From Chiron to Foaly: the Centaur in Classical Mythology

and Children’s Literature1

Lisa Maurice

The figure of the centaur is a well-known, yet

ambiguous, character in classical mythology that, even in

the ancient world, represented the union of human and

animal in both a positive and negative light. These

different traditions associated with centaurs have

filtered through to the portrayal of centaurs in fantasy

literature, where they feature regularly. In this paper

I outline the figure of the centaur in classical Greek

mythology, and then briefly consider its reception

through the medieval period to modern juvenile fantasy

literature in the writing of C. S. Lewis, J. K. Rowling,

Eoin Colfer, Rick Riordan, Diana Wynne Jones and Ellen

Jensen Abbot, contextualizing these receptions within the

framework of recent work in animal studies.

1. Centaurs in Classical Mythology

The Physical Appearance of the Centaur

1 I am very grateful to Brill’s anonymous reader for many helpful comments on this paper.

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With the exception of Chiron, who is depicted

wearing clothing, and with human legs with the

hindquarters of a horse attached to them,2 centaurs are

usually depicted with the torso of a human joined at the

waist to the horse’s withers, and unclothed, although

some early painted vases from Attica and Boeotia depict

them as naked versions of the Chiron model. The physical

difficulties of such a cross breed were not lost on the

ancients. Lucretius, for example, stated that centaurs

could not exist since humans and animals mature and

develop at different rates.3 Galen, too, explains at

length why centaurs were a physical impossibility.4 This

did not prevent their continuing popularity however as

the subject of art and literature throughout the Greco-

Roman world. But how were these creatures portrayed, and

what was their nature? In truth, the figure of the

centaur, even in the ancient world, represented the union

of human and animal in a very ambivalent way, for two

parallel traditions seem to have emerged, the first

2 See e.g. Musée du Louvre G3;ARV2, 11.53 no. 1, 1618; BAD 200435.3 Lucretius De Rerum Natura 5.878-91.4 Galen de Usu Partium 3.1-3 (3.168-184 K=1.123-134 Helmreich).

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concerning one particular centaur, Chiron, and the second

regarding the rest.

[PLACE ILLUSTRATION 1 HERE]

Caption: Vase depicting a clothed Chiron, togetherwith Achilles, sixth century BCE. Photocredits: photo © RMN-Grand Palais (musée duLouvre) / Hervé Lewandowski

Chiron

Chiron was markedly different to the rest of the

tribe of centaurs, not only in character, but also in

origin. Unlike the other centaurs, Chiron was immortal,

a son of Chronos and the nymph Philyra. According to one

version of the myth, Philyra turned herself into a mare

in an attempt to escape Chronos, but was thwarted when he

too turned himself into a stallion and fell upon her.5 An

alternative account omits the rape motif and presents

Philyra as a willing mate, explaining that the pair were

in the act of procreating when Rhea, the wife of

Chronos, appeared, and that Chronos transformed himself

into a horse to escape his wife’s notice. According to

both traditions, the result of this coupling between

5 Sch. Ap. Rh. 1.554.3

Kronos and Philyra was Chiron, a son who was half horse,

half man.6

The myth goes on to describe Philyra’s horror at

giving birth to such a creature, resulting in her own

abandonment of the child, and subsequent transformation

into a linden tree. This child, Chiron, was therefore

educated and cared for by Apollo and Artemis, from whom

he learnt the skills of prophecy, music, gymnastics,

medicine and hunting.7 With this expertise, he went on to

become an unparalleled healer, prophet and astrologer,

and thus the wise educator of heroes. In particular, he

is credited with knowledge, and even the invention of

medicine,8 going on to teach this aspect of his wisdom to

Asclepius.9 The ultimate educator, his other pupils

included Aristaeus,10 Ajax, Aeneas, Actaeon, Caeneus,

Oileus, Phoenix, Peleus, Telamon, Perseus, Theseus,

6 Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 8 – 9; Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 2. 1231-41 with Sch. Ap. Rh. Ibid.; Callimachus, Hymn 4 to Delos 104 ff; Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 138; Ovid, Metamorphoses 6. 126 ffand 7. 352 ff; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7. 197; Nonnus, Dionysiaca48. 77 ff  7 Xen. Cyneg.1; Philostr. Her. 9, Icon. 2. 2; Pind. Pyth. 9. 65.8 Aelian, On Animals 2. 18; Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 274; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7. 197 9 Homer, Iliad 4. 215 ff; Pindar Pythian ode 3.1 ff, 43, 61; Nemean Ode 3. 52; Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 118 – 122; Pseudo-Hyginus, Astronomica 2. 38; Ovid, Metamorphoses 2. 628 ff.10 Pindar, Pind. Pyth. 9. 26 ff and Apollonius' Argonautica (II.522ff),

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Achilles, Jason, Heracles and according to one late

tradition, even Dionysus.11 

Chiron is the only centaur to settle down, marry and

produce a family. He lived on Mount Pelion, where he

lived with his wife, the nymph Chariclo, who bore him

three daughters and a son.12 Although he was immortal,

Heracles arranged the exchange of Chiron's immortality

for the life of Prometheus in order to enable Chiron to

die and Prometheus to be freed. Chiron was then honoured

by being transformed into the constellation known to the

Greeks as Centaurus.

The Race of Centaurs

Chiron is as different from the other centaurs of

Greek mythology as it is possible for two physically

similar creations to be. In contrast to Chiron, the rest

of the race of centaurs were not descended, not from

Chronos, but from Ixion, one of the most evil villains of

classical mythology. Amongst his crimes was the attempted

11 See A.F. von Pauly, Real-encyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft (Stuttgart, 1890), "Chiron," col. 3, pp. 2303-712 Pinday, Pyth. 401-2; Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 4.812-3; Pseudo-Hyginus, Astronomica 2. 18; Ovid, Metamorphoses 2. 636

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rape of Hera after whom he lusted. It was not Hera

herself however upon whom he leapt, but Nephele, meaning

cloud, fashioned in the image of the queen of the gods.

From this union was created either the first centaur, a

monstrous cross breed, or Centaurus, a man who then mated

with a mare to become the father of the centaur race.

In keeping with their origins as a race founded by

Ixion who repeatedly opposes the civilised union of

marriage,13 centaurs in Greek mythology were portrayed as

savage, sexually lascivious and dangerous. This is

particularly clear in the most famous story featuring the

Centuars, namely the Centauromachy, the battle between

the Centaurs and the Lapiths. This took place when the

centaurs were invited to the wedding of Hippodamia

and Pirithous, king of the Lapiths, himself the son of

Ixion and therefore related to the centaurs themselves.

Unused to wine, the centaurs attempted to rape the bride

and other women there.

13 Even before the episode with Nephele, Ixion had married Dia (probably another variant of Hera herself), a daughter of Deioneus (or Eioneus) and promised his father-in-law a valuable present. He then however reneged on this agreement, leading Deioneus to steal some of Ixion's horses in retaliation. Ixion thus invited his father-in-law to a feast, but when the man arrived, Ixion pushed him into a bed of burning coals and wood, murdering him.  See Pindar, Pyth. 2.21 with scholia.

