Sex Roles, Vol. 16, No. 5/6, 1987

Gender Differences in the Social Problem- Solving Performance of Adolescents

Laura O. Murphy and Steven M. Ross Memphis State University

Compared to other cognitive measures, social problem solving has received little attention in research on gender differences. In the present study, the Means-Ends Problem-Solving Procedure and the Personal Attributes Ques- tionnaire (PAQ) were administered to 207 adolescents to examine social problem-solving skills as a function o f subject gender, PA Q type, and gender o f protagonist. Hypotheses were that superior problem solving would occur (a) for androgynous and masculine PA Q types and (b) when subject gender and~or PAQ type corresponded with protagonist gender. Results failed to corroborate these patterns, but indicated a clear overall advantage for females over males. A follow-up multiple-regression analysis showed this effect to be stable after controlling for English level. In a supplementary analysis, PA Q breakdowns were compared for the present sample and for one tested in a different region seven years earlier. Overall, the research findings imply that fewer adolescents today are likely to identify with traditional feminine roles, and that sex-related personality traits have, in general, a relatively limited impact on social problem-solving skills.

Research on children's cognitive abilities has generally indicated much similar- ly between sexes (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974). One exception is a slight to moderate advantage favoring females in verbal abilities (Becker & Hedges, 1984; Hyde, 1981; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974; Rosenthal & Rubin, 1982). Another is the advantage shown for males in quantitative abilities (Becker & Hedges, 1984; Benbow & Stanley, 1982; Hyde, 1981; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974; Rosenthal & Rubin, 1982; Stanley & Benbow, 1982), although the female deficit has been steadily decreasing over time (Becker & Hedges, 1984; Rosenthal & Rubin, 1982).

Considerably less research on gender differences has been conducted in relation to social problem solving (Marsh, 1982; Marsh, Serafica, & Baren-

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252 Murphy and Ross

boim, 1980; Shure & Spivack, 1982; Shure, Spivack, & Jaeger, 1971). A widely used technique for assessing social problem-solving ability is the Means-Ends Problem-Solving (MEPS) Procedure, developed by Platt and Spivack (1975). The MEPS presents a series of interpersonal problem situations and asks respondents to communicate the steps used to resolve the social conflicts. High ability to generate alternative solutions (i.e., high MEPS scores) has been found to positively relate to (a) teacher ratings of adjustment in children (Shure, Spivack, & Jaeger, 1971), (b) popularity (Higgins & Thies, 1981), (c) psychological well-being (Platt, Siegel, & Spivack, 1975, Richard & Dodge, 1982), and (d) social interactive skills, approachability, and moral judgment (Enright & Sutterfield, 1980). Rickel and Burgio (1982), however, failed to find a relationship between adjustment and social problem solving in their replication of the Shure et al. (1971) study.

Relative to verbal and quantitative reasoning, social problem solving seems much more dependent on how individuals subjectively interpret pro- blem situations and what constitute variable solutions. In this regard, per- sonality characteristics relating to gender could have significant bearing on the number and types of solutions proposed. Interest in assessing such per- sonality traits has led to the development of self-rating scales such as the Personal Attitudes Questionnaire (PAQ; Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1975) and the Bern Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974). Individuals who characterize themselves as predominantly active, independent, and compe- tent (high in traditionally male traits) have been termed psychologically masculine. Those who characterize themselves as predominantly gentle and understanding (high in traditionally female traits) have been termed psychologically feminine. Those who view themselves as high in masculine traits and also high in feminine traits have been termed psychologically an- drogynous. Those who are low in their ratings of both masculine and feminine descriptors have been termed undifferentiated (Spence et al., 1975). In ad- ministering the PAQ to a high-school norming sample, Spence and Helmreich (1978, p. 54) found that 25070 of the males surveyed were androgynous, 44070 were masculine, 8070 were feminine, and 23070 were undifferentiated. The female percentages were reported as 35070 for androgynous, 14070 for masculine, 32070 for feminine, and 18070 for undifferentiated.

