Gender Specific Developmental Dynamics between Physical Education Task Values and Physical Activity...

Sport Science Review, vol. XIX, No. 5-6, December 2010

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Gender Specific Developmental Dynamics between Physical Education

Task Values and Physical Activity during Junior High School

Sami YLI-PIIPARI • Timo JAAKKOLAJarmo LIUKKONEN

This study investigated the gender specific developmental dynamics of students’ physical education task values and physical activity

across junior high school. A total of 812 (430 boys, 382 girls, Mage = 12.31, age range = 11 to 13) students’ were examined three times during their transition from Grade 7 to Grade 9. Furthermore, their physical activity at Grade 6 was measured. Multivariate simplex-model analyses found degreasing pattern of student’ physical education task motivation and physical activity. The decrease of students’ task values leveled off at Grades 8 and 9, whereas students’ physical activity for both genders continued to decrease across Grades 7 to 9. In addition, students’ physical education task values predicted their subsequent physical activity when previous levels of values and activity as well as physical activity at Grade 6 were controlled. Although boys’ valued physical education more and they were more physically active, there were no gender differences in the pattern of development of physical education task values and physical activity. These findings indicate that the development of students’ physical activity might be affected by fostering their values toward physical education.

Keywords: motivation, cross-lagged longitudinal study

It has been suggested that task values toward an activity have an influence on learning, achievement, and performance (Eccles, 1984). Previous studies have found task values to be important determinants of task choices, intentions for future participation, and persistence in physical education (PE) and physical activity (PA) (Cox & Whaley, 2004; Xiang, McBride, & Bruene, 2004; Xiang, Chen, & Bruene, 2005). Research in PE has reported gender differences and

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declining trend across time in students’ PE task values (Eccles, Wigfield, Harold, & Blumenfeld, 1993; Fredrics & Eccles, 2002, 2005; Jacobs, Lanza, Osgood, Eccles, & Wigfield, 2002; Xiang, McBride, Guan, & Solmon, 2003). However, research in this area has two limitations. First, previous research has largely neglected examining PE task values toward physical activity (PA) behavior. Second, no cross-lagged longitudinal studies have been carried out to investigate the prospective relationships between PE task values and PA. Consequently, the present cross-lagged longitudinal study was aimed at investigating the developmental dynamics of students’ PE task motivation and their PA behavior across Grades 7 to 9 during Finnish junior high school.

The expectancy-value model (Eccles et al., 1983) provides a useful framework when studying student’s task motivation. The expectancy-value model of achievement motivation emphasizes two theoretical concepts; expectancies related to academic performances and subjective task values (Eccles & Wigfield, 1995; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). According to the expectancy-value model, expectancies and values are assumed to influence individuals’ achievement choices, performance, effort, and persistence in activities. Past research has focused primarily on the expectancy aspects but less is known about the value aspect of motivation (Jacobs, et al., 2002; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Even if children’s beliefs in their abilities in a specific task are high, they may not involve themselves in that activity if they do not value it (Ryan & Deci, 2000). As an outcome of examining the processes related to children’s value judgements associated with different subjective tasks, Eccles et al. (1983) identified four major components that can influence achievement behavior: (a) attainment value (personal importance of doing well at the task), (b) utility value (usefulness of the task in terms of current and future goals), (c) intrinsic value (enjoyment or interest of the activity), and (d) cost (perceived negative aspect of engaging in the task). However, empirical studies conducted by Eccles and colleagues have focused solely on the first three of these characteristics (Eccles et al., 1983; Fredricks & Eccles, 2002, 2005; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992, 2000). Cost has received less research attention and it is not examined in the present investigation.

Few studies on developmental trends in academic task values have been performed, especially during the middle school transition. In a 3-year longitudinal follow-up to the Eccles et al.’s (1993) study, Wigfield et al. (1997) showed that children’s PE task values: differentiated early on, become more stable over time, and declined across the elementary school years. Analyses of the data from the junior high transition study, showed that these declines often continued into junior high or middle school and that the largest changes occurred immediately after the junior high school transition (Eccles et al., 1989; Wigfield, Eccles, Mac Iver, Reuman, Migley, 1991). Work with the 10-year longitudinal data showed


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that these declines continue across the high school years and task values declined most of the elementary school and then leveled off (Jacobs et al., 2002). In addition, previous longitudinal research has witnessed a significant decrease students’ PA with increasing age from childhood to adolescence (e.g., Currie, Gabhainn, & Godeau, 2008; Duncan, Duncan, Strycker, & Chaumeton, 2007; Telama et al., 2005).

