Gargano flint mines / UISPP 2011

Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference of the UISPP

Commission on Flint Mining in Pre- and Protohistoric Times (Madrid, 14-17 October 2009)

Edited by

Marta Capote Susana Consuegra Pedro Díaz-del-Río

Xavier Terradas

BAR International Series 2260 2011

Published by Archaeopress Publishers of British Archaeological Reports Gordon House 276 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7ED England [email protected] www.archaeopress.com BAR S2260 Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference of the UISPP Commission on Flint Mining in Pre- and Protohistoric Times (Madrid, 14-17 October 2009) © Archaeopress and the individual authors 2011 ISBN 978 1 4073 0831 9 Cover figure: Last mining event at Casa Montero, Madrid (c. 5200 cal BC). Illustration by Juan Álvarez-Cebrián Printed in England by Blenheim Colour Ltd All BAR titles are available from: Hadrian Books Ltd 122 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7BP England www.hadrianbooks.co.uk The current BAR catalogue with details of all titles in print, prices and means of payment is available free from Hadrian Books or may be downloaded from www.archaeopress.com

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1. The Gargano Prehistoric Flint Mines Project: a second phase of research

The Gargano Prehistoric Flint Mines Project originated in 1981 following the discovery of the Defensola fl int mine as a consequence of earthmoving for construction purposes. However, systematic investigations of the Gar-gano mines only began in 1986, coordinated by Attilio Galiberti.

Flint mines had been known to exist in the Gargano since the 1930s (Rellini et al. 1934), but they did not become the subject of systematic study. Since all of these were Copper Age mines, it was believed that fl int mining ac-tivities in the Gargano had taken place only during this period. However, the discovery of impressed wares at Defensola showed fl int mining to have begun in the an-cient Neolithic. Radiocarbon dating certifi ed Defensola to be the earliest Neolithic fl int mine in Europe, predating the beginning of mining in the rest of Europe by almost a thousand years; until then, the earliest known mine in Europe was Tomaszòw I, in Poland, dated to 6260±60 BP

(Schild 1995). This dating closely linked the fl int mines of the Gargano area with the Neolithisation process.

European prehistoric mining complexes generally consist of a series of (sometimes spectacular) shafts (e.g., see the Grimes Graves, Spiennes, Krzemionki and Casa Montero sites). A peculiarity of the Defensola mine is that excava-tion started from entrances opened on the slope of a hill, to develop in sub-horizontal manner.

It quickly became clear that the Defensola mine was extre-mely well preserved. It is still partially accessible without the need for archaeological excavation; Neolithic mate-rials have been found inside in their functional positions, e.g., a vessel with traces of food remains left in a resting area far from the extraction points (Figure 3.6), or a stone lamp on the fl oor near an extraction point that was still active when the mine was abandoned. This abandonment may have been rapid, the consequence of a seismic event - an earthquake - that caused the collapse of the entran-ce areas. The time of abandonment is now dated to 5380-5200 BC (Figure 2).

Prehistoric flint mines of the gargano: an overview

Massimo TARANTINI, Attilio GALIBERTI and Fabrizio MAZZAROCCHI

AbstractFor years, fl int mining archaeology in the Gargano focused on the ancient Neolithic mine of Defensola, a consequence of its dimensions, antiquity and state of preservation. However, non-systematic surveys led to the discovery of a network of mines, particularly involving the northeastern part of the Gargano. Research is now concentrated on the entire range of Gargano prehistoric fl int mines. To date, 18 mining sites have been identifi ed. Extraction activities began in the early 6th millennium BC, coinciding with the Neolithisation pro-cess, and concluded at the end of the Copper Age, about half way through the 3rd millennium BC. Two mining systems can be distinguished: 1) sub-horizontal mining that exploited compact formations – an activity that required technological skill; such mining was characterized by the involvement of sometimes extremely large underground areas, 2) and vertical shaft mining; this was usually practised in formations affected by tectonic activity or which were crumbly, and involved access shafts leading to single, small, subterranean chambers. The mining system chosen appears to be closely linked to geo-morphological factors. However evidence also exists that social and cultural factors infl uenced the choice made, with different extraction systems being preferred at different times.