Although evidence of relationships between sex role identification and cognitive problem solving have been found (Antill & Cunningham, 1982; Milton, 1957; Nash, 1975), no investigators have sought a link between sex role identification and social problem solving. The relationship hypothesiz- ed in the present study is based in part on reported associations between an- drogyny and adjustment (Bem, 1977; Heilbrun, 1981; Spence et al., 1975;

Gender Differences in Social Problem Solving 253

Spence & Helmreich, 1978, p. 55), and between social probiem-soivlng skill and adjustment (Shure & Spivack, 1972; Shure et al., 1971). Other characteristics ascribed to androgynous individuals, such as behavioral flex- ibility (Bem& Lenney, 1976) and high expressive and instrumental qualities (Helmreich, Spence, & Holohan, 1979), make these types appear well equip- ped to resolve a variety of situationally different social conflicts. Additional findings, however, also suggest advantages of masculine over feminine traits on various adjustment and cognitive measures (Antill & Cunni.ngham, 1982; Bern 1977; Deaux, 1984; Milton, 1957; Nash, 1975; Spence et al., 1975; Taylor & Hall, 1982). On the basis of this evidence, higher social problem-solving performance might therefore be predicted for androgynous and masculine types than for feminine and undifferentiated types.

Separate from characteristics of individuals (i.e., gender and personality traits) are properties of the actual problem-solving incidents. Of interest in the present study was the gender of the "protagonist" (or main character) featured. When asked their preferences for different protagonists in school reading materials, both males and female students have been shown to favor members of their own sex (Jennings, 1975; McArthur & Eisen, 1976; Schau & Scott, 1984). Results concerning learning outcomes are inconsistent (Frashner & Frashner, 1978; Jennings, 1975; Schau & Scott, 1984), but ap- pear to favor same-gender over opposite-gender protagonists where dif- ferences have been found (Deutsch, 1975). Social problem solving, however, not only requires comprehending the problem situation communicated, but also generating concrete actions to resolve the conflict. Seemingly, such pro- cesses would be facilitated by the capacity to empathize with the protagonists and relate to their problems. Greater success might therefore be experienced by most individuals when same-gender rather than opposite-gender pro- tagonists are involved. Similarly, performance might also be higher when gender of protagonist corresponds with PAQ classification, as for sex-typed individuals (i.e., masculine males and feminine females).

To explore the above questions, the present study analyzed social problem-solving performance of adolescents as a function of three variables: gender of subject, PAQ classification of subject, and gender of protogonist. General hypotheses were that more effective problem solving would occur: (a) with androgynous and masculine types; and (b) when protagonist gender corresponded with subject gender, especially for sex-typed individuals. An additional purpose of the study was to compare PAQ classifications of the present adolescent sample, from a relatively conservative Southern communi- ty, with those of the norming sample tested by Spence and Helmreich (1978) in a different region seven years earlier.

254 Murphy and Ross

M E T H O D

Subjects

Approximately 300 adolescent students enrolled in a required eleventh- grade English course from a Southern state were approached to participate in this study. From this population, 223 volunteers returned signed parental consent forms for their participation. Approximately 21 070 of the participating subjects were in honors English, 66070 were in average English, 11070 were in basic English, and 2°70 did not provide this information. Two students were foreign exchange students and their scores were not incorporated in the data. Fourteen subjects were excluded from the final analyses because of incomplete MEPS scores, yielding a final n of 207. Males in the sample totaled 93 and females totaled 114. Age ranged from 15 to 19, with a mean of 16.58 and a median of 16. There were 190 Caucasian subjects, 16 black subjects, and 1 unknown. Two students were tenth graders, 172 eleventh graders, 32 twelfth graders, and one unknown.

Instruments

Sex-Related Personality Traits. The short form of the PAQ, developed by Spence et al. (1975), was used to assess sex-related personality traits. Spence and Helmreich (1980) describe the rating scale as measuring instrumentali- ty, a factor that is socially desirable in both sexes but believed to be more pronounced in males (e.g., independent); and expressiveness, a factor that is socially desirable in both sexes but believed to be more pronounced in females (e.g., gentle). In accord with Spence and Helmreich's (1978, p. 19) original labeling of the subscales, the eight items measuring instrumentality shall be termed the masculine scale and the eight items measuring expressivi- ty shall be termed the feminine scale. The highest masculine score is obtain- ed by rating oneself as independent, active, competitive, can make decisions easily, never gives up easily, very self-confident, very superior, and stands up well under pressure. The highest feminine score is obtained by rating oneself as emotional, able to devote self competely to others, very gentle, very helpful to others, very kind, very aware of feeling of others, very understanding of others, and very warm in relations with others.