An important emphasis of much of the research using the Eccles et al.’s model has been the role of gender differences in task values as potential mediators of gender differences in achievement choices (e.g., Eccles et al., 1993; Wigfield et al., 1997). In previous studies, boys have systematically rated their PE task values higher than girls (Fredricks & Eccles, 2002, 2005; Jacobs et al., 2002). Contrary to these previous researchs, however, Xiang et al. (Xiang, et al., 2003; Xiang, McBride, & Bruene, 2004; Xiang, McBride, & Bruene, 2006) have found that boys and girls did not differ significantly in their subjective task values toward PE as a subject area and running as a specific activity. They have speculated this gender similarity to be due to light of gender-stereotyped views presented by Lauriola, Zelli, Calcaterra, Cherubini, & Spinelle (2004). In other words, gender-stereotyped views might affect subjective task values (e.g., boys value masculine characteristics such as physical strength and aggressiveness, and girls feminine characteristics such as gracefulness and agility). Furthermore, it has also been found that gender differences in values emerge quite early during the elementary school years and that these differences remain rather stable throughout the adolescence (Marsh, 1989; Eccles et al., 1993; Jacobs et al., 2002; Wigfield et al., 1997).

Gender differences have been found also in participation patterns in PA, boys being physically more active than girls (Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000; Trost et al., 2002). In a recent longitudinal study, Duncan et al. (2007) reported boys having higher initial level of PA than girls but a similar declining PA trajectory. On the contrary, Telama and Yang (2000) have found in their correlational cross-sequential study the decline in PA to be steeper in males than in females after the age of 12 with the steepest declines between the ages of 12–15 in males and 15–18 in females.

Although task values have been evident to be important determinants of task choice, intention for future participation and effort/persistence in sport activities and PE, previous research examining relations between PE task values and actual PA behavior has been scarce (Cox & Whaley, 2004; Xiang et al., 2005; Xiang et al., 2004, 2006). Promoting a healthy and physically active lifestyle is one of the most important aims of PE (Pűhse & Gerber, 2005), therefore, it is important to examine the role PE task values in relation to PA. In addition,


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no cross-lagged longitudinal studies have been carried out to investigate the prospective relationships between PE task values and PA. First, the aim of this study was to examine how students PE task values and PA developed and if the PE task values predicted their subsequent PA across junior high school when their PA during elementary school was controlled. We hypothesized that students’ PE values and PA decreased and become more stable across grades 7 to 9 (Wigfield et al., 1997; Jacobs et al., 2002). Furthermore, because of previous findings of task values relations to intention for future participation and persistence in PE (Cox & Whaley, 2004; Xiang et al., 2005; Xiang et al., 2004, 2006), we hypothesized students’ high PE values to predict their subsequent PA. Although previous research has reported gender differences in students’ PE task values and PA, few studies have tested gender similarity in the development of students’ PE values and PA (Jacobs et al., 2002). Second, the purpose of this study was to examine whether gender has a role in this development. Based on previous findings we hypothesized that boys valued PE more than girls and they are also more PA (Duncan et al., 2007; Fredricks & Eccles, 2002, 2005; Jacobs et al., 2002; Sallis et al., 2000). In addition, we assumed that trend in PE values to be similar between genders (Marsh, 1989; Eccles et al., 1993; Jacobs et al., 2002; Wigfield et al., 1997). Based on findings on Telama and Yang (2000), we assumed, however, that there are gender differences in developmental trends of PA.

Method

Participants. A total of 812 (430 boys, 382 girls) students from eight junior high schools participating in the study were examined during their transition from Grade 7 to Grade 9. Students were followed three years and their ages were 12-13 years old (M = 12.31, SD = .22) in the beginning of the study (T0). Necessary ethics approval of the research protocol was approved by ethical committee of University of Jyvaskyla. Children and teachers were recruited through direct contact with the schools in consultation with the school principal. All children in each class were asked to participate. Students who were absent from school on the day of measurements, were tested as soon as they were back at school again. The students’ PE task values were examined three times (T1 – T3) and self-reported PA was examined four times (T0 – T3): First, their pre-PA was tested in April 2007 Grade 6 (n = 580). Second, their PE task values and PA were examined in October 2007 during Grade 7 (n = 812). Third, their PE task values and PA were investigated in October 2008 at Grade 8 (n = 792). Fourth, students PE values and PA were assessed in October 2009 during Grade 9 (n = 776). All measurements were carried out by a trained team of researchers and took place during PE lessons.


