th,m u c h less a t

the So u th . D u rin g the fo rm at io n o f the vowe l , the to n gu e

15 in the posit io n f o r i , bu t the t ip o f it e i the r sin ks o r 15

d rawn in,a nd the l ips a re n o t o n ly n e arly c losed bu t also

som ewha t p ro t ru ded : in th is way the fro n t reso n an c e

c ham be rs (tha t is, the spac es ju st beh in d a nd in fro n t o f

the fro n t te e th) a re e n la rged,

1 3 2 . S in ge rs som e t im es

p rodu c e th is so u n d in p ro lo n g in g su c h a wo rd as‘ease ’

1 3 6 , 1 ) i t m ay a lso be heard in /zi'

p ,a c al l t o she ep

, § 1 36

a nd in a n affe c t ed p ro n u n c i a t ion o f “oh

,de a r

1 ) I t is,

lo n g in Ell luble, fur (dist in gu ished f rom uier by

ro u n din g), ‘Bapier’miib’le .pttimer , SBiicber, & c .

156 p honology

m an y Low-Ge rm a n n am es,m edia l v is vo ic e d :

Sl l lv ené’

alebeu ,

S v e, (Sam e, Sev er , fi lev e, Siav ensberg, S ievers, 6 tru v e,St rav e, Sev en .

239 . in tv er , jclnv er , amei , fi na l .

1 ) The re a re two ways o f p ro n o u n c in g m ,o r ra the r the re

a re two 10’

s. (4 ) The bi l abial m is fo rm e d wi th the two

l ips, as in the a c t o f blowin g . A f te r vo ic e less c o n so n a n ts

it is m o re o r less vo ic e less 1 1 9 , 1 50 N 2 6) a nd is t ran

sc r ibed B 2 39, 2 c) . The so u n d is e n o u gh l ike E n gl ish wt o be ge n e ral ly taken f o r i t by E n gl ish-spe ak in g pe ople , bu tin its p ro du c t ion the ba c k o f the to n gu e is n o t ra ise d t o the

u -posi t ion n o r is the re a n y te n se n ess o f the in side o f the

c he eks o r ro u n din g o f the l ips as is the c ase whe n E n gl ish w

is so u n ded . A re a l (En gl ish) 26,o r gt , m a y , howe ve r , be

he a rd in the S o u th-West . (6) The de n t i lab ial 10 (71) isfo rm ed wi th the u ppe r te e th a nd the lowe r l ip

,l ike E n gl ish v

,

bu t it is we ake r than o u r v , be in g m a de w i th less fr ic t io n .

2 ) (a ) I n the M idl an d a nd pa r ts o f the S o u th, the b i l abia ltv is u sed in a l l si tu a t io n s

,an d a is ge n e ra l ly vo ic e less tho ugh

we ak,

1 50,N 3 . (6) I n the No r th a nd ge n e ral ly o n the

stage , the de n t ilabia l 10 is u su a l ly em plo yed (QBajjer , Some,QIUm tn

'bu t a fte r a n s-so u n d (6 dflbejter , 5met) the bi l abi al

m is ve ry c omm o n,a nd in thi s posi t ion is m o re o r less

vo ic e less 1 50 N 2 6). (6) The 11 afte r q (quer , D uelle) is, inthe sam e way, so u n ded e i the r as B o r as v .

I n the pho n e t ic t ran sc r ip t io n s, 10 is ge n e ra l ly t ra n sc r ibe d

bu t jcljm, 3m ,a n d qu a re t ra n sc r ibed f B, tsB, 6B; 11> is the

sign f o r c om ple t e ly vo ic e less B, bu t wil l n o t be n e eded.

Rem a rks. (6 ) In the f ew wo rds (from Low Ge rm an a nd

En glish) tha t begin wi th 101: (2331311 6 , tv rau geln , the 10 is

m o re o r l essvo ic e less, l ike a we ak f ; i t is tra n sc ribed f n o t f .

p ronunciat ion 157

(6) tv is silen t in 6 bam l a nd a fte r 0, 1 75, 2 1 5. (6)in QBljijt . (a

’D ia le c tic a l ly iv in mit: be c am e (first o n ly af ter

the ve rb) 777 o r 6 : 777 7 (o r 67 ) Bal n = tv ir iv o ll en . (e) m = pin (Sa l iv , a S o u th-Ge rm a n town . (f ) When fin a l o r n ex t avo ic e less c o n so n an t in S la v ic n am es 10 f z urgeujetv T u r

gen e ff , Silabereivsti.

240 . g E n gl ish x in ‘o x

’

,tha t is

,61 1 3 7 N 1)

page, Smog, fiiri, (irempel (n o t eg I en v vbon , I ergee (n o t

No te 1 . Most pu re Ge rm a n wo rdsha ve cbé (pro n o u n c e d 65)wh e re the En glish c o rrespo n den t wo u ld le a d o n e t o expe c t 3,c f . 39, 1 82 .

No te 2 . (a ) i;is silen t in som e Fren ch wo rds, so the pl u ra l.‘Bur eaur biir d

’

, bu t D u reaua biir ri r’

is m o re c om m o n . (6) In

SDlegicv a nd o the r Spa n ish wo rds o n e o ften hea rs ii f o r 5.

579011 D u tgote is u su a l ly pro n o u n c ed ddn’

éif b’

t , in im ita tio n o f

Fren ch pro n u n c ia t io n .

2 4 1 . l) 677 -n ow ge n e ra l ly g untag, 211m.

The le t te r 1) o c c u rs in p rope r n am es a nd in som e wo rds

from the G re ek a nd o the r fo re ign la n gu ages. By the peop lege n e ral ly i t is p ro n o u n c ed l ike Ge rm an t, a nd is u su a l ly so

t a u gh t in the scho o ls bu t the stu dy o f G re ek has c a u sed a

re v iva l o f the o r ig in a l iZ-so u n d in wo rds that p la in ly showthe i r Gre ek o r igin ,

par t ic u la r ly if the 1) be lo n g. Thu s 72 is

c o n side re d “e legan t ”

in Sv’

rif , Elll v’tbe, an ouvm

’

, 5311111 11 ,

9 1 , 3 , 72 (less c om m o n ly if

) in SBrojel vt'

1 3 8 N 2 6) , ‘Bjtjcbe,a nd 27 in Elfivrte, Sibvtljm ué a lué (exc ep t io n t o

9 1 , g vmb'

fil’

,& c .

,a nd eve n in lun chen E n gl ish

f lyn c h’

) On the o the r ha n d , the n a tu ral p ro n u n c ia t io n hasestabl ished i tse lf eve n in the spe l lin g in (S ips, é tlbe, 6 m

158 p bonologu

Lat in stz'

l us, bu t fo rm e rly wr it t en 6 tvl) , 3 imbel , a nd

z”

is u su al ly hea rd in c om m o n wo rds : filgvvten , espe c ial ly inu n st ressed syl lables 139113111151 , .fgvpotbet

'

, g vjtém'

, fl urau n'

,

& c . A nd in m ost p rope r n am es (e tl , Rfiburg, 65111111153,6 5h , QBijf, & c .) a ndwhe n fin al in fo re ign wo rds l ike Surf) ,

E n gl ish nam es l ike a nd P o l ish n am es

in zit) , the r) i .

Rem a rks. In som e wo rds from fo re ign la n gu ages 1) j‘y arb, ‘y u catan . S e e a lso 2 1 3 c end, 1 74, 1 9 1 .

(6) In som e D u tch n am es 1) (o r ii, 20) = a1'

(as in En gl ish ,1 66 11 R) : a) , Quern o r Sjvem , Slivfiel , Sivetv vt o r ill iil tv ijt ;

bu t Shimmegen .

242 . 3 a nd i; (‘tE’-tsé

’

t'

is in E n gl ish ‘fits’

1 69 N 11) o r’t

’s I :

‘I t is I .

’

So 5u , l urg, gebn ,

ev ivfa’

No te 1 . téis u sed o n ly (exc ept in som e n am es D auben ,SBoigenbu rg, 01615, 65mg, Sheen , é clnv

’

ég) dire c tly a f t e r . a

sho rt vowe l : irhiz» , 6 01136, Stage ; bu t 3 a fte r a c o n so n a n t o r

a lo n g vowe l : EUlieae, Stov i’

ae ; QBiirael .No te 2 . (a ) The st u den t m u st le a rn t o pro n o u n c e dis

t in c t ly ts a nd n o t be sa tisfied with d’a o r 2 . (6) Rem em be r,

howeve r, tha t f; is o n ly a wa y o f writin g .r 4 1 , 2 6, 3 6) a ndhas n o t-so u n d. (6) Ini t ia l ly in D u tch a ndLG (gu iberjee,Sev en) a nd sa vage n am es wi th D u tch o r En gl ish spe l lin g(samben, gauaibar), a nd in a f ew o the r fo re ign wo rds (65058,58a3ar , fgaaarb) , 3, 2 ;bu t 3q u su a lly has 5: a ndSBaaa

‘

r

is a lso pro n o u n c ed (d) In 558 1301156, o c c asio n

a lly a lso o ften tt , I, in gana, 6 cbm a l5, &c . , 1 2 1 a nd 1 2 2 end.

F o r the o c c asio n a l loss o f t in (t hat &c . , c f . 1 1 4 .

(e) is re ta in e d in som e wo rds from the I ta l ia n , e t c . :

Giranbeaaa , S tiaae, § 48, 1 1 e nd.

9" The o ldspe l lin g was f icter 48, a n d'

o n e st ill hea rs the p ron u n c ia tio n , 1 79 6.

p ronuncia tion 161

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{ hopfer i

TH E NATURE OF ACCENT

2 44 . M e n t al a nd em o t io n al sta te s have c o r respon din g

physic a l'

st a t es, a nd these t o som e ext e n t affe c t spe ec h .

Exc it em e n t is ac c om pa n ied by a te n se c o n di t io n o f the

m u sc les; a n d in c re ased t e n sio n o f the vo c a l c ho rds resu ltsin a r ise in p i t ch, 74 2. Tha t ide a that m ost keen ly bu siesthe m in d is exp ressed with m ost vigo r

, o r st ress o f vo ic e,

2 67 . S t ress a ndpi tc h,be in g thu s the n atu ral a c c om p a n i

m e n ts o f m e n ta l a nd em o t io n al ac t ivi ty,be c om e re c ogn ized

as the ir sym bo ls a nd a re m o re o r less c om m o n ly u sed as

m e an s o f ac c e n t u a t i'

on .

2 45. A c c en t m ay , the refo re , c o n sist in st ress o f vo rc e o r

in e levat ion o f pit ch . W e m ay speak o f st ress o f vo ic e as

“ ac c en t ”

,bu t it is be t ter t o design at e it by the m o re

sp e c ific t e rm“st ress. S t ress a nd pit c h m ay c o n t in u e side

by side , o n e the sym bo l o f in te l le c tu al , the o the r o f em o t io n alac t iv i ty

,a nd th is is in ge n e ral t ru e o f Ge rm an ic lan gu ages.

A s,howeve r, a chan ge in st ress is ap t to be a c c om pan ied

Behaghe l : 6 252522522 527 5222252525 527 5 252, in Pa u l ’s Gru n driss I .,

1 890. B ra n dt : 6 e77 7za n Gr a m m a r , 4th ed., 1 888. H u ss : £ 257 2 °

270772

A ccen t 527° 52222525272 S27 5 252, 1 877 . Klu ge : V07g 252522522 527° 52252277 72.D 2

'

522522 , in Pa u l ’sGru n driss I . , 1 889. M in o r : N 2225025522225252 211 227 25,

1 893 . Pa u l : P r z'n 22'22272 527’ S27 5 25g252522522, 2d cd.,1 886 ;

' D 22225252

211 227 25, in his Gru n driss I I . , 1 893 . Re iche l : V072 527 52222525272 B e

20n 22ng , 1 888. S ieve rs : P 50722225, 4th ed. , 1 893 ; P 50722225, in Pa u l ’sGru n drissI ., 1 889. S to rm : E ng l z

‘

sc/ze I . (r ), 1 892. Vic to r

Ger m a n P r on u n c ia tion , 2d ed., 1 890 ; ,F 5an 2tz

'

5, 2d cd. , 1 894. Vic to r

a nd V a le t te : D e (22252772255 z7a n 522 21 003 52222525, 1 889. W ilm a n n s

0 222252222 6 7 5 7727725225 I ., 1 893.

166 a ccent

by a c han ge in p it c h 258 end, 26 1 N x) , st ress m ay be re

plac ed by pit c h , espe c ial ly when the n u m be r o f syl lables isredu c ed ; o r a n ew p i tch-ac c e n t m ay deve lope two o r three

syl lables dist an t f rom the st ress-ac c e n t . When a c e r tain

pi tc h ge ts at tac hed in th is way to a wo rd o r t o a syl l able o f

a wo rd,it is c al led fixed pit ch in d ist in c t io n from fre e

p it ch

No te 1 . S tress a ndpi tch a re the two m ost n a tu ra l m ean s

o f a c c en tu a tio n , stress be in g the c ru de r o f the two . Mo rea rtfu l m e an s a r e u n u su a l slown ess o f u t te ra n c e , u n expe c tedpa u ses, a nd the su bstitu t io n o f wh ispe r 96, 1 32 N2) fo rvo ic e . The first two a re ve ry e ffe c tive u n less o ve rdo n e ; thelast is su itable t o f ew o c c asio n s a nd is ap t t o be resen ted byl isten e rs as be in g t o o a rt ific ia l .No te 2 . S tress fo rm s the basis o f rhythm ; pitch tha t o f

m e lody .

168 a ccen t

FRE E PITCH

2 48 . 1 ) In m ost lan gu ages p i tch is st il l free 2 45 end)a nd exp resses em o t io n s a nd at t itu des o f m in d rathe r than

ide as. I t is m u c h harde r t o observe than st ress, a nd has

n o t ye t re c e ived sa t isfa c to ry stu dy. In to n at io n is,howeve r

,

a p re t ty t ru e im age o f em o t io n al a nd in te l le c tu al a t t itu des,a nd has n o t be e n m u ch in flu en c ed by an alogy o r c rys

t a l ized in to se t schem es,as se n t e n c e-st ress has

,2 79 & c .

Chan ges in pi t c h are easi ly a nd frequ en t ly c on fo u n ded with

cha n ges in st ress.

2 ) T o a ve ry la rge ext en t in to n at ion is qu it e u n c o n sc io u slype rfo rm ed

,a ndwe ra re ly obse r ve i t in o u rse lves o r in those

that spe ak aswe do . Bu t a n un u su al m odu l a t io n is a t o n c e

n o t ic ed , a n d its m u sic al qu a l i ty de te c ted ; we say su c h

people sin g whe n they spe ak . The t ru th is,we al l “

sin g ”

,

bu t in d iffe re n t m e lo d ies,a nd the fam i l iar o n e is n o t heard .

Som e l an gu ages a re m o re m u sic al than o the rs : the to n es a re

pu re r , the n o tes a re he ld som ewha t,a nd the gl ides from o n e

to an o the r a re m o re fre qu e n t a nd rap id . F re n ch a nd the

R om an c e lan gu ages ge n e ral ly a re v e ry m u sic a l, E n gl ish

m u ch l ess so,Ge rm an in te rm ed ia te . The ave rage key is

som ewha t h ighe r in Ge rm an than in E n gl ish, as the F ren c h

is h ighe r than the Ge rm an . Bu t these st at em e n ts a re

ge n e ral o n ly . I n m an y pa r ts o f Ge rm a n y the Spe e ch is less

m e lod io u s tha n,f o r exam ple

,in o u r So u the rn S ta tes and

a lo n g o u r se a-c o ast . C l im a te has m u c h to do wi th the

m a t te r : a c o l d c l im a te a nd l i fe in do o rs affe c t u n favo rablythe vo c a l c ho rds 2 2 1

, 3 R I) a nd the so f t pala tea nd also redu c e spo n ta n e i ty o f Sp i r it

,1 04 , 3 . A ge a nd

se x also exe r t the i r in fl u e n c e : the spe e ch o f c h i ld re n is

m o re m e lo dio u s than tha t o f o lde r pe ople,tha t o f wom e n

u su al ly m o re so tha n that o f m e n,c f . 74 2. The re is also

gre a t dive rsi ty in fam i l ies a nd am o n g in d iv idu als.

D itch 169

CH IE F KEYS

249 . E xc i tem en t , whethe r pleasan t o r u n p le asa n t , indu c es t e n sio n a nd so a h ighe r key . S u ffic ie n t in te rest in a

subje c t t o in du c e o n e t o ask qu est io n s m ay su ffi c e t o ra ise

the pit ch thro ugho u t . I n som e E n gl ish diale c ts i t star ts ve ryh igh

,

’

bu t f al ls rap id ly 251 c N ) ; in m ost l an gu ages,how

eve r,it r ises dist in c t l y o n the l ast wo rd o r two 251

Ordin ary a c t iv ity is refle c t ed in a m iddle key . R esign at io n

to disappo in tm en t o r gr ie f in du c es re l axa t io n ,a nd so a

lowe r key . M o reove r,fe a r

,as also regard f o r a so lem n

p lac e o r o c c asio n , o r f o r the fe e l in gs o f o the rs, le ads t o a

lowe r in g o f the n a tu ra l p i tch . The re is a lso a ha lf-apo loge t iclower in g o f the key o n in t ru din g a pare n the t ic c lau se .

CH IE F FOR I’

IS OF INTONATION

250 . A s pi tch re fle c ts m oo ds ra the r tha n tho ughts,it is,

o f‘

c o u rse,

c apable o f tho u san ds o f m o dific at io n s ; st i ll,

c e r tain fo rm s ha ve be c om e a sso c ia ted wi th c e rtain f r e

qu e n t ly re c u r r in g a t t i tu des o f m in d o r fe e l in g,a nd thu s ge t

som e th in g o f a gram m a t ic a l va lu e . I n the app l ic at io n o f

these fo rm s m ost lan gu ages agre e . The c h ie f fo rm s o f

in to n at io n a re

Le v e l (ra re ly re al ly leve l , 253)slowly

R lsm g qu ic klyslowly

F a l l in g qu ic kly

R isin g In t o n a t io n

251 . A r isin g in to n a t io n o r I c f . 250) is, in ge n eral,asso c iated wi th in c om ple te n ess a nd hen c e wi th exp e c tan c y.

1 70 E ccen t

5 ) A t a p au se that in t e rru p ts what be lo ngs in t im a te lytoge the r : QBie bag tam , Iafien mit fie ie ft ergablen . Gie

that 23 , met! €5ie n ich t anherfi foun te. No t so be fo re a hennc l au se , wh ich is re al ly a n af te rtho u ght . C‘Eie that 36 ; bermfie foun te n ich t anberé. Cf . 252 a N x .

5) I n a n exp ressio n o f su rp rise , . f o r exam ple,a n e x

c lam at io n a t som e th in g ve ry p le a san t o r ve ry al armin g

The wo rd af te r a n exc lam a t io n o f te n has fal l in g l n

to n at io n,

254 , 256 5, ,c 3 05 N2

,end. F o r 91d) ! c f . § 256 2.

2) I n qu est io n s o f fa c t : fiber fann te er bie inn erIicben Giriinbe‘

3

S im i la r ly 1n st atem e n tsm ean t as qu est io n s . SDu fi'

trcfjteft bid) .9

c f . 2 be low. Bu t when repe a ted being e qu iv a l e n t to the

sta tem e n t : “Wha t I asked was, e t c .,the sen ten c e c loses

w i th fa l l in g in fle c t io n (c f . 3 03 , A t fi rst : .{gat er

Gi’

elb? R epe a ted : .fgat er Cf . 5 be low. F o r o the rqu est io n s se e 252 5, 256 252 2.

No te . In som e En gl ish a nd I rish c o u n t ies a qu est io nbegin swi th a high pitch , wh ich fa lls rapidly u n til the e nd o f

the qu estio n is re a ched this in to n a tio n m u st n o t bein tro du c e d in to Ge rm a n . S e e a lso 256 2 N .

5) In vo c a t ives tha t an t ic ipa te a n an swe r o r,a t le ast ,

a t te n t io n : Sfifitter ‘ Bu t whe n repe a ted , w i th the fo rc e o f

“ I was c a l l in g yo u , the f a l lin g in to n a t io n is u se d : fl atter !252 2 82 2 ; a lso 3 03 , 3 04 .

2) In sta tem e n ts m e an t t o test o the rs o r to cha l len ge areply : (Sr ift bocf) ein

‘

gu ter Elfieri

id) . Cf . 2552 251 2 .

f ) I n c o n c essive st a tem e n ts, w ith a n obje c t io n im pl ied :

mar (3mm ) ein netter Smenjcf) (o r Emerita) , Sci; jagte

n icbtés. S im i la r ly la w i th r'

,2 47 .

Q

g) I n o ffe rs im plyin g a c o n di t io n 3d) gebe bit meine fl ficbter .

Bu t he re V is m o re c om m o n,

255 c .

5) On re lu c tan t c losin g o f a c o n ve rsat io n ,o r o n tak in g

le ave , half c hal len gin g the l iste n e r to say m o re o r n o t0

ac c ep t the c o n c essm n o r the “ go od-bye 921 m, abteu !

172 E ccent

No te . (5) If the pe rso n asked has n o t u n de rsto o d the

qu est io n , i t is repea ted wi th fa l lin g in to n a tio n : first, iBie betfit22 2; repe a ted, ‘l Bie _Ezeifit Er ? 303 N 4 ) the qu estion be in gequ iva le n t t o the sta tem e n t “ The wo rd I sa id was rote

n o t fiBibt .

”

(5) Bu t if the qu estio n e r has n o t u n de rsto o dthe a n swe r a ndso asks aga in , he u ses risin g in to n a tio n : QBie

M e’

t ? ; the qu estio n be in g equ iva len t t o “ W ho did yo usay i t was

2 ) In disju n c t ive qu est io n s, the fi rst m em be r (the re a l

qu est ion ) has the r isin g in to n at io n o f a qu est ion 2

the se c on d p art (o r igin al ly a n an t ic ip ated reply) has the

fal l in g in to n at io n o f a stat em en t : FIBiIIjt bu [)iet bleiben obet

nati) {genie g‘

eben ?F o r repeat ed qu est io n s, c f . 251 c 82 252 dN.

253 . Le v e l In f lec t io n c f . 250) is in dic a t ive o f in

diffe ren c e o r o f c alm thought,asin m u sin g

, e tc . A bso lu t e lyl eve l in fle c t ion is r are ; the re are u su al ly sl ight r ises a nd

f al ls, 2 46.

COI'

IPOUND INTONATION

254 . Com po u n d in to n at io n m ay o c c u r whe n the re is a

rapid c han ge in m o od o r a c o n fl ic t in g m o od . What is gen

e ra l ly design at ed as a sim ple r isin g o r a sim ple fa l l in g251 , 252 ) in to n at io n is o fte n re al ly m o re o r less c om

pou n d (c f . § 25r f ) , a ndwha t we te rm a c om p o u n d in to n a t io n

som et im es has o the r e lem e n ts subo rdin at e t o the two c h ie f

o n es,

2555, 2 .

255. F a l l in g r isin g (V

) c o n c lusio n e x pe c tan c y,252 and 251 .

Rem a rk . I t will be o bse rve d tha t this in to n a tio n is gen era l ly asso c ia ted with a n in c om ple te o r hesita tin g presen tat io n o f the c ase . I ts exc essive u se by m a n y Am e ric an sm akes upo n Ge rm an s a nd En glishm en a n im pressio n o f

weakn ess a nd in de c isio n .

5) Apo loge t ic o r po l ite warn in g. Thu s QBOt jicljtig ! wi th

p itch 173

fal l in g in fle c t io n is blu n t , l ike a c om m an d , § 252 2 ; bu t if

the spe ake r,when half way thro u gh, fe e ls that it is pe rhaps

n o n e o f his bu sin ess, a nd that the pe rso n warn ed m ight t ake

o ff e n c e,he lets his vo ic e r ise again as in a qu est io n (251 c)

flint jichtig .I

5) M i ld statem en t,subm it ted fo r app roval : foun te

v ielleich t m iféehn . Cf . 251 2 . S im ilar ly exc u ses.

2) A c a u t io u s o ffe r a sta tem en t o f pe rm issio n qu e ry

whe the r the o ffe r wil l be ac c ep ted : $ 116 fannjt bu haben .

5) Ge n t le re fu sal : Sch bante, in plac e o f the u su al Schbbn fe. .

A lso rest r ic ted ac qu iesc e n c e 35, 247 e nd. Cf .

254. e nd.

2) E xc lam at ion expressin g playf u l rep ro o f o f dete c ted

rogu e ry : D h! Cf . 254 e nd a nd § 2 6 1 N ‘.

256 . Risin g f a l l in g (A ) e x pe c tan c y 251 ) the

reve rse

Rem a rk . I t wil l be o bse rved tha t in m ost c ases this into n a t io n is asso c ia ted by Ge rm a n s andAm e ric a ns wi th som e

fo rm o f disappro va l o r c o n tem pt . I ts la vish u se by En gl ishm en is the refo re ap t t o give o ffen c e whe re n o t in ten ded.

5 ) S arc ast ic a nd c o n tem p tu ou s rep l ies. 91th! wi th r isin g

to n e shows expe c tan cy o r su rp r ise I f o n e says

fil th .I wi th r isin g t o n e bu t le ts the t o n e fal l again , he le ads the

l iste n e r to su ppose he is su rp r ised o r de l igh ted , o n ly to

chagr in him again : 91 th .I S im i larly $1311 .

I Bu t Ql chm ay alsobe said in c o n so l in g

,espec ial ly p a tro n iz in gly. Cf . R .

above .

5) E xc lam at ion s exp ressin g su rp r ise o r in dign at io n re

p ro a chfu l resign at io n o r in c redu lo u s retu rn t o a st at e of sat is

fac t io n o r in di ff e re n c e,e t c . : 2151112121 91th! Cf . 251 2,

252 2 .

2) E xc l am at io n s exp ressin g assu ran c e , o r rathe r su rpr ise

a t do ubt c alm assu ran c e : Sdtnohl ! in stead o f the u su al

3 117 110191 !

174 p itch

5 ) In c redu lo u s qu estio n = qu estio n ex pressio n o f in

c redu l ity : SD u moIItejt hififihn ? o r $ 11 moIIteft both n ich t

hiflfihn ? Bu t in th is c ase sim p le r isin g in to n at ion 51 c)is also c om m on .

2) I n qu i ry as to a qu est io n : [$D u m i llit mifien ] 53 5 et

to'

f ift ? Bu t in th is c ase , to o , the S lm p le r isin g in to n at io n

251 2) is also c om m on .

No te . I n som e pa rts o f Ge rm an y, as a lso in the En gl ishtha t is a ffe c ted by Pen n sylva n ia Ge rm a n , this c o m po u n d into n a tio n is u sed in o rdin a ry qu est io n s in stea din to n a tio n , 251 .

D EGRE E S OF INTONATION

257 . 5) A 252 7 252 ac c om pan ies e lat io n and lac k o f

rest rain t .

5) A 5225752 7 252 de n o t es exc i tem e n t rest rain ed thro u gh

f ear o r sham e,f o r exam ple

,su rp r ise a t som eth in g t o be

regret ted .

2) A 522¢ f 521 ac c om p an ies de te rm in at io n .

5) A 52231752f a l l in dic ates u n c o n c e rn ed c o n c lusio n .

176 a ccen t

2) Bu t it m u st n o t be su pposed that stress and so n o r i tya re always p aral le l . The gre ater n e ed o f st ress that o n e

so u n d has m ay n o t be m e t : fo r exam ple,in su ch a wo rd as

@alIe g527), the fin al e is le f t t o ge t o n wi th su c h bre athas is le f t o n the loosen in g o f the I 87, a nd is

,hen c e

,

ve ry weak,

1 00 2,1 87 1 .