KeywordsGargano. Neolithic. Copper Age. Sub-horizontal mines. Shaft. Mining systems. Geophysical survey.

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Proceedings of the 2nd Conference of the UISPP Commission on Flint Mining...

Figure 1. 1) Geological map of the Gargano with location of the fl int mines. 1 Quaternary; 2 Mio-Pliocene; 3 M. Saraceno sequence; 4 Scaglia; 5 Scisti a Fucoidi; 6 M. Acuto e M. S. Angelo formations; 7 Breccia di Cagnano; 8 Maiolica; 9 M. Sacro sequence (geological data from Bosellini et al. 1999; Morsilli et al. 2004). 2) Mine locations in the Vieste district. 3) Mine locations in the Peschici district (drawing by M. Tarantini; topographic elaborations by G. Corrente).

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M. Tarantini et al.: Prehistoric flint mines of the gargano: an overview

cal landscape, and are a very important component of the general organisation of the territory in the Neolithic and Copper Age. This is one of the most critical lines of re-search since, although a great tradition of surveying exists in the Gargano, it has never been systematic. In addition, only a few excavations have been undertaken, and all quite some time ago. The aim is to improve our scattered data by the use of a geographical information system.

5. To track the movement of fl int away from the Garga-no. The mined fl int had a local use value, but surely also an exchange value. To trace the circulation of fl int out of the Gargano, an approach based on its geochemical cha-racterisation has been adopted. The choice of this method was determined by the diffi culty of visually characteri-sing Gargano fl int, a consequence of its variability. All the Gargano fl int-bearing formations have been sampled, and about a hundred have been analysed for a broad spectrum of chemical elements using inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS), inductively coupled plas-ma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), and X-ray fl uorescence spectroscopy. The identifi cation of specifi c geochemical markers (total concentrations of trace ele-ments, distribution models of elements coherent from a geochemical point of view, isotope ratios) will allow the characterisation of Gargano fl ints and help determine the provenance of fl int samples from Neolithic and Copper Age settlements in central and southern Italy.

For years, researched focused on the study of the Defen-sola mine as a single entity, but in 2005 a monograph was published (Galiberti 2005) marking the end of this pha-se. A second phase of research is now in progress, which, along with continued research at the Defensola mine, star-ted by surveying the area for new mining sites. The results of those preliminary surveys were published in the mid 1990s (Di Lernia et al. 1997; Basili et al. 1995). However, only since 2001, starting with the PhD thesis of one of the present authors (Tarantini 2005), has any systematic investigation of the identifi ed mines been undertaken. All the accessible underground parts of these mines have now been explored and surveyed, and more attentive surface surveying has identifi ed many new entrances. The dia-chronic perspective adopted has revealed important chan-ges in the extraction methods used over time (the Gargano affords the opportunity of analysing mining dynamics over a time span of some 3500 years, from the beginning of 6th to half way through the 3rd millennium BC) (Tarantini 2007, 2008).

Since 2006, the Gargano Prehistoric Flint Mines Project has been organized along different research lines thanks to funding from the University and Research Ministry, which recognises the project to be of national interest. Field and laboratory investigations (some in their initial phases) are now concentrated on the following areas:

1. The study of the geological and morphological context, age, and the mining techniques used at each mining complex.

2. Geophysical surveys (closely tied to research area 1) orientated towards determining the internal layout of each sub-horizontal mining structure for which only the entran-ce is known, or to verify the presence of new mining struc-tures when only a few shafts are known. These geophy-sical surveys are performed in different ways, including the use of ground penetrating radar, electrical tomography and electromagnetic induction. The objective is to integra-te dif ferent results while testing each technique. The fi nal aim is to be able to understand large mining areas using non-destructive analytical systems (Tarantini et al. 2010).

3. Research on mining tools and other lithic materials in the mining context. These mining tools - picks and mallets - are made of coarse fl int. With the exception of Defensola A, they are generally surface collected. Their number va-ries notably from mine to mine, from very few to hundreds of units. The picks and mallets of the Neolithic and Copper Age contexts show marked differences. Lithic studies are limited to analysing material coming from two workshop areas strictly associated mining activities: one in the inte-rior of Defensola A, the other at one of the entrances of Defensola B. The aim is to identify the purpose of pro-duction following a technological approach coupled with use-wear analysis.