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Measures Physical education task values. Task values toward PE were measured at T1 to

T3 using the Task Value Scale (Niemivirta, 2002; Viljaranta, Nurmi, Aunola, & Salmela-Aro, 2009), which is based on the conceptualizations of Eccles, et al. (1983). Students were asked to answer following two sets of questions. First: “How important do you find school physical education” (attainment value), “How useful do you find school physical education” (utility value), and “How interesting do you find school physical education” (intrinsic or interest value). Second: “How important do you find school physical education for your future” (attainment value), “How useful do you find school physical education for your future” (utility value), and “How interesting do you find school physical educa-tion for your future” (intrinsic or interest value). The students were asked to rate on a five-point likert scale (1 = very important/useful/interesting … 5 = not so important/useful/interesting). The mean of total six items measuring three task value dimensions (attainment value, utility value, and intrinsic value) toward PE was calculated and used as the students’ PE task value score.

Physical activity. To assess students’ self-reported PA across T0 to T3 the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children Research Protocol was used (Currie, Samdal, Boyce, & Smith, 2002). The scale incorporated a modified version of the Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity measure (Prochaska, Sallis, & Long, 2001). The introduction preceding the items was: “In the next two questions PA means all activities which raise your heart rate or momentarily get you out of breath, for example, in doing exercise, playing with your friends, going to school, or in school PE. Sport also includes, for example, jogging, intensive walking, roller skating, cycling, dancing, skating, skiing, soccer, basketball and baseball.” The items required students to summarize their time spent in PA each day using statements, such as, (a) “When you think about your typical week, on how many days are you physically active for a total of at least 60 minutes per day?” and (b) “Over the past 7 days, on how many days were you physically active for a total of at least 60 minutes per day?” Both items used an eight-point response scale (0 - 7 days of the week). The mean of the two item scores was calculated and used as the students’ PA score.

Statistical Analysis. The statistical analyses were performed in four steps. First, we conducted EM-algorithm using SPSS to impute the missing values at T1 to T3 (Schafer, 1997). Because simplex modeling technique allows missing values in covariates, we did not impute missing values at T0. Second, we calculated the means, standard deviations, and Cronbach’s alphas. Third, a multivariate simplex model for the PE task values and PA variables were tested to examine the students’ development, stabilities, as well as the cross-lagged associations between these constructs after controlling for the previous level of each construct as well as


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PA at T0. Fourth, by applying two-group methodology, we statistically tested whether there were gender differences in measurement invariance. These group comparisons are commonly used for purposes such as selection from among competing theoretical models representing different patterns of relationships among latent variables (MacCallum, Browne, & Cai, 2006). All analyses were performed within a structural equation modeling framework using the Mplus statistical package (Version 6.0; Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2010). A model fits the data well when the p value associated with χ2 test is nonsignificant. Bentler’s comparative fit index (CFI) and the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) values above .95 and the Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation (RMSEA) values below .06 indicate a good fit between the hypothesized model and the observed data (Hu & Bentler, 1999).

Results

Descriptive statistics, internal reliability, and gender differences. To provide descriptive information means and standard deviations, Pearson correlation coefficients, Cronbach’s alphas, and independent t-test between genders are presented (Table 1). Boys’ PE values and PA levels were significantly higher than girls’ in all variables except PE task values at T1. Correlations for both genders were similar in PE task values (rgirls between .48 to 71, rboys between .49 to 64) and PA (rgirls between .28 to 59, rboys between .25 to 61) indicating stability in both variables. Examination of reciprocal correlations between PE task values and PA at each time point (rgirls between .26 to 31, rboys between .31 to 34) suggested moderate, stable relation of these two constructs. Internal reliability of the scales was good (αgirls between .88 to .92, αboys between .85 to .91). Taken together, these findings showed gender differences in the level of PE task values and PA as well as weak to moderate relation between PE task values and PA indicating possible relationships in these two constructs.