TH E FORM S OF S TRE S S

260 . I t is possible to ke ep st ress u n ifo rm fo r a sho rt t im e

(Le v e l S t r ess : E ) , o r even t o in c re ase it to a c e r tain

exten t (Swe l l in g S t ress : bu t the m ost n a tu rala nd u su al st ress begin s st ron g a nd bec om es we aker (S u bsidin g S t r ess : Thu s the exc lam at ion D ! m ay

be he ard with leve l st resswhen o n e su dden ly c he c ks h im se lfin a n exc ited c al l ; the sam e so u n d m ay be heard wi th

swe l l in g st ress from the l ips o f a su ff e re r,espec ial ly o n e

u n de rgo in g an opera t io n ; wh ile D wi th subsidin g st ress is

the c om m o n ex c lam at io n o f su rp r ise . Cf . 2 75 R .

26 1 . The fo rc e with wh ich the st ream o f bre ath issu es

from the lu n gs m ay be in c reased : if th is in c re ase is c o n

side r abl e , we re c ogn ize it as a n ew bre ath-im pu lse,m akin g

a n ew syl l able if bu t sl ight,we c on side r it as a part

o f the n e ighbo r in g st ron g im pu lse , and regard the two as

o n e wi th Com po u ndS t r ess (n ), o r do uble swel l . Cf . n o t e

be low. Su c h st resses are c om m on in iso lated m on osyl lablesl ike $D a , 3a , 650, e t c ., with lon g fin al vowe l ; o c c asio n al lyalso in m on osyl lables l ike Iahm , i hal (with lo n g vowel a nd

fo l lowin g so n o rou s c on so n an t), p rovided they st an d m o re o r

less alon e , o r a t least fin al ly,a nd have u n u su al im po rt .

Th is t enden cy is even m o re c om m on in E n gl ish , espec ial lytha t spoken in A m e r ic a, fo r exam p le , 1n n o

,

’ ‘o n

,

’ ‘han d,

’

hesit a t in g ‘a nd

,

’

e t c . I n c e rt ain Ge rm an diale c ts — S ax on,

S t ress 177

Thu r in gian,e t c .

— it is obse rved in m o re c ases than those

given above . I t n e ed n o t be d ist in gu ished in m arkin g st ress.

No te 1 . I t wil l be n o tic ed tha t the c o n dition s f o r thisstress a r e o ften the sam e as those f o r c om po u n d , in to n a tio n s,§ zsse ~

N o te 2 . The l in e dividin g m o n osyl lableswith do u ble swe l lfrom dissyl lables is o n e o f pe rso n a l fe e l in g, 85N 2 . I f the

weak swe l l c o in c ideswith a sl igh t supe rio rity in so n o ri ty o nthe pa rt o f the so u n d o n which i t fa lls, the ea r is ap t t o

de c ide in favor o f a n ew syl lable .

262 . S t ress m ay be abru pt o r gradu al : A br u pt S t ress

( I ) is that wh ich, be fo re it has had t im e to subside pe r

c ep t ibly , is su dden ly c u t o ff ; G radu a l S t ress subsides

by u n i fo rm degre es. The abru p t st ress is he ard l n st ro n gly

st ressed syl lab les hav in g a sho r t vowe l : ba , $ afl,hatte ; the

gra du al st ress (1 ) in we ak syl lables : (Sieha l t , §Bat ett, ijt iot t ,a nd (2) in st ro n g syl lables havin g a lo n g vowe l : ba , Elfiahl ,haben .

Rem a rk 1 . A c o n so n an t c lo sin g a syl lable wi th stressbroken o ff abruptly while i t isstill stro n g , isn a tu ra l ly stro n ge rthan o n e c losin g a syl lable with stress tha t has gradu a lly die do u t o r is we ak . Cf. a lso 1 00.

Rem a rk 2 . The sta tem en ts m a de in § 262 a re in gen e ra ltru e o f No rth ' Ge rm a n a nd o f British En glish . In m a n ypa rts '

o f Ge rm a n y, a nd in En gl ish as spoken in Am e ric a , theabrupt stress is ra re , m ostly. be c a u se o f the ten den c y t o

len gthen m o re o r less the sho rt stressed vowe ls.

D EGRE ES OF STRES S

There a re var io u s degrees o f st ress,bu t it is gen

era l ly n o t n e c essary t o d ist in gu ish m o re than the Ch ie f ( I )and the S e c onda ry c al l in g al l o the r syl l ables we ak, o r

u n st ressed . When it is n ec essary t o dist in gu ish the we ak

st resses, they m ay be c al led W ea k V e ry We ak

a ndUn st ressed (n o t m arked , o r sym bo l ized by S e n ten c e

1 78 a ccen t

st ress is best in dic a ted by l in es d rawn u n de r the'

st ressed

wo rd ;‘

thu s,

in d ic ates c h ie f st ress,

sec o n da ry,a nd we ak ; bu t the last m ay u su al ly

go u n in dic a ted . Ch ie f st ress m ay be in c re ased to va r io u s

degre es,espe c ial ly in sen te n c e-st ress.

No te 1 . (5 ) These te rm s a re n o t'

abso lu te : f o r in sta n c e , these c o n da ry stress o f o n e wo rd m a y be gre a te r tha n tha t o f

a n o the r ; tha t o n a c o m po u n d is ge n e ra l ly grea te r tha n tha to n a de riva tive . (5) The se c o n da ry stress appro a ches inva lu e t o the ch ief (as the weak appro a ches in va lu e t o these c o n da ry) the fa rthe r i t is rem o ved 278, 3 5) a nd the lo n ge rthe syllable o n which i t rests (N (2) Mo re o ve r, c o n sisten c yin the m a rkin g o f se c o n da ry a ndwe ak stresses is n o t a im eda t ; whe re the le a rn e r wo u ld o f h im se lf stress c o rre c tly, thesestresses m a y o ften be left u n in dic a ted .

No te 2 . A hea vy , o r lo n g , syllable m ust n o t bec o n fo u n de d wi th a stresse d syllable : f o r exam ple , in QIb'jicht'the l igh te r syllable has the stro n ge r stress; still ,

'

a hea vysyllable has a te n de n c y t o a t tra c t the stress, a nd so m e tim es

su c c e eds,No te 3 . S en ten c e-stress is o rdin a rily in dic a ted by the u se

o f spa c ed le t te rs (aswe u se ita l ics) : hatte 3 111 e i flinbet ,

n i cht b t e i . Em pha t ic eitt ‘o n e is a lso so m e tim es prin te d

(Sui t! o r ein t o distin gu ish i t from ein a 300.

TH E BA S IS OF STRE S S = PLA CING

264 . The pla c in g o f st ress is depe n den t u po n va r io u s

fa c to rs, wh ich m ay wo rk in harm o n y o r a t c ross-pu rposes.

Rem a rk . I t is, the refo re , a t tim es im po ssible t o say whicho f two o r m o re l ike ly c a u ses m a y ha ve be en Ope ra tive , o r

whe the r m o re tha n o n e m a y n o t ha ve be en 275,S im ila rly, whe n a va c illa tio n in u sage appea rs, i t is n o t

a lways e asy t o te l l be twe en wha t fa c to rs the c o n flic t is. I t

m a y appe a r t o be be twe e n rhythm 5) a nd logic (2 o r 3 be low),bu t re a lly be be twe en rhythm a nd a tra ditio n (I ) wh ich hasestabl ishe d the logic a l stress ; i t m a y appea r t o be be twe enlogic a nd a n a lo gy bu t re a lly be be twe en logic a nd a

traditio n tha t has establ ishe d the a n a logic a l stress, e t c .

The f ac to rs a re (1 ) t radi t io n , (2 ) the sta te o f m in d o f the

spe ake r, (3) his c o n side rat io n fo r the m in d o f the l ist en e r ,

180 a ccent

S TATE OF M IND OF TH E SPE AKER

Psy c ho log ica l S u bjec t a nd Pr edica t e

266 . 1 ) A se n t en c e in vo lves the asso c iat io n o f a t le asttwo ideas: the o n e fi rst in m in d is the psyc ho log ic al subje c t ;the o n e that a t tac hes i tse lf t o th is is the psycho log ic a l p redic ate . These m ay o r m ay n o t c o in c ide wi th the gram m a t ic al

su bje c t a nd the gram m a t ic al p red ic a te . Thu s,if J ohn is in

m in d,a nd som e ac t io n o f his (say the ki l l in g o f a c a t) p re

se n ts itse lf t o the m in d, f 05n is the psycho logic al (a nd

gram m a t ic al) subje c t , a nd 521125 252 252 the psycho logic al

(a nd gram m at ic a l) p re d ic a te . Bu t if the ki l l in g o f the c a t

is in m in d,a nd the qu est io n a r ises W5o 525 22? the n ,

in

f o5n 521125 252 252 [2 22755 _10572 22750 525 521125 252 252

is the psycho logic a l subje c t, a nd J o5n the psycho log ic alp re dic at e . I f i t is kn own tha t J ohn has p u t som e th in g in

the c e l la r,bu t n o t wha t

,the n

,in j 0572 2222 252 522125 2n 252

22115 7,the psycho log ic a l p red ic a te is 252 522125. I f it is

asked whe re he pu t the app les, the n 272 252 22115 7 is the

psycho log ic al p red ic at e .

2 ) Wh i le i t is t ru e tha t a psyc ho l ogic a l su bje c t m ay be

a n y m em be r o f a se n te n c e,a nd tha t a psyc ho logic al p redi

c at e'

m ay also be a n y m em be r o f a se n t en c e ; st i l l , in the

gre at m ajo r i ty o f c ases, the gram m a t ic al subje c t is a psy

cho logic a l su bje c t a nd the psycho logic al p redic at e is e x

p ressed by a ve rb o r a ve rbal m odifie r . A s be twe e n the

ve rb a nd its m odifie r,the la t t e r is u su al ly the psycho logic al

p redic a te,the ve rb be in g a psycho logic al su bje c t . I n som e

c ases, the ve rb rep rese n ts o n ly a m e n t al gl ide 2 68)f rom the psycho logic al (a nd gram m a t ic al) subje c t t o the

psycho logic al p redic a te . The m od ifie rs o f n o u n s (u sin g“n o u n s

”in the se n se o f “

substan t ives a nd adje c t ives”

)

S t ress 181

and o f adve rbs a re u su a l ly subo rdin a te (No t e 3) o r degen ~

c rat e (No te 2 ) psyc ho log ic al p red ic a tes.

No te 1 . Two pe rso n s m ay ha ve the sam e ide a in m in d (i tha v in g be e n su ggeste d by sigh t , by hea rin g , o r o the rwise);this is then psycho log ic a l su bje c t t o a n y predic a tio n e ithe rm ay m ake as t o i t . Bu t wha t is psycho logic a l su bje c t t o o n e

pe rso n is o ften qu ite u n kn own t o the o the r u n t il fo rm a l lysta ted 279, Mo reo ve r, I m ay be tra y by m y a c tio nwha t is t o m e psycho logic a l predic a te ; i t thu s be c om es psy

cho l ogic a l su bje c t t o a n o bse rve r, a ndwhe n I sta te m y psycho logic al su bje c t, i t will be his psycho logic a l predic a te .

No te 2 . (5 ) The re m a y be m o re tha n o n e psycho log ic a lpredic a te to o n e psycho logic a l su bje c t . Thu s in S ch IiebeQiatet 1111b Emu ttet ,

“

S ch [1666 is psycho logic a l su bje c t t othe two psyc ho lo gic a l predic a tes fil atet a ndSllu ttet . (5) S u chpredic a tes m a y be expressed c oordin a te ly : fD et 91111111 11 mata lt u nb hiifilich; o r o n e predic a te m ay n o t be expressed as a

predic a te a t a l l , bu t be assu m ed a ndbro u gh t in a t tribu t ive ly :$ 61: a lte 201mm mat hdfslich. S u ch assu m ed predic a tes a re

c a l led degen e ra te 286) a nd a r e a ll ied t o psycho logic a l subje c ts. (2) In the sen ten c e 23m: Ell l arm au f bet E t eppe mat

hil'

fal ich, au f bet i t eppe is o f a n in te rm edia te cha ra c te r a ndst il l n ea r, in fo rm a t least , t o the fu l l predic a te .

No te 3 . Psycho logic a l su bje c ts a nd psycho logic a l predic a tes m a y be su bo rdin a te t o o the rs thu s, in S ch Itebe Qia tetu ttb Slllu ttet , the psycho logic a l su bje c t “

S ch Iiehe”is m a de

up o f the su bo rdin a te psycho lo gic a l su bje c t “

Sch a nd the

su bo rdin a te psycho logic a l predic a teNo te A psycho logic a l su bje c t o r predic a te m ay be

m o re o r less u n defin ed ; be c a u se o f in abil ity, haste , o r m en ta lla z in ess, we ' fa il t o defin e i t in o u r own m in ds and so a re

fo rc ed to express it by a n in defin i te wo rd o r , if seekin g t o

defin e i t, by a n in te rroga t ive wo rd , 30 1 . Cf. a lso 272 , 3 .

D om in a n c e o f a Pa rt ic u la r Idea

267 . That wh ich is fo rem ost in the m in d o f a m an im

p e’ls him to its exp ressio n m o re than wha t is in the bac k

gro u n d . The m ost p r im i t ive fo rm o f exp ressio n (st i l l o ftenhe a rd in exc ited spe e ch) is that in wh ic h o n ly th is u ppe rm ost idea, the psycho logic a l p redic ate , is expressed, — as

182 a ccent

when the c hild says o n ly 91116 ! tho ugh he kn ows then am e o f the fo od he has e at en o r o f the p e rso n tha t hasle ft the ro om a nd in m o re de ve loped fo rm s o f speech

this st i l l gen e ral ly ha s m ost st ress. Cf . also 2 73 R .

Rem a rk . Fro m the sam e c a u se , exc itable people , espe c ia l lychildren , a re in c lin ed t o ra ise the pitch when expressin g thepsycho logic a l predic a te .

Cu r r e n t s o f Thou ght

268 . 1 ) Thou gh the c u r re n t o f o u r tho ught is c o n t in u ous,the ra te o f chan ge va r ies. When the ra te is slow

, the

tho u gh t assu m es a m o re o r less defin i te a nd stable fo rm,

a nd we spe a k o f i t by som e su c h wo rd as c o n c ep t ”.

When the rate is rap id,we obse rve n o th in g o r a r e o n ly

awa re o f a t ran si t io n be twe en the c o n c ep t ju st past a nd on e

tha t we a r e app ro ac hin g,a nd we r e a l iz e . this m en tal gl ide

ra the r as the re l a t io n be twe e n the n e ighbo r in g m o re defin ite“c o n c ep ts ”

, o r“ tho u gh ts ”

,tha n a s a c o n c ep t i tse l f — ju st

as,in pho n e t ic s

,we a r e wo n t t o l im i t the wo rd so u n d to

the m o re stabl e o n es a nd c al l t ran si t io n a l so u n ds “ gl ides”

,

80 .

2 ) The idea o f su ch a re l a t io n m ay , howeve r, wh i le re

t ain in g its pec u l i ar t ran si t io n al charac te r, be c om e , a t t im es,

the phase o f tho u ght u ppe rm ost in m in d,

294 2.

269 . 1 ) I f o n e’s spe e c h is the im m ed iat e exp ressio n o f his

c u r re n t o f tho u ght , e ach n ew thou ght wil l fo rm a n ew-

p redi

c at e ; a nd if each n ew tho u ght is o f su c h in t e rest t o him

tha t i t im p resses itse lf wi th e qu al vividn ess u pon his m 1nd

in Spi t e o f p revio u s im p ressio n s the re,it wil l be given equ al

st ress in u tt e ran c e . W e thu s ge t a se r ies o f p redic at io n s

wi th st resses varyin g ac c o rdin g t o the vividn ess o f the

m e n t al im p ressio n s. Th is happen s p art ic u lar ly in the t alko f person s o f sluggish m in d also when a n y o n e is m usin g

184 a ccen t

fo r a fam il iar phen om en o n 2 79 N a nd if we t ry to an a

lyse the ph rase , it is u su a l ly in a m o re o r less playfu l way.

Rem a rk . A s I t so o ts =‘The so o t (from the fa c to ry

c him n eys) is fa ll in g’

, was fo rm ed in Peo ria , o n the

a n a logy o f “ I t ra in s so“ I t ra in s” was fo rm ed o n the

a n a logy o f som e o the r expressio n , a ndwha t I t”sto o d f o r

in the first o f these it is n ow im possible t o say . I n fa c t,these im pe rso n a ls we re first u sed wi tho u t a n y o r

‘ i t ’a t

a l l . S e e a lso 30 1 , N 1 .

2 7 1 . M o re o ve r,n o t a l l wo rds tha t a re m o re o r less iden t i

fied a s in d i v idu als have a c o r respo n d in g defin i te m e n tal

c o n c ep t . Tha t is,they do n o t stan d fo r obje c ts (subst a n

tiv es) , qu al i t ies (adje c t i ves) , o r phe n om en a (ve rbs) , bu t indic a t e the m o re o r less vagu e re lat io n s (o f posi t io n ,

t im e,

qu a n t i ty, & c .) exist in g be twe e n m o re defin i te c o n c ep ts,

2 68 a nd 2 92 , 3 ; o r they sim ply re fe r t o c o n c epts tha t ,as psyc ho logic al subje c ts, have be c om e m o re o r less vagu e

in the m in d 2 92 , x) , o r have n o t ye t assum ed defin ite n ess,

2 92 , 2 . S u ch wo rds m ay be te rm ed A n aem ic Wo rds,in

d ist in c t io n from V iv ic W o rds, o r su c h as design ate m o re

defin i te c o n c ep ts. S e e 29 1 & c .

CONS ID E RATION FOR TH E M IND OF TH E LISTENER

2 7 2 . 1 ) I f o n e real izes,thou gh fain t ly, tha t the m in d o f

an o the r is n o t p repared fo r the resu l ts o f the t rain o f

tho u gh t tha t has be e n p assm g th ro ugh his own m in d,he

m ay fo rm o r st ress his se n ten c e diff e re n t ly f rom what heo the rwise wo u ld have do n e , c f . 2 79 , 2 , 288, z end

, 3 02 , x,

3 03 , 3 , 3 03 N 4. P e op le diff e r ve ry m u ch in abi l ity t o re al izethe sta te o f m in d o f the l ist e n e r a nd t o adju st the i r st ate

m en ts to it .

2 ) (5 ) The m ost p r im i t ive fo rm o f c o n side rat io n fo r the

m in d o f the l isten e r c o n sists in add in g the psycho logic alsubjec t af te r the st atem e n t o f the psyc ho logic al p redic ate,

S t ress 185

c f . e x am ples u n der 2 79. A ch i ld e a t ing pu dd in g m a de o f

c ake a ndwh ipped c re am su dde n ly bl u r ts o u t : glitter Sfuchen ,bieé ift. (5) To se ek o u t in adva n c e a nd em phasize thosewo rds tha t m ay be n e c essa ry to p repa re the m in d o f the

l iste n e r f o r the psycho log ic a l p redic a te,ge n e ra l ly requ i res

som e m e n ta l de ve lo pm e n t a nd a m in d fre e from passio n .

Bu t i f the m e n ta l im p ressio n m a de by a psyc ho log i c a l

subje c t is st i l l v iv id,i t m ay f o r th is re ason be exp ressed

be fo re the psyc ho logi c a l p red ic a te — ju st as it p re c eded itin c o n c ep t io n ,

_ a n d n o t be c a u se o f c o n side ra t io n fo r the

sta te o f m in d o f the l ist e n e r .

3 ) The ve ry e ffo rt to exp ress o n e’

s se l f o f te n le ads to

the fu r the r de ve lopm e n t o f o n e’

s tho u gh t o r br in gs in top rom in e n c e o r defin ite n ess wha t had n o t be e n tho u ght o f

,

was in the m e n ta l bac kgro u n d,o r was bu t vagu e ly defin ed .

In o the r wo rds,wha t was psyc ho log ic a l subje c t m ay in

the p ro c ess o f expressio n be c om e psyc ho log i c al p red i c a te,

o r a n ew psyc ho logic al pred ic a te (o f te n a n u n defin ed o n e,

2 66,N 4) m ay arise .

Rem a rk . S tress m ay be m u ch in c re a sed t o o ve rc om e in

a t ten tio n , a ndsim ila rly to o ve rc om e de a fn ess o r dista n c e .

ANALOGY , OR AS S OCIAT ION OF ID E A OR FORM IN

TH E M IND OF TH E S PE AKE R .

2 73 . (5 ) F am il ia r ity wi th the a c c e n tu a t io n o f the ve rbal

exp ressio n o f a c e r ta in ide a m ay le ad o n e t o st ress in a

sim ila r way the exp ressio n o f a sim i l ar ide a,c f .

290 , 4 ; (5) the m e n ta l asso c i a t io n o f a wo rd wi th an o the r

o f l ike fo rm m ay lead o n e t o st ress it in the sam e way,

3 3 0 , 4 end, 3 1 1 , 3 1 9, 1 R

,& c . ; a nd (2) f o r sim i lar re aso n s,

o n e m ay st ress a n y wo rd that is c o n t rasted wi th a st ressed

wo rd ; so bich in D bu SJ l at t ! Schbach te n ich t an bich , jonbet nan bein en i la ter . S ee Sohanna in § 3 o 3 .

Z ICCQ IIIC

Rem a rk .

.

The ten de n c y t o stress tha t pa rt o f a wo rdwhe re in i t is diffe re n t from a n o the r 3 1 6, 3 1 8 N 1 , 326,

332 is a spe c ia l c ase o f 267 ; tha t be in g psycho logic a lsu bje c t wh ich is a l ike in bo th wo rds.

RH YTH M A ND CE RTAIN PH YS ICAL COND ITIONS

Pr eva il in g Rhy t hm

2 74 . 1 ) A he avy st ress im pl ies the expe n d i tu re o f c o n

side rable bre a th ; be fo re an o the r vigo ro u s bre a th-im pu lse

c a n be m ade,the o rgan s requ i re som e t im e in wh ic h t o

r ec ove r . D u r in g th is t im e,a we ak syl l able o r two m ay be

u t te red o r a pa u se be m a de ; bu t t o p ro n o u n c e se ve ra l sy l

l ables hav in g we ak st ress wo u ldbe a s diflic u l t a s to so u n d

o n e w i th he a vy st ress. A s a resu l t,the p re vai l in g rhy thm

o f M ode rn Ge rm a n,as o f M ode rn E n gl ish

,is a l te rn a te

,

that is,the re is a su c c essio n o f he avy a nd l igh t st resses.

T radi t io n a nd logic a t t im es re qu i re the ju x taposi t io n o f

seve ral we ak syl labl es o r o f two o r m o re he av i ly st ressed

o n es; n eve r the less, the t ro cha ic o r iam bic cha rac te r o f m ost

Ge rm an p rose is m arked . M o re o ve r,whe re t ra d i t io n o r

log ic wo u ld re qu i re a n i r regu la r rhy thm,the u su a l rhythm

m ay p reva i l in sp i te o f t radi t io n o r log ic 2 77 , o r

the d iffic u l ty m ay a t t im es be o ve rc om e by a diff e ren t

a r ra n gem en t o f the wo rds tha n wo u ld o the rwise be m ade ;c om pare the displa c em e n t o f “

o n ly ”in E n gl ish : “ I o n 'ly

wa n t I t o se e ’ him ”f o r the m o re logic a l bu t ha l t in g “ I

wa n t'o ’n ly‘

to se e'him .

”

2 ) The ac c e n t u a t ion o f a wo rd o r syl lable is,the re fo re

,

n o t in al l c ases a fixed o r u n ifo rm th in g,bu t m ay

be m o re o r

”

less m odified by posi t io n re l at ive t o o the r

st ressed o r u n st ressed wo rds o r syl lables. Com pare the

st ress o f an in (fit jcht ieh an a lle with that in (i t [163 bte Qfl icfean bet ichIan ten ®ejtal t n iebet gleiten ; Sch ha tte etwas bet m 1t

188 fi CCCnt

m o re n o u n s gram m a t ic al ly jo in e d (whe the r su bst a n t ive o r

a dje c t ive) the fi rst had the he a v iest st ress : su n u H e a l fde n es

fo r o u r‘the so n o f H e a l fde n e e a ld gewm n a whe re we

sho u ld say‘the o ldW A ndT v

'

e kn ow that a he avy

st ress fe l l u po n the fi rst syl lable o f a wo rd, 3 09, & c .

Th is a c c e n tu a t io n was o rigin al w i th m an y wo rds 3 09 11)a ndm u st have be e n ex te n ded t o o the rs by a n a logy 2 7

Bu t the p r in c iple a c c o rd in g t o wh ic h the he av iest st ressfa l ls u po n the psyc ho logic a l p redic a te 2 79 82 2 72 ,

a nd c e r ta in physic a l cau ses (fo r e xam pl e,tha t wh ich has

c han ged we l l’-bredI in to we l l I-bre d’in a t t r ibu t i ve posi t io n s

,

2 78) do u bt less c o n t r ibu te d the i r sha re towa rd m akin g

the de c resc e n do st ress ge n e ra l in se n te n c e a ndword .

2 ) The re is re a so n t o be l ie ve tha t the c ha n ge f rom de

c resc e n do t o c resc e n do st ress hadbegu n in the t im e o f the

o ldest p rose a n d tha t the po e t ry rep rese n ts a pa r t ly obso lesc e n t u sage . The de c resc e n do rhy thm is st i l l u su a l ly

m a in ta in ed in wo rds a nd in a

'

f ew c o n glom e ra tes l ike

S pring’insfelii

'

, 9311251 111162, bu t i t has ge n e ra l ly y ie lded t o

c resc e n do st ress (V

) in o rd in a ry n o u n -gro u ps; fo rit m a y be st a ted

,w i th o n l y the rese r ve n e c essa ry o n the

sc o re o f 2 90 , 3 , 2 78 , tha t o f two o r m o re n o u n s (su bst a n t iv e o r a dje c t i ve ) gram m a t ic a l ly jo in ed , bu t n o t fo rm in g

a c om po u n d wo rd,the 15 52 n ow ge n e ra l ly re c e ives the

he a viest st ress. Tha t th is m a y e ve n de fy log ic al st ress isshown in 290 , 4 . The c ha n ge o f de c resc e n do st ress to

c resc en do is du e , 2 64 R

(5) t o the m o re f re qu e n t u se o f p ro c l i t ic wo rds 290 , 2,

29 1 , 2 92 ) a n d the redu c t io n o r loss o f fin al u n st ressed syl:

lables;

(5) t o the te n de n c y to p la c e a psyc ho log ic al p red ic atel a te in the se n te n c e

,2 72 ,

2 the f requ en t o c c u r ren c e o f

stressed psycho logic a l p redic a tes a t the e nd o f a c la u se

makes o n e fe e l the n e c essi ty (52 73 ) o f br in gin g a heavy

S t ress 189

st ress towa rd the c lose,e ve n i f the re be n o logic a l re ason

fo r it, § 2 90, 4 ;

(2) t o e c o n om y o f fo rc e,

2 77 , 1 2.

3 ) (5) The n ew st ress has in vaded wo rds t o bu t a

m ode ra te ex ten t,a nd is the n o f te n du e to 2 77 , 2 . I t is

fo u n d (1 ) in som e“

c om po u n d n o u n s (som e a dje c t i ves,

3 2 2 , 2 2,

n u m e ro u s ge ograph ic al n am es, 3 3 1 , a f ew

c om m o n substa n t i ves,

a nd (2 ) in som e c om po u n d

pa r t ic les, 359 , 3 2 2 , 1

, 3 60 , 5, (5) No r th Ge rm an y hasy ie lded t o the c resc e n do st ress m o re tha n M iddle a nd So u th

Ge rm a n y 290 , 4, 3 60 , 5 ; c f . a lso (2) M o de rn

E n gl ish (a t le a st a s spoke n in A m e r ic a ) is y ie ld in g st i l l

m o re,the te n de n c y t o st ress the se c o n d e lem e n t in c om

po u n d su bsta n t i ves be in g e asi ly obse rvable , f o r exam ple,

222'-2r 2a 7n ’

,a nd o f te n I255

,a nd a t the e nd

o f a c la u se 2 77 R ) , eve n 52g5'525001 I

,205 1

'-5207/2I, & c .