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Intoxication also features in the tales of one of

Heracles’ brush with the Centaurs. This involves Pholus,

the only other civilised centaur in Greek mythology, whom

Heracles visited during the course of his labours. When

Heracles drank from a jar of Pholus’ wine, however, the

other centaurs in the area smelled it and crazily

intoxicated, charged into Pholus’ cave and attacked

Heracles, who killed most of them and drove the rest

away.14

Heracles’ other encounter with a centaur, in this

case Nessus, also demonstrates the barbaric nature of the

tribe. Nessus lived by a river across which he acted as

a ferryman, a service of which Heracles took advantage

when he arrived there with his new bride, Deianeira.

While carrying Deianeira across the river, Nessus

attempted to rape her, causing Heracles to shoot him with

one of his poisoned arrows. As Nessus was dying, he told

Deianeira to collect his blood and semen, telling her

that they were a powerful love potion. It was this

14 According to tradition, it was at this point that they came into contact with Chiron who was then Chiron was accidentally wounded by Heracles’ arrows. Pholus also accidentally wounded himself with one of the venomous arrows and died while Heracles was pursuing the centaurs.

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liquid that later would kill Heracles.15 The picture of

Nessus from this tale, as a bestial, violent, lustful

creature, with the power to destroy even the greatest

hero, reflects the savagery of the centaur as he is

traditionally depicted in classical myth.

All of these myths depict centaurs in a similar way;

as lustful, uncontrolled, uncivilised beasts, who are

easily corrupted by alcohol, and who know nothing of the

customs of civilised behaviour such as xenia, and

marriage. Living on the edges of society, they are more

animal than human in many ways. In Virgil’s Aeneid,

centaurs are found at the entrance to the underworld,

along with a host of other monsters (Scylla, Briareus,

the Lernean Hydra, the Chimaera, Gorgons, Harpies, and

Geryon), placing them firmly in this category.16 As such

they are at wild odds with Chiron, and presumably the two

mythological strands originally developed from entirely

independent sources.

2. The Centaur Between the Ancient World and the Modern

15 Ovid, Metamorphoses 9.95-135.16 Virgil, Aeneid 6.285-88.

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Classical mythology passed into the medieval period

through the texts that continued to be read and studied,

and through new works that employed mythology, albeit now

often from a different perspective than in the earlier

pagan times. Prominent among these latter is Dante’s

Divina Commedia. In Dante’s Inferno, as in Virgil’s Aeneid,

centaurs feature as fearsome creatures of the underworld,

who appear alongside the Minotaur and Geryon, both also

mixed species. Like the Minotaur, they are half man,

half beast; but, unlike him, the human half, the head is

uppermost. The centaurs in Dante’s Divine Comedy are the

guardians of the first ring of the seventh circle, the

river of blood which in which those who harmed others

through violence are boiled at varying depths. Armed with

bows and arrows, thousands of centaurs patrol the bank of

the river, shooting arrows into any sinners who emerge

higher out of the river than each is allowed (Inf. 12.73-

5). The reason centaurs are chosen to guard those who are

violent, apart from their own bestial and violent aspect,

is surely the dichotomy between their lower, animalistic

halves and their upper, rational, human halves, which

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symbolise physically the two elements within these humans

who, with their violent behaviour, allowed the animal-

like tendencies to conquer the human.17

Three centaurs who approach Dante and Virgil are

mentioned by name; Pholus, whom Dante describes as "full

of fury" (Inf. 12.72), Nessus, who maintains his role as

ferryman and carries Dante across the river18, and Chiron,

the leader of the centaurs.  Again Chiron seems different

from the other centaurs, in that he is their leader and

spokesman, and marked out as such by Virgil. Although

Nessus calls out to Dante and Virgil as they enter the

area, Virgil will speak only to Chiron, whom he describes

as “Chiron the Great”, the figure who brought up Achilles

(Inf. 12.70-1). Chiron is given more human mannerisms

than the other centaurs, described as parting his beard

with his arrow before talking, and his wisdom is stressed

(Inf. 12.75-99).19 Yet he is still a centaur, and thus

17 See Virginia Jewiss, “Monstrous Movements and metaphors in Dante’sDivine Comedy”, in Keala Jane Jewell, Monsters in the Italian Literary Imagination(Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press 2001) 182.18 Here Nessus transports Dante without attacking his passenger, but the episode with Deinara is hinted at ironically in his description as “faithful escort”.19 See H. David Brumble, Classical Myths and Legends in the Middle Ages and Renaissance: A Dictionary of Allegorical Meanings (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 1998) 72.

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associated with the violence of those sinners whom he

guards.

Dante was of course not the only source in which

centaurs are found in this period. Medieval

commentaries, and translations of the classical texts of

writers such as Virgil and Ovid, also appeared. Thus,

there is a commentary on most of the first half of

Virgil’s Aeneid attributed to the twelfth century poet and

philosopher Bernardus Silvestris.20 There are commentaries

on Ovid, such as the one by Pedro Sánchez de Viana from

the sixteenth century, and the one by George Sandys from

the seventeenth century. The sixteenth century Dutch

painter and poet, van Mander, included a translation of

parts of Ovid’s Metamorphoses in his Schilder-boeck, intended

to aid artists seeking mythological rather than religious

themes. Mythological handbooks also appeared; works such

as the Albricus Philosophus, (also known as de deorum

imaginibus libellus), Vederius's imagines deorum (ca. 1550),

Batman's Golden Booke of the Leaden Goddes (1577) and Bacon's de

sapientia veterum (1609), while the fourteenth century

20 This attribution is not uncontested however. See Julian Ward Jones, “The So-Called Silvestris Commentary on the Aeneid and Two Other Interpretations”, Speculum 64 (1989) 838-48

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Mythologiae by Natalis Comes, a ten volume work written

in Latin, first published in Venice in 1551, became the

standard source for mythology in later Renaissance Europe

and beyond. Alexander Ross’ Mystagogus Poeticus, or The Muses

Interpreter (1647) was a mythological dictionary that was

widely used in the schoolroom and was reissued six time

within three decades of its appearance.21

In all of these works, as in Dante, the centaur came

to symbolise the duality of human nature.22 Thus the

Silvestris commentary states on lines Virgil’s 285-286 of

the sixth book:

We read in fables that Ixion decided to sleepwith Juno and that she interposed a cloud,which, receiving Ixion’s seed, gave birth to thecentaurs, who were part men and part animals….[They are] called centaurs because they arepartly rational and partly vicious, that is theyare human in the forepart and bestial in thehindpart”23

Similarly van Mander explains,

The man who obeys reason is meant by thebridled horse…People who lead superficial livesare represented as half man and half horse…The

21 See Richard F. Hardin, “Ovid in Seventeenth-Century England”, Comparative Literature, 24. 1 (Winter, 1972) 49.22 See H. David Brumble, (1998) 66-7.23 Earl G. Schreiber and Thomas E. Maresca, Commentary on the first six books of Virgil's Aeneid by Bernardus Silverstris (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1979).

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licentious man is meant by the centaurs, for(says one) not every man is a man, for he whogives himself to vice is a horse-man.24

Other writers also highlight his connection between

the centaur and vice; in particular the centaurs’ horse

elements are associated with lust and violence. Thus the

Livre des Échecs Amoureux similarly states that the centaur is

“composed of two different forms, i.e., half-human,

insofar as he showed himself to be reasonable, and half-

horse, insofar as he showed himself to be lustful and

deceived by carnal delight, like an animal.”25 This

association is in part because of their ancestry from the

lustful Ixion. So Alexander Ross states, “Commonly as

the parents are, such be the children; Ixion himself was

given to leachery and so were the Centaurs, his children;

for which cause they were said to be half horses,

intimating their insatiable lust and proneness to

Venery.”26 He also states that ‘“Every regenerate man is

in a sort a centaur, to wit, a man in that part which is

regenerate and a beast in his unregenerate part…Where

24 Uvtbeeldinghen der Figuren, 114v, translation from Brumble (1998) 66.25 Translation Joan Jones, (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Nebraska, 1968) 522.26 Mystagogus Poeticus, 227.  