Simplex modeling. Our first research question was to investigate how students PE task values and PA developed across junior high school and to what extent PE task values prospectively predicted students’ PA. To examine this, a multivariate simplex model (see, e.g. Aunola, Leskinen, Onatsu-Arvilommi, & Nurmi, 2002) was carried out. Besides stability coefficients, this model included paths from task values to subsequent PA. In order to control for the preliminary level of PA, the pre-PA variable measured at the end of elementary school (T0) was included in the model. The estimates for statistical fit of the girls model was adequate: χ2(9, n = 382) = 22.43, p = .015, CFI = .98, TLI = .96, RMSEA = .06, 90%, CI [.02, .09]. The modification indices (MI = 10.69) suggested that the model fit would significantly improve if the residual terms between the PA measurements at T0 and T3 were allowed to correlate. The re-constructed


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model for girls fitted the data well: χ2(8, n = 382) = 8.92, p = .072, CFI = 1.00, TLI = 1.00, RMSEA = .02, 90%, CI [.00, .06]. The boys’ model fitted the data reasonably well: χ2(9, n = 430) = 17.05, p = .05, CFI = .99, TLI = .98, RMSEA < .05, 90%, CI [.01, .08]. However, because of the residual term of the latent PA construct at T3 was found to be negative, this parameter was further fixed to zero. The fit of the new re-constructed model for boys fitted data well: χ2(10, n = 430) = 17.13, p = .072, CFI = .99, TLI = .99, RMSEA = .04, 90%, CI [.00, .07]. Gender specific reliability, stability coefficients, and statistically significant direct effects for the latent variables are presented in Figure 1. Furthermore, there were statistically significant indirect effect (p < 05, two-tailed test) of PE task values (T1) via PE task values (T2) to PA (T3) (girls’ standardized estimate = .09, S.E. = .03 and boys’ standardized estimate = .10, S.E. = .05). Moreover, estimated reliability coefficients of observed PE task value variables were: Girls’ estimates R2Time 1 = .82, R2Time 2 = .83, R2Time 3 = .81 and boys’ estimates, R2Time 1 = .63, R2Time 2 = .65, R2Time 3= .62. Subsequent estimates for PA variables were: Girls’ estimates R2Time 1 = .89, R2Time 2 = .85, R2Time 3 = .87 and boys’ estimates, R2Time 1 = .72, R2Time 2 = .73, R2Time 3= .67.

The results showed, first, that the level of students’ PA in elementary school (T0) was positively associated with their PA at the beginning of the Grade 7 (T1). Moreover, mean level examination of the latent constructs indicated that students’ PE task value decreased between T1 and T2 and leveled off during T2 and T3, while mean levels of the latent PA continued to decrease throughout junior high school. Stability, however, strengthened across the three measurements for both PE task values and PA. Second, examination of the prospective relationships showed that students PE task values predicted related PA across the measurements. Furthermore, PE task values at T1 predicted PA at T3 via PE task values at T2 indicating that the higher the valuing PE students showed at Grade 7 the higher their reported PA at Grade 9.

Testing gender differences. Descriptive statistics showed gender differ-ences in all variables except PA at T1. First, to compare gender differences we preserved both models during these two-group tests. The model fitted the data well: χ2(18, n = 812) = 27.84, p = .065, CFI = 1.00, TLI = .99, RMSEA = .04, 90%, CI [.00, .06]. Second, to test gender similarity in the development of stu-dents’ PE task values and PA, we constrained the paths coefficients of the latent PE task values and PA components to be equal across gender, and tested the fit of the consequent model with chi-square difference test. This constrained model fitted the data well: χ2(21, n = 812) = 31.16, p = .071, CFI = 1.00, TLI = .99, RM-SEA = .04, 90%, CI [.00, .06]. The result of two-group test indicated that girls’ and boys’ paths were similar χ2(3), ngirls = 382, nboys = 440) = 3.32, p = .345.


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Despite of the mean level differences in observed variables, these results showed gender similarity in the parallel development of students PE task values and PA.

Discussion

The aim of the present study was to investigate the gender specific developmental dynamics of students’ PE task values and PA across Finnish junior high school. Overall, the results showed that students’ PE task values and PA decreased across Grades 7 to 9. In addition, students PE task values predicted students’ subsequent PA behavior. Although the developmental patterns of the PE task values and PA between genders were similar, boys PE task values and PA were on higher level throughout junior high school.