4. The study of the regional context of mining activities. These mines, of course, are part of a broader archaeologi-

Figure 2. Chronological or cultural data available for the Gargano pre-historic fl int mines.

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Figure 3. Sub-horizontal mining system. 1) Typology of extraction structures in compact formations (c) and extraction techniques for fl int nodules in compact formations: (a) ‘by collapse’ and (b) ‘in steps’. 2) Picks from Defensola A. 3) Defensola A plan. 4) An extraction step in Defensola A. 5) The interior of the S. Marco mine. 6) A vessel left in a resting area in Defensola A. 7) Limestone lamps from Defensola A (drawings and photographs by A. Galiberti and M. Tarantini).

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2. Distribution, geological context and chronology of the mines

Eighteen mining sites are currently known. Some were discovered along with their original entrances, such as the sub-horizontal mines of Defensola B (original entrances are commonly almost completely covered by slope sedi-ments). Sometimes - for example at S. Marco and at De-fensola C, near Vieste - the original entrances were enlar-ged during modern times to create stables or storehouses; these cut across the mines, showing interesting sections of the ancient structures. Other mines were discovered as a consequence of earthmoving for construction, such as Defensola A and some shafts at Carmine, near Mattina-ta. Others were found during earthmoving for road works, such as Martinetti, Coppa di Rischio, Valle Guariglia I and II, Bosco della Risega and others at Principe. Research on these complexes has so far been limited to surveying those areas that can still be accessed directly, as well as the sec-tions brought to light by earthmoving work. These sections sometimes extend for some hundreds of metres.

Although it is sometimes diffi cult to gain an overview, all of these sites can be described as mining complexes since they consist of a number of mines in close proximity. In other words, there is never an isolated mine, even though there are not hundreds or thousands of adjacent shafts pre-sent as there are in other European contexts.

The mines in the Gargano are scattered over an extremely large area, but are especially concentrated in the northeas-tern part of the Gargano Promontory (Figure 1.1). This is because the fl int bearing formations are concentrated to the North of the Varano-Mattinata line. From a geological point of view (Bosellini et al. 1999; Morsilli et al,. 2004) the supporting structure of the Gargano Promontory is a Jurassic carbonate platform (the so-called Piattaforma carbonatica apula), which acted as a reef complex. Since the beginning of the Cretaceous, the clinostratifi ed sur-face of the platform has been covered by a basin unit of white micritic limestone – the Maiolica formation - that formed the spectacular reef between Mattinata and Vies-te and which shows different levels of tectonic alteration. The Maiolica is abundant in tabular and nodular fl int and a number of mines were opened here.

An interruption in the sedimentation process linked to the platform is represented by the marl formation of Scisti a Fucoidi. Platform sedimentation started again at the begin-ning of the upper Cretaceous and went on for almost all the Palaeocene. This period saw the formation of the Scaglia, a formation of white and powdery micritic limestone with tabular and nodular fl int. Its thickness and width are limi-ted but some mines were opened here.

Finally, during the Eocene, the platform margin collapsed and a Nummulite platform later formed. The Nummulite limestone is limited to the area between Vieste and Peschi-ci; it is rich in nodular fl int of excellent quality. Numerous

mines were opened in this compact formation. The contact between the Scaglia formation and Nummulite Limestone is clearly visible on the cliff at Vieste.

A series of isolated mining complexes and two major mi-ning districts have been identifi ed: 1) the district of Vieste, which covers an area of about 5 square kilometers (Figu-re 1.2), with mines cutting into the Nummulite limestone formation and that consist of a series of structures found on hill slopes (often fairly steep, as at Defensola A and B); and 2) the district of Peschici, which covers an area of 4 square kilometers (Figure 1.3), with mines cutting into the Scaglia and Maiolica formations; here a series of mining complexes are found in the Ulso Valley.