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things are not ruled by Laws, Order and Civility, but

carried headlong into violence & force, we may say that

there is a commonwealth of Centaurs.”27

Despite this association with vice, centaurs also

continued to fascinate. They were regarded as fantastic

creatures, especially in light of the medieval attraction

to exotic beasts, of which the centaur was believed to be

one example. The bestiary, the illustrated compendium of

animals, and birds, usually accompanied by a moral

lesson. became hugely popular, especially during the

twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and frequently featured

centaurs.28 Indeed, as the taste for the exotic and

fantastic grew, centaurs, like other unusual albeit less

legendary animals, appeared in a range of media and

genres. As Cuttler describes, “Centaurs often figured in

medieval legends. They appeared in representations of

Sagittarius in astrological scenes, on Romanesque

cloister capitals, on bronze doors and, most frequently,

in the calendars of books of hours”.29 From these sources,

27 Ibid 58.28 See e.g. Debra Hassig, ed. The Mark of the Beast: The Medieval Bestiary in Art, Life, and Literature. (London and NY: Routledge, 1999) 11-12.29 Charles D. Cuttler, “Exotics in Post-Medieval European Art: Giraffes and Centaurs”, Artibus et Historiae, 12. 23 (1991) 163.

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as well as through literature, the figure of the centaur

continued to be recognised throughout different periods

and places.

3. The Reception of the Centaur Figure in Juvenile

Fantasy Literature.

In the modern day, the centaur’s popularity has come

through to the world of fantasy literature, as centaurs

have featured in the writing of many of the mainstream

fantasists. Turning now to some of the most central of

these depictions, it will be clear that the centaurs of

modern juvenile fiction are related to, but have come a

long way from, their classical antecedents.

3.1. C. S. Lewis

One of the writers who influenced modern fantasy

literature most strongly was C. S. Lewis. His Narnia

series uses a whole range of mythological elements from a

mixture of traditions,30 and among other creatures,

centaurs are found, often listed along with unicorns,

satyrs and various animals such as eagles and deer.

30 See David C. Downing, Into the Wardrobe: C. S. Lewis and the Narnia Chronicles (San Francisco, CA: Wiley 2008) 109-110.

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These centaurs are strong warriors, fighting in every

major battle and war, always on the side of Aslan.

Physically they are impressive, with human bodies from

the abdomen up to the head, while the rest of their body

is that of a horse. Their size is notable with the

equine part described as resembling a huge English farm

horse, and the human part like giants.  Thus Roonwit is

described as “a great, golden bearded Centaur, with man's

sweat on his forehead and horse's sweat on his chestnut

flanks.”31 All centaurs, like Roonwit, seem to be

bearded. Regarding the centaur, Glenstorm, for instance,

we are told “His flanks were glossy chestnut and the

beard that covered his broad chest was golden red,”32

while the two centaurs who take Jill and Eustace to Cair

Paravel are described as “one with a black and one with a

golden beard flowing over their magnificent bare

chests.”33

Even more than their physically imposing appearance,

it is their nobility and esoteric knowledge that is most

notable. Glenstorm and his sons are described as “the

31 C.S. Lewis, The Last Battle, chapter 2.32 C.S. Lewis, Prince Caspian, chapter 6.33 C.S. Lewis, The Silver Chair, chapter 16.

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noblest creatures that Caspian had yet seen.”34 This is

because they have enormous power but also because they

are aloof and dignified; this distance is quite unnerving

(“Most remarkable people, but I can't say I feel quite at

home with them yet”, declares Cor35), and inspiring of awe

in men. In Prince Caspian, Trufflehunter declares that “No

one ever laughed at a Centaur,”36 while The Silver Chair states

again that “No one thinks a Centaur funny when he sees

it.” This is because “They are solemn, majestic people

…. not easily made either merry or angry; but their anger

is terrible as a tidal wave when it comes.” When they

take Jill and Eustace on their backs, it is a very great

honour, and they are “very polite in a grave, gracious,

grown-up kind of way.” 37

One of the reasons for this distance between mankind

and centaurs is the deep and secret knowledge they

possess. Glenstorm, for example, is “a prophet and a

star-gazer,” and indeed we are told that “a good many” of

the centaurs are prophets.38 Centaurs in general are

34 C.S. Lewis, Prince Caspian, chapter 6.35 C.S. Lewis, The Horse and His Boy, chapter 14.36 C.S. Lewis, Prince Caspian, chapter 13.37 C.S. Lewis, The Silver Chair, chapter 16.38 C.S. Lewis, Prince Caspian, chapter 6.

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“full of ancient wisdom which they learn from the stars,”

and they have knowledge of “the properties of herbs and

roots, the influences of the planets, the nine names of

Aslan with their meanings, and things of that sort.”

Presumably as a result of this knowledge, some are also

healers; a centaur named Cloudbirth is described as being

a famous healer. 39

Despite this majestic nature, the centaurs are also

presented amusingly as a result of the difficulties posed

by the physical composition of man and horse in one body.

Lewis writes:

A Centaur has a man-stomach and a horse stomach.And of course both want breakfast. So first of allhe has porridge and pavenders and kidneys and baconand omelette and cold ham and toast and marmaladeand coffee and beer. And after that he attends tothe horse part of himself by grazing for an hour orso and finishing up with a hot mash, some oats, anda bag of sugar. That's why it's such a seriousthing to ask a Centaur to stay for the week-end. Avery serious thing indeed.40

While this portrayal has been criticised by Peter

Dickinson for breaking the fantastic illusion, since he

believed that Lewis “undermines his whole world because

he is asking us to consider how a centaur actually

39 C.S. Lewis, The Silver Chair, chapter 16.40 Ibid.

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functions,”41 even Dickinson admits that the piece has

humour, surely one of the best features of successful

fantasy, and perhaps here providing a much needed light

relief in the context of Lewis’ such austere and noble

centaurs.

These centaurs then seem only distantly related to

their classical counterparts, with more of Chiron in them

than the wild, uncivilised beasts of ancient Greece. Yet

unlike Chiron, they are not teachers and are aloof,

stately and dignified, creatures on a higher plane

altogether. This depiction seems to be original to C. S.

Lewis, but has had a powerful influence on later fantasy

writers, and in particular on perhaps the most successful

author of this genre, J. K. Rowling.

3.2. J. K. Rowling

Centaurs, like many other fantastical creatures, feature

in the J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series. In her

Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, she writes regarding

centaurs:

The centaur has a human head, torso, and armsjoined to a horse’s body which may be any of

41 Peter Dickinson, “Fantasy: The Need for Realism”, Children's Literature inEducation 17.1.(1986) 40.

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several colours. Being intelligent and capable ofspeech, it should not strictly speaking be termeda beast, but by its own request it has beenclassified as such by the Ministry of Magic.