Subjects were asked to indicate where they fell on a 5-point scale for each attribute (4, extremely independent; O, not at all independent). The points for the eight items for the masculine and feminine scales were summed to

Gender Differences in Social Problem Solving 255

yield a total score (range = 0 to 32) for each scale. Adolescents are classified as "masculine" if they score above 20 on the masculine scale, but below 23 on the feminine scale; "feminine" if they score below 20 on the masculine scale, but above 23 on the feminine scale; "undifferentiated" if they score below 20 on the masculine scale and below 23 on the feminine scale; and "androgynous" if they score above 20 on the masculine scale and above 23 on the feminine scale. Both subscales of the short form PAQ have been shown to correlate above .90 with the 55-item full scale, and to yield Cronbach in- ternal consistency alphas above .80 (Spence & Helmreich, 1978, p. 35).

Social Problem Solving. The beginning and end of 10 hypothetical in- terpersonal problem situations constitute the MEPS procedure (Platt & Spivack, 1975). Respondents are asked to write a step-by-step procedure to reach the ending provided. One point is awarded for each sequenced step or detail that leads to resolution of the problem. Repetition of a previous means or similar approach is not awarded additional points. More com- prehensive scoring guidelines are provided in the MEPS procedure manual (Platt & Spivack, 1975; also see Spivack, Shure, & Platt, 1981). As reported in the MEPS procedure manual (1975, pp. 45-49), the number of relevant means usually tallies less than 2 and ranges from 0 to 4 per story. Reliability analyses have yielded test-retest reliabilities ranging from .43 to .64, and split half and KR-20 interval consistency reliabilities ranging from. 80 to .84 (Platt & Spivack, 1975, p. 64).

For the present study, 8 MEPS items were chosen from the original 10 MEPS items on the basis of the judged appropriateness of the context for the community concerned. The two stories deleted both concerned criminal acts, and were anticipated to be adversely received by the community. One of these stories concerned stealing a diamond and the other concerned getting even with a Nazi war criminal. It seemed unlikely that removal of these items would have any impact on the validity of the assessment, since no special importance was ascribed by Platt and Spivack (1975) to the actual themes conveyed. Further, Platt and Spivack themselves previously remov- ed one or both "violence" items in testing prison populations. Selected story situations included "becoming a leader," "regaining boy/girlfriend," "finding a lost watch," "making new friends," "meeting someone of the opposite sex," "regaining friends," "getting even," and "getting along with the boss." The total MEPS score for each subject in this study was the sum of the scores for the 8 story situations.

Two raters carefully studied the MEPS manual, discussed scoring pro- cedures, and practiced scoring on adolescents responses obtained from a small pilot study and from incomplete MEPS protocols from the present study. Fifty-two protocols (25% of the sample) were randomly selected and in- dependently scored by both raters. Disagreements were resolved by rater

256 Murphy and Ross

discussion of the rationale for the rating, and the item was rescored. The primary rater scored 155 protocols independently and rescored them follow- ing interrater scoring sessions. The Pearson correlation coefficients for the two raters' scores were .83 (total protocols), .84 (male protagonist items) and .78 (female protagonist items). The negotiated score for the 52 jointly rated subjects and the rechecked score for the 155 primary-rater scored protocols were the final scores incorporated in the analyses.

Procedure

Session 1. Subjects were first administered the PAQ and then the MEPS. Since the MEPS authors suggest using fewer items for those at a lower reading level, only four MEPS story situations, randomly selected from 8-item pool, were administered in this first session. The story content of the items remained constant for all subjects, but the sex of the protagonist was altered by featur- ing a male protagonist in two randomly selected items and a female pro- tagonist in two others. This condition resulted in six unique combinations of items. Items were typed individually on index cards that were prearrang- ed into decks corresponding to the six combinations. Decks were alternatively distributed to the subjects, so that all combinations were received in roughly equal numbers. The decks were shuffled prior to administration to randomize the sequencing of items.