Some mines still present problems of dating and/or cul-tural attribution. However, 11 complexes have now been attributed to specifi c contexts by the radiocarbon dating of charcoal samples collected from the debris inside the mines and/or on the basis of pottery found at the surface (Figure 2). The beginning of mining activities has been da-ted to the early 6th millennium BC (Defensola A: 6990±80 BP, cal 2σ 6010-5720 BC), coinciding with the Neolithisa-tion of southeastern Italy. Defensola A was active for about six centuries till 5380-5200 BC; other mines in the district of Vieste also date to this period (S. Marco and Defensola C). In addition, the Arciprete mine has been dated to the early Neolithic, thanks to the fi nding of impressed wares. Only one mine is dated to the 5th millennium BC (Valle Guariglia II). This suggests a decline in the intensity of mi-ning activity, probably due to local population dynamics that are clearly refl ected in the simultaneous depopulation of the nearby Tavoliere area, where the cycle of large Neo-lithic ditched villages (e.g., Masseria Candelaro village) comes to an end around this time (Cassano and Manfredini 2004).

Intense mining activity began again in the late Neolithic-early Copper Age, with the spreading of the Macchia a Mare facies (Martinetti, Cruci). It would seem to have en-ded in the fi nal phase of the Copper Age, in the fi rst half of the 3rd millennium cal BC (Defensola B: 4050±40 BP, cal 2σ 2850-2820, 2670-2470 BC).

3. Mining systems

In general terms, two types of mining technique can be distinguished in the Gargano: sub-horizontal mining and vertical shaft mining.

3.1. Sub-horizontal mining

The sub-horizontal mining system (Figure 3) exploits the geomorphology of the natural hilly environment, where fl int-bearing limestone formations can be seen along the slopes as a sequence of compact, sub-horizontal or slightly sloping seams. The layer containing fl int nodules is the-

258


refore easy to identify and can be mined in depth starting from different access points along the slopes.

In some cases, mining in this hilly environment leads to the formation of a characteristic cone of mine debris on the slope outside. These cones are sometimes entirely preser-ved, revealing a prehistoric mining landscape.

Inside the hill, the fl int-bearing seams are mined following the joins between the layers of rock; this creates structu-res with a characteristic fl at ceiling. Layers of limestone were removed in suffi cient number to obtain a fl oor-ceiling height large enough to allow mining to proceed. In any event, the tunnels are rarely more than 60cm in height and therefore present considerable logistical diffi culties. These diffi culties increase for the archaeologist when the mines are partially fi lled by slope sediments, as at Defensola B and S. Marco. It should be remembered that all activities inside these mines required artifi cial lighting; this was provided by limestone lamps probably fed by animal fat (Figure 3.7).

The extraction techniques employed in these sub-hori-zontal mines entailed the almost unvarying use of a single model (i.e., the mining of individual seams starting from above, followed by an extraction step to remove the fl int nodule exposed) (Figure 3.1b; 3.4). The only exception is that adopted in some specifi c contexts, where the nodules were extracted by ‘collapse’ (Figure 3.1a).

The stone tools used to cut through the rock were picks and mallets made of coarse fl int. These show a remarka-ble degree of refi nement, with part or all of their knap-ped surface having been hammered to obtain rounded shapes, which are more resistant to blows. Even the unknapped pieces were carefully worked and shaped. The picks are tapered and those found at Defensola A are 168mm long and weigh 860g on average; over half of these pieces have a narrowing in the middle, made by knapping or hammering, where they were joined to a handle (Figure 3.2).

The compact nature of the limestone formation is an es-sential safety feature of this mining system. A conservative estimate suggests that one of the two fl oors of Defensola A covered a surface area of at least 6500 square meters and was active for several centuries. Much of the limestone seam was removed to create large chambers supported by a few columns of rock and fi lled with large heaps of debris reaching up to the ceiling. This solution allowed for maxi-mum exploitation of the limestone seam without compro-mising the stability of the roof.

The Defensola A mine consists of a network of tunnels of varying length that cut through previously accumulated debris heaped up to the ceiling. The main tunnel is 110m long and led to the extraction faces that were active at the time when the mine was abandoned. It takes about half an hour to cover this distance (Figure 3.3).

In the sub-horizontal system, the depth of excavation towards the interior of the hill ranges from about 20m in partially explored mines such as S. Marco, to over 100m in Defensola A (the only mine studied in depth). Recent geophysical surveys suggest that other mines are almost equally deep (Figure 4).