The centaur is forest-dwelling. Centaurs arebelieved to have originated in Greece, thoughthere are now centaur communities in many parts ofEurope. Wizarding authorities in each of thecountries where centaurs are found have allocatedareas where the centaurs will not be troubled byMuggles; however, centaurs stand in little need ofwizard protection, having their own means ofhiding from humans.

The ways of the centaur are shrouded in mystery.They are generally speaking as mistrustful ofwizards as they are of Muggles and indeed seem tomake little differentiation between us. They livein herds ranging in size from ten to fiftymembers. They are reputed to be well-versed inmagical healing, divination, archery, andastronomy.42

These centaurs then, like those of C. S. Lewis, have a

human upper body joined onto a horse’s back, and, again

like those in the Narnian world, they are creatures who

possess specialised knowledge of the stars, medicine and

especially prophecy. It is for this reason that Firenze

takes over as divination teacher at Hogwarts, and in his

first lesson, he explains this skill:

42 J. K. Rowling, Fantastic beasts and Where to Find Them (2001) 28. Quotes reproduced with kind permission of the author (Fantastic Beasts & Where to Find Them: Copyright  © J.K. Rowling 2001)

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“I know that you have learned the names of theplanets and their moons in Astronomy,” saidFirenze’s calm voice, “and that you have mappedthe stars’ progress through the heavens. Centaurshave unravelled the mysteries of these movementsover centuries. Our findings teach us that thefuture may be glimpsed in the sky above us…”43

In taking up this position as teacher, Firenze is very

much at odds with other centaurs, and indeed has been

portrayed as different in every centaur encounter before

this appearance. It is Firenze who saves Harry from

Quirrel/Voldemort when the young hero encounters him

drinking unicorn blood in the first book, chasing the

figure away and allowing Harry to ride on his back, to

the disgust of other centaurs, in particular Bane.

Prefiguring his later role as teacher, he also gives

hints to Harry of what is going on, and it is clear that

even at this early stage, Firenze has thrown in his lot

with the human world as the following speech indicates:

“Do you not see that unicorn?” Firenze bellowed atBane. “Do you not understand why it was killed? Orhave the planets not let you in on that secret? Iset myself against what is lurking in this forest,Bane, yes, with humans alongside me if I must.”44

43 J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (2003) chapter 27 (Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix: Copyright  © J.K. Rowling 2003).44 J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and The Philosopher’s Stone (1997) chapter 15(Harry Potter and The Philosopher’s Stone: Copyright  © J.K. Rowling 1997).

21

This is particularly striking since Rowling’s centaurs,

like those of Lewis, are usually aloof, choosing to avoid

both Muggles and wizards alike. At the very first

encounter with centaurs in the series, Hagrid tells Harry

and Hermione both of the wisdom of this race, and also of

their lack of interest in sharing with knowledge with

humans: “They're deep, mind, centaurs... they know

things... jus' don' let on much,” and grumbles, “ Never…

try an' get a straight answer out of a centaur. Ruddy

stargazers. Not interested in anythin' closer'n the

moon.”

It is because of this detached world view that

centaurs have chosen to be classed as beasts rather than

humans, not because they consider themselves as animals

but because they do not wish to be involved in worldly

affairs whose outcome they have already seen in the

stars, preferring to observe than to act.45 This is not

mere preference but part of their ethical code, as Bane

states: “We are sworn not to set ourselves against the

heavens. Have we not read what is to come in the

movements of the planets?” and continues “What is that to45 Ibid.

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do with us? Centaurs are concerned with what has been

foretold! It is not our business to run around like

donkeys after stray humans in our forest!”46

This deep knowledge of the world makes them

creatures that are dignified and garner respect. Centaurs

have a XXXX classification by the ministry of magic, not

as a result of aggression on their part but as indication

of the great respect with which they should be treated.47

This separation from humans is a matter of pride for the

centaurs; as Firenze tells his class, “Centaurs are not

the servants or playthings of humans.” By agreeing to

work for Dumbledore as teacher, Firenze indeed is

banished from the herd, who see this humbling of the

centaur in working for a man as “a betrayal of our

kind.”48 As with Lewis’s centaurs, allowing a human to

ride on his back is a demeaning act; as Bane accuses

Firenze in the first book. “ “Firenze!” Bane thundered.

“What are you doing? You have a human on your back! Have

you no shame? Are you a common mule?”49

46 Ibid.47 J. K. Rowling, Fantastic beasts and Where to Find Them, (2001) 28.48 J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, (2003) chapter 27,49 J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, (1997) chapter 15.

23

Despite this awe-inspiring nature, there is also a

rather more wild side to these creatures, as demonstrated

by their bestial side and by the fact that they live in

forests, away from the trappings of civilisation. The

introduction to Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them states

that:

“The centaurs’ habits are not humanlike; theylive in the wild, refuse clothing, prefer tolive apart from wizards and Muggles alike,and yet have intelligence equal to theirs.”

In the first book of the series, centaurs are described

as ‘creatures’ like the rest of the animals in the

Forbidden Forest, albeit the most intelligent of the

creatures. They are also savage in attack. When they

turn on Firenze for deciding to teach at the school, it

is only Hagrid’s intervention that stops the centaur

being kicked to death.50 After this interference, their

anger towards Hagrid is roused, and it is only the fact

that he is accompanied by children than prevents them

attacking him. When Harry and Hermione lead Umbridge

into the forest in order for her to be attacked by the

centaur horde, it is the intervention of Grawp the giant

50 J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, (2003) Chapter 30.24

that saves them from being attacked as well. Insulted by

the idea that they have been used by humans in any way,

they are on the verge of assaulting the pair:

“We are not all like the traitor Firenze,human girl!” shouted the grey centaur, tomore neighing roars of approval from hisfellows. “Perhaps you thought us prettytalking horses? We are an ancient people whowill not stand wizard invasions and insults!We do not recognize your laws, we do notacknowledge your superiority.”51

The nature of what such an attack is not made explicit,

but after Umbridge is carried off by them, she is rescued

by Dumbledore, and her condition afterwards is described

as follows:

Since she had returned to the castle she hadnot, as far as any of them knew, uttered asingle word. Nobody really knew what waswrong with her, either. Her usually neatmousy hair was very untidy and there werestill bits of twigs and leaves in it, butotherwise she seemed to be quite unscathed. “Madam Pomfrey says she’s just in shock,”whispered Hermione. “Sulking, more like,” said Ginny “Yeah, she shows signs of life if you dothis,” said Ron, and with his tongue he madesoft clip clopping noises. Umbridge sat boltupright, looking around wildly.52

51 Ibid. chapter 33.52 Ibid. chapter 38.

25

These reactions sound very much like those of post rape

trauma,53 and indeed this scene spawned vigorous internet

discussion and even fan fiction that assumed that what

had happened to Umbridge was a gang-rape by the massed

centaurs.54

This is surely notable for if it is the case that

the centaurs are conceived of gang-raping the teacher,

they are portrayed here as much closer to their

traditional depictions in classical mythology as all-male

uncivilised rapists and savage beasts. Similarly, the

portrayal of Firenze as different from the rest, a wise

teacher and prophet parallels the other classical

tradition of Chiron the centaur, although the name of

Firenze, also familiar as the home of Dante, is surely

inspired by echoes of the Inferno as well.55 It is surely

no coincidence that this double portrayal is found in the

53 See e.g. Cheryl A. Roberts, Coping with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Guidefor Families, (Jefferson, NC: McFarland 2003) 15-31.54 See e.g. http://www.dollymix.tv/2007/10/the_forgotten_rape_in_harry_po.html (accessed 24/09/13); http://www.quora.com/Harry-Potter-books-movies-and-creative-franchise/Was-Dolores-Umbridge-raped-by-centaurs (accessed 24/09/13); http://www.fanfiction.net/s/7104018/8/The-Prophecy (accessed 24/09/13).55 See Otta Wenskus, “Die so genannte Niedere Mythologie in Michael Hoffmans A Midsummer Night’s Dream und in Fantasyverfilmungen”, in Stefan Neuhaus, ed., Literatur im Film (Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2008) 254-61.