Tha t E n gl ish has go n e fa r the r tha n Ge rm a n in th is dir e c

t io n m ay be du e to Se ve ra l c a u ses, § 2 64 R : t o the vast ly

gre a te r n u m be r o f c om po u n d wo rds in Ge rm a n,to the a l l

bu t t o ta l lo ss o f in fle c t io n a l e n d in gs in E n gl ish,wh ic h

frequ e n t ly le aves a he a v i ly st ressed syl lable a t the e nd o f a

c la u se a nd so fa vo rs c resc e n do st ress, a nd to t he posi t io n

o f the st ressed m od ifie rs o f ve rbs,wh i c h u su a l ly fo l low

them in E n gl ish bu t o f te n p re c e de them in Ge rm a n,fo r

exam ple,in subo rdin a te c la u ses a n d in c om po u n d te n ses.

S t r ess= G r o u ps

2 76 . A s has be e n st ated above o u r ta l k is d i v ided

in to st ress~

gr o u ps c o n t a in in g o n e he a v i ly st ressed syl lable

u su a l ly a c c om pa n ied by o n e o r m o re less he a v i ly st resse d

syl l ables. These gro u ps a r e som e t im es d i v ided f rom o n e

a n o the r by a m o re o r le ss dist in c t pa u se (st ress-gro u pswi thpau se divisio n ) , bu t o fte n the o n ly d i v isio n be twe e n them is

190 a ccen t

the pl ac e o f -we akest st ress '

(st‘

ress-gro ups with we ak divi

sio n ) , a nd it is f requ e n t ly ve ry diffic u l t to m ake o u t ju stwhe re th is p lac e is. Com pare the d i ffe re n c e be twe e n dyn am 1c syl lables a ndso n o r ic syl l ables

,85, & c .

Rem a rk . T o ju dge from the G erm a n a ndEn gl ish tha t Iha ve o bse rved , Swee t ’s pra c tic e of pla c in g the bo u n da ryregu la rly be fo re a he av ily stressedsyllable a nd o f sepa ra tin gin itia l we ak syllables from fo llowin g he a vy o n es, se em s

m e cha n ic a l . W i th th is is asso c ia ted the im plic a tio n tha t therhythm o f Mo de rn En gl ish is a lwa ys de c resc en do . I find i tn o t u n ifo rm , a nd m o re c om m o n ly c resc en do . PossiblyLo n do n En gl ish is in th is respe c t m o re c o n se rva tive tha n theEn glish tha t I am m ost fam il ia r with . Cf. 289, 2 f t .

S t r ess W eake n ed

2 7 7 . 1 ) A st ress is o fte n we ake n ed whe n n ex t to a n

o the r st ress.

(5) Af 227 a st ro n ge r o n e , th is is due t o the fac t that fo rc e ,hav in g be e n expe n ded

,is wa n t in g, 2 74 , also 2 be low.

(5) Bu t a st ress m ay also be we aken ed whe n i t c om es

52j’

or 2 a n o the r,a nd tha t e ve n if o n e o r m o re u n st ressed

sy l l ables in te fv e n e : th is is du e to the n a tu ra l te n de n c y t o

e c o n om ise fo rc e so lo n g as the re is n e ed o f itfi“ E c o n om y

o f F o r c e o fte n resu l ts in the c ha n ge o f e qu a l st ress in toc resc e n do 280

,a nd m ay e ve n (2 be low,

a nd 290, 4)c han ge

,o r he lp t o c ha n ge

,de c resc e n do in to e qu a l o r in to

c resc e n do .

Rem a rk . This is m ost ap t to happe n befo re a pa u se ; tha tis, n ea r the end o f a c la u se a nd in predic a te ra the r ’ thana ttribu tive posi tio n s (c f . 278, I ., 1 22 a nd 324, 327 , 329 f t ,

(2) Whe n bo th p re c ede d a nd fo l lowed by o the rs,a st ress

par t ic u la r ly ap t to be we a ken ed ; alm ost c e rt a in ly so if it

it Thism a y be o bse rve d in ch ildren ju st le a rn in g t o speak a ndha vin ga s ye t n o spee ch habits.

192 E CCCHI

the i r st ress in c re ases if they a r e fo l lowed by we ak wo rds 01syl lables, 2 63 N 1 2.

2 ) -I m ay be c om e I espe c ia l ly in c om po u n ds §Bor

u t teil , & c ., 3 64 , 2 85, 4 2.

3 ) (5) E ve n a ve ry we a k syl lable m ay be c om e st ro n ge r if

be twe e n two o the r we ak syl lables, _so set in (8111 herrl icherSioman I V

bu t (Sine het t Iiche Slusjicht I

3 65, 3 (5) A se c o n da ry st ress m ay be c om e n e a r l y,i f

n o t qu i te , e qu al t o a c h ie f st ress,if se pa ra ted som e dis

tan c e from 1t,

2 63 N 1 2,2 89 , 2 . (2) A se c o n da ry st ress o n

a lo n g syl l able m ay be c om e the c h ie f st ress,

2 77 , 2 .

1 1 . On the o the r ha n d,whe n a pau se is m a de fo r rhe t o ri

c a l e ff e c t o r t o adm i t a pa re n thesis o r o the r in t e r ru p t io n,

the fo rc e tha t wo u ld have be e n c a r r ied o n in the o rdin a ry

c om ple t io n o f the se n te n c e is o f te n a l lowed t o fa l l he avi lyu po n the wo rd ju st be fo re the pa u se , c f . Sgt au in 288

,a nd

bahin (i t jagte, bah, ba et , & c .

(Shap ter 10

S ENTENCE = STR E S S 2227 9 307

G ENERA L PRINCIPLE

2 79 . 1 ) The psyc ho log i c al p red ic a te , be in g u ppe rm ost inthe m in d o f the Spe ake r is he a v i ly st ressed

,

wh i le the psyc ho log ic a l subje c t is o f te n hu r r iedly st a ted,is

bu t vagu e ly al lu ded t o *(a s by a p ro n o u n

,a n adve rb

,o r

the l ike) , o r is e n t i re ly om i t te d .

2 ) I f the psyc ho logi c a l subje c t has n o t ye t be e n p re

se n te d to the m in d o f the l iste n e r,c o n side ra t io n o f th is fa c t

o n the pa rt o f the Spe ake r,w i l l le a d him t o exp ress the

psycho log ic al subje c t m o re c le a r ly a nd o f te n t o p u t m o re Tst ress u po n i t than lie wo u ld ha ve do n e

,2 72 .

Ef et tia‘R e a dy ? ’

A r e yo u re a dy ?’the psycho log ic a l

su bj_e cT-be in g e n t i re ly om i t ted) . S im i la r ly

, QBill fomm en !

hat et fie geichlagen 2” “

3a”

(o r”9213111 , ,flBahrichein lich,

& c .)“ D id he st r ike he r ? ” “ Y es

,

”& c . (The an swe r

c o n ta in s o n ly the psyc ho logic a l p red ic a te,in asm u ch a s the

psyc ho log ic a l subje c t is su ppl ied by the qu est io n .) S im i

This is o ften the c ase even lo n g a fte r th e psycho logic a l su bje c twas m en t io n ed , espe c ia lly if the speake rs ha ve in the m e a n tim e beensepa ra ted . S om e people a r e so c a re less abo u t expressin g the psychologic a l su bje c t tha t it is c o n sta n tly n e c essa ry t o ask them wha t they a reta lkin g abo u t .TU n u su a l a dapta t io n o f o n e

’s expressio n t o the sta te o f m in d o f the

l isten e r (so espe c ia l ly in tea ch in g a nd in pu bl ic speakin g) m ay le a d o n e

t o give m ost stress to a psycho logic a l su bje c t. Cf . a lso § 302 , 1 .

194 a ccent

l a r ly , " S te hat 11118 v et Iafien . (o r " Rein

QBunbet ,“

— 3017119 ift bet Q er lm l is wha t-

The

fe l low is’

(the ps-y

-cm logic a l subje c t be in g added w i th

sec o n dary st ress) . D et l l nglttcf liche ! mu tm el te et (the lasttwo wo rds c o n st i tu te them cho logic a l su bje c t , in

which ex: is the su bo rd in at e psycho logic a l subje c t , a ndmu tm eIte p red ic at e) . 5906 jinb meine Sitchtet

‘Those a re m y

ju dges’

(the psyc ho log ic al subje c t 3 67 1? bu t re fe r red t o) .

g ie fomm t 0011 iht em SBfaffen‘She

’

s c om in g f rom the p r iest ’

(F au st a nd M eph istophe les se e M a rga re t as she is c o m in g,

a nd so 6 16 a nd fomm t a r e bo th psycho logic a l subje c ts) . Schban fe Shuen , .s

'

gert (Ben era ! (Sch a nd Shnen , as they re fe r to

M a so n s talkin g,a re psycho log ic a l subje c ts, a nd so is

the we a k vo c a t ive,N 2

,e nd) . Letter !

‘F i re ! ’

GQ M‘I t 13

rain in g.

’

91116;hunget t’

6‘ I am hu n gry ’

.

No te 1 . I n the c ase o f im pe rso n a l ve rbs a n d sim ila r e xpressio n s, the presen t phen o m eno n (sm o ke o r l igh t ; the

so u n d o f fa l l ing drops, m o istu re st rikin g the fa c e o r ha n ds,o r the sigh t o f the drops them se lves; o r the gn awin g se n sa

t io n in the sto m a ch) is the psycho logic a l subje c t , a nd the

gen e ra l n o tio n o f fir e , ra in , o r hu n ge r is the psycho logic a lpredic a te . Cf. 270, 301 N 1 .

No te 2 . The vo c a tive m a y ha ve va rio u s fu n c tio n s, bu t i tis u su a l ly a psycho log ic a l predic a te , m ea n ing tha t it is the

pe rso n a ddresse d who is to p ay a t ten tio n , c om e , ren de rassista n c e , c o n side r o r st0p wha t he is do in g, ge t o u t o f thewa y , be o n the lo o k-o u t , o r wha te ve r the c irc u m sta n c es (thepsycho lo g ic a l su bje c t) m ay be . The vo c a tive is then hea vilyst ressed , and the psycho logic a l su bje c t , if n o t a lre a dy presentt o the m in d o f the l isten e r (be in g his psycho logic a l predic a te , 266 N is o ften left t o be obse ry ed, bu t m a y be su g

gested by the to n e o f the vo ic e , a nd, if c o n side red n e c essa ry,m a y eve n be expressed a nd stressed , 279, 2 , The

vo c a t ive is em plo ye d in c a ll in g t o a distan t pe rso n , in a t tra c tin g the a t ten t io n o f o n e n e a re r by, in en trea ting, in thre a tenin g , a nd in assu rin g . Ou t o f the last u se deve lops its

em plo yme n t as a S ign o f po li ten ess o r , sa rc ast ic a lly , o f imp ude n c e ; a nd in su ch expressio n s as

‘Y es, sir ,’ i t is little

m o re, tha n a su ffix . W hen the speake r has the fu l l a t ten t ion

196 fi CCCnt

M OD IF IERS

FIOD IF IERS OF VERBS

282 . 1 ) A s st at ed above 2 66, the m odifiers o f

ve rbs a re gen e ral ly psyc ho logic al p redic a tes t o them a nd

c o n sequ e n t ly m o re he a v i ly st ressed : (i t gab61116111 berm 51061

iiiichet . (56 1am nether 1111b n iihet .

2 ) Whe n the ve rbal fo rm,

c om es last , the p re c ed in g m od i

fie rs f re qu e n t ly suggest its ide a , wh ich is the re fo re in them in d o f the l iste n e r by the t im e the v e rb is exp ressed

,a nd

the ve rb n e eds n o m o re st ress tha n a wo rd tha t sta n ds fo ra psyc ho log ic al su bje c t a l re ady exp ressed to the l iste n er

,

he n c e n o t e ve n tha t am o u n t o f st ress tha t m igh t be in du c ed

by c o n side ra t io n f o r the sta t e o f m in d o f the l iste n e r (se e2 79, z) . F o r exam ples, se e be low .

3 ) Th is is so ge n e ral tha t the st ress in c ases in wh ich

it. is n o t t ru e , ,

u su al ly fo l lows the a n alogy o f these, 2 73 .

I n the fo l low in g 111 bie S tabt im pl ies gingjt, bu t .S'

gaué

do es n o t im ply 0et jchlieBen , st i l l (exc ep t in pa r ts of No r thGe rm an y) the se n te n c e wo u l d u su al ly be st ressed : SD a bu in

bie S tabt aiagjt , m uBte'

ich bas fgaus 0erjchliefae11‘A s yo u

we n t t o town ,I had t o lo c k u p

u

t-lfe-ho u se .

’

The o rde r o f

wo rds inm ish br in gs the he av ie r st ress u po n the se c o n d

o f the two wo rds, a nd o n e is tem p ted to c ar ry th is .a c c en

t u a t ion in to Ge rm an ,fo r exam ple , D a bu 111 bie g tabtM ,

e t c .

283 . 1 ) (5) When a m odifie r n ex t a ve rb rep resen ts a

psyc ho log i c al subje c t o r is a n a n eem ic wo rd (in c lu d in g ad

ve rbs o f in te n si ty, frequ e n c y, e t c . , § 292 , 3 2, bu t se e

ch ie f st ress fal ls o n the ve rb 285R ) : @t 10111 111 11 bie 5Biichet

n ich t geben ,bu t (81 10111 11111 bie Qii

’

tchet geben . (5) Th is isalso t r_u e

_in the c ase o f t a u to l ogM odifie rs 2 92 , 1 5)

S te un terhieIten {ich aujamm en‘They we re c o n versin g with

S en ten ces-S t ress 197

on e an o the r .

’6 ir 10011te11 m itein anbet fech ten . (2) Bu t c om

po u n d ve rbs l ike bahleiheu , h infa llen , st ress ba a nd h i tt m o re

tha n the p re c ed in g sim p le ve rb (6 16 111615611 ba), a l tho u ghba & c . n ow add l i t t le o r n o th in g to the ide a al re a dy e x

p ressed by the ve rb. Bu t they yie ld ch ie f st ress t o a p rec edin g

'

m odifie r 285, exc ep t f o r 285, 3 2.

2 ) Whe n the ve rb a lo n e is the psyc ho log ic a l p red ic a tea nd al l e lse

,in c lu d in g the mo d ifie r

,is psycho logic al sub

jc e t , the he av ie r st ress gen e ra l ly fal ls u po n the ve rb : Gt

hat bie 6 ache11 111 be1t QBagen geworfen H e 257 220 the th in gs

in to,

’

& c .

3 ) Cresc e n do st ress in the c ase o f m o d ifie r a nd fo l lowin g

ve rb is m o re frequ e n t in pa r ts o f No r th Ge rm a n y tha n e lse

whe re (se e 2 77 , 1 2,

so QBit'

(then 10118 bag gn iibige

Sriiu1ein 111 11 00111 6 5108 aejchicft ha tte, in ste a d o f the m o re

u su a l 6 ch1013 gejchicf t hatte .

4) I n fi-_

m t iv es a nd pa r t ic iples, be in g ve rbal m o difie rs,have m o re st ress tha n the ve rbs they de pe n d u po n : Schhatte qejchlafen . QBe11 ich ich1afe11 10011te. The a u x i l ia ryve rbs l n t 1m e dege n e ra te d 1n t o a n aem ic wo rds a nd n ow have

l i t t le o r n o st ress,

292 , 3 2.

5) A s rega rds st ress,de r i va t i ve ve rbs

,l ike an t’mor

'ten ,

0et a11 IIafi'en , e t c .

,fa re l ike the in fin it iv es a nd pe r fe c t part i

c ip l es o f sepa rable c om po u n d ve rbs, se e 285, 4 .

Cf . a lso 2 85, 4 2.

S e r ies o f M odif ie rs

284 . A se r ies o f m od ifie rs o f a ve rb m ay be a se r ies o f

p redic a t io n s, l ike the o r igin a l t ra in o f tho u gh t 2 68,

Or o n e o f the m od ifie rs is the o r ig in a l psycho logic alp red ic a te

,wh i le the o the rs

”

a re su c h as a r ise th ro u gh c o n

side ra t io n fo r the m in d o f the l iste n e r 2 72 , o r a re

psyc ho log ic al su bje c ts ; in su c h c ases the o rig in a l psycho

log ic a l p red ic a te is u su a l ly re ta in ed u n t i l the l ast 2 7 2 , 2

198 a ccen t

In either c ase,the last m odifie r ge n eral ly has m ost st ress

Sch 10ach te bie ‘R acht bet that 298, 1, 82 R 3) in bet 6 tube .

Sch 1 111 gleich au f einem 6 eite11 10eg 001011 . D em Q u echmich gejagt, et o Ite au f get abem QBeg 286 o r 290 , 4 ; o r

get abem SIBeg, 290 , 3] n ach bet Sbt jtet ei faht en , unb hatte m itbem Sbrjtet a11es [o r bie 6 ache] bejpt ochen 2 85, 2 R ) . (it

fing an 311 reben [bu t a lso (81 fing an 311 reben ,2 78,_

285: rm c o u rse , a psycho log ic a lW ad m a y be in c o r

po ra t ed in a se n t en c e in the c a pac i ty o f a m od ifie r, ju st asi t m ay in tha t o f a gram m a t ic al p redic a te 2 66

,1,2) it

w i l l then ge n e ra l ly n o t have ch ie f st ress eve n if it fo l lows

(c f . bie 6 ache ‘the m a t te r ’ abo ve , also 283 , bu t su c h a

psyc ho logic al su bje c t is ra re ly p u t l ast , 2 84 .

2 ) S im i la r ly, i f the m odifie r is a n a nmm ic wo rd,it do es

n o t have c h ie f st ress 2 92 , 3 c, 3 1 8 , e) so aIIes abo ve .

Rem a rk . I n e i the r c ase this wil l'

throw c hief stress o n a n

a djo in in g ve rb ; so o n bejpt b chen a bo ve . Cf. 283, 1 .

3) (5 ) The n o n -ve rbal part o f a c om po u n d ve rb u su al lyhas less st ress than a p re c ed in g m od ifie r tha t is less c om

m o n ly u n i ted wi th the ve rb Schm ach te gleich eiu'

Senjtet 5“

SDu jiehjt 10 erregt aus. 6 e111e 91111101 manbten jich nach b-

efa3) t hiuuhetT

—

C-f . also § 2 97 . (5) Bu t the n o n -ve rbal part

El

f-Z c om po u n d ve rb m ay have m ost st ress i f the p re c ed in g

m odifie r be lo n gs u n de r 292 , 3 2 S leiben 6 te ein paar

91111111101 ba ! ‘S ta y a few u n less (2) o n the

sc o re o f § 2 94 2 : $ 1eiben 6 ir n u t ein paar 931111 11101 ba ! S tay

ju st a f ew m in u tes I

4) In the c ases t re a ted in 3 above , the ve rba l p art o f thec om po u n d p re c edes ; bu t eve n when i t fo l lows (as in the

c ase o f the in fin i t i ve a nd the pe rfe c t part ic iple , the

n o n -ve rba l pa r t o f the c om po u n d ve rb ve ry f re qu e n t ly ge tsless st ress tha n p re c edin g m odifie rs: Sch10etbe auf bié (Erbeh in fa llen . (5) So espe c i al ly i f the who le c om po u n d

“

1755

200 fl CCCnt

5611131 13111 ( , b a é ) 11 11 6 651 6 111 (geba 11 1 ( 1jt )‘Sfie

owns a'

Izoa se (wfzz’

efi is) éu z'

l t) Of f

-T 7253 3361 2311 11111 b 6 1)

bin t e r 11 11 16 1 6 111 3211 11 16 (11 6 510 18 00111 3811156 961101:

fen morben‘T/ze tr ee (t/za t sia n a

’s) ba ck of ou r hou se fia sbeen

str u ck by 150gfimm g . 55316 $ 1 eu nbe 111 6 1 11 6 6 83 11 1 6 1 8 , & c .

‘ T /ze f r zen a’s qf my f a t/zer .

’

5311 6 { 16111131 61

65111103 QB 11 1 11 0 10. 18 11111

b e i l i g e n (556 1 11. 513116 51811 13 110116 511 111

11C

{yreunb 556 1 11 1 1 11)

1158 1 8 111 11 1 11 (a nd so 3 11t

D r . 580 11)S)‘i i cbt e r .

93111111 11 0011 $8 a 1 11 b e l 111 . 513311111161 :N5556 11 11 , § 64 .

c

31 16111 111) QB i I be l m .

No te . (a ) The m o re c om m o n t it l es a ndChrist ian n am es

ha ve ve ry we ak stress, ha v in g n ow fa l len m o re o r less in tothe c a tego ry o f 290, 2 . (b) In 6 dm11bt , 111Cbt 66

g dmfibt , g cbm ibt is n o t a m o ifie r , Bu t t he psyc

su bje c t .

288 . 1 ) In a se r ies o f c o o rdin at e m o difie rs the last getsthe c h ie f st ress. (551116 2 78, I I .) jung, 1111611 1111b HugBu t the st ress o f the o n e

_be fo re the l ast m ay be wearer

than that o f the p re c ed in g, ac c o rdin g t o 2 77 , 1 5,2 78, 1 .

Com pare 289, 2 end.

2 ) I f a psyc ho logic al subjec t be in c o rpo rat ed in a sen

te n c e in the c apac i ty o f a m od ifie r (c om pare 2 66,

it,o f

c o u rse , do es n o t have the ch ie f st ress 2 79, x) $ 118 QDad)

be ?» $21 a 11 ie 6*10111 115011 111 %Iamm e11

‘T/ze r oof of t/zemwa s n ow r ap t in fl am es.

’Bu t su ch a psyc ho logic a l subjec t ,

whe n n o t y e t p resen ted t o the m in d o f the l iste n e r , m ay be

give n se c o n dary st ress (c f . 2 79, 2) o r st ress equ al t o that

o f the wo rd m odified . Cf . also 2 78, I . ,r .

Cf. 287 f t .

S en tencesS t ress 201

M odif ie r Pr e c edin g

289 . 1 ) A s sta ted abo ve m odifie rs o f a fo l lowingn o u n o r adve rb a r e u su al ly less he a vi ly st ressed than it isfiber gu t 6

* 51011111, & c . 6 16 561181 6111 11 r a d) 10 0 I I 6 8 Saab

111111 6111 11 6711—

6 13

-n e fi M , bas 11 11 136 1 11 1061 111011

ift 6 1 11 6 651 11 a b 6 61161 1161101 11611 . (11111) ba lh 51061‘A t hal f

past o n e .

’

8q bemm fier S

M .

2 ) E qu a l st ress is se ldom T u sed exc ep t whe n the m odi

fie r is lo n g a nd has var io u s degre es o f st ress

au f 61116111 noripringenben 81116 ; o r whe n the re is m o re tha n

one m od ifie r : 93 11 gingen Iangjam 1111 161 be11 jcbbn e n

b o b e n 231111111 611 unb, & c . We wen t slowly a l ong u nder t/ze

bea u tif u l , my ; tr ees, a nd e ve n the n the wo rd m od ified

o f ten ge ts the he av iest st ress wh i le the st ress o f the last

m odifie r is we ake r than tha t o f those p re c ed in g,a c c o rd in g

to 2 78, I .,x : 3 11 6111 0b61 31061 Sl agen . Com pa re 2 80

,2

a nd 288,1 .

No te . I t wil l be o bserved tha t thispro du c es a n a l te rn a terhythm . S im ila rly, whe n the stress o f the m o dified wo rd isre du c ed, the stress o f the pre c edin g m o difie r is o fte n in

c re ased, 278, r a . fD aQ» bab’

1d) oft 36961 1 (exc ept f o r 290, 3

o r bu t 0111161161 16 Sil age. S o wi th eng n erbunben ,

bicht bel aubt , v iel bemunbert, &c ., so m e o f which a r e o ftenwrit ten , espe c ia lly a t tribu t ive ly, as o n e wo rd , l ike the c o n

glom e ra tes 56119615, b11 11’t‘

611 0t , wh ich a r e n o t

a lwa ys e asily distin gu ished from the lo o se c o m po u n ds in329. Cf. § 336.

290 . 1 ) Whe n a psyc ho logic al subje c t i is in c o rpo rated ina sen t en c e in the c ap ac i ty o f a m o difie r (c f . § 285, 1 ) be fo re

9" Cf. 287 ft .'

1‘ This I find t o be tru e a lso o f the En gl ish I ha ve o bse rved ; Swee t

repo rts equ a l stress fo r Lo n do n En gl ish . Cf. § 276 R .

1 The size a nd the c o lo r o f o bje c ts a re ap t t o a t tra c t the a t ten t io nbefo re o n e m akes o u t wha t the o bjec ts a re ; tha t is, they a r e ap t t o be

psycho logic a l subjec ts.

202 a ccen t

the wo rd m odified , it t o o is, o f c o u rse , less st ro n gly st ressed

tha n that . Hav in g spoke n o f his fa the r,o n e m ight add :

ElR e i n e é‘

» §I§ a 1 6 1 63 (o r 16 1 11 6 ,c f . 3 be low)

<

{11 6111'

1b6 101111

ten 11)m n ich t belfen‘M y f a t/zer

’

s f r z'

en a’s eon /a

’

n ot nolf nz'

m .

’

$ 61 5101119 mar tapfer , aber bie 1011111111116 3 03 , 2 N x)(Siarbe & c . Tne king was or a z

'

o,on e t/ze r oy a l g u a r a

’s,

’

& c .

Rem a rk . I t is o fte n im possible t o dist in gu ish be twe e n psycho l o gic a l su bje c ts a nd dege n e ra te psycho logic a l predic a tes.

2 ) A s a ve ry la rge n u m be r o f a t t r ibu t ive m odifie rs (ad

je c t iv es be fo re su bsta n t i ves,a dve rbs be fo re a dje c t ives a nd

o the r a dve rbs) have lost the i r o r igin a l fo rc e , a nd the i r c o nt in u ed u se is la rge ly a m a t te r o f c u stom o r o f fo rm ,

they

ge n e ral ly ha ve l i t t le o r n o st ress (bu t c f . 2 63 N These

a r e (a ) A n ze m ic wo rds 29 1 , bet 911mm ,

b1616 18 11b61t , 111 6111 m a11d)6g3 1611115611 , & c .

, recbt

(o) e c t iv es l n c o n ve n t io n a l‘D e a r S ir ,

’

(55111611 $ 1019611 ! (bu t c f . $ 3 05N

(5) Nam es o f the p ro du c e rs o f n o ted bo oks, & c . : 65061566

M , 53111)a 6 d1'

01111111g, (501 1 61111106 Slacbt .

Rem a rk . S om e o f these m o difie rs be lo n g , o r o rigin a llybe lo n ged , u n de r 290,

r o the rs, ha vin g be c om e c o n ven t io n a la ndso a n tic ipa te d , a re re a lly psycho logic a l su bje c ts t o o .

3 ) A mo difie r m ay be c om e a f u l l p redic a te a ndhave the

c h ie f st ress ; this im pl ies tha t the rest o f the sen ten c e is

psyc ho logic a l subje c t : $ a§ fann ia) and) 111 11 bet‘

11111611 .S'

ganb‘ I c a n do tha t wi th m y le f t ha n d t o o .

’

8d) b61116 an

Sfiar lomeg $ au11‘ I re fe r t o M a rlowe ’

s F au st (n o t t o

(55111 611161: 6 16 111 1612: biib1cf) .