Session 2. Subjects attended a second session to complete the remain- ing four items of the MEPS. The items were prepared and distributed in the same manner as in Session 1. Absentees from the original volunteers as well as additional volunteers were tested at make-up sessions. The scores of 207 subjects with complete PAQ and MEPS protocols were incorporated in the analysis.

RESULTS

PA Q Classifications

A chi-square goodness-of-fit test was performed separately for males and females to determine if subjects from the present study differed significantly from the Texas sample tested by Spence and Helmreich (1978). Results for males showed the present sample to contain a greater percentage of androgynous (34o70) and masculine (49o70) types than the original sample (25°7o and 44o70, respectively), but a smaller percentage of feminine (4°7o vs

Gender Differences in Social Problem Solving 257

8%) and undifferentiated (12% vs 23%) types [?((3) = 10.56, p < .05]. For females, there were higher percentages of androgynous (44% vs 35%) and masculine (20% vs 14%) types than in the original sample, but lower percen- tages of feminine (29°70 vs 32%) and undifferentiated (7% vs 18%) types [X(3) = 13.49, p < .01]. Thus, both males and females in the present sam- ple demonstrated the same trend toward greater androgyny and masculinity than reported for the Spence and Helmreich (1978, p. 54) sample.

Social Problem Solving

Scores on the MEPS were initially analyzed by a 2 x 4 x 2 mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA) consisting of gender of subject and PAQ classification (androgynous, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated) as between-subjects variables, and gender protagonist as the within-subjects variable. The gender of subject main effect, IF(l, 199) -- 8.39, p < .01] and the three-way interaction [F(3,199) = 3.32, p < .05] were significant. The gender effect showed females (M -- 9.94) to score higher than males (M = 8.86). The interaction effect appeared complex and not indicative of a theoretically meaningful pattern. It generally revealed smaller differences bet- ween protagonist conditions in selected PAQ categories (androgynous and undifferentiated) for female sthan for males. The extremely low frequencies in some of the categories (e.g., feminine male n = 4 and undifferentiated females n = 8), however, raised concern about the robustness of the analysis and reliability of differences between individual cell means. For this reason, no formal follow-up tests were performed on the interaction means. It was decided to reanalyze the data by combining the cross-sex typed (feminine for males; masculine for females) and undifferentiated categories for each gender group. Cell size still remained unequal, but they were within the recom- mended guidelines for analysis (Tabachnik & Fidel, 1983, p. 181).

The resultant 2 x 3 × 2 ANOVA was consistent with the original analysis by yielding a significant gender of subject main effect [F(1,201) = 11.20, p < .01] and three-way interaction [F(2,201) = 3.65, p < .05]. Cell means involved in the interaction are summarized in Table I. The interaction is also graphically depicted in Fig. 1. As shown in the figure, there was a tendency for the two predominantly masculine groups (sex typed and androgynous) to perform higher with male protagonists than with female protagonists, while the corresponding female groups performed at about the same levels across protagonist types. Both males and females in the combin- ed category (cross-sex typed and undifferentiated) tended to perform better with female than with male protagonists. Planned follow-up tests consisted of comparing the male protagonist mean to the female protagonist mean for

258 Murphy and Ross

Table I. Mean MEPS Scores for Three-Way Interaction Cells

Gender of subject P AQ classification and gender of Cross sex-typed and protagonist Androgynous Sex typed undifferentiated

Male subjects (n = 32) (n = 46) (n = 15) Male protagonist 9.06 9.24 8.2 Female protagonist 8.44 8.65 9.47

Female subjects (n = 50) (n = 33) (n = 31) Male protagonist 10.00 10.00 9.39 Female protagonist 10.04 9.85 10.26

each gender of subject by PAQ classification category. Dunn's procedure, which protects against a Type I error by apportioning the overall alpha equally among comparison (Kennedy & Bush, 1985, chap. 5), was used for this pur- pose. Results indicated that none of the six differentials was significant, with the largest being the advantage with male protagonist for the male-combined group (p < .10).