26

work of Rowling, who had classical training, and whose

works bear the constant reflection of this education.

While Rowling’s depiction of these creatures owes a great

deal to C. S. Lewis’ representation, the classical roots

may be seen here far more clearly than they can in the

Narnian centaurs.

3.3. Rick Riordan

Rick Riordan is perhaps the writer in whom the

classical roots can most clearly be seen. He features

the centaur Chiron himself, who is the actual centaur

trainer of heroes (or half-bloods as they are called)

from Greek mythology, who is still carrying out his work

in the twenty-first century by teaching the offspring of

the gods in their centre, Camp Half-Blood. Chiron had

first hidden his identity from Percy, appropriately

taking up the position of Latin teacher under the alias

“Mr. Brunner”, and hiding his true form by encasing his

equine lower half in a wheelchair. On Percy’s arrival at

Camp Half-Blood, he reveals himself as a centaur and

takes on his traditional role of educator and mentor of

27

demi-gods. Riordan describes Percy’s first sighting of

Chiron as a centaur as follows:

And then he did rise from his wheelchair. Butthere was something odd about the way he didit. His blanket fell away from his legs, butthe legs didn't move. His waist kept gettinglonger, rising above his belt. At first, Ithought he was wearing very long, white velvetunderwear, but as he kept rising out of thechair, taller than any man, I realized that thevelvet underwear wasn't underwear; it was thefront of an animal, muscle and sinew undercoarse white fur. And the wheelchair wasn't achair. It was some kind of container, anenormous box on wheels, and it must’ve beenmagic, because there's no way it could've heldall of him. A leg came out, long and knobby-kneed, with a huge polished hoof. Then anotherfront leg, then hindquarters, and then the boxwas empty, nothing but a metal shell with acouple of fake human legs attached. I stared atthe horse who had just sprung from thewheelchair: a huge white stallion. But whereits neck should be was the upper body of myLatin teacher, smoothly grafted to the horse'strunk.“What a relief,” the centaur said. “I'd beencooped up in there so long, my fetlocks hadfallen asleep.”56

[PLACE ILLUSTRATION 2 HERE]Caption: Screenshot of Chiron (Pierce Brosnan) and Percy(Logan Lerman) from Percy Jackson and the Lightning Thief (20thCentury Fox 2010), showing a classic depiction of the

56 Rick Riordan, Percy Jackson and the Olympians: The Lightning Thief (2005),chapter 5. From Percy Jackson & The Olympians, The Lightning Thief by RickRiordan. Copyright © 2005 by Rick Riordan. Reprinted by permissionof Disney • Hyperion Books, an imprint of Disney Book Group, LLC.All rights reserved.

28

centaur, albeit with differences from the description inthe books).

Certain elements are notable here. First of all the

centaur’s size; then the bestial appearance of the equine

elements – he has coarse white fur, his leg is long and

knobby-kneed, he is a white stallion, but he is also the

familiar Latin teacher and the contrast between the two

halves is comically underlined by Chiron’s own words,

that allow the fact of his speaking to grate against the

words as he refers to his own fetlocks, as if they were

legs. This attitude continues as Chiron gives Percy a

tour around the camp:

Once I got over the fact that my Latin teacherwas a horse, we had a nice tour, though I wascareful not to walk behind him. I'd donepooper-scooper patrol in the Macy'sThanksgiving Day Parade a few times, and, I'msorry, I did not trust Chiron's back end theway I trusted his front.57

After these quips based on the animalistic elements of

Chiron’s nature, a more serious perspective emerges as

Chiron explains his identity and purpose in life.

Admitting that he is “The Chiron from the stories? Trainer

of Hercules and all that?”, he explains, in an unusually57 Ibid. chapter 6.

29

clear deviation from Greek mythology, why he is still

alive:

“The truth is, I can't be dead. You see, eons agothe gods granted my wish. I could continue thework I loved. I could be a teacher of heroes aslong as humanity needed me. I gained much fromthat wish... and I gave up much. But I'm stillhere, so I can only assume I'm still needed.”

Thus, despite the change, Chiron’s character and role as

trainer of heroes endures, and he is both wise father-

figure to Percy and actual teacher, in charge of master’s

level archery and in overall charge of Camp Half-Blood.

Again, like in Greek mythology, Chiron is different

however from the other centaurs, of whom he says, “My

kinsmen are a wild and barbaric folk, I'm afraid. You

might encounter them in the wilderness, or at major

sporting events. But you won't see any here.” This

depiction of the other centaurs as rough and uncontrolled

is borne out by the second book of the series, when

Chiron appears with his kinsmen centaurs to rescue Percy

and his friends, but again there is a divergence between

the classical myth and the modern interpretation. Chiron

constantly refers to the other centaurs as his family,

although it is true that the difference between Chiron

30

and the others is stressed, with the other centaurs

consistently described as ‘party ponies’.

Chiron was among the crowd, but his relativeswere almost nothing like him. There werecentaurs with black Arabian stallion bodies,others with gold palomino coats, others withorange-and-white spots like paint horses. Somewore brightly colored T-shirts with Day-Gloletters that said PARTY PONIES: SOUTHFLORIDACHAPTER. Some were armed with bows,some with baseball bats, some with paintballguns. One had his face painted like a Comanchewarrior and was waving a large orangeStyrofoam hand making a big Number I. Anotherwas bare-chested and painted entirely green. Athird had googly eye glasses with the eyeballsbouncing around on Slinky coils, and one ofthose baseball caps with soda-can-and-strawattachments on either side.58

A similar description is given in the last book of the

series, where again they regard a battle as a party,

dressed in tie-dyed shirts, rainbow Afro wigs, oversize

sunglasses, and with war-painted faces, while their

weapons are “ paintballs, arrows, swords, and NERF

baseball bats”.59

58 Rick Riordan, Percy Jackson and the Olympians: The Sea of Monsters (2006),chapter 18. From Percy Jackson & The Olympians, The Sea of Monsters by RickRiordan. Copyright © 2006 by Rick Riordan. Reprinted by permissionof Disney • Hyperion Books, an imprint of Disney Book Group, LLC.All rights reserved.59 Rick Riordan, Percy Jackson and the Olympians: The Last Olympian (2009)chapter 15.

31

Although there is something threatening in their

make-up - centaur blood is described as “like acid”, and

contact with it brings a hero out in hives that leaves

him or her bedridden for weeks – and their wildness is

emphasised here and later as well, it is not viciousness

that characterises them, but a love of fun and a high-

spirited craziness. Thus they are eager to meet Dionysus

because “they'd heard he threw some really wild parties.”