These c ases a re du e t o the c o m m o n te n den c y t o exagge ra te ; int im e the e xagge ra ted fo rm o f spe e ch c o m es to m ea n n o m o re tha n the

sim ple . I t wo u ld be im possible t o draw the l in e be twe en these c ases

and the sim ila r u se o f su ch wo rds a s 1313013, 11161, e t c . , a nddithc u l t t o draw o n e be twe en th is u se o f the wo rds a nd the ir prope r u se ,11 294

204 a c cen t

AN/EM IC WORD S

29 1 . 1 ) The re are wo rds that do n o t design ate a n y ob

je c t , at t r ibu te , o r phen om en o n,bu t

'

f u lfil the i r fu n c t io n in

spe e c h by re fe r r in g to som e thin g, by showin g the re la t ions

be twe e n thin gs, by l im it in g the fo rc e o f o ther wo rds,e t c .

Su c h wo rdswe have c al led A n aem ic Wo rds,

2 7 1 . A s they

gen e ral ly e ithe r re fe r t o psycho logic al subje c ts o r design at e

that wh ich is c o n ve n t ion al and the re fo re an t ic ipat ed, o r

vagu e a nd u n defin ed , o r o n ly show the re la t io n that m o re

defin it e ide as be a r to o n e an o the r , o r the degree o f th is

re la t io n ship they ge n e ral ly have l it t le o r n o st ress

(bu t se e2 ) What in o n e lan gu age is exp ressed by a n an aem ic

wo rd,m ay in an o the r he exp ressed by a su ffix, a p refix, o r

som e in t e rn al c han ge in a wo rd ; in fac t , a nmm ic wo rds a t

t im es be c om e p refixes o r su ffixes. Thu s,the 116: o f

a nd the B: o f 51615611 we re o r igin a l ly the sam e as the p repo

sit io u 1161 c f . also a t in a’

am‘a nd a l l in the S o u the rn

y ou a l l ‘

yo u whe re a l l is p rac t ic al ly o n ly a sign o f the

p lu ra l .

3 ) Wha t is in o n e la n gu age exp ressed by a n an aem ic

wo rd m ay be le f t u n exp resse d in an o the r,c f . Ge rm a n 1161

imam o r 6111 93111 11 11 , bu t La t in fiom a . I n Ge rm an a n a nwm ic

wo rd m ay o c c asio n al ly be om i t ted,fo r exam ple

,the a u x i l iary

baben when fin a l . O the r wo rds m ay be om it ted in abbre

v ia t edspee ch, fo r exam p le,in c al l in g a t a dist an c e a nd in

t e leg raph in g, o r in the spee c h o f c h i ldren ju st learn in g t ot alk

,2 70 .

292 . The m ost im po rtan t an aem ic wo rds (c f . also 290 , z)a re

1 ) G ram m a t ic a l sym bo ls f o r psycho logic al subje c ts tha thave be en m e n t io n ed o r a re o the rwise su ggested t o the

m in d o f the l ist e n e r, (a ) p e rso n al , r eflex ive , re lat ive, a nd

S entences-511 655 205

weak 299, 2) dem o n st ra t ive p ro n o u n s; re lat ive a ndwe ak

dem o n st ra t ive a d ve rbs ; possessive a ndwe ak dem o n st ra t iveadje c t ives, a nd the defin i te ar t ic le ; (0) ta u to log i c al wo rds

l ike 5111110101 611 , 111 1161111111061 , 1016061 , e t c . : 6 16 0110611 1110101606106110011 1 11110 1111161001160 11101111161111111061

‘The y ha ve be c om e

re c on c i led wi th o n e an o the r a nd a re n ow c o n ve rsin g

toge the r . ’

2 ) Gram m a t ic al sym bo ls fo r u n defin ed psycho logic a l sub

je c ts o r p red ic a t es, n am e ly,in defin i te a nd in te r rogat ive

wo rds, 3 0 1 , 3 02 .

3 ) W o rds de n o t in g the re l a t io n s ide as be a r t o o n e a n

o the r : (a ) c o n ju n c t io n s, p reposi t io n s, c opu la t ive ve rbs,l ike

11110, 0010; 111 11, 0111 10; 16111 , 10610611 , (601106111611 , 111010611 ,

0110611 ; (0) wo rds de n o t in g te n se o r m o od,in c l in at io n o r

abi l i ty,that is, au x i l iary ve rbs l ike 0110611 , 111

'

0g611 , 101111 611,

283 , 4) (5) wo rds de n o t in g degre e o f in te n si ty, f requ e n c y,e t c .

,tha t is

,n u m e ral adje c t ives, the in defin i te ar t ic le , a nd

wo rds su c h as 111 1111106, 0161, 116111113, 1601 , 1 6601, 011111111, 1016061

3 4 1 , 116100011 1110, fat1r11 , 1116, 111101, & c .

293 . Histo r ic a l ly,an ae m ic wo rds a r e

,in m ost a nd p os

sibl y in a l l c ases, dege n e ra t io n s o f v iv ie wo rds,

2 7 1 .

Thu s 1601 o r ig in al ly m e an t so re ’

(st i l l so in -pa r ts o f No r th

a nd S o u th Ge rm an y) a nd as a dve rb ‘pa in fu l ly ’

; in t im e

m ost Ge rm an s c am e to u se it to in d ic a te a h igh degre e,

whe the r pl e asan t o r u n p leasan t —

'

a s som e people spe ak o f

“ awfu l ly n ic e th in gs.

”S im i lar ly second o r igin al ly m e a n t

fo l lowin g’

.

294 . (a ) S om e an aem ic wo rdsm ay st i l l have the i r orig in a lm e a n in g a nd st ress; thu s, som e o f the wo rds in 292 , 3 c .

(5) M o reove r,a n an ae m ic wo rd m ay a t a n y t im e rep rese n t a

psycho logic a l p redic a te a nd be he av i ly st ressed ; in wh ich

c ase the rest o f the se n te n c e is psycho logic al subje c t , se e2 68, 2

”9160111611 6 16 91110111 0061 “ D o yo u t ake

c re am o r sugar ? ”

" 911110111 fl 8111161 , 10611 11 1100111611 011 11

“

206 a ccen t

Cre am a ndsuga r, if yo u p le ase . (51 11111 11016 61‘H e

tho ught he had t o .

’

3 10111 6111 6 0611 2 99, 2) 93111 1 1 Im e an tha t m a n

, the re .

’

”C516 11110 0011) 16111 " 8100111 111101 16111 311 611110 o r sim p ly 80 6111

'106061

is frequ e n t ly st ressed , lessE n 0061 . Cf . also296 .

295. Wo rds tha t a re fre qu e n t ly u n st ressed,in t im e c om e

to ha ve a slu r red fo rm by the side o f the fu l l fo rm . I n

slu r red fo rm s the vowe l is u su al ly sho r te n ed a nd

som e t im es c ha n ged or lost 1 1 8 a ndN) a nd c o n so n an ts,

t o o , a re a p t t o be d ropped , 1 1 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 2 1 . Thu s,when

the sam e wo rd is u sed a s a dve rb a nd p reposit io n,the la t te r

n o t o n ly ge n e ra l ly loses its st ress, bu t its vowe l is ap t to be

sho r ten ed . Com pa re 93111 10’

11111 016 1 0111 afi !‘ Shu t the

do o r fo r m e 1 wi th 110111 111 311 11111 !‘Com e t o m e 1

296 . A n aem ic wo rds,

espe c ia l ly 11061 a nd dissyl labicp reposit io n s, p ro n o u n s, au xi l iary ve rbs, e t c .,

m ay have se c

o nda ry st ress a c c o rdin g t o 2 78 , x 5 2 63 N x b 3101110611

0611 8106113611 11110 1111161 0611 581111111611 . S im ila r ly 10111 ac qu i ressom e st ress in 96111 1 1101011 1 , 11 16 111161

(

51 611110, 11111 111 016 3111 106

gegangen , 2 78 , 3 a .

297 . The p reposi t io n that fo l lows its n o u n re ta in s the

se c o n da ry st ress that i t go t a c c o rdin g to § 2 85, 3 a : 0611

M 11061 a l l day,

’

016 9111101 0111 10‘ thro u gho u t the n ight . ’

P r ep osition a nd P erson a l or R eflex iv e P r on ozm

298 . 1 ) If the p ro n o u n re fe rs to what is psyc ho logic alsubje c t , a n d do es n o t n e ed st ress ac c o rdin g t o 2 79, 2

,the

he avie r st ress fa l ls u po n the p reposi t io n . 810 111 11 106 111 11

1111016 11 116 101‘ I do n ’

t c a re fo r he r (bu t 810m a106-11

-1m11c0i6

11116 101 ac c o rd in g t o 294 5 a nd 2 77 , x , 2 78 , I .,2,298,

-m

fiomm 061 ,'

110 10111 11111 011 10161611‘Com e here I wa n t to

p lay . with yo u .

’

93 011611 6 11-713 1 6111 11111 ! £1 111 11

208 E CCCnt

aien t t o unh, a nd the fo l lowing pro n o u n is psycho logica lp redic a te (f u ll o r subo rdin a te), a nd is stresse d a c c o rdin gly.W he n referrin g t o tim e o r su c c essio n (fD uY o u f o l low him n a ti) is gen era l ly psy cho l o gi

a nd has he av1er stress tha n when z‘ f o r

’

((Sr

ibm , I above , o r (i t jcfiicfte n a ti) ibm , 2 above ,him

R em a rk 3 . Prep ositio n p erso n a l o r reflexive pro n o u na re p artic u larly l iable t o the in fl u en c e o f the prevailin grhythm Thu s, SDu mirft n icht v iel nué

‘

» ibm berau e :

friegen (Y o u wo n’t ge t m u ch o u t o f him ) is

V V1

bu t frequ en tly be c o m esV V ’ V

I

D em on st r a l z’

w a nd ot/zer P r on ou ns

1 ) P ro n o u n s o the r tha n pe rso n a l o r reflexive

298) u su a l ly ha ve m o re stre ss tha n a p re c edin g prepo si

t io n : SD aés ift bet gen , m it bem id) M . (S t W’6 an

etmaé‘H e wi l l am ou n t to som e th in g .

’

91 m bem Ell iamie‘with M a t m a n

’o r m it bem Sh am e

‘with tha t m a n’

. (No t

so the a rtic le : m it hem—

ma t e.) Cf . a lso 3 0 1 , 3 02 . Bu t

rhythm o cca sio n a l ly the n o rm a l s tre ss , cf.

3 02 , x N,298 R 3 , 2 74 R 2 .

2 ) A stro n g dem o n stra t ive de n o te s a psycho logica l

predica te,a we ak dem o n stra tive a psycho logica l su bje ct o r

a dege n e ra te p sycho log ic a l predica te . In”Sch m ein e bén

Elliarm, bort , ben i s.

a stro n g dem o n stra tive ; it is a we-a'

l'

c

dem o n stra tive in g iebjt bu hen Sl i-I—a-nn but

t ? ‘D o yo u se e

tha t m a n the re P ’

; a n a rtic le in 6 0a id) ben (rim or d n )Emuh u m ien ? Sha l l I ca l l the m a n ? ’

The dem o n stra t ive

W e a re la t ive sta n ds fo r a com in g psycho log ica l predi

ca te a nd has he avy stre ss : 91m m eijten m etben gel iebt ,melcbe e t c . ; bu t th is stre ss is ge n e ra l ly som ewha t we ake n ed

if the re la t ive im m edia te ly fo l lows : Sci) iebe ben , her bag

qetban bat . E v e n we ak dem o n stra tives a r e n o t as we ak ly

stre ssedas re la tive s a nd pe rso n a ls , as m ay be seen by c om

pa ring bet a ndbag above .

S enten cesst rese 209

N u m er a ls

300 . In gen e ra l , ch ie f stress do e s n o t fa l l o n the n u m e ra l,

except whe n the substa n t ive m o dified by the n u m e ra l has

a lre a dy be en m e n tio n ed o r is co n ven t io n a l a nd the re fo rea n ticip a ted , cf. 290, 3 , 4

. S o,

a nd ll ’i l‘

fyrauen ;bu t u su a l ly, um itini l l br a nd acbtgebn rtunbu eungig, se e

3 43 N c . Bu t ein o n e i s a lways stre ssed,wh i le em a

,a n

’

i s n o t,

1 88 R 2,

2 63 N 3 . Cf . a lso 290 , 4 e nd, 280 , z en d.

UND E F INE D P S YCH OLOG ICA L SUBJ ECT OR

PRE D ICATE

301 . A psycho logica l subje ct o r predica te m ay be u n de

fin ed 2 66 N 4, a nd the re fo re be repre se n ted bya n in defin ite o r a n in te rroga t ive 292 , z). U n defin ed

p sycho logica l predica te s , u n l ike o the rs 2 79 , x), a r e in

gen e ra l bu t l ight ly stre ssed , 2 69 end (bu t se e a lso 3 0 2 ,

I he a r som e o n e s in g, bu t do n o t kn owwho it is,a nd I say

65 jem anb, o r QBer lingt3

No te I . Of c o u rse , th is exp la n a tio n ho lds go o d o n lywhen jem aub a n swers t o a c o rresp o n din g c o n c ep tio n a c tu a llyexistin g in the m in d ; wh ich is o fte n n o t the c ase . Thu s,the gro u p f lingel t iem anb, like (56 f l in gel t , m a y be

le a rn ed a nd u sed as a who le , the sym bo l f o r a psycho logic a lpredic a te (n am e ly, the rin gin g o f the doo r-be l l as a sign a ltha t the do o r sho u ld be Op e n ed), o f which the psycho logic a lsubje c t was the so u n d o f the be ll , c f . 270 .

No te 2 . I f o n e o f severa l wo rds in a se n ten c e is an in

defin ite wo rd with a n o rigin a lly em pha t ic a dditio n (todistin gu ish it from the sim p le in defin ite wh ich had c om e t o

be u sed la rge ly as a n in terroga tive), this m a y ge t the m oststress, 346 : (551: ift irgenbm . Bu t rhythm is p owe rfu l inc o n tro ll in g the stress o f som e o f these wo rds, c f . 274 .

No te 3 . A n u n defin ed p redic a te , o r ra ther the wo rdstan din g f o r o n e , m ay be c om e a fu l l predic ate a nd re c e ive

210 a ccen t

ch ief stress. Thu s, if I sa y , (56 jingt jem aub and the l isten eru n dersta n ds the last wo rd t o be so m e pro p er n am e o r o the r

.

a nd asks, QB 302 , I m ay a n swer, (56 jingtt m er .

3 02 . A sen ten ce co n ta in in g a n in te rroga t ive wo rd is

re a l ly a n a sse rt io n with o n e m em be r (the psycho logica l

predica te o r o n e o f the psycho logica l predica te s) in defin ite lyexpre ssed (tha t i s , by an a n mm ic wo rd , 29 1 ,

beca u se it i s st i l l u n defin ed in the m in d o f the sp ea ke r .

I ) I f the p sycho logica l subje ct is n o t y e t pre sen t t o the

m in d o f the l iste n e r, the se co n da ry stre ss tha t it wo u ld have

a cco rdin g t o 2 79, 2, becom e s the ch ie f stre ss $1530 ift bie

9Jiama ? Cf . fingt in 3 0 1 . The qu e st io n has the sam e

fo rm a nd stre ss tha t a n a sse rt io n wo u ld ha ve tha t a lso hada n a n aem ic wo rd (f o r exam ple , a pe rso n a l

,re la tive , o r o the r

pro n o u n ) whe re the a n aem ic (in te rroga t ive) wo rd sta n ds'in

the qu e st io n,cf. 2 73 , bu t a l so 2 64 R .

No te . This gen era lly le aves se c o n dary stress o n the in ierroga tive word . Oc c asio n a lly the rhythm 277 b , 278, I . x)shifts this t o a n e ighbo rin g p rep ositio n Emit mem {m ag er

o r Wiit m em M er‘

2 Cf . 346, 3 , a lso 299, r .

2) I f the psycho log ica l subje c t i s a lre ady pre sen t t o the

m in d o f the l is ten e r, the ch ie f stre ss fa l ls u pon som e o the r

wo rd 3 06, z) : 93 0 ift bie Sfiama ?‘ s y ,

whe re is

M a

'

m m a ?’

3 ) Bu t whe n'

a pe rso n,havin g u n de rsto od a l l bu t o n e

po in t,in qu ire s as t o tha t

,the in te rroga t ive wo rd m ay

becom e a fu l l predica te (cf. 3 0 1 N 3) a nd be he avily

stre ssed : 9530 iii bet fin abe 9‘Wfier e did yo u say the

boy was ?’

Cf . 252 d N .

4) Thi s i s a lso the ca se,o f cou rse

,when the p sycho

logica l subje ct is n o t expressed a nd the in te rroga t ive o r

in defin ite wo rd a lo n e i s u sed . 93 61? Eliiem anb.

”

212 a ccen t

No te 2 . P erso n s o f little in te lle c tu a l deve lopm en t, fa il ingt o rea l ize the m en ta l sta te o f the l isten er, o fte n rep ea t anassertio n o r a qu estio n witho u t cha n ge o f wo rds o r stress.

The heavy st ress which the y c o n tin u e t o throw o n wha t hasbe c om e psycho logic a l subje c t so u n dsc om ica l t o o thers.

No te 3 . S om e tim es tra n sfer o f stress o n rep etitio n isdu et o the fa c t tha t, in the first sta tem en t o f the idea , the

sp eaker al lows rhythm o r a n a l ogy

'

t o c o n tro l his a c c en tu a tio n(se e 274 290, 4 ) a nd, p erc e iving tha t he is n o t c o rre c tlyu n dersto o d , rep e a ts-with logica l stress.

No te 4 . W he n the psycho logic a l subje c t has had chiefstress 302 , r), a nd is rep e a ted , tho u gh u n dersto o d by the

l iste n er, its stress is weaken ed . I f the in terroga tive wo rdwas n o t u n dersto o d

,o r was m isu n dersto o d, it n ow ge ts ch ief

stress (c f . 301 N 3). Thu s, 93 0 ift ed

gemeien ?

‘W herewas the in terro ga tive be in g m isu n e rst o od, the qu est io n is rep e a ted a s $13 0 ift 693 gemefen a nd is equ iva len t to

H ,the sta tem e n t The wo rd I sa id was “where n o t “when

se e 252 d N . Cf . a lso § 304 N 2 .

D IS PLACEM ENT OF STRE S S

3 04 . Tra n sfe r o f stre ss i s so com m o n a n a c c om pa n i

m e n t o f repe t itio n tha t it has be com e cha ra cte rist ic o f it,

a nd a s im i la r disp la cem e n t o f stre ss take s p la ce even

whe re the ca u se o f t r a n sf e r r e n c e (the de sire to em pha siz e a

n ew psycho logica l p redica te , 3 03) i s wa n tin g. W e fe e l

tha t a sen te n ce ' rep e a ted with its o rigin a l a cce n tu a t io n

so u nds tam e,a nd we in stin ctive ly chan ge it . The wo rd

u po n wh ich the stre ss n ow fa l ls is l ike ly t o be o n e wh ich

m ight, u n de r som e circu m sta n ce s,sta n d fo r a n ew psycho

logica l p redica te , bu t if n o th in g o f the kin d o ffe rs itse lf, the

stre ss m ay fa l l u pon a to ta l ly in s ign ifican t wo rd : n o rm a l ly,

8d) weiB n id) t , mas? id) an fangen o I‘

‘I do n ’t kn ow wha t t o

do’

; repe a ted , 8d) meii; n id) i, mae’ id) . an fangen o I

‘ I do n ’t

kn ow w/za t to do o r“ I do n ’t

'

123'

6w wha t to (10 . 58a?» loll

id) berm jagen ?‘Bu t wha t ska ]! I say

? ’

SDaQ find-16

abet n id)i [M non ibm ,— _ nein , id) muf; jagen , id) finh

’

S en ten ce=5t rese 213

e?» n icht I do n ’t th in k tha t wa s ve ry n ice in him,

n o,I m u st say , I don

’

t thin k i t was n ice .

’

D isp l a cem en t o f

stre ss o ccu rs fre qu en t ly in G e rm a n in qu e stio n s (cf. N 2) ,bu t e lsewhe re is no t so com m o n as in E n gl ish . T

,hu s

Sohann ift o r Sit Sobann‘

3 wo u ld u su a l ly be

a n swe red a , er

_ijt ra re ly “

Q5a , er i-

Ti-t reid) (as in E n gl ish‘Yes, he zs rich ’

) bu t“

o n , bu?) ijt er, i s com m on .

No te I . D isp la c em e n t o f stress u n do u btedly had its o riginin t r a n sf e r re n c e o f stress a nd it is som e t im es diffic u ltt o t e ll whe ther a c ase o f app a ren t t ra n sf e r re n c e m a y n o t ,

a f ter a l l , be o n ly a c ase o f disp la c em e n t. B u t th is is c erta inwhen the cha n ge d stress fa lls upo n a wo rd tha t c a n n o t sta n df o r a n ew psycho logic a l pre dic a te , we have disp la c em e n t, c f .

to , foil , a ndsha l l above .

No te 2 . W hen the psycho logic a l su bje c t has had ch ie fstress 302 , x ) a nd is rep ea ted , t ho u gh u n dersto o d by thelisten er, its stress is we aken ed a nd disp la c em e n t o f stresstakes p la c e : 9530 iii benn bie Rage ? The n , a fter lo o kin gabo u t in vario u s p la c es, 513 0 iii benn bu?» Qiief) 303 N r

Cf . a lso 303 N 4 .

3 05. 1 ) D isp la cem en t o f stre ss is m o st com mo n in e x

p re ssio n s tha t a re m u ch‘

u sed, tha t is, a s it we re,c o n sta n t ly

rep e a ted a ndhen ce re a di ly a n t icip a ted . No rm a l ly 286,

mas ift ein e fom iid)e ®ejd)id) te‘Tha t ’s f u n n y

’

;

i

bu t

with disp la ce d stre ss : SD aQ ift abet ein e fom ijcbe (Siejcbicbte‘T/za t

’s fu n n y

,

’o r

‘W e l l,I de c la re

,tha t is fu n n y.

’

2) E xc lam a tio n s a r e subje ct to disp la cem e n t ; thu s a lm o st

a lwa ys : Sid) , bu Iieber (Suit ; 91d) , bu m ein e (Shite ; o fte n

11m (111e in bet SBel t um (Sh iitesm iIIen .

*

3) On e’s p e t expre ss io n s a r e like ly t o show disp la ced

stre ss ; so a lso wha t o n e ’s bu s in e ss re qu ire s him to repea t

frequ e n t ly,fo r exam p le , stree t ca l ls .

Hi

m Giotte?) QBiIIen by 289 ; um (Shiite?) miIIen by § 290, 3 R ; um(dotteé milIen by g305. W he n slowly u ttered, (Sjotteé a ndmiIIen m ay

have equu sfi stress, bu t Giotteé a higher p itch .

214 a ccent

4) In de cla im in g a nd in re adin g a lou d,e spe cia l ly if

fam i l ia r with the pa ssage o r subje ct , o n e is ap t t o disp la ce

stre ss,e ithe r co n scio u s ly o r u n con scio u s ly.

No te 1 . D isp la c ed stress m ay even be c om e established asthe u su a l stress, esp e c ia l ly in the c ase o f wo rd stress (see34 I N , 360, 6) anberé ‘ I t c o u ldn ’t be

he lped.

’

fill bafi Sit bafi

se ldom chan ged, bu t the m o re u su a l Widfi

fe t ed disp la c em en t o f stress so frequ en tly thas, in M iddle a nd S o u thern G erm an y, ba c c en tu atio n o f the phrase .

No te 2 . D isp la c em en t o f stress toge ther with va ria tio n o f

in to n a tio n som etim es be tra ys the m o o d o f the’

sp eake r .

QBie gejagt is the u su a l , FIBie gejagt is c a lm a nd refle c tive ,QBie gejagt, l ike u_ri_b 10 m eiter , be tra ys the sp e aker

’s c o n

sc ro u sn ess o f the laggin g in terest o f the l isten er, see 306.

(bu ten Elliorgen l is the n o rm al a c c en tu a tio n o f

the gre etin g. (Bu ten inorgeu som etim es is very stiffly sa id,som e t im es im p lies a willin gn ess t o stop a ndsay m o re . (Su tenEDiorgeti ! (often with very high p itch o n Ou ten a nd l ow o n

Ell iorgen , § 251 b ) be tra ys su rp rise o r is sa id p layf u lly o r

(with m o dera te p itch o n Ou ten a nd less o n SIJ iorgen ,256 R)

c o n desc en din gly. Observe a lso wha t is sa id in the fo o t-n o teo n p age 2 1 3 .

306 . 1 ) In t ran sfe r ren c e o f stre ss,the stre ss fa l ls on a

wo rd which o n e de sire s t o em pha s ize ; in disp la cem en t o f

stre ss th i s i s n o t the ca se . S ti l l , disp la cem en t o f stre ss is

o ften e ffe ctive in em pha siz in g the who le sta tem e n t,and

m ay be u sed f o r tha t pu rpo se . The re te n t io n o f the o rigin a l

a ccen tu a tio n in a repe a ted sen ten ce o ften g ive s i t a tam e

e ff e ct , wh i le disp la cem en t o f stre ss a ttra cts a t t e n t io n a nd

a dds we ight to the repe t itio n .

2 ) S im ila rly, disp la cem en t o f stre ss adds pe cu l ia r fo rce

t o the first expre ss io n o f a n ide a , if the fo rm o f expre ss io n

u sed wou ld be expected u n de r the circu m sta n ce s . Cf . the

exam p le s in § 3 05 a nd, fo r wo rd-stre ss , su ch ca se s as

nie'

— ma13" 358 a end) fl e'

v oII’fom'nt en betrun'ten ,

{ hap ter v

WOR D = STRE S S

308 . Usu a l ly a wo rd do e s n o t sta n d by it se lf, bu t is

pa rt o f a sen ten ce , 2 7o i t is the re fo re a m i sta ke,in de a l

in g with wo rd-stress , t o ign o re the re la t io n'

o f a wo rd t o

o the r wo rds,

2 74 . Y e t,in m o st wo rds , wha teve r the c o n

n e c t io n in wh ich they a re u sed, the stre ss has com e t o be

fixed o n o n e syl lable .

I. CH IEF STRESS

1) S IM PLE WOR D S 309 — 3 16

3 09 . S im p le n a t ive wo rds ha ve the stre ss u po n the

first,

* the s ign ifica n t syl lable ; de riv a tive a nd in fle c t io n a l

e n din gs , l ike a n aem ic wo rds a r e u n stre ssed : SD ieb,ED iebe, SD iebin , biebijd) , & c .

3 1 0 . 1 ) In a few ca se s the a cce n tu a tio n V

has be com e

V

o rV U

a cco rdin g t o § 2 77 , 2 : got el’le, leben ’big'

,

.bolun ’ber, u su a l ly iBacboI’bet (bu t gen e ra l ly ElJiiifa'bol'ber)

I n the o ldest G erm a n ic , as in I n do-E u rop ean sp ee ch, the a c c en t

was “ fre e ,” tha t is, it was n o t bo u n d by su ch a l aw ; f o r exam p le , thewo rd f o r ‘fa ther had the a c c en t o n the last syl lable , as in Gre ek , whiletha t f o r ‘

m o ther ’had it o n the first ; a nd the preterit p lu ra l was n o t

a c c en ted l ike the pre terit sin gu la r. I n G erm a n ic , I ta l ic , e t c . , a de c r es

c e n do stress was, however, e a rly est ablished , 275, x . I n La tin the

chief stress the n shifte d t o a he avy p en u lt o r t o the a n tep en u lt ; G e rm an ic spe ech is in the m idst o f a sim ilar tra n sitio n , 275, 2 , 3 .

M orbsm ress 217

c f . 3 3 0 . I n som e o f the se ca se s fo re ign wo rds m ay have

exe rte d a n in flu e n ce , f o r exam p le, 6 atbel

’le a nd S ibel’le o n

gorel’le. Cf . a lso 3 1 2 R 2 e nd.