The interaction was further analyzed by examining simple main effects and two-way interactions for gender of subject and gender of protagonist within each PAQ category. Four one-way ANOVAs, one for each category, were performed. For the androgynous category, the gender of subject main

0 o

11.0 - -

10.0 - -

9.0 - -

8.0 - -

/ / / /

• M a l e s

• F e m a l e s

h C S T

e ~ - ~ -- -- --7~'-~-- 4 ANDR

e ~ / CST

~ S - T ANDR

L I MALE FEMALE

PROTAGONIST

Fig. I. Means MEPS scores as a function of gender of subject, gender of protagonist, and PAQ category. ANDR, androgynous; S-T, sex typed; and CST, cross- sex typed and undifferentiated (combined category).

Gender Differences in Social Problem Solving 259

effect [F(1,80) = 7.06, p < .01] was the only significant finding. Females (M = 10.02) were significantly better social problem solvers than males (M = 8.75). For the sex-typed category, gender of subject main effect approached significance [F(1,77) = 3.84, p < .06], with feminine females (M = 9.92) having a higher mean than masculine males (M = 8.95). Again, the interac- tion and gender of protagonist main effect were not significant. Finally, for the combined category (cross-sex typed and undifferentiated), the gender of protagonist main effect [F(1,44) = 4.66, p < .05] was the only significant result. Scores were lower with a male protagonist (M = 9.00) than with a female protagonist (M = 10.00). However, because little unites the combined- category groups other than the low frequencies of occurrence, interpreta- tions should be made with caution.

Since the female sample included a significant number of cross-sex-typed individuals (n = 23) for t reatment as a separate category, it was decided to perform an additional 3 x 2 ANOVA on female scores with undifferentiated subjects excluded. The three PAQ categories were thus sex typed, an- drogynous, and cross-sex typed. The interaction effect approached significance [F(2,103) x 2.95, p < .06]. In follow-up comparisons using Dunn's procedure, only one contrast was significant [t(1,103) = 2.65, p < .01]. Cross-sex-typed females performed better with a female protagonist (M = 10.26) than with a male protagonist (M = 8.83).

Multiple Regression Analyses

Taylor and Hall (1982), as well as J. T. Spence (Note 1), have advocated that masculine (instrumental) and feminine (expressive) scores be analyzed as continuous measures by the use of regression rather than as categorical data. Accordingly, it was decided to reanalyze the MEPS data using a multi- ple regression design incorporating English level as a predictor variable along with gender of subject, masculine PAQ score, and feminine PAQ score. Relative to the three-way ANOVA just described, this analysis is limited to providing information about the overall contribution (main effects) o f these

Table I!. Intercorrelations Among Independent and Dependent Variables

English Subject gender Masculinity Femininity MEPS .21" .21 a - .04 .04 English .21 a .03 .00 Subject gender - . 18 .40 b Masculinity .14

ap < .05. bp < .01.

260 Murphy and l~oss

Table IlL Intercorrelations Among Independent and Dependent Variables for Male and Female Subjects

MEPS Males Females

English Males Females

Masculinity Males Females

~p < .01.

English Masculinity Femininity

.27 a - . 0 2 - . 0 5

. l l - . 0 4 - . 0 3

.14 - .08 - .01 - .14

.38 b .09

variables, independent of interaction effects. The primary intent, however, was to determine the relative contribution to MEPS performance of English level and sex, and of the masculinity and femininity subscores of the PAQ. A stepwise procedure was employed in entering variables. Table II contains the incorrelations among the predictor variables and the criterion for the en- tire sample, whereas table III shows similar outcomes for males and female separately.

English level, which had the highest correlation with MEPS scores (r = .212) was selected first [F(1,201) = 9.48, p < .01]. Sex of subject was entered on Step 2, bringing the multiple r to .27 [F(2,200) = 7.83, p < .05]. PAQ femininity and masculinity scores were entered in steps 3 and 4, respec- tively, but did not contribute significantly (ps > .05) in accounting for addi- tional variance at either of these steps.

DISCUSSION

PA Q Classifications

Adolescents in the present study fell into the four PAQ classifications in significantly different percentages than did Spence and Helmreich's (1978, p. 54) sample. Feminine males (4%), undifferentiated males (12o7o), and un- differentiated females (7o7o) were extremely few in number. Relative to the Spence and Helmreich sample, there were more androgynous types (males = 34O7o; females = 44o7o) and masculine types (males = 49O7o; females = 20°7o), but fewer feminine and undifferentiated types for both sexes. Thus summing across androgynous and masculine categories, 84O7o of males were high in masculine traits, and 64o70 o f females were high in masculine traits.