Not over-endowed with intelligence, they live in a

trailer park, and are irresponsible dare-devils rather

than the wild and uncivilised monsters of Greek myth,

charging at each other and knocking heads, before

staggering off in different directions “with crazy grins

on their faces”, causing Chiron to lament, “I really wish

my cousins wouldn't slam their heads together. They don't

have the brain cells to spare.”60

Clearly Riordan’s portrayal of centaurs owes much to

ancient myth in his depiction of Chiron as the wise

teacher and different from the other centaurs, but

overall the differences are less blatant than in the

60 Rick Riordan, Percy Jackson and the Olympians: The Sea of Monsters (2006)chapter 18.

32

original tales, and the creatures’ wild side has become a

rowdy love of parties rather than a tendency towards rape

and violence. The reason for this change is surely the

need to adapt the material for a juvenile audience, as

well as Riordan’s ever-present love of the comic and

absurd which permeates the books despite the action

adventure scenario.

3.4. Diana Wynne Jones

One of the most original treatment of centaurs can

be found in the ever innovative work of Diana Wynne

Jones. Centaurs feature most centrally in A Sudden Wild

Magic (1992) and Deep Secret (1997), both books marketed as

adult novels, but read widely by young adults as well.

The most detailed descriptions of centaurs are in Deep

Secret, a book dealing with the multiple worlds of what

Jones calls the multiverse, which is shaped like a figure

eight, containing Ayeward worlds in which magic features

openly and Naywards or magicless worlds. Control of the

magical status of these worlds is in the care of magids,

who try to urge the worlds in an Ayewards direction. In

Deep Secret, Rupert Venables, the Earth's junior Magid is

33

forced to search for a new heir to the Koryfonic Empire,

a collection of Ayewards worlds, after the assassination

of the previous emperor. He also has to find a new magid

for earth, after the death of the previous senior magid,

named Stan.

The action of the novel takes place on earth, in the

Koryfonic Empire and on another planet named Thule where

Rupert’s brother, Will, lives. Naturally as befits

worlds where magic flourishes, magical creatures,

including centaurs, exist in Ayewards worlds. Stan

explains:

“I started out my work as a Magid a long wayAyewards,” he murmured. His voice was gettingweaker.… “I chose it for the centaurs. I’dalways loved centaurs, always wanted to workwith them. And as soon as I learnt that morethan half the places Ayewards of here havecentaurs, off I went. I thought I’d never comeback here. Centaurs need a magical ambience tomaintain them – well, you know they do – andthey all died out here when we drifted offNaywards”.61

Physically these centaurs are very similar to those of

classical myth, although, unlike classical centaurs,

these creatures wear clothes on their top halves, Knarros

61 Diana Wynne Jones, Deep Secret (1997) chapter 1. Quotationsreproduced by kind permission of Diana Wynne Jones’ estate.

34

a grey vest and Rob, a shirt and medallion. They are

strong and possess two hearts, presumably a human one and

an equine one. Interestingly, the skin colour of their

human torso is the same colour as the skin under their

horse-coat, so that Knarros, whose equine half was dark

iron grey, also has a dark grey face, beard, hair and

arms. They are also very intelligent, as Stan comments.

“Smart people, centaurs. You should never forget that

even a stupid centaur has more brain than most humans,”

he explains.62

Despite this intelligence, and their physical

strength, centaurs are not power hungry, having no desire

to rule worlds. “It doesn’t strike them as sensible”

muses Stan, and the reason for this quickly becomes

apparent. “The strict ones would disapprove of him and

the others would laugh and call him mad. They’d only obey

him if he had their personal loyalty for family reasons,”

he explains. This is because although a centaur is

fiercely loyal, this loyalty is rather different from

62 Ibid. chapter 18.35

human loyalty, being bound up in complicated family

relationships.63

The centaurs view of honesty is also somewhat removed

from that of humans. Although they do not lie, they are

not necessarily honest and will adapt the truth if loyalty

demands so doing. Stan explains as he continues:

you’ll never get a centaur telling you a directlie, like saying black is white or anythinglike that. But they’re all of them quitecapable of bending the truth, if they see theneed. Like they’ll tell you two things thatdon’t go together and make it sound as if theydo – or they’ll add in a little word you don’tspecially notice, that makes what they reallysay into the exact opposite of what you thinkthey say.

Although centaurs may have different ideas about

some codes of behaviour, and despite the physical

differences, both man and centaur are really portrayed as

having very human reactions and behaviour. There are both

male and female centaurs and interspecies reproduction is

also allowed for, underlying the connection between the

two races, as Stan explains when asked about

interbreeding:

“That’s not thought terribly decent,” Stansaid, “but it can happen. You get physical

63 Ibid.36

problems with it, of course. Most crossbreedsdie stillborn, and you’d never get a humanmother getting that far with a centaur’s child.They mostly miscarry fairly early on. If they dogo to term, the foal’s too large, you see. Butthe other way round, human father, centaurmother: that does get to happen occasionally. Imet the odd one or two. They tend to be a bitsmall. And the thoroughbred centaurs arepainfully nice to them. Fall over backwards tomake clear it’s not the foal’s fault – youknow.”64

Diana Wynne Jones’ centaurs then, have progressed a long

way from the classical and post classical roots, and have

been given an entirely original twist, through which the

original sources are still visible. Nothing seems to

have permeated of the wild, uncivilised drunken rapist

centaur portrayal, but the Chiron tradition does lurk

behind the depiction in both Deep Secret and A Sudden Wild

Magic. The centaurian refusal to lie and sharp

intelligence are surely influenced by C. S. Lewis’

centaurs, but the classical Chiron’s wisdom and prophetic

power lie behind this portrayal as well. Although in

Deep Secret, the imperial heirs have been placed under the

guardianship of Knarros, he does not really seem to be

the traditional Chiron educator figure. It is for his

64 Ibid.37

centaur traits of loyalty to the true heirs, children of

his sisters, that he was entrusted with the guardianship

rather than from any pedagogical sense. Yet his role as

guardian of the young heirs is a typically Wynne Jonesian

twist on the figure of Chiron, whose shadow lurks behind

Knarros.

3.5. Eoin Colfer

Eoin Colfer’s Artemis Fowl series are a sophisticated

set of books in which the young Irish teenaged genius

criminal is first pitted against, and later in league

with, the world of the fairies, and in particular, one

representative of their race, Captain Holly Short, a

member of the Lower Elements Police Reconnaissance

division, or Leprecons for short, more familiarly known

as Leprechauns. In the fairy world of Colfer, fairies do

possess magic, but are also use highly sophisticated

technology, most of it developed by a centaur named

Foaly. Foaly is one of the most intelligent characters

in both the human and fairy worlds, and an inspired

inventor. He is also highly conceited and prone to

bragging and boasting, in particular delighting in

38

irritating the Police commander, Julius Root,. He

despises "grunt work”, i.e. any task that does not

involve his "genius mind" and which could be carried out

by ordinary creatures. A James Bond-style cantankerous

Q-substitute, this paranoid centaur in a tin-foil hat,

which he wears to keep his mind from being read, produces

an array of gadgets that are unsurpassed. He is

conceited, enjoying watching videos or reading articles

about himself, but is a good and loyal friend to Holly.

During the course of the series, he courts and marries a

female centaur, and fathers offspring.

Of centaurs in general in Colfer’s worldview, the

reader is told that centaurs are one of the eight fairy

families and that there are less of them than other fairy

species. Although the most intelligent of the fairy

races, they do not possess magic. Centaur culture also

allows male centaurs to have more than one wife,65

although some centaurs remain single or live monogamous

lifestyles. Like other centaurs, Colfer’s centaurs are

human in front and equine in back.