2 ) Su tb’erijd) , o r Su tb’et ld) , i s n ow ge n e ra l ly re stricte d to

wha t p e rta in s t o Lu the r pe rso n a l ly,while the co n fe ssio n

o f fa ith a ndwha t p e rta in s to tha t is spoken o f as Iu the’rijd) ,m a n y te a c he rs a nd the o logs t o the co n tra ry n o twith

sta n din g. The a cce n tu a tio n Iu the'rijd) a cco rds with tha t o f

G re ek-La tin wo rds l ike bome’t ijd) , bnjte’rild) , e t c .,cf. 3 1 1 , 2

,

3 1 5, a nd m a y ha ve be en bro u ght abo u t in p a rt thro u gh

the in flu e n c e o f enange'l ijd) a nd fatbo’lijd) . The sam e

a cce n tu a t io n i s some t im es em p loyed,

a lm o st a lwa ys in

spo rt, in m a leriid) hingegofien‘

p ictu re squ e ly re c u m be n t ’

,

jcbm iirm erijd) , e t c .

3 ) The o lde r stre ss m ay sti l l be he a rd in va rio u s p a rts

o f G e rm a n y $ o’t el'le in a ndwe st o f Thu rin gia , in

Po sen,S axo n y, a ndThu rin gia ; a nd m o st p e op le st il l say

QI’m ei’

je, Silei’n o'be (p lu ra l o f Si lei’n ob

'

; bu t

the La tin iz ed fi lei'n o'bien o r RIei

’n o'bien i s com m o n ) ; in

the ca se o f .S'

gorn iije u sage wave rs . Obse rve, EUio’n a

'te

(p lu ra l o f n o t Smona'te.

3 1 1 . 1 ) Na t ive wo rds p ro v ided with fo re ign e n din gs a re

stre ssed l ike f o re ign wo rds with the sam e e n din gs 2 73 b).Sjorn ijt' l ike (Shoriit’ a nd (SeIIift’, bfi t ltbl ffifi' l ike dVOpLKaS ,Olajur’ l ike gBol itur’ a nd QIppretur

', Qappa

’lien l ike Siatum ':

l ien , ha lbie'ren l ike abbie't en ,.

‘Biiderei'l ike 6 pe3erei’, Giro'bianl ike SBa'n ian (o r o n the m ode l o f ‘D umm er ian Low-G e rm a n

bumm er San‘s tu p id Sie

’

feran t’ l ike a nd

SO i nfelei',‘

l afela’ge, & c . S im i la rly =eni= com bin ed wi th

G e rm a n e n din gs : Sen en ’je‘

r , e t c . ,l ike fi then ien ’ier, of . La tin

A tkem'

en ses Athen ia n s .

’

R em ark . This m a y take ch ief stress from the first m embe r o f a c om p o u n d n o u n : fe lt t o be fromSBu cb'brud

'er (bu t a c om p o u n d o f Sganb a nd

218 a ccent

so bu cb'ftabie'ren (by a n a logy t o topie'ren , in ter:pun ttie

’ren , &c .,f o r

,o lde r

2 ) G e rm a n su flix es a dde d t o fo re ign stem s rem a in

u n stre ssed . I n m o st c a se s the stre ss is o n the syl lable

be fo re the su ffix,in a sm u ch as i t i s the re in the fo re ign

wo rd,o r wo u ld u su a l ly be the re if the c o rresp o n din g fo re ign

su ffix had be e n u sed ; so be fo re sijd) f o r La tin J a rs : gram :

m ii’tiid) , philolo’giid) , a nd so dwrafterij’tijcb, beIIe’n ijd) ,

n agare’n iid) , magare

’n er ,g.Bbarijd’er , SBapa’cben (o fte n e ve n by

tho se who sa ySBli’pa), n a tiir’lid) so La tin -G e rm a n sifer l ike

J a rs : ElJ iathenia’tifer , Bu t Qi’bnen .

Th i s do e s n o t app ly t o wo rds tha t have be com e tho ro u gh ly

G e rm a n iz e d,f o r exam p le , or’ben t lid) < D rben , wh ich was

adop ted in Old-H igh-G e rm a n tim e s .

3) S om e wo rds o f m o re o r lessG e rm a n fo rm ha ve fo re ign

stre ss be ca u se they a re p opu la r p e rve rsio n s o r p a rtia l tra n s

l a t io n s o f fo re ign wo rds , o r , tho u gh tru e G e rm a n wo rds,

ha ve p asse d in to a fo re ign la n gu age a nd be e n r e -adop ted ,bu t re ta in som e tra ce o f the ir fo re ign sojo u rn . Thu s

, Rat":

fun ’fel La tin ca r bzm m /u s, QIp

'

ft i’n e o ld Fre n ch p om m e

de S in e, gel'leba t ’be Fre n ch fia l l eba m

’e M H G fielm ba r l e.

S im i la rly,La t in iz ed Old-G e rm a n n am es l ike Qiurgun

’be,

San'

gobat’be, Ru

'n igun

'be, Elfiatbil’be, iBa lpur’giémadu), & ca lso Sfi elin ’be, mola l in ’be, & c .

4) S o u th-G e rm a n dia le ctic n am e s l ike Elieudflin , QSDdIin ,

QBb Iin , u su a l ly ha ve we akly stressed =Iin in the S o u th a nd

M id la n d,bu t stro n gly stressed =Iin in the No rth

,as tho ugh

they we re fo re ign wo rds, 3 1 4 sin . S o .fgerm elin’ l ike SBa l titin ’

‘ tipp e t F o r S o u th-G e rm a n & c . ,

Cf . 3 1 3 e nd.

6) A D OP TE D WOR D S

3 1 2 . F rom the e a rl ie st days fo re ign wo rds ha ve be e n

a dopted in to G e rm a n spe e ch . No t a f ew o f these have

220 B CCCNI

v a n c ed: fi lpbab’

ét’, SD iner dim”, br i llan t ér zZ/km t’, analb

‘

g’,

belifiit', (Elefan t’, enen'tuelI', gam i’lie, ‘Bbiloibpb',

gou ta’n e, 6 d)ofola'be, Rafa’o ; QIt n',

‘

Zyloreng', SBarié’,

i itfil’, Sta’lien . (b) As in E n gl ish, som e wo rds sti l l

va cil la te be twe e n the fo re ign a nd the n a tive stre ss : Slfifima,5136116,

CI abaf , $ a lcini, the n am e s Sobann , (ingen , & c .

,cf .

R 6. fidm erfib a ndC‘EdIfit gen e ra l ly have fo re ign stre ss, a nd

Rii napee, Rdn enaé, & c . ,n a t ive , se e 365, 2 R . So QIu'gujt

‘Au gu stu s’

, bu t QIuguj’te‘Au gu sta

’

; in the n am e o f the

m o n th the fo re ign stre ss,o n ce lo st

,has be en re sto red

,

Sl ugujt'.SJJia'rie a n d S o’

pbie fo r Ell iarie’ o r Emar i'e, & c . (se e

3 1 4 =ie) a re com m o n am o n g the m iddle a nd lowe r c la sse s

in the M id la n d and the So u th,a nd in S o u th G e rm a n y

Gm ilie Qu'iKe) , & c . ,a re

com m o n . S om e o f the se we re o rigin a l ly G e rm a n ic n am e s,

3 1 1 , 3 . (c) The S o u th fa vo rs the de cre sce n do stress

m o re tha n the No rth,bo th in n a tive wo rds 31 1 , 4 , 3 3 0 , 4)

a nd in fo re ign : ‘Ba laji, i rottoir , Qionbon ,EBureau ,

SJJ icnn a ,SBapa, &c . S im i la rly in n am e s : Qin ’breeé,

SJRa’ria , & c .,cf.

abo ve . Bu t the No rth-G e rm a n (o r fo re ign ) stre ss i s o fte nta ught in S o u the rn scho o ls.

R em a rks. (a ) Tho se who regu la rly say‘Ba'pa , Elll a'tn a ,

o ften u n c o n sc io u sly sh ift the stress to the last syllable , as

shown in 364, o r disp la c e it, 306, 2 end. F o r

‘Bapa'cben , &c . , se e 3 1 1 , 2 .

(b) The chief stress o n the fin a l syl lable of a n a do ptedwo rd m a y som etim es cha n ge p la c eswith the in itia l se c o n da rystress, a c c o rdin g t o 278, I . 1 : ©e'n era l' ~

a nd (Sie'

n era l'non

ill iol t'fe bu t Gjen 'era l Ell iol t'te.‘Bai'tor o r

‘Ba ftor'bu t u sually

‘Baf’tor (beg'e, 3 1 4 zor 1 .

‘Bortion'bu t o fte n (t in e ‘

Bor'tionR af’fee. Ma n y who say Sobann ', &c . 3 1 3 b) whe n the firstn am e o n ly is u sed, sa y So'bann 5Brau 'n e, &c . , c f . 366 N 1 R .

(r) In verse ly, som e S o u th-W est G erm a n s, who gen era llystress Christian n am es o n the first syl lable (c above), sh if tthe stress when the Christia n n am e is a dded t o the f am ilyn am e 277 5 R ) Eliun'n er Qinbreeé', flieI'l icam SUZatbiIb', &c.

(d) S e e 3 1 6, a lso 332 .

'

lllll orbssn ess 221

3 14 . H e re m ay be g ive n those e n din gs tha t u su a l ly doo r do n o t ha ve the stre ss, a s in d ic a ted they in c lu de a c c 1

de n ta l e n din gs a s we l l a s tru e su ffixe s a nd a r e a rra n ged

a lphabe tica l ly, f o r the m ost p a rt a c co rdin g t o the vowe l .F o r wo rds with G e rm a n su ffixe s a dded to fo re ign stem s se e

2 .

fi’be : QSaIIabe, Qiarrifabe, (Sbarabe, (Echofolabe, Sim onabe.

u'ge (p ro n o u n ced Qiagage, (Sou t age, (Stage,SBafiage,

‘BIan tage, a n de ve n E n gl ish Q rain age {17572513 9 R 2).

ul’ : e lena l , (Sien erai 3 1 3 R b) , borigon ta l 3 1 6 e nd) , folo

n iaI, Sin ea l , tota l , Eliitua l , un inerja l ; bu t

i in ’fa l , a nd the n ames o f anim a ls Gia’nia l , Siar’ma l ,

alI': Sirijtafl, fill ieta ll , Rramafi, Qiaja ll ; bu t n o t the two

o rigin a l ly G e rm a n ic wo rds Slfiar’jcba ll’

(bu t se e 3 64 ,

G e’n ejdmll'

an . (1 ) W o rds with La tin e t c .,ha ve (i i/ z hum an ,

SiajteIIan , jpon tan , Qiu lfan (e ve n a f ew with La t in « in n s,

-c’

i7zu m : D rgan , D cean , bu t se e a lso 2 be low) ; s im i la rly,m a n y from Low La tin o r R om a n c e : Raplan , g a friitan ,

g obran ,

SJJ iargipan , D rian (u ltim a te ly a n I n d ia n wo rd) .

(2 ) S om e wo rds tha t ha ve lo n g be e n in the la n gu age

a re n ow ge n e ra l ly stresse d o n the first syl lable 3 1 2 )QSaIbrian , (Singian , $ av ian ,

SIlelifan , i bnniian , a nd

u su a l ly D eedu (Tsii’dn , iii'tiin o r SZ iidn ’ a re from La tin-cm ) , a nd the Fre n ch Gbar’latdn

'. (3 ) W o rds from the

T u rk ish,Arabic

,P e rs ia n & c . ,

u su a l ly stre ss the first

syl lable in G e rm a n : Sbiman , fibragomdn , Raftfin , sorn’

n

(o r (Baffiiin (o r 6 ajr5n , S atan , EI aIiern iin .

F o r Sen ifi'thi‘

in see Wo rd-Li st, fo r fi ltan , 3 1 5

anb c f . stint .

ii’ne : (Shifan e, Raraman e, 9Rembran(e) ,gBartiian e.

ii’ne : SD om iin e, gon tane, Elfiigriine.

222 fi CCCfl t

a’ner : Snbianer , gBuritan er , Siepublitaner .

ant’ : Q i u tan t , SD iam an t , elegan t , St onjonan t ,SBeban t (so t oo

(graminanb, Ronfirmanb, a nd Giounernan’te, Qiarian ’te,

bu t SD e’man t , D o’ran t , Sent’nan t, a nd o ften

fD e’d)an t.

anysl ilIiang, (Elegang, Sionjonang, C

‘Bubftang; bu t

SBO’pana.fil iiograpl) ,

SBhotograpt) ; bu t H ebrew

fit ’. The a i s stressed if st re ssed in La tin (o r in Late

La tin ) : Snnen tar’, Romm en tar'; a nd eve n

$ athat '; bu t Siei’tar . 211m: wa ve rs , se e 3 1 5. F or

Sanuar, & c .,se e 3 1 6 . Obse rve S lavic s

‘

gojpobar’ a ndH u n ga ria n Tu rkish ft

‘

a’n iat , I n dia n Sa’guar .

ar’ : fam i l iar , popu lar , € etretiir .

ard)’ Ell ionard) ,

SBatriard) .

aft’ Gu thujiajt, Ron trajt , SBa lajt, a lso SIlsa l’ajt, e spe cia l ly in

So u th G e rm a n y . Ria l ’lajt, re a l ly a Low-Ge rm a n

com po u n d , i s o fte n stre ssed o n the last syl lable ,

3 1 2 R 2 .

f

ut’. S tressed if stressed in La t in : D em oft at’, D uplifat’,

finniu lat’, ‘Bi rad n o t in the ve rba l fo rm s ‘Be’redt ,

Qia'ffit , SBi’v iit.f lit’ $D iiit , s

‘

gu in an itat , l l n ineriita t .

é o r =ee’Sl ittadyé, (Soupé, QIrm ee,

‘Gbauijee, fibee, Siom itee;bu t Q an ’apee

’.

t i’ Sitan ei, 6 pe5erei, a nd the n u m e ro u s G e rm a n wo rds with

th is e n din g o r i ts exte n sio n s , z i fel’, § 3 1 1 1

bu t o fte n Qo’relei'

,wh ich is n o t a de riva t ive in sei.

'

et’ a ndse’fe: QIpotbete, Qiibliotbet , Ropete, 6 d)artete.

'

eft’ 91rd)iteft , SD ia lett , Sniett, D bieft 3 1 6 end) , perfeft', bu t

in gram m a r SBerfeItKum) o r se e 3 1 6 .

:

elI’ : iDu eII, fiaitell , or iginell , reell , a nd eve n E n gl ishc

,

‘

yIaneII

3 1 2 R 2) ; so t o o ©0161.

eI’le : (SitabeIIe, StapelIe, Sl ov ene.

224 a ccent

p . 1 28 N s) :‘

fylibui'tier, EDl a’gier, Sillalna

’fier (a lsoS au ’r ier a nd n am e s o f peop le s l ike 6 pa’n ier , iBel’gier .

ie’t en : biSpu tieren , par l ieren , turn ieren . M o s t o f the ve rbs

e n din g in sieren we re n o t a dop te d from the F ren ch, bu t

fo rm ed in G e rm a n (from fo re ign o r n a tive stem s) inim ita tio n o f su ch aswe re a do pted

, o r as the e qu iva len ts

o f fo re ign ve rbs with v a rio u s e n din gs : jtolaiet en , jfal =

nieren , jtrapagieren .

if . Wo rds in zif — c f . 2 0 1 N 6 o ften have La tin

stre ss : e ie’n if , (Shro’n it , SJ ie’trit ,SBoe’tit , Sibeto'rif ,

e ch’n if, a nd n owg e n e r a l ly (Bramm iit’it ; (2 ) som e t im e s

,

va riable stre ss : fi rithme’tif o r =tit’, Ell ietaphn’jit o r =jif’,sti l l

,u su a l ly Smathematit’; (3 ) bu t o n ly F re n ch stre ss in

Siepublit’, Elliolait’ (bu t SBolitif’ (bu t

‘Bo li’

t iter) , Ratholit’ (bu t ta tho'liidfi, a ndin m o st d issyl lable s

$ abt it’, firitit', & c .— Ellin’jit a nd $ bn'jif, sti l l he a rd in

So u th G e rm a n y,a r e a n t iqu a ted . Obse rve D ua'bruplil

'

,

D uin ’tuplif’

, s3 1 6 .

iter 3 1 1 , z) i s pre ceded by the stre ss Siri'tifer , ElJ lu ’iifer ,‘a ’jiter, & c .

,in spite o f firitit’, & c .

, 3 1 5 R .

il’ : civ i l , (iri l , jubtil .

iil' Sinm in ,

S,Diebigin , e spe cia l ly chem ica ls : Rartn in , (Shin in ,

SZ et pen tin , & c . ; and“

S la v i c n am e s 5Ber l in , C‘5tettin , & c .

SBalbacbin ,580m l1ajin ,

gBa labin o r 5Iia latin

‘

p a ladin’o r

‘kn ight’

(bu tSBa latin ’ ‘pa la tin e ’

o r‘f u r t ippe t stre ss

the first o r the la st syl lable , {gar lel in o n ly the first,D elphin u su a l ly the la st . Cf . 3 1 1 , 4 .

=i’ne : (Soujin e, ©arbin e, Emajdnn e.

i’ner : S’l leranbrin er , S‘iapnginer .

iiin’ Slu ttion , Elieligion , iiijion .

ié’muéz SD eipotiésmus, (Sgoiésmué, Q atboligismué.

ift’ : (Sgoijt, Surift, g ophijt ; bu t Qio’fift . M o st wo rds in

ift we re n o t a dopted from F ren ch a nd (Low) La tin ,

bu t have bee n fo rm ed in G e rm a n from fo re ign o r n a tive

W ors t ress 225

3 1 1 , 1 ) stem s : SBelletrift , (Sierni an ift . F o r

fi en tift cf . 3 1 2 R 2 .

sii’ter : Elliin ijter , Siegifter .

it’ 2 0 1 N al l on it , mbetit , Seju it ,‘Brofit . Bu t u su a l ly

S an ’jfrit, a nd the ve rba l fo rm s SD e’ficit , Tsa’cit , ‘Bro’jit .=iv' m ailin ,

-€Diotiv , n a iv , poiitin , relat iv , attiv , Staminativ ,e t c .

,bu t se e 3 1 6 .

ig’ fining.

u’bc : (inijobe, S‘iomm obe, m arobe.

D ialog, i beolog(e) é nnagoge. Bu t D r’lbg’ in Or log

ichifi< the D u tch .

nir’ 2 1 3 c) : éBouboir , Ell iem oir , i rottoir — a lso cl rot’toir

in So u th G e rm a n y.

nl’ : fr iv ol , Slionopol , S ymbol . Bu t fil l'fohb'

l .

ow’z QIjtronom , Sbiom , (S ymptom .

nu’ §Baron , Ran ton ,‘Berion , a nd of . =ion . Bu t EBfi’rntbn

a nd SIioi’till(i)on o r (o r

on . (1 ) In Fre n ch wo rds , § 2 07 N,=ou is p ro n o u n ced 577

a nd is u su a l ly stre ssed ,

‘Ba lton , Qianban (a l so

C‘Ea lon , bu t SBa'nill on o r son ’.

(2 ) in G re ek wo rds a nd som e o the rs , son IS p ro

no u n c ed 572 a nd is,

u su a l ly n o t stre sse d : Ql froj’tidwn ,ibi'jon , Sio'lon a nd g em ifo’lon , Ser’iton ,

Sll an ’tbeon .

u'ne : alm aaone, fianon e, El lielon e.

uh’ geliotrop, Sil l ifrojfop, 9Jiilan tbrop.

or . (1 ) M o st wo rds e n din g in sot a r e dire ct ly from the

La t in a nd,re ta in in g the fu l l La tin fo rm ,

do n o t stress

the fin a l syl lable D oi’tor , Smpera'tor ,gBroiei’jor 3 66,

N 1,R ), fire'bitor , C

‘5e’n ior , 6 upe’rior ;bu t som e

,thro u gh

the in flu e n ce o f re la ted fo rm s (se e 3 1 5) a nd o f the

R om a n ce wo rds in 2 be low,ha ve com e to stre ss the

la st syl lable , so Qumor , Stum or, o fte n QIu tor, som e tim e s(

gation n o t so o fte n (Saftor . F o r $ aft0r see a lso

3 1 3 R 6.

226 R ecen t

(2 ) Wo rds in z or from the R om a n ce la n gu age s (wh ich

p re se n t the La t in a ccu sa t ive ca se , c f . § 3 1 5) ha ve the

stre ss o n the la st syl lable : E on tOt , Ell iajor ,‘Jl iatabor ,

i enor , fl relor ; bu t Sior’ribor u su a l ly ha s the G e rm a n ic

stre ss, 3 1 2 .

03’ (1 ) in adje ctives < the La t in (i sm ) : jam oé, granbioé,furiofi.

He (2 ) i s n o t stre ssed in n o u n s < the G re ek -os) : (Sbaoé,(531006 ,

‘Batboés.

08' n ernoé, rel igibe.

n'ie : alpritoje, SD iagn oie, Ell ia troie.

—

ntt’ : «

SBan frott, bigott , S‘iompott .

(I ) =Ttr’ : (< La tin -z7m ) : Ru l tur , Sitteratur , Watu r.

(2 ) =iir : i s n o t stre ssed : Slugu r , ill urpur, bu t’)lsfir

’ o r strat a.

'

u’re : §Brojd)iire, Settiire, I ourniire.

'

u t’ : abjolu t , Snititu t, Sietru t .

3 15. I n som e la n gu age s the stre ss o f re la ted wo rds o r

o f d iffe re n t fo rm s o f the sam e wo rd va rie s acco rdin g to the

n u m be r a nd the qu a n tity o f the syl lable s in a wo rd .

Th i s p e cu l ia rity is o fte n fo l lowed o r im ita ted by the G e r

m a n s in wo rds a dop te d from tho se la n gu age s . La t in words

in -ar stre ss the o in the p lu ra l , so G e rm a n Q uil ter bu t

D oito’ren , (‘5e’n ior bu t (Een io’ren ; s im i la rly 6 eniorat’, Ql t’lae

Ql t lan'ten , ED iilm on SD iim o'

n en did) , fi l i’m a l lima’tild) ,g«lia l’jam

ba lja'm ijd) , spareshero’iid) , fil ther iitbe'rijd) , (Sho’lera (Sbole's

t iter chole’riid) , Eliu'm erué num e’riid) . Also Ql'raber (bu t cf.

W o rd-Li s t) filra’berin ara'hijd) , 6 a’tan a nd (S u l’tan (bu t of .

§ 3 64 , 1 a ) have p lu ra l — ’tan e OI‘

— ta’n e, SO S u l’tan in o r

g uita’n in . Obse rve Ql l’tat o r Ql ltat ’, u su a l ly il l tan ’, ill u

’tor

o r Ql u tor’, l ike the p lu ra l , cf. 3 1 4 sor .

R em a rk . Ra tholif’ fa tbo'l ijd) , ’Bht fiif’ &c ., a re

du e t o a va c illa tio n betwe en Fren c h a ndLa tin stress, c f . zifa lso 3 1 2 R 1 .

228 a ccen t

3 18 . (a ) The d iffe re n ce in the s tre ss o f c om podnd

n o u n s a nd com po u n d ve rbs is du e chiefly t o the fa ct tha t in

m o st com po u n d n o u n s it is the first m em be r tha t ha s ch ief

sign ifica n ce , a nd in m ost ve rbs,the se co n d m em be r . (b)

Whe n the ide a exp resse d by the firs t m em be r o f a c om

po u n d n o u n i s n o lo n ge r im po rta n t , the fi rst m em be r 15

gen e ra l ly o m itted (com p a re .Spauéjcbliifiel with

When co n ve n tio n requ ire s the re te n tio n o f the first m em be r

a fte r the fu l l n e ed o f it . i s p a st, the s tre ss te n ds to sh ift t o

the fo l lowin g m em be r,cf. 3 3 1 , 2 d

,a nd som e o the r ca se s in

3 2 1 & c . (c) No u n s tha t a r e o fte n u sed as the se co n d

m em be r o f a com p o u n d , a r e ap t t o ge t a le ss defin ite m e a n

in g a nd t o fa l l in to the c a tego ry o f su ffixes thu s

QBeije in auén abmém c i f e ,CLl

'

eil in { Bier t e l , a lso the G e rm a n

e qu iva le n ts o f l ike a nd [Zoom in freunb l id)‘ frien d l y ’

,

Rbnig t u m‘king d o m

’

,e t c . (fl ) The e lem e n ts (be: en t

er : gez ber : gerz) tha t o r igin a l ly com bin ed with ve rbs, we re

f ew in n u m be r a ndde n o ted o n ly p o s itio n ,o r dire c tio n

,e t c .

in c om p o sitio n the ir fo rc e be c am e m o re a nd

m o re in defin i te a n d co n sequ e n t ly the ir s tress, l ike tha t o f

a n aem ic wo rds,su ffixe s

,a nd in fle c t io n a l e n din gs

be cam e we ake r u n ti l it qu i te disa pp e a red . S e e § 3 2 1 .

(e) The n u m be r o f these ve rbs was la te r in cre a sed by the

fa c t tha t the p refix m ifzs, the pre dica te a dje c t ive D oll , a nd

ce rta in adve rbs — ba rd) , hin ter , u her , um , un ter , m iber a nd

wieber — wh ich we re o fte n u se d with ve rbs, 3 4 1 , in som e

ca se s u n de rwe n t a sim i la r we a ke n in g o f fo rce and stre ss

u n ti l they we re a l l rega rded a nd tre a ted as p refixe s

3 4 1 , x -s) : bu rd)'bring

’en‘pen e tra te ’ tra n sitive , u

'herieb

'

en‘tra n sla te ’

, mie'

betho’len ‘rep e a t’

, boll'

hring’en

‘ com p le te’

,

m ifi'

ban ’beln ‘abu se ’

, m iB'ra’ten

‘m isc a rry ’

No te 1 .— Ou the prin c ip le o f § 273 R , som e c om po u n ds

with '

m ifss (m iB'ban ’beln ‘do am iss ’

, m ifa'r a'ten‘a dvise

wro n gly’

, &c .) have c om e t o stress this e lem en t a nd, l ike

3 19

thu s

“

lllll orossn ees 229

separable c om p o u n d verbs, a dm it au andgez between the twoe lem en ts : m ifa'auban 'beln , m ifs'gera 'ten ; bu t the m ifsz is n o tsep a ra ted (exc ep t in spo rt) in the sim p le ten ses m iB'ban'bel te,n o t hanbel te m ifa; a nd in som e o f these verbs the sim p leten ses a re se ldom o r n ever u sed. A lso befo re u n stressedp artic les,

“

the stress fa lls o n m ifiszau m ifs'uet jtehn ' o r m ifs':

auneritebn ’, m iB'beba ’

gen , &c . Thu s som e c o n fu sio n a rose ,and in o th er verbs (fo r exam p le , m ifibanbeln ‘

abu se m iBo f ten gets the stress in the in fin itive a nd a lwa ys in the

p e rfe c t pa rtic ip le if the u n stressed ge= is u sed , as it o ftenis (m ifg’ban 'beln o r m ifa'ban 'beln , pp . m ifa'ban 'bel t o r gem ifi':

han 'bel t) .No te 2 .

- I n empo'ren em : is fo r an , the verb (a nd c o n

sequ en tly its stress) be in g in flu e n c e d by the re la ted c o n

glo m era te , em por', § 353 . F o r m ill 'fom 'm en , wi ll'fah'ren ,frob'lod'en , se e 3 1 9 1 R .

D e r iv a t iv es f rom Com po u nds

D e riva t ives ke ep the stress o f the ir prim it ive s ;

1 ) Ve rbs de rived from com po u n d n o u n s ke ep the stre ss

o n the first m em be r : an t’wor ’ten n o t an t+

marten) , ur’tei 'len hei’ra'

ten nergema l’=

tigen frilb'ftiid'

en met'terleud)'ten

M H G we te r le ic h .