At Arciprete, another early Neolithic mine near Vieste, only one small entrance is known. To determine the size of the mine a ground penetrating radar survey was under-taken using a grid with 25m sides. This clearly showed an underground area corresponding to a sub-horizontal mine. One of the authors (F.M.) has later undertaken an electri-cal tomographic study of a 128m-long area to determine differences in electrical resistivity. Two anomalies were found, one about 33m long corresponding to an empty space (although it is unknown if this represents a mining space or a tectonic crack), and another about 55m long co-rresponding to a space full of conductive material such as terre rosse. This surely corresponds to a mine since it starts at the known mine entrance.

The Principe shaft, near Mattinata, has still not been da-ted nor has any cultural attribution been made. This is the only case in which a sub-horizontal excavation starts from a shaft. A ground penetrating radar survey on a grid of 25m sides has been performed and the data reveal a network of chambers and tunnels. A later electrical tomographic study involving a 128m long section was also undertaken, starting from a small and doubtful entrance on the hill slope (a fox den opened in mining debris). The anomalies correspon-ding to an empty space suggest a mine stretching for about 100m, with an entrance on the hill slope and at least another shaft along its internal extension (Tarantini et al. 2010).

If the geophysical survey results are reliable, the size of the Defensola mine is not exceptional; thus, in addition to the standardization of mining techniques, the size of mines is often comparable.

The long-running research undertaken at Defensola A allows a general hypothesis on the working of these mi-nes to be proposed. Mining work was managed and plan-ned for long-term exploitation, and systematically aimed at deep areas. This is known because large galleries were dug through the mining debris that had previously accu-mulated; these galleries provided more rapid access to the active extraction faces in the innermost parts of the mine. The manpower needed to construct these galleries should not be underestimated. The fact that some are bounded for most of their length by dry stone walls on both si-des (in one case cemented with limestone mud) confi rms the theory of the planned management of the mine. The evidence also suggests that extraction took place not in simple ‘visits’ to the extraction face, but involved relati-vely long stays (a day?) inside the mine. Certainly, there is evidence that meals were consumed inside the mine, and there appear to have been rest areas at more salubrious points away from the mine face; a number of intact pot-

259


Figure 4. Electrical tomographies for the Arciprete mine.

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tery vessels have been found in functional position in such places. These pieces of pottery were probably used to ca-rry food, as indicated by the macroscopic and microsco-pic traces of organic residues on them (Di Lernia et al. 1993). Defensola A also has an area for fl int knapping and the manufacture of tools used for activities secondary to mining proper, such as the construction or repair of pick handles, or the making of containers to transport debris and fl int. These were likely made of wood, as suggested by use-wear analysis. Finally, this large mine was diffi cult to move around in and was confusing in terms of self-orientation; miners must therefore have undergone some form of ‘initiation’.

The sub-horizontal mining system was used exclusively in the mines of the Vieste area, where it was used to exploit the Nummulite limestone formation, and in the Principe mine near Mattinata. It appears to be characteristic of the ancient and early-middle Neolithic, i.e., approximately from 6000 to 5200 cal BC. An extraction complex whe-re sub-horizontal excavation was used is also attested to in the fi rst half of the 3rd millennium BC (Defensola B), but here the standardised mining techniques of the ancient Neolithic were not employed; signifi cantly, the geological formation involved is not compact limestone but a detrital and tectonized formation.

3.2. Vertical shaft mining

The second type of mining system used in the Gargano was vertical shaft mining (Figure 5). Vertical access to fl int-bearing formations is the only option in fl at terrain (which extends over large areas of central Europe). Ex-traction using vertical shafts is also the only option in formations that are heavily tectonized or crumbly; deep sub-horizontal mining would be impossible to carry out safely.