65 Eoin Colfer, Artemis Fowl and The Time Paradox, (2008) chapter 2.39

The fact that the centaurs are non-magical creatures

is interesting. The whole of Eoin Colfer’s philosophy of

magic is closely aligned to the position outlined by

Arthur C Clarke in his quote that “sufficiently advanced

technology is indistinguishable from magic.” In other

words, magic and technology function, in the same way,

and create the same impressions, in different worlds.

Thus Amie Doughty talks of a split pathway, with science

and technology dominating one path and with magic

dominating the other, and concludes that “though the

magic may have come from a different ‘path’, ultimately

it is treated like technology.”66 Foaly, as the only true

non magical creature in Colfer’s worlds, therefore has

replaced magic with technology; yet paradoxically he is

the creature who is physically the least human in many

ways, since he is half equine. Even creatures in

Colfer’s worlds such as trolls and goblins, who behave in

less human fashions, are physically akin to humans in a

way that the centaurs are not, a fact that helps keep the

66 Doughty, Amie A. “Just a Fairy, his Wits, and maybe a touch of Magic: Magic, Technology, and Self-Reliance in Contemporary Fantasy Fiction.” Children's Literature and Culture (2007) 55.

40

technological innovations firmly in the fairy, magical

realm rather than the human.

Colfer’s centaurs then seem barely influenced by

either classical mythology or C. S. Lewis. While the

centaurian intelligence may perhaps be rooted in Chiron’s

wisdom, it is only Foaly whom we know to be brilliant,

and his personality is in every way human, even if his

physical appearance is not. The use of the centaur motif

here seems purely in order to emphasise Foaly’s

uniqueness and difference within the series, and to

provide opportunity for humour on occasion.

3.6. Ellen Jensen Abbot’s Watersmeet

A more recent view of centaurs is found in Ellen

Jensen Abbot’s Watersmeet and its sequel The Centaur’s

Daughter. This is set in a fantasy world in which

"monsters"--centaurs, dwarves, fauns, and so on – are

hated by bigoted race-obsessed humans who have retreated

to within settlement walls, and a state of constant war

exists between the humans and other races. Hatred runs

just as hot within the human communities for those who

fall short of this culture's physical ideal for

41

humanity. An example of this is the heroine of the

novels, Abisina, who has been an outcast from birth

because of her dark hair and skin. Fleeing a savage

attack by her neighbours, Abisina sets out to find her

unknown father, who is in an unknown place named

Watersmeet. On her journey she has to learn to trust the

native “monster” peoples of these lands, and when she

finally meets her father, the leader of the united folk

of Watersmeet, it becomes apparent that he is not

entirely human himself, but a centaur able to change his

shape at will into that of a man. These books are teen

‘issues” novels, dealing with the subjects of racism,

prejudice, bigotry and identity, cloaked in a fantasy

guise, with a familiar plot of the outcast girl who is

compelled to go on a quest, is helped by magical

creatures, and discovers her father, a blessed land, and

hitherto unknown powers.

Abbot’s depiction of the centaurs in this fantasy

world reflects Abisina’s developing understanding. At

first they are portrayed purely as monsters, savage and

primitive, who take pride in biting off the toes of human

42

victims they manage to capture and wearing them as

jewellery. There is one particularly gruesome scene in

which Abisina is captured by a wild centaur herd and has

her own toes bitten off in gory detail.67 The humans are

no better however in this portrayal; as well as their

bigotry and fear and hatred filled creeds, they delight

in capturing centaur tails, which they nail to their

walls as victor prizes.

As the story progresses, however, it becomes clear

that centaurs (and other non-human species) are not

inherently evil. They have been driven to this behaviour

as a result of the warfare between the races, which was

primarily caused by the humans, although since then there

have been atrocities on both sides. Although Abisina,

traumatised by her abuse at the hands of the centaur

gang, is physically repulsed and terrified by the mere

sight of one of the creatures, it gradually emerges that

she is guilty of assuming that all centaurs are like

these wild beasts, and that this is as prejudiced and

wrong an assumption as the ones held about her by her

fellow villagers at the beginning of the novel. Her67 Ellen Jensen Abbot, Watersmeet, (2009) chapter 8.

43

father tries to explain this to her, saying that most

centaurs are nothing like those she encountered and

adding, “But, like any race, there are some who destroy

the good in themselves.”68

These centaurs can talk to deer and therefore will

not kill these animals (“it was barbaric to slay animals

you could communicate with”), and support each other

(“Centaurs always stand as one”),69 but really have very

few characteristics that are different from human ones,

apart from their physical shape. The only clear hint to

the classical tradition is that the leader of the centaur

band at Watersmeet is called Kyron, but he is in no way

the traditional teacher figure. Nor are the centaur herd

who capture Abisina, although they are fierce and savage,

the uncivilised barbarians of classical mythology,

seeming more like a mafia gang than the creatures who

fought the Lapiths. Indeed, since the whole message of

the book is that race does not determine good or evil, it

would be strange if centaurs as a race were intended to

be viewed in this way.

68 Ibid. chapter 14.69 Ibid. chapter 15.

44

The Centaur and Animal Studies

In considering the modern depictions of centaurs,

the recent work on animal studies can provide

enlightening perspectives. Animal studies considers

questions both of the nature of literal animals, and of

ideas of ‘animality’ or ‘brutality’. This approach

utilises a range of theoretical perspectives,

including feminism, marxist theory, and queer theory, all

of which emphasise a perspective of ‘otherness’, applying

this to animals and humans, who are considered to be

another form of animal. Political and social contexts

have led to the rise of interest in questions of animal

welfare and ecology, both of which have contributed to

animal studies. In particular, this research considers

how the characterization of humanity in relation to

(other) animals, and the portrayal of animals themselves,

reflect attitudes towards, and comprehension of, other

species. 70 As Walter Hogan points out, the emergence of70 There is a vast bibliography on animal studies, but for some good overviews see e.g. Elisa Aaltola, “The Philosophy behind the Movement: Animal Studies versus Animal Rights”, Society & Animals 19.4 (2011) 393-406; Paul Waldau, Animal Studies: An Introduction. (Oxford and NY: Oxford University Press, 2013).; Margo DeMello, Introduction to Human-Animal Studies (NY: Columbia University Press, 2013); Dawne

45

the animal rights movement, and that of young adult

fiction as a genre, were contemporaneous, and this is far

from a coincidence, since many of the same social forces

were behind the recognition of animals and of adolescents

as social groupings with rights and needs.71 Thus this

common root makes animal studies a fruitful tool with

which to examine juvenile and young adult literature.

Animal studies pays close attention to

anthropomorphic depictions of animals.72 Talking animals,

which feature prominently in children’s literature, are

both anthropomorphic and non-anthropomorphicat the same

time. Animals are often used in adult literature as an

analogy for social hierarchy, but in juvenile books the

hierarchy can be upset, since the relative positions of

adult and animal are not the same as those of animal and

child, whose own place is lower down the social scale.

The employment of animals, and in particular talking

animals, can therefore be subversive, allowing issues

such as gender and power relations to be explored

McCance, Critical Animal Studies: An Introduction (NY: SUNY Press, 2013). 71 Walter Hogan, Animals in Young Adult Fiction (Lanham, ML: Scarecrow Press,2009) 1.72 Marc Bekoff and Carron A. Meaney, Encyclopedia of Animal Rights and Animal Welfare (London and NY: Routledge, 1998) 446.