R em arks. (a ) T he verb frob'lod'en (by p op u lar e tym o l ogy M H G ’l‘v rol e ichen ’l‘v rél eich ‘

so n g o f rejo ic in g§ 1 28) n ow u su a lly c o n fo rm s t o § 3 1 7 : tha t is, frob’lod’en .

(é) Fo l lowin g the a n a logy o f verbs l ike frobloden a ndmeii=

jagen (app a r e n t ly< meije jagen , bu t rea lly< OH G wi3 3 agoso m e verbs tha t we sho u ld exp e c t t o find u n der

§ 34 1 , u su a lly have the stress o n the first m em ber, bu t a re insep arable : l ieb'iiu 'geln z fo'jen &c . In lob'prei

'jen sfing'ea&c ., som e sh ift ch ief stress to the se c o n d syllable , fo llowin gthe a n a lo gy o f the verbs in 3 1 7 . (c ) The wo rd m ill fom tn enwas o rigin a lly a n a dje c tive , bu t e a rly c am e t o be rega rded asa p erfe c t partic ip le a nd was la ter stressed mill 'fom 'men bya n a logy t o no ll 'tom 'm en (2 be low, a nd 3 1 8 e ) . The verbwi ll'fah'ren arose by a n a logy t o M H G wil l ekiirn wil lekiir

QBill fiir), bu t it n ow o ften fo l lows the a n a logy o f the verbs in3 1 7 , tha t is, wi ll

'fah'ren .

230 fi CCCnt

2 ) No u n s de rived from com po u n d ve rbs keep the stre ss

o n the se con d m em be r (Ertrag’ ertrag

’en , $ ef lei’bung

< beilei’ben , belbmm ’lid) betam ’m en , Slioll en ’ber .

‘Bollen ’bung

< n ollen'ben , so the pa rti

c ipia l a dje c t ive nollfoni ’nien (fo r D oll ’tom'

nien se e § 3 o 6 , 2 en d,

a nd fo r m ill tom ’m en R c abo ve) . Bu t obse rve the a dje ct ive sin 3 2 7 , a nd se e § 3 1 1 , 1 R :

R em a rks. (a ) S till , re la ted verb a nd n o u n m ay u n ite indep e n de n tly with the sam e e lem en t, esp e c ia l ly with o n e o f

those which fo rm the sep arable c om p o u n d verbs 3 18 e)SD u r ch'ftid) ’ bu rcb'ftedflen , l l n 'terbiinb'l er u n ter ’ban 'beln ,l l n 'terjdfleb’ (b) A n d la ter, fo l lowin g the

a n a logy o f these , som e re a l deriva tives (f o r exam p le , l l n 'tet‘=ricl)t

' un 'terridflten , Sl l ifs'fa l 'len m ifi'fa l'l en ) m a de the

sam e distin c tio n be twe e n verb a nd n o u n . S im ila rly , som e

p eo p le n ow say ®n t'gel t

'f o r ($ n tgel t' en tgel

'ten . (c ) I t iso ften ha rd t o te l l whether a c ase be lo n gs u n der a o r b.

E X CEPT IONS 3 20-3 3 1

3 20 . The except io n s t o the law sta ted in 3 1 7 a re du e

to va rio u s in flu en ce s , the ch ie f o f wh ich are (a ) cha n ge in

the va lu e o f wo rds a nd p a rts o f wo rds, a nd the co n sequ e n t

shift o f sign ifica n ce 2 67) (b) m e n ta l a sso cia t io n

tha t i s,a n a logy a nd c o n tra st ; and (c) rhythm 2 74

(a ) The Ve rba l Pr e f ix es

3 2 1 . I t wil l be obse rved tha t the first e lem e n ts o f the

com po u n d n o u n s l l r’teil ’, a t’mort'

,& c . ,

have be e n

we ake n ed thro u gh la ck o f stre ss 295, 1 1 3 ) in the ve rbs

er=tei len , en t : jpred)en ,& c . (4 ) Bu t m o s t n o u n s

a ssu m ed" the we ak u n stressed p refixes o f the ve rbs ; m o re

Th is m a y have be e n du e in pa rt t o the in fl u en c e o f verbs re la tedt o the n o u n s, bu t c a n a lso have be e n c a u sed by the we aken in g o f the

prefix eve n in n o u n s when a stro n gly stressed syllable like u n ': p re

232 R ecen t

in flu en ce s m o re re a di ly yie ld tha n tho se tha t a re subje ct tobu t o n e o f them .

(a) In m an y ca se s wo rds a re n o t prope rly com po u n ds o f

un : a nd a n adje ctive ; fo r exam p le , su ch a dje ctive s as aué

jtehlid) , ahiinberlid) a ndjiiglid) ha rd ly ex i st excep t as they a r e

dedu ced from unauditeblid) , & c . ,a nd -whe n they a r e u sed it

i s a lm o s t a lways with a n ega t ive . I n fa ct, unauéftehlid) ,

unjiiglid) , a nd the l ike a re de rived dire ct ly from ve rbs,the

u n stre ssed un : ta kin g the p la ce o f the we ak n ega t ive292 , 3 6) be fo re the ve rb. They fo u n d com pa n ion sh ip

am o n g the l ike-stressed ve rba l de riva tive s : erjchred’lid) ,

en tjetg.’lid) , & c . In sii ch ca se s i t i s ha rdly prop e r t o spe ak o f

a shi ft o f stre ss,fo r

,in a l l p robabi l ity, the wo rds we re n eve r

stre ssed in a n y o the r way (excep t fo r 3 25, 3 2 6 , 1, end)

in m o st com m u n it ie s whe re the stre ss is n ow o n the se co n d

m em be r. In p a rts o f the S o u th the stre ss fa l ls o n an : by

a n a logy t o the o rig in a l com po u n ds with un z, 3 2 2 , 1 .

(b) I n m a n y re a l com po u n ds the ide a o f the who le wo rd,

a nd n o t tha t o f the firs t m em be r, has com e t o be the o n e

u su a l ly u ppe rm o st in the m in d o f the sp e ake r a nd

the tin : the re fo re fa re s l ike o the r n ega tive s , 2 92 , 3 c . M o re

o ve r, the in flu e n ce o f the wo rds in a above m u st have be e n

co n s ide rable , 2 73 . Bu t see a lso 3 2 6 .

(c) The rhythm o f the la n gu age , o r ra the r the difficu lty

o f m a in ta in in g a se rie s o f de c l in in g stre sse s , fa vo red the

cha n ge , se e § 3 2 4 a nd § 3 63 .

3 23 . The fo l lowin g a r e som e o f the m o s t com m o n o f

the wo rds com in g u n de r 3 2 2 , they a r e,fo r the

m o st pa rt,ve rba ls e n din g in sl id) a nd =har, le ss frequ e n t ly

in ziam ,=ig, =l)aft .

unaban ’berlid) unbegreif’lid) unergrunb’lid)

un au fbbr’l id) unbejchreib’lid) u nermefs’lid)ttnausjprem’lid) un en tbebr’l id) unerm iib’l id)un au fn

’

jtel)’lid) un en tgel t’lid) unertriig

’lid)

flu orosm ress 233

unv erbej’jerlid) unjag’l id) unhor’barun v erm eib'lid) unjterb’lid) un liiug

'barunmieberbr ing'l id) unmill iiir’lid) unnenn ’bar

unm iberjtel)’lid) unalijel)'bar unrett’barunben t'lid) unau fba l t’bar unicbiitg,’barunenb'lid) unbeftreit'bar unau fha l t’jamunglaub

'lid) uneria) !bar unftrei'tigunmert'lid) unmiberleg

'bar unaah’ligunm

'

o'

g’lid) unbeni’bar ungmei

’felhaft

No te . In wo rds l ike un ergrunbl id) , u nben il id) , unhei lbar,u njtreitig, chief stress fa lls u p o n a syllable tha t wo u ld havethe stro n gest se c o n dary stress if un : had the chief. Bu t in

wo rds like u n abiinber l id) , u n auditeblid) , un au fba l tbar , therehas be en a we aken in g o f the stress o n a t) : ans: au f: &c . t o

the a dva n tage o f the f o l lowin g heavy syllable , 277 , 278 ;

bu t th is do es n o t a lwa ys take p la c e in u nbat ’ftell'har

'o r

3 24 . I t has be e n sta ted 3 2 2 c ), tha t the rhythm o f

the la n gu age fa vo rs the cha n ge . (a ) Th i s i s pa rt ic u la rlytru e whe n the wo rd is in the p redica te p o sit io n o r fin a l

(se e § 2 77 8: R ) a nd,o f co u rse

,tho se wo rds“

a r e m o st

a ff e cted tha t ve ry frequ e n t ly o c cu r in '

this po sitio n . Of the

ve rba ls , cf. @r o r Ge ift u nbeichreiblid) , u nertra'

glid) , unner

m eiblid) , unmbglid) , & c . F re qu e n t u se in the p redica te

po sitio n a nd as i so la ted wo rds in a n swe rs a nd the l ike i s

p e rhaps the o n ly re a so n (be s ides disp la cem e n t, 3 25) f o r the

sh ift in su ch p a rt icip le s a ndcom m o n a dje ctive s a nd a dve rbs

as unbebingt , un erhb’

rt , uner lebt , ungefiibr , ungem ein , un liingjt,unm ittelbar’ (a lso un'liingjt, u n ’m ittelbar) ; in ungeheu ’er the

cha n ge is m a de e a s ie r by the u n stre ssed set , cf. 5, e nd. The

te n de n cy t o sh ift i s , o f co u rse, p rom o ted by a p re ceding

em pha tic jehr , gang, o r tota l’, 3 64 , 1 5. (b) Som e spe ake rs

sh ift the stre ss in the predica te , bu t stre ss un : when the

wo rd is u sed a ttribu t ive ly (SDaQ 8im ’mer ijt'

unheig'bar, bu t

(Ein un'heia

'

ba'ree S im'm er), 2 77 6, 2 78 , 1 a ; o r

, if they

shift the stre ss when the wo rd is u sed a t tr ibu t ive ly, i t is

234 ElCCCIl t

o n ly be fo re a wo rd begin n in g with a n u n stre ssed syl lable ,a nd he n ce esp e cia l ly in a d v e rbs be fo re p a rt icip le s begin n in gwi th gez en t : ber : & c . Thu s som e sa y un

'

gem ein'

jcbbn’ bu t

un'

gem ein' betann t’, un

'

gern'gethan

'(cf. a lso N & c .

No te 1 . P artic ip les a nd c om m o n a dje c tives a nd a dverbsge n era lly give ch ief stress t o the u n : u n'er=

qu idt', u n

'gem ej'len , f o r u nbebingt , &c .

,

c f . 4 above . This is a lso tru e o f the p erf e c t pa rtic ip les o f

sep a rable c om p o u n d verbs ; bu t som e sp e akers sh ift thestress, u su a l ly, however, t o the a dverb, n o t t o the verba lstem : u n 'an

'

gefodflten , &c ., o r un'

an 'ge:

fodflten , a nd u su a llyNo te 2 . W o rds tha t u su a l ly do n o t shift m a y do so a t

tim es after a very he avy stress jebr u n ’noriim'tig, jehtu ngern ' (c f . a lso 324 e nd), &c .

3 25. D isp la cem en t o f stress 3 04 , 3 06) is , o f co u rse ,to ta l ly diffe re n t from sh ift o f stre ss 3 2 2 f t), ye t i t he lp s

to ke ep u p a va ci l la tio n o f u sage in the pro n u n cia tio n o f

m a n y o f the se wo rds . Tho se tha t a re o fte n u tte red with

em pha sis , e sp e cia l ly whe n m o re o r le ss co n ven tio n a l (see

3 06 , a re o ften he a rd with disp la ced stre ss : com p a re

Gr ift with 3d) fann il)n n id) t aue'

iteb'en !

§ 3 4 1 N .

‘

I n a com m u n ity in wh ich the sh ifted stre ss has

be com e e stabl ished (fo r exam p le , disp la cem e n t

brin gs the stre ss u p o n un s bu t whe re un’erhbrt

is the ru le, un erhbrt’ m a v be du e to disp la cem e n t , 3 2 7 R 6.

3 26 . 1 ) I f the re is a co rre spo n din g p o s itive a dject ive in

ve ry com m o n u se,ch ie f stre ss u su a l ly fa l ls o n the n ega tive

p refix 2 73 R ) un ’gehriiu cblid) , un

’geboriam , un

'aufm erflam ,

un'gl iiubig, un ’jdmbl id) , un ’nbtig (bu t se e 3 64 , 1 b) , un ’be:

quem , un ’bel iebt . A nd,o f c o u rse , a n y o n e o f the wo rds

tha t u su a l ly have sh ifted stre ss m ay o cc asio n a l ly stre ss un

a cco rdin g to 2 73 R .

2 ) Bu t the re a re a lso o the r adje c tive s tha t u su a l ly stre ss

the un z, 3 2 2 (2 ) a l tho ugh the fo rm witho u t un s is

,

n o t in

236 R ecen t

3 ) R egu l a rly a ll’mij’jenb, o fte n aué

'

gegeich’net (bu t the

pe rfect pa rt icip le aue'n eh’m enb, leib

'ei’gen .

Bu t an’bal’tenb, ein'n eh

'm enb, o r ar’heit

'

iam'

(see

3 65, a ndm a n y st i l l say fort’miib’t enb, of’fenbar', e t c .

,

a t le a st.whe n the wo rd is n o t befo re a pa u se,

2 77 R 2,

o r ve ry em pha t ic , 3 25. F o r noll'fom'men cf . fo r

mill'fom ’m en cf. 3 1 9, 1 R 6 .

R em a rks. (a ) In a lm o st every o n e o f the wo rds in 1 , 2 , 3 , the

stress m ay o c c asion a lly be p u t o n the first m em ber in a c c o rda n c e with 273 R o r 303 , 304, by p erso n swho u su al ly p u tit o n the se c o n d, c f . 306, 2 end. (b) On the o therha n d , o ther c om p o u n ds tha n those above m ay o c c asio n al lystress the se c o n d m em ber be c a u se o f tra n sfer 303) o r disp la c em en t o f stress 304 , 306, 2) ift fa'bel — baft l , masbae m ir bi lit. (Sin ah'— gefeim rter 6 d)u rte l Cf . 325.

3 28 . The stre ss in

& c .,is du e t o the fa ct tha t spe ake rs o ften e r

com p a re o n e o f the se la n gu age s with o the rs tha n the e a rly

s tage with la te r stage s o f the sam e la n gu age . In spe akingo f the n a t ive la n gu age a n d o f la te r stage s o f o the r la n

gu age s , the first m em be r re ce ive s the ch ie f'

stre ss, a l t

’hocl)

’

beu tjcb'

o r m it’teleng'lildl , 81 0. Sho u ld

,

howeve r, a l tenglijd) , f o r exam p le , be co n tra sted with m ittel=

englijd) o r n euenglild) , i t i s gen e ra l ly stre ssed

Like a l t'

liich'jijd) we have a l t'

friin f’ijd)‘o ld F ra n kish ’

,bu t

a l t’frani'ijd)

‘o ld-fa sh io n ed ’

,the o rigin a l m e a n in g o f sfran fijd)

be in g qu ite lo st .

3 29 . I n a n u m be r o f com pou n d adje ct ive s , the first

m em be r o f wh ich i s in te n ded to exp re ss a h igh degre e o f

the qu a l i ty,a n em pha tic se co n da ry stre ss is often p la ced

u pon the se co n d m em be r. Th i s em pha t ic stre ss frequ e n tly

e qu a ls , howeve r, o r eve n Su rpa sses the stre ss o n the firs t

m em be r,* e spe cia l ly if the ide a o f the se co n d m em be r has

Th is a c c en tu atio n 15, however, n o t u n iversa l , m a n y p la c in g o n ly theu su a l se c o n da ry stress o n the sec o n d m em ber. Those who stress the

m orb=5t ress 237

n o t a lre ady be e n expre ssed o r sugge sted jtodblinb, fiodtaub,totfran t , jtein reid) , jteina l t , u ra lt , urplb

’

tgdid) , blu tjung, blu tarm ,

m iiuéchenjtill , m aujetot , bligbumm , borfbumm , ergbumm , milb

fremb, grunbbran , sebrlid) , =fa ljd) , jpotthill ig, iergengrabe, fol) l

jd)mar5, ichneemeifs, feu errot , eisia l t , m unbericb'

o’

n , berglieb,mel t

'Befann t', bu t o ften

melt’befann t' a nd a lways ftabt'hefann t’,the first m em be r

hav in g its o rigin a l m e a n ing. F o r u r'

jpriing’lid) e t c . , see

§ 3 2 7 . Cf . 2 89, 2 N end,a n d 3 3 0 ,

2 .

No te . In su ch em pha tic c o m p o u n ds, the chief stress isu su a lly he avier tha n the ch ief stress in a n o rdin ary c om

p o u n d , 263 end. Mo re over, o n e o r bo th o f the m em bersa r e gen era l ly som ewha t pro lo n ged a nd they a r e

,o ften sep a

ra ted by a

'

sl ight p a u se . Thu s, even if the first stress be theheavier, these em pha tic c om p o u n ds a re distin gu ished fro msu ch regu la r c om po u n ds as ftein 't eidfl

‘rich in ro ck ’

, hlu t'=arm'‘

a n aem ic aie'gelrot

' brick-red e t c .

(a’

) S ubst a n t iv es

3 30 . 1 ) In substan tive s , the p rin cip le sta ted in 2 77 , 2

se ldom p reva i ls o ve r the traditio n a l stre ss except in m u lti

com p o u n ds ; in the se the ch ie f stre ss frequ e n tly sh ifts

3 2 2 f t) t o the m em be r be fo re the la st,e spe cia l ly if the

fo rce o f the first m em be r hasbe com e vagu e o r u n kn own o r i s

bu t a ge n e ra l in ten s ive . Usu a l ly : {fron'leich’n ann Rar

'

frei’tag,Grun

'bon ’n eretag, D

'

fterm on'tag,‘Bfingft

’

lonn ’tag a nd e t c ., 2l ll'meie’

l)eit'

; o fte n : D’berforft’m eii

'ter

mei'

jter, § 3 1 3 R 6,o r § 3 64 , x

, Steal'

jcbu lo’her leb’rer (o r with equ a l stre ss o n Stea l : and ober=,

§ 263 N 5) , som e tim e s Qierg': gelb

'

baupt’m ann , Qii'cefelb’

me'bel , Qanb’gerichte

'birei'tor o r Qanb

’

gerichts’biret'tor (even

with the sam e m e a n in g) ,

se c o n d m em ber m ost he avily usu a lly do so on ly in tbe p r edica te, 277 R.

Cf . a lso 275, 3 5.

238 R ecen t

jion'. e t c .

,be lo n g he re

o r fo l low the a n a logy o f the ve rbs in 3 4 1 , 2 .

No te . In sab'r esz ElJio'n at'S : san 'brud)’

a nd sen 'be zab'idflufi'sidflufi', e on 'n en au f'gang'su n'tergang',

e t c ., the shift is du e t o bo th 277 , 2 a nd 273 R ; bu t so m e

o f the wo rds m a y o rigin a l ly have been c o n glom era tesThe wo rds a re a lso hea rd with stress o n the first

m em be r.

2 ) The re a re n o t m a n y substa n t ive s l ike the a dje ctive s in

§ 3 29 . I n o ffe n sive ep i the ts (St a: u su a l ly has se co n da ry

stre ss : Grg'betrii’ger zgau

'ner sgro

’bian =jd)elm ’ bu t in o the r

com po u n ds it re ce ive s the ch ie f s tre ss Grs'hijth

'of,

logica l ly pho n e t ica l ly § 3 64 , 1 a,o r

Grg’

her lgog'

, 3 64 , 2 . I n {) ergliehjtea) a nd H e in e ’s .Sperglieh

then , the chie f stre ss u su a l ly fa l ls o n the se co n d m em be r.

l l ren fel , l l rgrofsm u tter 3 64 , e t c . , ge n e ra l ly ha ve the

ch ie f stre ss o n the first m em be r,bu t som e spe ake rs sh ift

the s tre ss in som e o f,the se wo rds a cco rdin g t o

l l r'en ’telin

'

(excep t when com pa rin g su ch wo rdsas (in l elin a nd l l ren telin, 2 73 R ) .

3) S ubsta n tive s com p ou n ded with 1111 : re ta in the stre ss

o n the first m em be r. In n e a rly e ve ry ca se the c o rre spo n d

in g s im p le wo rd is in com m o n u se . E ve n where the

m e am n g-has cha n ged , the stress is u su a l ly re ta in ed o n the

prefix ; of . l l n ’m enjdf , Hn ’geheu

'er ‘

m o n ste r ’

(bu t un'

geheu'er‘ve ry la rge

’

, 32 4 , Obse rve , howeve r, de riva t ives

3 1 9) l ike l l n'mbg

’lichl eit'

un'mbg

’lid) except bytho se who sa y F o r un ’

gefiihr'o r un

'

gefahr’ as a

substa n t ive,cf. 3 44 R .

4) The No rth-G e rm a n Qiu r'

gertn eij’ter , Slate'fel ’ler (a t

Brem e n,bu t Elfiari

’en tirch' a nd

‘Be'tritirdfl (in R o sto ck) , a r e du e to the No rth-G e rm a n

ten den cy t o sh ift the s tre ss t o the se c o n d m em be r, 290 , 4 .

Usage is div ided as to Sieujahr ; the habi t o f p la cing the

chie f stre ss o n the se con d m em be r do ubt le ss a ro se thro ugh

240 R ecen t

I t thu s com e s abo u t tha t a ge ographica l n am e i s rem em

be re d as a who le a nd is the re fo re pa rt icu la rly su scept ible t othe in flu en ce o f rhythm

,o r physica l co n ditio n s

,2 74 R 1

2 75, 2 , 3 , cf . a lso (5) Tha t i s, u n le ss the re is

som e re a son fo r em pha s iz in g the firs t m em be r, the ch ie f

stre ss m ay be expe cted to sh ift t o the se co n d m em be r.Shiftin g i s m o st com m o n in com po u n dsin shorn =bronn

=briid(en) =brunn (en) sfbrbe sfitt ii) =griitg. =l)aujen =miinbe =reu tl)

roba =robe =ma lbe =mei ler =merber =mer tl) sm iirtl)

SBa’berborn ’

, geil'bronn', Rb

'n igebrun

’nen ,

D s'nabriid’

, S aar': 8mei

’brud’en , Gd

'ernfbr’be,

Ell iari'enmer’ber , 6 mi

'nemiin'be,

filp'

pengell', {trie

'bricbro’bm Cf . a lso (Sa ffein ’

,

gor'nisgrin

'be, Rai'

ierelau’tern , Rbtjch'enbro'ba , Ell iari

'ajpring’,

S l’

jenburg', Ro'n igél ron

’ (pa la ce in Cha rlo ttenbu rg), a nd

(a cco rd in g t o M in o r) Rb'

nigss

horjt’, QBeij’

jeniee'

No te . R hythm a rid ease o f u ttera n c e 274 &c .) do n o t'

a lwa ys favo r the sh ift o f stress t o the se c o n d m em be r ; theym ay even , u n der c erta in c irc u m sta n c es, favo r the resto ra tio no f the stress t o the first m em ber, tho ugh it u su a lly fa lls o n

the se c o n d . Thu s Sgo'ben lo'be, au f bem Sgo'benaol'lern , &c .

(5 be low); bu t {glit ft'Sgo'ben lo'be, som etim es SBu rg' Sgo'hen s

gol'lern , the stress o n i

’

fiirft a nd 58 t be in g we aker tha ntha t o n the n am e , a c c o rdin g t o 287 , wh ile the stress o n

poben : is stre n gthen ed a c c o rdin g t o 278 . D ’jtet ma l'be,277 5 2 , bu t (in sp eaking o f the sam e p la c e) D 'fterma lb'

bei ©l'ae, the stress o n zma lb be in g we aken ed before (Else ,

a nd tha t o n t er : stren gthen ed , 278.

2 ) In re la tio n to a g iven ge ograph ica l n am e,pe0p 1e a re

n e ce ssa ri ly divided in to two gro u ps o f n e a rly e qu a l im

po rta n ce : first tho se l iv in g a t o r n e a r the p la ce , se co n d

tho se l ivin g som e dista n ce from it a nd u su a l ly co n st itu t in gthe la rge r pa rt o f the popu la t io n o f the co u n try. I f dive r

sity o f u sage a rise s be twee n the se two c la sse s (see be low) ,it m ay co n t in u e o r o n e u sage m ay m o re o r le ss com p le te ly

m orb=5t ress 241

preva i l ove r the o the r . In the ca se o f a la rge city, who sen am e is in the m o u ths o f p e op le i n a l l p a rts o f the co u n try,a n y lo ca l te n de n cy t o shift i s u su a l ly o ve rwhe lm ed by the

gen e ra l u sage , thu s eve n n a tive s o f the p la ce say bei'belberg

’

o n ly o cca sio n a l ly. On the o the r ha n d,if the lo ca l cla ss e x

te n ds o ve r a la rge a re a,fo r exam p le , a p ro v in ce o r the n a t io n

itse lf,i ts u sage wi l l ge n e ra l ly preva i l , cf . o

’ be low. The

lo c a l u sage wil l o rdin a ri ly p re va i l a lso in the ca se o f a

sm a l l p la ce,wh ich i s se ldom m e n t io n ed except by p e0p1e

who l ive in o r n e a r i t o r who ha ve vis ited the re a ndhavethu s com e u n de r the in flu e n ce o f the lo ca l u sage ; fo r exam

p le s , see 1 5. Cf . a lso 2 74 R 1 .

(a ) T he deve lopm e n t o f dive rs ity o f u sage n e a r a nd

away from a p la ce m ay be i l lu stra ted by a co n cre te c a se .

A m a n l iv ing a t Osn abr iic k o r in its n e ighbo rho od he a rs

this n am e o fte n e r tha n a l l o the r n am es o f town s e n din g in

hriid; he n ce the wo rd is the re re a dily u n de rsto o d evenwhe n the ch ie f stre ss has be e n rem o v ed from the fi rst

m em be r to.

the la s t 3 3 1 , a nd i t wi l l ra re ly be n e ce ssa ry

to brin g the stre.

ss ba ck t o the fi rs t m em be r . Bu t distant

p la ce s havin g the sam e e n din g a re dist in gu ished by be in gstre ssed o n the first m em be r ; a nd th i s i s ju st the way tha t

pe0p1e dista n t from Osn abr iick tre a t tha t n am e . Tha t i s,in

ge n e ra l , a p la ce-n am e e n din g in a wo rd tha t i s a com m o n

e n din g in su ch n am e s,i s l ike ly t o be stre ssed o n the se co n d

m em be r in a nd abo u t the p la ce , a nd o n the first m em be r

away from there . Th is is p a rt icu la rly tru e o f sm a l l town s

(cf . 2 abo ve ) m o st G e rm a n s sa y 5Biid’ehurg'a ndSia’beherg

'

,

bu t the n a tive s a nd the ir n e ighbo rs say Sia'be

berg’,& c .

(5) On the o the r ha n d , if the n am e s o f a n u m be r o f

p la ce s in the sam e n e ighbo rho o d e nd a l ike,i t wi l l ge n e ra l ly

(see , howeve r, n o te be low) be n e ce ssa ry t o stre ss the first

m em be r in o rde r to m ake su re wh ich o f seve ra l po ssible

242 R ecen t

p la ce s ' is m e a n t ; fo r th is re a so n the m a n y Thu rin giann am e s in =lehen a re e ve n the re ge n e ra l ly stre ssed o n the

first m em be r, a nd the n a tive s o f S tra lsu n d stre ss the n am e

o f the ir city o n the first syl lable t o dist in gu ish the wo rd

from the n am e s o f the va rio u s so u n ds o n the Ba ltic . Bu t

as the n am e S tra lsu n d a lo n e i s ge n e ra l ly kn own in G e r

m an y, it i s stre ssed o n the se co n d syl lable by m o st G e rm a n s,

§ 3 3 1 , 1 5. So,t o o , G re ifswa ld is stre ssed ©reif6’ma lb

'a t

hom e in dist in ctio n from the n am e s o f lo c a l wo o ds,bu t as

the re a re com p a ra tive ly f ew n am e s o f la rge town s with the

en din g =ma lb, the n am e i s gen e ra l ly stre ssed (Sireifé’ma lb’

3 3 1 , 1 5) in o the r p a rts o f G e rm a n y. S e e a lso ,

‘Baben

58 aben in the W o rd-L ist .