Gender Differences in Social Problem Solving 261

Given the impact of the feminist movement, it is not surprising that fewer individuals are identifying with attributes previously associated with tradi- tional femininity. Considering the conservative background of the present sample, it is also likely that present figures underestimate this trend for the overall population. Whether the PAQ measures masculinity/femininity or whether it measures instrumental/expressive traits, updated norms appear in order. For the same reason, similar instruments such as the BSRI (Bem, 1974) would also benefit from renorming, as well as from reevaluations of their face and construct validity (Spence & Helmreich, 1980).

Social Problem Solving

The major purpose of this study was to assess the relationship of gender of subject, gender of protagonist, and PAQ classification to the social problem-solving skills of adolescents. Findings showed that, overall, females were superior to males. Several factors may have contributed to this out- come. One possible factor is differences in writing skills, since English level was positively correlated with MEPS scores and it was also higher for females than for males. Given that the MEPS ostensibly measures a type of cognitive skill, its correlation with another index of cognitive skill (English level) would not appear unusual. However, when the variance accounted for by English level was removed in the regression analysis, gender of subject remained a significant predictor of high MEPS performance. Thus, English abilities can- not completely account for the female advantage.

A second possible explanation concerns developmental factors. Females may reach higher stages of social problem solving before males. Evidence has been presented of age (Spivack, Platt, & Shure, 1976) and developmen- tal (Marsh, 1982) differences in acquisition of social problem-solving skills. Although no gender differences in social problem solving were found in the few studies exploring this variable (Marsh, 1982; Marsh et al., 1980; Shure & Spivack, 1982; Shure et al., 1971) the subject tested were younger than those in the present study. The present samples had a mean age of 16.58, and as such may be viewed as representative of middle adolescence. Investiga- tion of possible developmental sex differences in social skills emerging in mid- dle adolescence is a topic for future research.

A third explanation concerns societal influence on gender differences in interpersonal skills. There simply may be more emphasis on social pro- blem solving in the everyday activities of adolescent females than of males. Typical contexts might include discussing social concerns with friends, writing about them in dairies and letters, and reading about them in books (e.g., popular novels). This interpretation is highly speculative, however, and needs to be substantiated in further research.

262 Murphy and Ross

The significant three-way interaction (see Fig. 1) indicated a tendency for male and female subjects in the combined PAQ group to show higher social problem solving with female than with male protagonists, whereas the reverse occurred for male subjects in the androgynous and sex-typed groups. Androgynous and sex-typed females showed no differential patterns. However, none of the follow-up comparisons between male and female pro- tagonist means categories were statistically significant. These results suggest the possibility of male adolescents who possess masculine personality traits (i.e., sex typed and androgynous) to be somewhat more receptive to or skill- ed at social interventions involving other males. Interpretations regarding the greater success of the combined PAQ group with female protagonists should be made more cautiously given the artificial makeup of the group. Overall, these results do not show sex of protagonists to have strong influences on social problem-solving performance. Some support is therefore provided for Schau and Scott's (1984) contention that both sexes can be featured as main characters in a variety of situations without adversely affecting the per- formance of either male or female readers.

Contrary to hypotheses, androgyny was not associated with superior social problem solving for either males or females. The implication is that the inferred psychological benefits of androgyny (Bem, 1977; Spence et al., 1975; Spence & Helmreich, 1978), at least for social problem-solving issues, are questionable. Similarly, neither masculine traits nor feminine traits were associated with superior social problem solving. The assertive, instrumental (masculine) attributes delineated in the PAQ, therefore, did not provide an advantage in social problem-solving situations.

It appears that, even in the geographic region presently examined, con- sidered to be among the most conservative in the nation, times have chang- ed. In earlier studies, masculine attributes were shown to be associated with superior mental health and cognitive performance (Antill & Cunningham, 1982; Milton, 1957; Nash, 1975; Taylor & Hall, 1982). Now that psychologically masculine attributes have been incorporated into the per- sonality of both males and females, this attribute may no longer give the individual a comparative advantage.

REFERENCE NOTE

1. Spence, J. T. Personal communication, February 1985.

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