In the Gargano, vertical mining techniques were emplo-yed both in compact formations and, above all, in tectoni-zed formations belonging both to the Scaglia and Maioli-ca formations. This type of mining system was also used in hilly environments. However, less information about this extraction system is available since in-depth research began only very recently. Some preliminary, general ob-servations can, however, be made. First, it should be no-ted that the Gargano shafts are not very deep; the deepest is only three and a half metres (although it should be re-membered that none has been excavated). Moreover, most of them are ‘bell shafts’ and generally the ‘access’ shaft is known but not the underground chamber. An example is a shaft at Carmine (Mattinata), which was discovered du-ring earthmoving for construction (Figure 5.2); another, still intact and empty, can be found at Defensola B (Fi-gure 5.1). The diameter of the shafts seems to be fairly standardized at around one metre. In a number of sites a single underground structure can be accessed both from a shaft and a horizontal tunnel dug into the slope, e.g., at Finizia (Figure 5.5) and Cruci. With the exception of

the Principe site, where a shaft leads to a sub-horizontal mine dug into a context where the rock is compact, ‘ac-cess’ shafts lead to single subterranean chambers. These chambers are small and of variable height, though they are always greater in height than those of sub-horizontal mines. Unfortunately, however, their morphological la-yout can rarely be determined. In some mines there are traces of a specifi c excavation model with several shafts leading to a single underground chamber. However, some shafts are too narrow for people to pass through, and it is possible that these were used to allow light and/or air to enter. For example, the plan of the Bosco della Risega mine shows two shafts about a metre wide and another only 40cm wide (Figure 5.4).

Some of the debris from these mines was used to fi ll earlier shafts or mining structures, as in the case of Val-le Guariglia I, which was found to be totally fi lled when it was discovered during earthmoving work. The rest of the debris was distributed over the land surface, and is made visible when cut through by roads. It is interesting to note, however, that the mining structures are not always fully fi lled: sometimes only the shaft is fi lled; such is the case of the Bosco della Risega mine. Generally speaking, the management of debris in this mining system required much less effort than that required in sub-horizontal mi-ning, where debris had to be transported over long hori-zontal distances.

Vertical shaft mines also differ signifi cantly from the sub-horizontal mines of the Neolithic in terms of the tools used to cut through the limestone. In contexts dating to after the 5th millennium, picks were more coarsely knap-ped, tools less carefully shaped, and the narrowing in the middle was created by broad grooves cut into longitudinal ridges. Frequently, these picks were obtained from thick blades, the ventral faces of which are often found intact (Figure 5.3).

No overall planimetric view of any mining contexts of this type is yet possible, although this will be obtained via the systematic geophysical surveys that have now begun. In some cases, however, the size of complexes can be esti-mated where roads have cut through them, leaving series of structures in close proximity visible. For example, at Martinetti, a road cuts through 12 mining structures over a distance of 80m, at Coppa di Rischio a road section about 180m long cuts through roughly 17 mining structures ope-ned in a very powdery limestone, and at Principe-Carmine, near Mattinata, numerous structures can be seen along a stretch of road about 400m long, suggesting a mining area no smaller than 3ha.

According to the information currently available, the mi-ning system with vertical access to fl int-bearing forma-tions is chronologically restricted to the Copper Age (c. 4000-2500 BC), with only one isolated structure (Valle Guariglia II) dating to the Middle Neolithic (LTL2715A: 5822±45 BP; cal 2σ: 4790-4550 BC).

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Figure 5. Vertical shaft mining system. 1) Defensola B, 2) one of the shafts at Carmine, 3) Picks from Valle Guariglia I and Cruci, 4) Coppa di Rischio mine, 5) Finizia shafts (drawings by A. Galiberti, O. Filippi and M. Tarantini).

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In the Copper Age, with the establishment of vertical shaft mines generally of modest depth and size, the tech-nology required was signifi cantly more simple. This pro-bably made fl int extraction work less specialized, which might indicate a different organisation of mining work. No longer, was it the job of group of people with highly specialized skills as in the Neolithic, but rather – once again with reference to the trends identifi ed for the Petre-quins in Irian Jaya – anyone could have been a potential fl int extractor, with work organized in a manner remi-niscent of the collective activities of a group of farmers. In the same period, the Gargano saw a general typolo-gical and structural modifi cation of lithic production. Compared to the Neolithic a greater typological variety is seen along with a higher overall degree of laminarity, the emergence of fl aked artefacts (which later became es-tablished as one of the most important typologies), and a general attention to the profi ling of fairly commonplace objects such as tranchets (Palma Di Cesnola 1987). The-refore, in the Copper Age, the extraction of fl int seems to have been open to all, at least in terms of the technical skills required, with specialist skills shifting towards tho-se of débitage.