No te . B u t eve n in the sam e n e ighbo rho o d p la c e-n am es

tha t have the sam e e n din g m a y r e c e 1v e the ch ief stress o n

the se c o n d m em ber. Th is is gen era l ly tru e o f n am eswho se

se c o n d m em ber c o n ta in s m o re tha n o n e syllable , the first o fwhich is lo n g (f o r exam p le , srbe, zbaujen , sroba , sma lbe,smeiler , zmerber), a nd whose first m em ber c on ta in s m o retha n o n e syl lable , so tha t its stressed syl lable is sep a ra tedfrom the stressed syllable o f the se c o ndm em ber by a t le asto n e weake r syllable . I n these c ases the physic a l ten de n c y t osh if t the stress is p artic u larly stro n g 277 , 2 , c f . 3 1 0)a nd the se c o n da ry stress o n the first m em ber ishe avy e n o u gh

263 , N 1 5) t o m a ke tha t m em ber distin c t. S im ilarly, su chn am es as Se'n a a nd QBe‘n igenje'n a a re in them se lves so diff e r en t tha t there is ge n era lly n o n e ed o f stressin g themdiff eren tly.

(5) M o re o ve r, p e o p le o f the lo ca l ity o fte n find i t n e ce ssa ry

to distin gu ish be twe e n su ch , n am e s as D ’herlo'

qu itg, a nd

ll n ’ter lo’

qu ig, Gjroh’he’ringen a nd filein ’he

'ringen , a n d the

l ike,as be twe en a n d Sieu ’jtabt

'

, D jt’preu’

fien and

SIBejt’preu’

Ben , Siorb’beu tjch'lanb a n d Bu t

a t a dista n ce from o n e o f the se lo c a l itie s,the first m em be r

is le ss dist in c t ive tha n the se co n d,f o r the re a r e m a n y

p la ce s begin n ing with D bers, un terz , fiftiebex s, (Sjrogs, t z,

244 a ccent

So the a rt ificia l fo rm a t io n s S i'quabrat'

, Sio'ji‘nus, Sio’jelan’te,

& c . a lso som e tim e s i ber’m om e'ter , Ri’logramm

'

, & c ., Slm'phi

thea ter, o fte n e r almpbi’tbea'ter, & c . Cf . 2 73 R .

No te 1 . S o m e o f these a re n o t fo re ign c om p o u n ds, bu tG erm a n c om po u n ds o f fo re ign e lem en tsRu t ia l'ftil', &c .) o r o f n a tive a nd fo re ign e lem en ts (D 'betl ieu t'en an t , Ell ea l'jdm’le, S i'cetb'n ig,

No te 2 . Tho u gh c o m m o n wo rds l ike SSber'm om e'ter ,SBa'rom e'ter , &c . , in this wa y o ften ge t the chief stress o n thefirst syllable , fD ia'm eter a nd the m etr ic a l te rm s z etra'm eter ,

Sgera'tn eter , &c .

, a re usu a lly stressed like the ir Latin -Gre eko rigin a ls.

3 ) CONGLOM E RATION 3 3 3 — 3 66

3 33 . 1 ) The diffe re n ce be twe e n a ge n u in e com po u n d a nd

a co nglom e ra t io n o f wo rds o fte n ju xtapo sed , i s ge n e ra l ly

e a s i ly see n ; bu t th i s i s n o t a lways the ca se,fo r exam p le

,

when the first e lem e n t has the fo rm o f a ge n it ive i a'

geéw

an'fang, ElJio’n a tQab’jchluB 3 3 0 ,

1 N) . M a n y o ld com po u n ds

a re h i sto rica l ly co n glom e ra te s,bu t we re so e a rly fe lt t o be

s in gle wo rds tha t they have the o ld de cresce n do stre ss,

§ 2 75, 1 : Emittag, QBeihnachten , 81 0. Cf . a lso § 3 45. S om e

wo rds ha ve bu t re ce n t ly passed fro m o n e ca tego ry t o the

o the r : 550 ber geheim e Sliat ber Oebeim ’rat

'

; o the rs a r e sti l l

u n se tt led : bie Sang'emei'le a nd bie Sang

’meil'

, firau ’jemin'

ge,

pe rhaps m o re ge n e ra l ly firau'

iem in ’ge, fid) wieber neribhnen

292 , 3 c ), a nd jid) m ie’berneribb'n en .

2 ) The re a r e de riva t ive s who se stre ss be tra ys ba se s m o re

o r le ss lo o se ly con glom e ra te : thu s tag'tiig

’lid) fo rm ed from

i ng fiirC

l ag o n the a n a logy o f tiiglid) from i ng a l t'tejtam en f’:

W< baé alte i ejtatn en t (bu t the S o u th-G e rm a n fo n dn e ss

fo r de cre scen do stre ss o fte n produ ce s the a cce n tu a tio n

§ 3 49 N) , cf. § 3 44 e nd; ii'bernach’ten iiber

Wad)“ D reiein igfeit a nd breiein ig‘t riu n e ’ fo rm ed dire ct ly

from brei a nd ein ; cf. a lso 3 43 e nd.

m orbssn ess 245

(1 ) NOUNS A ND VE RBS

(a ) Con g lom e ra t es

3 34 . Co n glom e ra te s ge n e ra l ly keep the o ld sen ten cestre ss

,2 79 & c .

,bu t see § 3 3 3 a nd 345.

A a’

jeetio e a nd S u bsta u tiv e

3 35. Acco rdin g t o 289 : bie Sang'emei’le bie lange

QBeile, so ber 2lr’m eiun ’ber , ein Qir

’m eriiin ’ber

,

‘

co n victedc r im m a l

’

, ber fl r'm erit’ter ‘Fre n ch to a st ’ st i l l o ften written

ber arme C‘Biinber, & c . ber go’

beprie’iter , a l'

lerhanb’ (bu t2 78 , 1 a

, 3 45, a l'ler lei’ ‘

Of a l l so rts ’

2 78, 1 a, 3 45,

ei'n er lei’ ‘ im m ate ria l ’

(bu t ei’ner lei’ ‘

o f o n e m ei'nes

glei’chen 3 45, z ) , beaglei'dmn , Sl l’leriee’len

‘A l l So u l s ’

,

Qi l'lerbei’l igen

‘A l l S a in ts ’

, brei'

bun’bert, & c . G e ograph ica ln am e s (533 1 N) : QSier

’

gebnhei’ligen , Qan'

genial’ga , .s’

gann o’ner

baben H ier) , Ego’

hengol’lern , QBe'n igenie’n a (se e § 3 3 1 , 5N en a),

& c . W ith fo l lowin g m o difie r Qia'terun ’ier (l ike La tin

‘Lo rd ’s p raye r’

, ein Sabr’tau ’ienb, Sahr

’

bun ’bert,

& c . (com p a re ein fl ba ler M‘a ro u n d e ighty

F o r co n glom e ra te s c o n t a 1n 1n g a n u m e ra l , se e a lso 3 43 N .

No te 1 . A c c o rdin g t o 290, 3 N , we sho u ld exp e ct bie5301t g tr aiae, o r e t c .; bu t the t enden cy tos 1 t the ch ief stress t o the se c o n d m em ber 290, 4) is so

stro n g in p arts o f No rth G erm a n y tha t in Brem en a nd o therNo rth-G erm an c ities, su ch a c c en tu a tio n s as Bang

’enitra'fie,D ’bernitra'iae, a r e very c om m o n in the c ase o f

we l l-kn own stree ts, e t c . , 274 R 1 .

No te 2 . S o u th-G erm a n a ll 'wei l' ‘a l l the tim e

’ is du e t o

290, 3 , M iddle-G erm a n a l'lemei'le ‘n ow ’

,‘

presen t ly’

, t o

289.

A 112 225 of D eg r ee wit/z A affec tiv e

3 36 . Acco rdin g t o 289 : a llein', a ll'

gem ein’,

miir'big

‘ right reve ren d’. F o r hellgelb, bun telrot , nielbemnn

bert, & c ., see 289 N.

246 R ecent

No te . (a ) Most a dje c tives begin n in g with ba lh: ha v e thech ief stress o n the first m em ber, p artly bec a u se they a re

rega rded as r egu la r c om p o u n ds (8 p a rtly in c o n trast'

t o

the fo rm s witho u t ba lh 273 R ) : ha lb't a ub',&c . W hen the

,u n io n is still slight, the ch ief stress fa lls o n

the se c o n d m em ber, a n d the wo rds a re still o ften written as

two wo rds : ha lh’n adt’, ha lb'tot', o r ba lh n adi, &c . (5) The

a djec tive ba lb'idh’rig is a deriva t ive 3 1 9) o f the c om po u n dsubstan tive Sga lb'jabt '‘ha lf— ye a r ’

(‘ha lf a yea r ’

is expressedby ein ba lbefi d se em s t o have be en the m o de l (if so ,

n t l id) a re du e t o 277 , 2) f o r the stresso f ha lb'tii'gig, situnb'lid) , &c ., which , be in g f rom ein en ha lbenfl ag, &c . , we sho u ld exp e c t t o be stressed ba lb’tii'gig, &c . ,

ESEp a re 333, 2 , a nd e be low. (c) The ad

je c t iv es niet 'telitiinb'lid) =jdbt 'ig zidhr’lid) &c . a re deriva tives344) o f the c o n glom era tes fil ier ’teljabr'&c .

S n tiu e or A a’

f eetiv e wit/z D ep en den t Ward

337 Acco rdin g t o 289 : SRo'

n ateah’imluia;& c ., bu t see

3 3 3 , 3 3 0 , 1 N ; a l’ler liebit’, & c . I t i s no t

e a sy t o distin gu ish be twe e n som e o f the se and the wo rds in

3 29

P r ep osition wit/E D ep enden t Wa rd

3 38 . Acco rdin g t o 29 1 , 292 , 3 : 3u’

irie'ben , nor'

ban'ben .

At first, guirieben a nd norhanben we re u sed o n ly in the predi

cate , l ike o u r“a t pe a ce ”

a nd “o n ha n d ”

; in tim e , fo l lowingthe a nalogy o f perfe ct pa rtic le s, in zen , they we re a lso u sed

befo re n o u n s .

S u asta n tiu e f ol l owed by A a’v er éia l P r ep osition

339. Acco rding to 297 m ein Be'ben lang'

, eine Seit’lang'.

P l: r ases

340 . fliergifi'meinnicht'

, Qe'hehod)’

‘a che er ’

, Se'hemahl'o r

Se'bemohl'

3 44 R ), baa (gin’maleiné' ‘ the m u lt ip l icat ion

table Seliing’erjelie’ber

‘hon ey-su ckle

248 R ecent

bu rcb'm acb'en‘ l ive thro u gh o r

‘fin ish ’

, burcb'ie'ben‘

go

over, exam in e ’

(4 be low) , um 'brin'gen ‘m u rder ’

, um 'lom ':

m en‘

perish’

, un'terbrin 'gen ‘find

'

a p la c e f o r’. F o r hin 'ter

lai'ien , &c ., se e 5be low. I n iid) iibericblagen‘stu m ble ’

fiber

is ge n era lly u n stressed a ndin sepa rable . S o is u n ter in u n ter :bleiben =bri

'

1den’

shanbeln (bu t u su a lly un'terbiinb’l er , see

3 1 9, 2 R ) =l iegen smerien (a nd un 'termiir'iig, 344 end), a ndmiber in miberieben .

2) In so m e c ases mieber , while reta in ing the idea o f ‘ba ck ’o r

‘aga in has little m o re fo rc e tha n ‘

as we kn ow has happen ed befo reo r

‘a s we kn ow it was befo re ’

, a nd therefo re ge n era lly lo ses its stress,292 , 3 c . (a ) R egu larly so befo re a n o ther a dverb . Co n glom era tio nthen takes p la c e in deriva tives a nd o ften in the in fin itive (esp e c ia lly ifu sed as a n o u n ), less o fte n in the perf ec t particip le : QBieberber'itellungmieberber'itellbar sen , mieberab

'bruden , mieberberaué'betomm en , m ie:

bergu t'merben , fibieber leben 'bigm amu ng, mieber aue'graben gen era lly

mieber anégraben a nd a lwa ys grub es mieber and. (5) Befo re a n

u n st resszd-p r efix wieber re c e ives the c hief st reSs

-ln c o n glom era tio n

mie'berv erein 'igen , QBie'bern erein 'igung, bu t m ieber b ercia i en

a nd b erein igten iid) wieber ‘they be c am e re c o n c iled ’

(n ereimwieber wo u ld im p ly tha t th ey had be c om e estra n ge d a ndm a de u p o n c e

m y (e) In sho rt, in c o n glo m e ra tes mieber gen era l ly has the ch iefstress befo re a n u n stresse d pre fix, bu t n o t befo re a stressed o n e , wh icha c c o rdswith the p r in c ip le la id down in 2 78, I : iie m erben iid) wie'bersneribb

'n en (this diffe rs f rom wieber ner lbbn en

‘be c om e re c o n c iled a

se c o n d t im e in havin g n o p a um wm a ndb ers a nd o n ly we akstress o n neribbn en ) bu t mie'beraué'ibbn en (it do es n o t have the chiefstress in e ither c ase when n o t c o n glom era ted : fie baben iid) wieber b er :

ibbn t' a ndmieber aus'geibbn t , c f . a ) a nd 344) bie ibie'berneribb'nungbu t bie QBie'beraus'ibbnung.

3) Bu t ge n era lly when wieber m e a n s‘ba ck ‘in r etu rn ’

, e t c ., o r a n

empha tic ‘aga in

’

(whic h la tter is se ldom its m ea n in g in c o n glom eratio n ), 294, it re ta in s the chief stress a nd en ters in to c o n glom era tio n inthe in fin itive , the p erfe c t pa rtic ip le , a ndderiva tives : QBie'berbefeb'rung,mie'berbeaab'l en , mie'berbege’ben , mie'berie'ben , so mie'bergeie

'ben , bu t

iahen iid) wieber . Usage varies as to mie'berba l'l en o r mie'bet ba l'l en ,a ndso MW ericbein en , mieberipiegeln .

4) 5911e has'

the chie f’

st ress whe n it m ea n s‘thoro u ghly

’

,

‘frombegin n in g t o e nd’

: bu tdflbad'en , burcb'le'ien ,

‘re a d thro u gh t o the

end,’bu t bu r cb'l e'ien

‘

p e r use’

, still bu r cb'ie'ben , 34 1 , 1 R , a nd

itrei'cben o r bur tb'itrei'cben‘c ross o u t

m orbssn ess 249

5) (a ) The a dverb hin ter was in gen era l u sage disp la c ed by gurud in

c o n glom era tio n with.

verbs it therefo re fe l l in to the c a tego ry o f a n

u n stressed p refix (c f . 1 above). even in a f ew c ases where the idea o f

behin d is m o re o r less c lea r ; f o r exam p le , sblei'ben ,z le'gen . (b) Of la te , a n ew stressed a dverb [) in ter has a risen o u t o f the

slan g phrase hin ter bie 58 inbe (litera lly ‘behin d o n e’s n e ckc lo th ’

) fo r

hin u nter : zitopf'en , &c .

6) 11m : a n ew’

, differen tly ’

, has ch ief stress : iid) um 'tl ei'ben ‘cha n ge

o n e’s c lo thes ein SBilb um 'biin ’

gen‘ha n g a p ic tu re in a differen t p la c e

o r p ositio n’

(bu t ein Qiilb um 'biin 'gen‘festo o n a p ic ture

P r op er N a m es

342 . Acco rdin g to 287 : $ rie’bricbflBer’bericbeé Ginmna

fiam , bie p ane'n arr'

‘f op’

(sti l l o fte nwritte n pansSliarr l ike pane Sieberlid)

‘

J a ck pane

murit’ (bu t se e 3 45, e nd)‘m e rry a n drew

N ou n s j u x tap osed

343 . Acco rd in g t o 2 78 , I , 1 : id)’é

’

s'-tse

i; (bu t 13 tel tse’

l’ in

’

c o n t r ast to B, 2 73 R ), 6 1hma13'

meifi'

rot’, tai'

ier lid)fb'n iglid) , S ub

'

meit', g lib

'

iiib'

meit’ pa rtit ive appo sitive s

l ike Qiier'teljabr' z in ei’le (n o t so the re a l com po u n ds .

‘B ier’tel

gt b'

iae, & c . a nd fga lb’iahr

'

,cf. 3 36 N); a nd n am e s

l ike (fo r éBabenfliaben

se e W o rd-Li st),

iels, Rir’cben tel’lineiurt

'i ell inéiurt). S im i

la r ly the im ita t ive ve rb rin'

fin ’ten ‘c la sh ’a nd the re ite ra t ive

adje ctive s (o r a dve rbs) l lein'

m in ’gig, tag

'tiig

’lid) (from 2iigiiir 21g) , f o r wh ich se e 3 33, 2 .

No te . (a ) In c o n glom era tes in which the first m em ber isa n u m era l (whe ther the c ase c om es u n der 335o r ‘ § we

exp e c t the stress t o fa l l o n the se c o n d m em ber 292 , 3 c ,

280, a nd th is stress gen era lly m a in ta in s itse lf befo re a

Pa u se brei'unbaman'aig, brei

'bun 'ber t , brei'er l ei'.

(b) Bu t befo re an o ther stressed word, the heavier stress o ften

250 fi CCCn t

shifts t o the first m em ber a c c o rdin g t o 278, 1 a brei'er lei'

6 a cb'en , n ier'tau 'ienb Ellia'

n 'n er , regu larly so in som e3wo rds

tha t a r e a lm ost a lwa ys u sed a ttribu tive ly : amei'bl iit t't ig,bt ei’td’

gig, &c . (e) Befo re sm a ller n u m bers, stauienb: a ndhigher n u m bers , u su a l ly have heavier stress tha n fa lls o n thewo rdpre c edin g them ; shunber t : va c ill‘a tes, bu t has weakerstress in da tes, where it is so c om m o n a ndhe avierstress in su ch c ases as in

c o n trast t o the prec edin g stauienb, 273 R . (d) zaehn

pra c tic a lly be c o m e a su ffix (l ike saig a nd ziel) a nd n ever hasm o re tha n se c o n dary stress, while E n gl ish -teen ge n era l ly hasthe chief stress befo re a pa u se , as G erm a n zamangig, &c .

have , c f . a abo ve .

(5) D e r iva t ives a nd Com po u nds o f Co n g lom e ra t es

Like con glom e ra te s them se lve s de rivat ive s

a ndcom pou n ds o f Co nglom e ra te s ge n e ra l ly keep the sen ten ce

stre ss : Qi l'lermelté’biir

'

ger‘co sm opo l ita n ’

,

iom'm er

‘

g ,o ssam e r ’ ‘ I n dia n sum m e r ’

, SD rei’fb'n igsieit'

‘E pipha n y ’

, 65111 nacbt’gruia’

gu t nachi" o r gu te Siacbt l) ,Wu t

'tergot

’teebilb' ‘)J iu tter g ait 1 193 1

71532113baé (Empor

’ o r bie Q mpo’re

‘

(chu rch) ga l le ry’

empor’,see

ber Slior'm ittag' g

.lliittag,

3 451 2,e nd

, 3 64 , u'bernacb'ten uber Sta a nd

a n a logy,'bern nn ’tern , burcb

'

iom ’m ern , & c . D—

e riv a t iv es in

bar , =er , =ung, z ig, =lid) , & c . QBie’berberU

itel'lung =bar zer , nier

'teliiib’rig

3 36, N e) , ber’ar'tig, ba

’tn a'lig, a nd co n glom e ra te de riva

t iv es 3 33 , 2) l ike a lt'teita=

men t’l id) , bt ei'ei’n ig, & c . The adje ctive s guirie’ben and

v orban’ben we re o rigin a l ly predica te phra se s A s

de riva t ive s m ay a lso be c la ssed un'termiir'iig, Subil’ienab

'm e,

&‘

C. Cf . a l so 3 3 3 , 2

R em ark . Oc c asio n a l ly a c o n glom era te shows m o re t e n

den c y t o assu m e 345) the stress o f regu la r c om p o u n dswhen u sed as a n o u n : lebe tubal bu t ein em Se'bemobl' o r

252 fi CCCl‘

lt

sen ten c e v st ress 2 79 S en ten ce-rhythm ,howeve r

,

o ften cau se s sh ift o f ch ie f s tre ss .

1 ) bieier , melcber , iolcber , jeber , fein er, & c . ,have be com e

so com pa ct tha t the ir com po s it ion m a y be ign o red so f a r as

s tre ss is co n ce rn ed .

2 ) einan'ber (com pa re beriel’be o r beriel’bige (so

hocb'beriel’be

‘his bér'ie'n ige berien e (com pa re

E n gl ish‘ tha t the re G re ek 68s) , je'berm ann

'

, ie’manb’

, n iel e

muab'

, et'l id) , ie'glid) , iam t’l id) , et’mae'

(in No rth a nd

M idd le G e rm a n y som e t im e s etmafil , et’wa'ig o r

et'wa’ig, je'bme’ber o r je

’bme’ber .

3 ) mae'iiir’

, mas’ iiir

'ein o r mas

’

iu r’ ein 3 02 , 1 N), ein'

paar', ein

’ we’n ig, gar’'

n ichts'

, gar’ n ie'm anb

'

, & c .,a r e sti l l

wri tten as sepa ra te wo rds . The la st has ge n e ra l ly be com e

gar'n im a

’

n t' in M idd le a nd S o u th G e rm a n y

, 3 64 5. (The

a dve rb gar n irgenbswa ve rs l ike a dje ctive s in

4) ielbit i s stre ssed in com po u n d a dje ctive s a nd a dve rbs

ielbit’re'benb, ielbit’loe

'

, & c ., ielbit'gebacf

'en

‘hom e-m ade ’

ba'

ielbit’, mo'

ielbit’. Bu t ielb'an ’ber , ielb

'britt’, & c . F o r

mei'n eaglei

'cben se e 3 35; f o r (um) m ei’netmil'len um

m ein en SIBill en) , ber'en tme'

gen , wes’ha lb’

, meé'me

'

gen , & c ., cf.

§ 357~

(3) PARTICLE S

347 . Com po u n d pa rtic le s a re (1 ) co n glom e ra te s o r (2 )de riva t ive s o f

'

com po u n ds o r co n glom e ra te s . A f ew,l ike

id) led) tmeg, icbnuritrada, ipornitreicbs, a re fo rm ed a nd stre ssed

l ike the a dje ctive s in 3 29 . Ve ry f ew pa rt ic le s a re tru e

com po u n ds : un'langit'o r un

’langit" (f o r ungeiabr se e

cf. a lso adje ct ive s u sed as a dve rbs,e spe cia l ly 3 2 2 & c .

R em ark . I t is n o t p ossible t o draw a l in e. tha t will a c c ura t e ly sep ara te deriva tives o f c o nglo m era tes from c o n gl om

c ra tes u sed sp e c ific a lly as p a rtic les.

W arbsm ress 253

(a ) Co n g lom e ra t es 348-360

348 . Co nglom e ra te s ge n e ra l ly re ta in the sen ten ce-stre ss,

2 79 & c .

A djec tiv e a n dS u bsta n t iv e

3 49 . Acco rding to 289 : gliid'licber= tho

'ricbtermei’ie e t c .,

ei'n iger= iol'

genber= gemii’

ierma’iaen , a l’ler= n eu

'erbings

’ (bu t

a l’lerbinga'

, n eu ’erbinga'

,a cco rdin g t o a l

'len : beg'

je'benia ll e’

, m ei'

iten teilel , gera'ben = tei

'n eemegs

l, einit

'mei’len ,

a l'leror’ten , a l

'le= je’ber3eit

’, ber : beaglei

’cben , a l'le= ie

’beez

3mei'm a l’, e t c . S ti l l su ch wo rds m ay have the ch ief stre ss o n

the first m em be r,a cco rdin g t o 3 60 , 8, a nd they fre qu en tly

have it the re , a cco rdin g t o § 360 , 1 . Bu t biemeil a nd ber :

mei len n eve r stre ss the first m em be r, it be in g the a rtic le

292 , o n the o the r ha n d,the stre ss o n the first m em

be r 3 60, 1) hasbe com e fixed in anberni a l , anbern =

bergeit, a nd i s ve ry com m o n in o the rs,fo r exam p le , jebeema l ,

iebenia lle, e t c . I n ber’geita l t’

, ber’ma

'

ieen , iol’cberm a'

iaen , the

stre ss is du e t o 3 60 , 6. F o r cf. 3 35N 2 .

No te . H ere , as e lsewhere 322 , 1 , 327 , 353 R , 358 R),the S o u th favo rs the de c resc e n do stress, som e sp eakersa l lowin g the c resc en do stress o n ly in ein igerm aBen , em itsmei len , biemeil , a ndbermeilen , § 275, 3 5. Cf . 360, 5.

A dv er b P r ecededby a M odi er

350 . Co’ba lb’

, niel'leicbt’, v iel'm ehr’, stre ss the seco n d

m em be r a cco rdin g to 289, a nd a ll'

gubalb' zgroia’ & c . m a y

do so,bu t u su a l ly su ffe r t r a n sf e rr e n c e o f stre ss

a ll ’guba lb’& c . ; etma a ccom m oda te s itse lf to the rhythm o f

ein 'm a l' o n c e’ ‘

o n e t im e (bu t o ften ein ’m a l' befo re a pa u se ,

360, o r a n ywa y ’

;a nd ein'm a l'o r ’

m a l o n c e in c om m a n ds, e t c .,

a ndwhen ‘som e tim e o r o ther ’

; in n od) einm a l io grog, e t c ., e ithersyllable m ay have the stress.

254 a ccent

the se n ten ce , § 2 74 , z ; e’Benio'

, gleich'v iel’=mobl

'have e s tab

l ished the ch ie f stre ss o n the first m em be r 360, bu t the

two la tter may stress the secon d m embe r a’ccording to

§ o 36o , 8 ; fo r a l fo se e 360, 3 R .

A dv er b F ol l owedby a M odi er

351 . Acco rdin g t o § 287 z ba lb'm og

’licbft, ba'= bier's a nd

mo'

ielbit'

S u bsta n tiv e a ndD ep en den t Word

352 . Acco rding t o 287 : aeit'le’benfi.

P r ep osition a ndN ou n

353 . The s tre ss is u su a l ly o n the la st m em be r a cco rdingto § 292 , 3 a : abbanben , anbeim , unitoti, beiieite zaeiten , biés

mei len , empor , ffirmabr , infolge, inm itten , ungefiibr (1 m:

< obne), with inébeio‘

nber'

e sgemein =gefam t ,n acbgerabe, un termegé, fiberbaupt , norbanben , a nd

,with the

a rt ic le , v orberb'

anb, auniicbft sobrberft =erft smege =5eiten . F o r

bin ’tet ru cffi'

, ii'betmor'

gen , v or'gei'

tern , se e 3 60 , r an d z ;tin/gefiibr

'

, ii’fieraII

' f o r the m o re u su a l bei ’na'he,e t c .

,a re du e to disp la cem en t o f stre ss

, 3 60 ,6. gfirlieb o r

bot lieb, o ccu rrin g o n ly with n ehmen , i s u su a l ly stre ssed o n

the la s t syl lable , bu t a lso , e spe cia l ly the fo rm v orl ieb, o n the

first, the wo rd be ing rega rded as a n o u n , 3 44 R .