First, the aim of this study was to examine how students PE task values and PA developed and whether students’ PE task values predicted their subsequent PA when their PA during elementary school was controlled. The results of the study showed that’s students valuing of PE decreased between Grade 7 and Grade 8, but leveled off between Grade 8 and Grade 9. Furthermore, the stability in students PE task values increased across junior high school. These results supported previous studies of downward trend in students’ valuing PE and sports (Eccles et al., 1993; Jacobs et al., 2002; Wigfield et al., 1997) together with increasing stability across junior high school (Eccles et al., 1993; Wigfield et al., 1997). More precisely this study supports the findings of Jacobs et al. (2002) where decrease of students’ task values in sport leveled off in the end of junior high school. In addition, results showed that students’ PA decreased across time. These results supported previous findings of the decreasing development of students’ PA (Currie et al., 2008; Duncan et al., 2007; Telama et al., 2005). The stability of students’ PA increased slightly throughout measurements highlighting the importance of previous PA behavior. In other words, although students’ PA decreased, their behavior was rather established across time. The PA students’ were still PA, while physically inactive remained inactive. By applying developmental approach, this research confirmed previous mainly mean level and age cohort findings (Currie et al., 2008; Eccles et al., 1993; Telama et al., 2005; Wigfield et al., 1997).

In addition, this study made an effort to extend the findings of previous studies by examining if students PE task values predict their subsequent PA. Results showed that PE task values predicted prospective PA when PA level at Grade 6 was controlled. Furthermore, this moderating power was stable across measurements. The results showed further that this impact of PE task values at Grade 7 extended to PA at Grade 9 as an indirect path via PE task values at Grade 8. Although new findings in motivation and PE context, these results echo the


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previous findings in students valuing PE and intentions to participate various PA programs (Xiang et al., 2003, 2004; Gao & Xiang, 2008), academic school subjects and performance (for a review, see Murphy & Alexander, 2000) and the longitudinal relation between PE task values and PA (Yli-Piipari, Kiuru, Jaakkola, Liukkonen, & Watt, in press). These findings imply important recommendations for future. According to these results, PE teacher have a possibility to affect students PA behavior by fostering their values towards PE.

Second aim of the study was to analyze possible gender difference in the development of students’ PE task values and PA. Our results were partly in accordance with our hypothesis and previous results (Fredricks & Eccles, 2002, 2005; Jacobs et al., 2002) confirming that boys valued PE more than girls and they were more PA. When examining gender differences in PE task values, girls’ values were more heterogeneous than boys. In other words, some girls’ had high values toward PE and some low, while boys’ valuing of PE was more homogeneous. Similar pattern was evident in the mean levels of PA. In accordance with previous studies (Duncan et al., 2007; Sallis et al., 2000), boys’ PA behavior on average was on higher level than girls. However, there were no gender differences in PA homogeneity. Furthermore, when testing the similarity in the development of PE task values and subsequent PA, results showed that development of girls and boys was similar. This was contradictory in relation to our hypothesis assuming gender differences in the development of PA (Telama and Yang, 2000). However, it is noticeable that the longitudinal research of Telama and Yang (2000) conceptualized PA as leisure time PA, while this research included PE as well.

There are few limitations that should be taken into account in attempts to generalize the findings of the present study. First, the scale measuring students’ PE task motivation did not include cost component of the original construct. Most of the research has been done using these three dimensions, where cost has received less research attention. However, we recommend that for future research. Second, although this research was using advanced statistical methods, such as, multivariate simplex models for cross-lagged relations, it is possible that there were other factors that might have been interfering or mediating these found relations. Previous research by Jacobs et al. (2002) has found that changes in competence beliefs had an impact on changes in values. It is possible that competence beliefs could weaken the cross-lagged relations of students’ PE task values and PA. Of course, it is possible that competence beliefs made these found effects stronger. However, empirical evidence has linked competence be-liefs to affect achievement (Eccles, 1987; Eccles et al., 1993), whereas task values have been found to relate to effort, engagement, and current and future activity choices (Eccles & Wigfield, 1995; Meece, Wigfield, & Eccles, 1990; Wigfield,


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1994). Third, it should be noted that based on theoretical model of Eccles et al. (1983), the direction of influence in these analyses was specified to be from students’ PE task values to subsequent PA. However, it is also possible that the influence is bidirectional. Therefore, the point for future research is to test possi-ble predictive influence of students’ PA in relation with students’ PE task values.