References

Basili, R., Di Lernia, S., Fiorentino, G. and Galiberti, A. 1995. Review of prehistoric fl int mines in the “Gargano” Promontory (Apulia, Southern Italy). Archeologia Polona 33, 413-434.

Bosellini, A., Morsilli, M. and Neri, C. 1999. Long-term event stratigraphy of the Apulia Platform Margin (Upper Jurassic to Eocene, Gargano, Southern Italy). Journal of Sedimentary Research, 69(6), 1241-1252.

Cassano, S. M. and Manfredini, A. 2004. Masseria Cande-laro. Vita quotidiana e mondo ideologico in una comunità neolitica del Tavoliere. Foggia, Claudio Grenzi editore.

De Grooth, M. E. T. 1991. Socio-economic aspects of Neolithic fl int mining: a preliminary study. Helinium 31(2), 153-189.

Di Lernia, S., Franchi, R. and Pallecchi, P. 1993. Manufac-ture characteristics, provenance problems and content re-sidues: an archaeometric approach to the Neolithic pottery of the Defensola mine (Vieste, FG - Italy). Quaternaria Nova 3, 151-75.

Di Lernia, S., Fiorentino, G., Galiberti, A. and Basili R. 1997. Topography of Gargano mining sites between geo-logical context and quarrying techniques: a preliminary in-vestigation, in A. Ramos-Millán and M. A. Bustillo (eds.), Siliceous rocks and culture. VI International Flint Sympo-sium (Madrid 1991), 195-209. Granada, Universidad de Granada.

4. Technical changes and the organization of mining work

The different mining systems adopted in the Gargano ap-pear to be closely linked to geo-morphological factors, particularly the compactness of the rock formations pre-sent. However, evidence also exists that social and cultural factors infl uenced the mining system used, leading to di-fferent extraction systems being preferred at different ti-mes. For example, for the 6th millennium BC, the ancient and early-middle Neolithic, only sub-horizontal mines in compact formations are found. In contrast vertical shafts and mines dug mostly, but not exclusively, into formations affected by tectonic activity, began to appear from the 5th millennium. In the middle-fi nal Neolithic and during the Copper Age (4th and 3rd Millennium BC) this mining sys-tem was employed almost exclusively.

For over half a millennium, during the ancient and middle-initial Neolithic, the constant use of a highly standardized mining model can be observed. In the 5th millennium, a simplifi ed system became established, adapted in an op-portunistic way to formations of varying compactness. Unlike Neolithic mines, with individual structures such as Defensola A showing continuous use over several cen-turies, Copper Age mines were smaller and their stability often precarious: this suggests that each mine represents a single extraction event.

This new extraction system required much less technical know-how than that needed during the previous period, and probably went hand-in hand with the way of organi-zing mining work. In the ancient and early-middle Neo-lithic, at least judging from Defensola A, mining work required a high degree of specialization and a specifi c knowledge of the mine environment (given the size of mi-nes). In any event, on the basis of archaeological data from contemporary contexts in central and southern Italy, the existence of full-time specialists can be ruled out. Rather, the miners might be described as part-time specialists. In other words, mining activities were carried out by men who can be described as specialists because of the techno-logical skills they possessed, but who worked on an occa-sional and irregular basis, possibly in accordance with the cyclical organisation of production activities characteristic of farming societies. It is important to stress that all known ethnographical data on New Guinean and Australian so-cieties with a comparable level of technology and socio-economic organisation suggest that mining activities were never continuous in nature (De Grooth 1991, 154; Petre-quin and Petrequin 2002, 361). The observations made at the Defensola mine also suggest a parallel between the working methods used at the Neolithic mining structu-res of the Gargano and one of the two trends identifi ed by ethno-archaeological research in Irian Jaya. Here the skills required for undertaking extraction activities (and the corresponding rituals) were complex and were passed on within groups of specialists (Petrequin and Petrequin 2002, 370).

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Gargano flint mines / UISPP 2011

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