R em a rk . The S o u th favo rs the de c resc en do stress (c f .

349N), f o r exam p le , in n acb'gera'be, nor'berbanb', bei'n a'he.

P r ep osition andP r on ou n

354 Acco rding t o 292 , 3 a : inbem’, inbei'ien , gabem',

an': m it

'= non

': ii

'ber : un

'tereinan’ber . I n som e o f the se

con glom e ra te s the stre ss , wh i le n om in a l ly o n the la st m em

be r , m ay fa l l o n the first : in nor : nati) : feitbem (bu t as a

conju n ct ion o n ly feit'bem') a cco rdin g t o § 36o , z ; in anger:

256 fi CCCnt

first m em be r, 3 44 R ), v oran‘o n ahe ad ’

(bu t stre ssed nor :

m ay be prefixed t o a ve rb com po u n ded with an s : v 0r’an’

=

beu'ten =5ei

'

gen & c ., l ike fiirbaia (a lso

fiir’bafi'

,e spe cia l ly be fore reiten & c .

, 3 60 , so to o Iin ffi:

t ecbt § = t ingéw a ndm ieberum ,bu t the first two o fte n stre ss the

first syl lable a cco rdin g t o 3 60 , 2 , a nd t ingéum a cco rdingt o nunm ehr , obgleid) obicbon obwohl , menngleid) ,

wiewohl , bu t gleicb’mol fl'

, ben’n od)

’a cco rd in g t o § 3 6o , 6 .

F o r au f’s aué’: ein ’m iirté'

, je’z & c .,cf. 3 60 ,

“ 114 4 ;

fo r beu t’gu ta'

ge, fo r ba’= e’be= n ocb'm a lé’& c .

,

bu t n ie= n ochm a lé m ay stre ss the se co n d m em be r a cco rdin gto 360 , 8.

b) ©ier= a nd ba(t ) = m a y be stro n g o r we a k a nd thu s

stre ssed o r n o t stre ssed , se e 3 60 , 3 81 R : hieran sm it e t c .,

bat an sau f , ban acl) =m it (as co n ju n ctio n o n ly & c .

e) Whe n the first m em be r i s a we ak dem o n stra tive , ber

bin : in : 2 92, 1 ) o r the in te rroga t ive m0(t ) = 2 92 , the

s tre ss u su a l ly fa l ls o n the se co n d m em be r : bem ug z ein m ad)=.nor , hin au f =un ter , fotori zgleid) zm it , m obei zher

'

z ruber (bu t

se e a lso § 36o 1 § go z ,

d) When =ber zhiu fo l low,the stre ss is u su a l ly o n the

se con d m em be r, bu t se e 3 60 ,1 , 2 , 8 a nd, f o r the first thre e

,

§ 36o , s: n achher , norber shin , but ter : n ebenher , bort : weithin .

R egu la rly ein’: ieit

': um

'ber’, um'

hin’; bu t u su a l ly

fiin f’tig: Iang'e= {cblecbtk ipa'terbin

'. F o r ha : mober shin & c .

see above .

R em a rk . In the S o u th (c f . § 349 N), m ay be hea rd n o t

o n ly flir'bafs bu t a lso n u n 'm ehr, io'gl eid) , bié'ber , feit'ber ;st il l even there u su a l ly fofort', einber'.

I n te77°

eetion s

359 . M o st in te rje ct ion s ha ve the ch ie f stre ss o n the

se co n d m em be r a cco rd in g to 2 77 b R, tho u gh som e

,

l ike berr'

ié’ fiberr 861116 wo u ld ha ve i t the re a n y

way . ei'ei’, ju cb

'

bé’, pog'tau ’fenb, bu t

“

flu orosS t ress 257

bol’lfi'

(a lso hol'lfi') a nd bé’bfi (in wh ich be is the re a l e x

c lam a tio n a nd ha a we a k dem o n stra t ive, So t oo

ia'

ja’ ‘oh y es

’

, bu'bu ’

,a m ild repro o f

, u a'

nu'‘ tha t ’s go ing

to o fa r na'na’ stop to a chi ld .

R em a rk . S im ilarly, when n am es a re u sed as c a lls, the

last syllable u su a lly has m o st stress a nd p itch , while its

vowe l o r so n o ro u s c o n so n a n t is pro lo nged : n n'

é—

é'

éé l ,c

{gerbm au n nb

3 60 . r ) The stre ss o f som e o f the wo rds in 3 49 & c .

m ay be cha n ged if a pa rticu la r pa rt o f the wo rd be com e s

the p sycho logica l p redica te , cf . 2 90 , 3 , 2 73 R ; so a l’len t z

ba l'

ben , a l "lerme'

gen , bum ’m ermei'

ie, & c . I n som e ca se s, the

cha n ged stre ss from be in g u su a l has be com e ge n e ra l : berf s

aeit’

, 3 49 , e’benio

'

, 350 , bin ’terriicfé’

, § 353 & c .

2) S u ch a cha n ge i s com m o n in the ca se o f con tra st,

§ 2 73 R : ber’ein'n icht hin ’ein' f o r the u su a l berein ’ e t c .

A nd whe n the con tra sted fo rm s a re m o re u su a l tha n the

u n co n tra sted fo rm s,the ir a cce n tu a tio n m ay becom e e stab

l ished as the regu la r o n e : au’BerhaIb'in'n erba lb

'

, nor'mdrta'

riicf’marté’

, ei’n erieité'

an ’berieité'

, no r’gei'tem a nd ii’ber :

m or”

gen (con tra ste d with geftem a nd m orgen),

beu t’gu ta’

ge.

3 ) S o pa rt icu la rly with dem o n stra t ive a nd po sse ss ive

com po u n ds : m ei’n etba l'ben , bei'netme

'

gen , iei'n erieité'

, ber’=

seit', biefi’ieitfi

'. S e e a lso 4 be low.

R em a rk . Man y dem o n stra tive c om p o u n ds vary in stressa c c o rding as the f o rc e o f the dem o n stra tive is stro n g o r n o t

299, in o ther wo rds, whe ther it is tra n slated by ‘tha t ’

o r‘this o r by

‘ the’o r

‘it ’ba'bin ‘ to tha t p la c e em pha tic

‘there babin ' ‘t o the p la c e t o it ’

, weak ‘there ‘a lo n g

‘

go n e’

; ba'm it‘with tha t ’

, bam it'‘with it ’

,

‘in o rder tha tso ba't ans' a nd bar aué', a nd a l lo' em pha tic ‘th u s ’

o r‘so

’

,

aI'io‘c o n sequ en tly ‘

a nd so S om e tim es u sage m akesgen era l o n e o r the o the r o f these fo rm s (so u su a llyme’gen ), a nd a differen t o n e in o n e p a rt o f the c o u n try from

tha t in a n o ther, c f . 5be low.

258 fi CCCn t

I

4) If an elem en t appe a rs frequ en t ly as the se co n d pa rt o f

com po u n d pa rtic le s , who se first e lem e n t i s u su a l ly stre ssed

(r , 2, & c . abo ve), it gra du a l ly fa l ls in to the ca tego ry o f

su ffixe s a nd is n o t stre ssed in n ew com po u n ds,so p a r t ic u

la r ly sma lé, =miirtf5, smeié, smegen , =ba lben , a nd o thers in

r a nd 2 above .

5) As to a la rge n um be r o f com po u n d pa rtic le s,u sage is

divide d . Thu s No rth G e rm a n s sa y nor’ber shin a nd n ach’hero n ly in co n trast

,whe re a s m a n y M idd le a nd S o u th G e rm a n s

a lways stre ss the wo rds in th is wa y , u n le ss fo r 8'

be low. I n

gen e ra l , No rth G e rm a n s in c l in e towa rd cre sce n do stre ss ,2 75, 3 b, a nd S ou th G e rm a n s towa rd de cre sce n do , 3 49 N ,

353 R , 3 58 R

6) Occa s io n a l ly t r a n sfe r re n c e o f stre ss m o re

o ften disp la cem en t o f stre ss 3 05 a nd N m ay o ccu r :

n im ’m erm ehr'

, (M iser : trog’bem'

, ob'n e= ii'berbieé'

=a lI'

, m te’berum

’

,fo r the u su a l n im '

m erm ehr’ e t c . ; sim ila rly

when en tmeber i s he avi ly stre ssed the s tre ss gen e ra l ly

fa l l s o n the first syl lable,o the rwise o ften o n the se co n d.

Th i s stre ss has n ow bec om e e stabl ished in ben ’n ocf) , ber’ge=

ftalt'

, ber’= iol’cberma

'

fsen , gleidy’mobl

’

, afl'gugleicb'

=m aI'

(se e

a nd is ve ry com m o n in a ll’guba lb'e t c . Cf .

a l so 3 05 N 2 .

7) The com m o n ru le,tha t com po u n d p a rti cle s stre ss the

se co n d m em be r,wi l l

,in spite o f the n um e ro u s exceptio n s , be

fo u n d to be gen e ra l ly tru e . Th is i s du e (1 ) t o the fa ct tha t

thi s is in m a n y ca se s the log ica l stre ss , a nd (2 ) t o the cre s

cen do stre ss o f M ode rn G e rm an 2 75,

8) W ith rega rd to m an y com po u n d p a rt icle s the u sage o f

the sam e in dividu a l va rie s a cco rdin g as the wo rd sta n ds

befo re a pa u se o r be fo re a he a v i ly stre ssed wo rd 2 77 R ,

2 78 , 1 a ) : iBie biiufig baben 6 te 68 getban ? Smei'm a l’

(tho u gh, o f co u rse , it m ight be Smei’ma l'a cco rdin g t o

3 60, Bu t 3d) bab’

esamei'ma l

’weg'genom

'men . wasift

260 a ccen t

2 ) In a com po u n d c o n s istin g o f simp le compou nd, we

have co n sta n t ly de cre scen do s tre ss :

Bu t se e § 3 63 .

3 ) In a com p ou n d co n sist in g o f comp ou nd— F eomp ou nd, we

have de cre scen do , cre sce n do , a nd the n de cre sce n do aga in :

3 63 . Bu t in a cco rda n ce with the p reva il in g rhythm o f

the langu age a se rie s o f de cl in in g stre sse s , l ike tha t1n § 362 , 2 , i s ap t t o bre ak u p in to a su cce ss io n o f a lte rn a t e ly he avy a nd l ight syl lable s like tho se in 3 62 , 1 and3 ;

u n le ss we a k syl lable s a lre ady sepa ra te the he avy stre sse s , as

in

3 64 . Thu s m ay be com e

1 ) (a ) Chiefly in substa n t ive s :

nor’= n acl)’

‘

3elb'm ar'

icbaII'

(bu t u su a l ly 65rof3’m ama”“

(o ften eve n by tho se who stre ss Ell lama o n the first syl lable) .

S e e a lso 3 65, 5.

(b) A lso when an em pha t ic wo rd pre cede s a com po u n d

(o r o the r wo rd with two stre sse s) , esp e cia l ly a com pou n d

ve rb, § 285, 4 6 : ia’ $ apa'*(som e t im e s eve n if

SBursa a lo n e is stre ssed SBa’pa) , gar

’gang

’

unnb'tig a nd jebr’ n ot

'

m en’big (bu t u su a l ly un'nb

'

tig, se e

§ 3 2 4 b N 2,a nd n ot'men

'big, 2 77 , z) , nor'ar

’

bei'ten san

'

beu'ten , ben .balfi’ ah

'

jcbn ei'ben . Som e pe0p1e even say 96

batte fid) ein $ in f’ n ie'

bergelai’

ien 285, bu t ein $ in f’

batte ficf) nie'bergelai'

ien .

I t m u st be u n dersto o d tha t u sage is n o t settled as t o al l o f the

exam p les g iven : f o r in sta n c e , m a n y p e0p1e stil l sa y Sganb'a t 'beit'

a nd,

p erhaps m o re , a nd m an y n ever u se gar befo re n iem anb

346,

m orossu ess 261

2) 2 77 , z, ch iefly in a dject ive s :

o ften in Au stria

3 3 0, & c ., 3 2 4 , 3 3 0 , 33 1 . Cf . a lso 3 1 0, 1 .

A nd o the rs l ike them .

S im i la rly, (

V

) m a y be com e § 3 r 3 R 6.

3 65. 1 ) If the vowe l o f a n a t ive de riva t ive syl lable hasn o t be com e a o r disappe a red

,it e ithe r has som e stre ss o r

had som e a t the t im e whe n o the r vowe ls be cam e a,

1 r 3 .

2 ) A de riva t ive syl lable co n ta in in g a diphtho n g, o n e o f

the ba ck vowe ls a 0 u , o r a fro n t vowe l de rived by m u ta tio n

1 2 0) from o n e o f the se ba ck vowe ls , has se co n da ry

stre ss a nd re ta in s it be fo re we ak syl lable s : Iang’jfim

'

,

fir’mfit’

, Rinb’lein’

, fiiibn'beit'

, Sieicb'tfim'

, Slieicl)’

tfi'm er , éofi'nun

'

gen , bu t— ungen

'a fte r se con d

a ry stre ss fo l lowin g ch ie f stre ss : a nd som e

tim e s,e sp e cia l ly in po e try, be fo re a we a k syl lable 2 74 ,

2 78, Q ofi’nungen'

ermecft’. Bu t se e a lso 5 6 be low.

R em ark . W he n a prefix ha s, thro ugh sh ift 322-328,

330—

33 1 ) lost the ch ief stress, it gen era lly reta in s se c o n darystress, o c c asio n a l ly o n ly weak stress: noll 'fom 'm en , un

'mbg':

l id) , a ll'm iicb'tig, &c .

3) i

(a ) H as seco n da ry stre ss in m ifas, sin (=i t men

u téi (=nifie st id) , =id) t, a nd gen e ra l ly re ta in s it be fo re

we ak syl lable s : m ifg'acb'ten , bie

c

{yreun ’bin'n en ber

ill iu t’ter , i rfib’n ij'

je (bu t som e t im e s

i riib’n ifie'

) bie i bn’t icb’te a nd ein tbb’ricb

’ter

bu t som e t im e s ein tbb’ricbter' fliet fauf’, 2 74 ,

2 78, 3 .

(b) H as we ak stre ss in sl id) : ein jchrecf’licb'er bu t

o ften ein fcbrecf’licber’fil er luft', 2 74 , 2 78, 3 .

(e) H as ve ry we ak stre ss in sig, =icl) , sijcl) , a nd i s ap t to

fa l l o u t be fo re o the r we ak syl lable s , 2 0 1 N 4 . The se su f

fixe s a re o n a p a r with syl lable s co n ta in in g a o r'l , 7 11 ,

'

n,7

262 fi CCCnt

1 87, z N the stre ss fa l l ing in su ch a way as be st fits

the a lte rn a te rhythm mfirt ’ijcber'.

4) S tre ssed e i s ra re in su ffixe s : 6 o ccu rs in wo rds en din gU

in =ielig, 1iké triib’jé'lig ; e in bu t the se

a re n o t prope rly su ffixe s . The e of a su ffix u su a l ly be com e s

a o r disappe a rs 1 87 , 2 N bu t the re su lt in g syl lable

(fo r exam ple , ar o r 7 ) m ay re ce ive a we ak stre ss if the a lter

n a te rhythm is the reby e stabl ished 2 74 ,

berer'

,a nd the ca se s in 3 above .

Rem ark . Lo n g e is stil l preserved u n der se c o n da ry stressin som e p arts o f No rth G erm a n y in the e n din g set , 1 44 R .

5) When a de riva t ive syl lable i s a dded to a com po u n d o r

to a de riva t ive wo rd,it m a y have stron ge r stre ss than the

pre cedin g m em be r 2 63 N 1 6 com pa re 364 , So

(a ) e spe cia l ly the he avy e n din gs sbei t , =feit :

l l n ’mabr'

beit', & c . ; (b) =ung,

fre qu en t ly in som e t im e s in

iBor'Ie’

jung'en (bu t u su a l ly Ql or’lé

’

jungen’

In a f ewwo rds som e o the r su ffixe s , with even m o re u n i

fo rm ity,rece ive he a vie r s tre ss tha n the pre cedin g m em be r

o f the com po u n d : (e) =bar :

un'mit’

telbar'(o r (d) =I08 : (e)siam : (bu t a lso ar'beit

’

iam’

(a lso a nd (f ) the l ighte r e n din gs sin , did) ,

0011, & c . : glacb'barin'

, Q q ’ie'

berin'

(a lso bei’=

mat’

licb'

(a lso (a lso iebn'jucbté’

D olI'. (g) Bu t a pre cedin g stiim : regu la r ly re ta in s the

stron ge r stre ss : so a lso art ’:

fiing'licb

'

, & c . M o re ove r , the ch ie f s tre ss o ften fa l ls o n the

m em be r be fo re dict) =bar

3 23 , 3 2 7.

264 a ccen t

Rem arks. (a ) If bu t two syllables prec ede the he avilystressed o n e , the se c o n dary stress o n the first syllable ,tho u gh often qu ite we a k , is so regu la r tha t it n e ed n o t be

stress as

bu t n o t the ch ief st r eszm at : in alp

’partem en t

'

n e ed n o t be marked exc ep t when a le arn er m ightt o m isp la c e it, c f . those in 367 6. (e) No r is it o ften nec essary t o m a rk the weak stress tha t fa lls u p o n a lo n g fin a lvowe l , § 1 44 N 4 6. S e e 263 N 1 c

Gweeaet ting l ag, 1 894.

fi fect t otmoing 1 896.

(pr in ting Begu n , g pt if , 1 897.

fi nnounc ement of p art it

F o r M idd le G erm a n y : D r . Bla u o f Bryn Mawr Co llege , Mr. H e n ryL . Co a r a nd Pro f. Z iwe t o f the U n iversity o f M ichiga n , Pro f . E in e n ke lo f the U n ive rsity o f M iin ste r , M iss Cam illa H

'

an t zsche o f A n n A rbo r,Pro f. H o chd '

orf e r o f W itte n berg Co llege , D r . J a rdo n o f the Gy m n a siu m

a t D iire n , Mr. R e in ho ld Kn a u th o f Madiso n , W is. , Mr. A rn o ld Kiiste r ,ea n d. p/zil . , o f the Un iversity o f S trassbu rg, Mr. Pa u l Lowe , ca n d. p lzil . ,

a nd Mr. L. Ma c k , ea n a’. pbil . , o f the U n iversity o f Marbu rg , D r . Pabst

o f the . Gy m n a siu m a t Brem e n , Pro f. S chillin g o f H a rva rd Un iversity,a nd Pro f. W ahl o f W illiam s Co llege .

F o r S o u th Germ a n y, A u stria , .a nd Switzerla n d : Pro f. Bopp o f the

R ea lse/zu l e a t T iibin ge n , Pro f. H e l ler o f W ashin gt o n Un ive rsity, Pro f.H o ffm a n n -Kra ye r o f the Un iversity o f Z iirich , P rin c ipa l H u be r o f the

G erm a n D epa rtm e n t o f the S agin aw W S . Pu blic S cho o ls, D r . W o lfga n gKe l ler o f the U n ive rsity o f Pragu e , Pro f. La n g o f Y a le U n iversity, Mr.Otto Lessin g a nd Mr. E . C . R o edde r o f the U n iversity o f M ichiga n ,

Pro f. Lu ic k o f the U n ive rsity o f Gra z , Mr. C . F. W e iser o f the D etro itH igh S cho o l , a nd Pro f. W e rn e r o f the R ea lgy m n a si u m a t Ka rlsru he .

The cha ra cte r o f the Wo rd— List m ay be st be ju dged bythe fo l lowing sam p le page s .

268 flu oros l tst ano l ube:

R om a n type to in dica te the sho rt n a rrow so u n d,tho ugh

m an y pro n o u n ce it wide -a nd sho rt,wh i le a cto rs

,sin ge rs ,

a nd publ ic spe ake rs o fte n give it the lo n g n a rrow so u n d1 44 N 2 6

,1 35e nd

,2 43 a ) ; co n son a n ts a re prin ted in R om a n

type to in dica te tha t they a r e pa rt ia l ly o r lo ca l ly u n vo iced1 50 N 2 2 3 N 3) : the diffe re n ce in u sage as to r

2 2 1 ) i s n o t expre ssed ; to i s gen e ra l ly tra n scribed v,bu t

Ba fte r 3, id) , 81 0 as i s a lso the u o f qu t)i s ren de red by bo th i a nd ii

,the a be in g p la c ed first as

be in g the scho o l u sage , excep t in tho se wo rds whe re it i sbu t ra re ly he a rd W he re m o re defin ite in fo rm a t io ni s de s ired a s to dive rsity o f u sage in the pro n u n cia t io n o f

a n y pa rticu la r le tte r, re fe ren ce m u st a lways be m ade to the

le tte r itse lf in its own p lace in the Wo rd-L is t .Wo rds ha vin g o n ly o n e vowe l capable o f ch ie f stre ss

n e ed n o m a rk o f stre ss ; thu s, Qiebe l iba, geftritten gojtri’

t '

n ;

fo r n o o n e wo u ld be tem pted t o stre s s a o r n .

Occa sio n a l ly the A a nd SW spe l l in gs a re given ,bu t in

ge n e ra l n o a t tem pt is m a de to repre se n t the u sage o f A a nd

SW ,be ca u se thi s so o ften diffe rs de cided ly in prin cip le from

tha t o f the G e rm an bo oks .

M oros l tst 11 110

t rastedwith EUl itteIfr iin fijcf) e t c .

328.

Ql l tgt iecben l anbp n

p 243 , a lso p 1 89 6.

a Itbocbbeu tid) m o reo f te n 328, 364 .

a l tinbijd) N M G

al so a ttrib. 278, 1 a ,

a nd in c o n trast with inbild)§ 328 ; u su a lly in SG ,

p 1 89 6.

a l tii'

mgfer lict) 344,

m o re o ften m lf § 209 N 2 a lsoi , a nd, esp . SG ,

p 1 89 6.

a l tm obijct)a ltn orbiict) N 81 M G

a lso a ttrib. 278, 1 a ,a nd in c o n trast with n orbijcf)§ 328 ; u su a lly in SG ,

p 1 89 6.

QIIton a p n

a l tidcbjijd) N M G

a lso a ttrib . 278 , 1 a ,

a nd in c o n trast with fdcbjijd)§ 328 ; u su a lly in SG ,

p 1 89 6.

QIItftabt’dl t'jtdt

'

p 242 c .

aItteftam en tIicf) N M G’al t

’

testa

m en t'lm (exc ep t in c o n trast,p

'

1 86 R ) , so r

333 1 2 1 344 .

QIInensleben p n o r

(b-)m p 1 56 [e M H G é] .

QIItnorbern n a ve/e m .

Ql lt(er)meiberiomm erb'

r zb'

m°r 344 .

fi lmin p n p 1 36 N 5.

fi tt inger p n

am p 97 f t . am beften p 47 , 5.

am fin it e, when ‘

possibly’

,

u su al ly so u n ded ’d p 69

N 1 b.

QIm aIgam

QIm aIie pn’a

’

m d'lfo p 1 36, in the

S o u th a lso d'm d’

l e .

film aaon e’dm dtso'n e p 2 25.

QIm berg p n o r -/i 345.

ambitionam bitibs

91111663 N M G so -a

1 43 ; p l =0fie (P SK)N M G zoBe (W ,

Bd) S G

91mm ?» pn

QImbrojia’dm br o'zjd.

QIm brojiuspn

film eije rare ly ’dm aj'za

p 2 1 7 , 3

91a ra re ly p

1 28 R .

l enbem en t o r

lp 263 N 2 , SW G

p 263 N 3 A dde n da .

QIm erita p n’am e'r i/ea (E n gl ishless o ften -ar '

A m eric a n in ton a tio n , p 1 7 2 R .

stress, c f S tress.

u se o f glo tta l stop , p1 04 R .

QIm etbtflt o c c asio n al ly u

24 1 .

fimm on ia f o r’a

’

m o'

l nja’

k,

S G a lso d'm o njdb'

.

l n eftie

am ortiiieren’d

'

m b’

r t iz i l r n bu t c f

ier en .

l pbibie’dmf i 'bie o r

l pbibium o r f ilm .

film pbibrad} m o rec o m m o n ly l pbibra cbné

’a

’

m

M oros l tst

as adv ., im bejonber(e)n . Cf

insbeionbere.

befonn (en ), befbnn e, c f finn en .

bejpredwn ba/jbr ifl'

n o r'

77 2 25, c f

fprecben .

befier be’

s°

r , lid) ein efi fibefieuembe

iinn en , bu t es ift has befiere,bag befier , bag), of bag.

beltiitigen ba/td'tij‘n o r

°

77.

befte be’

sta p 1 28a (c f bag). au ffi belie

p 47 , 5, bassbejte p 48, ber erfte

befte. beften am o r gum

beften geben , baben , fehren , [en sfen , jein , menben (W has Q3

with m enben) p 47 , 5, 48, bu t

sum a llgem ein en EBeifen p 47 , 5,sum 58 : ber airm en , er bat jeinSBeftesgetban .

fi eftie be'

stj°

a p 2 23 .

beftm bglid) 327 , 1 ;

bu t in m o st o f N M G fi'l ,

a nd in SG o ften 'g l , § 9 1 , 3 6.

betei l igen batai’l i7"n o r 7 7.

beten bet '

n [e M H G é] .

beteu ern batog‘r n .

betbiitigen betd'tzj‘n o r 7 7.

T’B etblebem pn a lso be? andEm .

beton en bato'

n'

n .

SBeton ie bato'nja .

.

‘B etracbt bet r a’

x t , in $8 : aieben .

betrefisbarre/s, in betreff (so P , M ,

S x ;W : in $ z;Bd: inbetrefi),bu t in bem ‘B etrefi.

betrog(en), betr'

rige, betriigen , c f

triigert .

§Betriibn i§ batr up 'n i’

s, som etim es

il ’b, 91 , 3 b.

EBett bet . Cf SBeet .

SBettag bé'

t'tdb’

o r -x'

, NG a lso a’

[e M H G

“

flu oros l tst

Gbam ifio p n/Z‘

im flso‘

still , the f amily a nd m a n y tea che rs in sist o n

I

a lsoGbampagn erfi mpa

’

n 'f r p 1 34, 1 40

(thampign on ja m 'p i’

njon’

o r firmp 1 40 N R .

(Sham e fdn'sa p . 1 2 1 . Cf a lso6 cban3e.

Cha n ges in qu a n tity, c f Q u a n tity.so u n ds, c f S o u n ds.

cbangieren f a’

m i'r -n , bu t of z ieren .

(Shane ea ves p 2 26, 92 , 94 R , a lsox and ti 1 8 1 , 1 6 81 R . chaos

fijct) kdo'tif e t c , M SG a lso(Shurabe o r 6 d) : (so P ; S x prefers6 d) ; Bv , Bd, M W give o n ly

p 2 2 1 .

QBat atter p 38, 8, bdrdb't'

r p 1 23,

p l zer e e l m ;

Gbarespn lid're’

s, a lso k a nd x .

Qbarge/ar y .

Qbaritéfirm er.

(Shan nan/671 6 2 ! r i,a lsoa nd v et .

Char latanfi r 'ldtan'

p 1 40 N , 22 1 ,

a lso ein’

anddn’

.

cbarm an t o r id) : (so S x ;f ld, P , M,

W give o n ly (b)fdr m a’

n t '.

(£911a pm a lso x a nd b

p 1 23 R ; SG a lso a“

.

(Sbiiron ea p n fier o n eld o r lia'

a

(Sharpie (S x a l lowsg cbz a lso )fi rp i" .

(Sharia bdr 'td, a lso Ii.cbartern

'

(Ebambbié fidr i’

lp 'di’

s o r 6 , a lso Xa ndb, p 1 23 R .

(Sbau fer p n [lage r o r x a lso knfibau liee -p 1 73 Rm 1 23 ,

3 , 222 stress in sen ten c e , p 203.

German Orthography and Phonology a Treatise With a Wordlist

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