In conclusion, we found that the students’ PE task values decreased during Grades 7 and 8 leveling off during Grade 9. Students’ PA decreased across Grades 7 to 9. Extending previous studies results showed that students’ PE values predicted future PA when previous levels of task values and PA and level of PA in elementary school were controlled. Our data also provide new information suggesting gender similarities in the parallel development of students PE task values and PA, despite differences in the level and homogeneity of the variables. Future research should examine the developmental relation of task values and behaviors in different domains for the prevalence of the patterns and gender differences in developmental trajectories described here.

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245

Varia

ble

list

12

34

56

7M

SDα

t(df)

p

1 Ph

ysic

al

activ

ity (T

0)-

.21*

*.1

1*.0

6.5

6**

.30*

*.3

8**

4.86

.89

.90

4.43

(810

)<

.001

2 PE

task

va

lues

(T1)

.26*

*-

.56*

*.4

8**

.26*

*.3

1**

.25*

*4.

09.9

1.9

12.

26(8

10)

.024

3 PE

task

va

lues

(T2)

.21*

*.4

9**

-.7

1**

.12*

.31*

*.2

5**

3.85

.96

.88

4.23

(810

)<

.001

4 PE

task

va

lues

(T3)

23**

52**

.64*

*-

.06

.28*

*.2

6**

3.93

.89

.88

3.26

(810

).0

01

5 Ph

ysic

al

activ

ity (T

1).5

8**

.31*

*.3

1**

.28*

*-

.49*

*.4

4**

4.06

1.60

.91

3.38

(810

).0

01

6 Ph

ysic

al

activ

ity (T

2).4

2**

.30*

*.3

9**

.26*

*.5

4**

-.5

9**

3.64

1.55

.89

4.44

(810

)<

.001

7 Ph

ysic

al

activ

ity (T

3).3

7**

.32*

*.3

6**

.34*

*.4

7**

.61*

*-

3.49

1.64

.92

2.67

(810

).0

08

M5.

144.

234.

124.

134.

454.

153.

49

SD.9

2.8

4.8

7.8

31.

701.

721.

58

α.9

0.8

9.8

6.8

5.8

9.9

0.9

1

Tabl

e 1.

Sum

mar

y of

Inte

rcor

rela

tions

, Mea

ns, S

tand

ard

Dev

iatio

ns, C

ronb

ach’

s Alp

ha C

oeffi

cien

ts, a

nd

Resu

lts o

f In

depe

nden

t T-te

sts b

etw

een

Gen

ders

for A

ll Va

riabl

es

Note

1. I

nter

corr

elat

ions

for g

irls (

n =

382

) are

pre

sent

ed a

bove

the

diag

onal

, and

inte

rcor

rela

tions

for b

oys (

n =

43

0) a

re p

rese

nted

bel

ow t

he d

iago

nal.

Mea

ns, s

tand

ard

devi

atio

ns, a

nd C

ronb

ach’

s al

phas

for

girl

s ar

e pr

esen

ted

in

vert

ical

col

umns

, whi

le m

eans

, dev

iatio

ns, a

nd C

ronb

ach’

s alp

has f

or b

oys a

re p

rese

nted

in h

oriz

onta

l col

umns

. T-v

alue

s, de

gree

s of

free

dom

(df),

and

stat

istic

al si

gnifi

canc

e (p-

valu

es) o

f in

depe

nden

t t-te

st b

etw

een

girls

and

boys

are

pres

ente

d in

ver

tical

col

umns

.N

ote 2

. Sam

ple

size

at T

ime

0 (T

0) w

as 5

80 (g

irls =

270

, boy

s = 3

10).


246

Sami YLI-PIIPARI, graduate student, Department of Sport Sciences, University of Jyväskylä Now he is a Fulbright Scholar at the Department of Kinesiology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA. E-mail: [email protected]

Timo JAAKKOLA, Ph.D., is a lecturer within the Department of Sport Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Finland.

Jarmo LIUKKONEN, Ph.D., is a Professor of Sport Pedagogy within the Department of Sport Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Finland.

Gender Specific Developmental Dynamics between Physical Education Task Values and Physical Activity...

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