46

obliquely.73 The centaur, as a hybrid of human and animal,

is perhaps the most developed form of talking animal, and

as such reflects authors’ perceptions of animals, humans

and their respective roles.

C. S. Lewis’ centaurs are influenced by his attitude

to animals. It is clear from his earliest writings that

Lewis was very fond of animals. Believing in a hierarchy

whereby the world was structured in progressive order

from plants, the 'lowest' form of life, to animals,

humans, angels and finally God, he felt that animals were

below humankind in the hierarchy but that animals

themselves were not all on the same level, arguing that,

“the higher animals have nervous systems very like our

own.”74 Nevertheless, Lewis felt that animals were

sentient members of the structure of life, and as such,

he was opposed to vivisection and animal experimentation,

seeing both as cruel practices, and, in a 1947 essay,

comparing those who carried them out to Nazis, a

73 See Tess Cosslett, Talking Animals in British Children’s Fiction, 1786-1914 (Aldershot and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2006) 1-4.74 C.S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain. (London: The Centenary Press, 1940) chapter 9.

47

statement that carried great impact only two years after

the liberation of the concentration camps.

It was not only mankind’s abuse of animals that

Lewis found to be vicious however; he regarded nature

itself as cruel; in the world of vegetation, the

competition for light and nutrients led to some plants

dying, while in the animal world, creatures attacked and

killed each other. The questions of why this seeming

harshness existed, and why animals suffered, caused him

theological concerns, which he addressed in a chapter

of The Problem of Pain.75 While he was convinced that adult

suffering was a result of sin, the same could not be

argued for animals. Lewis’ solution was to decide that

as a result of Satan’s influence and the Fall from Grace,

humans had dropped to an animal-like state of being,

while animals had fallen closer to that of vegetables.

If an animal was tamed by a human, however, in keeping

with biblical verses that gave man dominion over other

species, animals reverted to their true natures, becoming

more themselves. This is analogous with a Christian’s

75 Ibid.48

acceptance of Jesus, which made him more like Christ

himself, and on a higher plane than non-believers.

If these ideas are applied to Narnia, the depiction

of both talking animals and centaurs can be understood

with deeper clarity. The talking animals who have

accepted Aslan are more like the idealised ‘tamed’

animals of Lewis’ theology, while the centaur, as the

creature who is both human and animal, is on a higher

level than these animals. Their dignity, deep knowledge

and wisdom, which sets them apart from both animal and

man, is a result of this elevated position, for they may

perhaps have achieved both perfection of both animal and

human natures, and harmony between the two.

J.K Rowling’s centaurs, as already noted, owe

something to the Lewis in their knowledge of the

esoteric, but her very different world view has led to an

altered presentation. Rowling’s world is both strongly

hierarchical and divided by species.76 Wizards, Muggles,

Squibs, house elves, goblins, gnomes, giants,

76 See e.g. Farah Mendelsohn, “Crowning the King: Harry Potter and theConstruction of Authority”, in Lana A. Whited, The Ivory Tower and Harry Potter: Perspectives on a Literary Phenomenon (Columbia, MI: University of Missouri Press, 2002) 159-181.

49

leprechauns, Veela and of course centaurs, all have their

clearly defined place, and the wizard is firmly at the

top of the pyramid. Indeed, Amy Green has argued that

Rowling presents a colonialist depiction of the world, in

which the wizard is “steward of the inferior races who

cannot take care of themselves”, and where slavery is

institutionalized (in the form of the house elves).77 In

the world of Harry Potter, human-animal hybrids are very

rare,78 and this is natural, for such creatures do not fit

easily into structured world depicted, in which animals

are animals and humans far removed from them.79 The only

other example of a human-animal hybrid is the werewolf,

epitomized by Remus Lupin, and in this case, when the

transformation takes place, the human becomes completely

animal, and a danger to mankind. The other werewolf in

the series, Fenrir Greyback, is human in shape at all

77 Amy M. Green, “Revealing Discrimination: Social Hierarchy and the Exclusion/Enslavement of the Other in the Harry Potter Novels”, The Looking Glass : New Perspectives on Children's Literature,  13. 3 (2009) (http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/ojs/index.php/tlg/article/view/162/161) (accessed 12/12/2014)..78 Mermen and Mermaids also appear but far more briefly than the centaurs.79 It is true that animagi exist, but these are portrayed as remaininghuman in mind, even when transformed into animal shape, although theymay exhibit animal-like behaviour while in such form (Sirius for example is described as eating rats while in canine mode in Harry Potterand the Goblet of Fire, chapter 27).

50

times, but behaves like an animal who delights in

killing and attacking humans, particularly young girls.

Even Bill Weasley, after his attack by Greyback, has a

fondness for blood rare meat, indicating that an animal

element has entered his being. It seems that the two

elements, human and wolf, cannot exist comfortably

together in one creature.

The centaurs are much more of a true hybrid, a

combination of both animal and human, yet the two

elements of their make-up are also clearly

differentiated. While the human, intelligent part of the

centaur enables him to communicate and to take a place in

the wizarding world, the wild, dangerous, animalistic

element is also always there, as the attack on Umbridge

reflects. Marginalised and living in the wild, possibly

as a result of wizard oppression, centaurs can represent

“spirits or nature and helper figures”,80 but they also

cut themselves off from the world. It is striking that

Firenze is marked out and depicted as a ‘good’ centaur,

because he goes against this and allies himself with the

80 Anne Hiebert Alton, “Generic Fusion and the Mosaic of Harry Potter”in Elizabeth E. Heilman, ed. Critical Perspectives on Harry Potter. (NY and London: Routledge, 2003) 157.

51

human wizard society. This depiction reflects Rowling’s

underlying approach, described by Green as colonialist,

in which narcissism and acceptance underlie the oppressed

peoples’ attitudes towards their oppressors.

Rick Riordan’s portrayal of centaurs, like Lewis’

and Rowling’s, should be seen against the background of a

wider perspective of the author’s aims and perceptions of

the world. Duality is at the heart of Riordan’s writing.

Conflict between two generations is central to the Percy

Jackson plots, while on another level his work also

attempts to bridge the gap between the expectations of

his young readers and their parents. As Claudia Nelson

and Anne Morey highlight, Riordan simultaneously appeals

to the tastes of young readers, with his humour and

lowbrow language, and to adults, through his use of Greek

myths portrayed as valuable cultural capital.81 This

“multivocality of the child-oriented series and the

adult-oriented paratext” enables the text to work on

different levels simultaneously, and reflects a

81 Claudia Nelson and Anne Morey, “ ‘A God Buys Us Cheeseburgers”: Rick Riordan’s Percy Jackson Series and Education’s Culture Wars”, inOwen Hodkinson and Helen Lovatt, Changing the Greeks and Romans: Metamorphosing Antiquity for Children. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015).

52

reconciliation between conflicting views of the ancient

world as old-fashioned, boring, elitist and highbrow and

yet at the same time mythical, exciting and culturally

pivotal.

This complex attitude towards the ancient world is

reflected in Riordan’s portrayal of centaurs, who not

only stem from differing ancient traditions, but also

represent the two different elements in their make-up,

the animal and the human. To Riordan, the animal is

uncivilised, wild and lacking in culture, while the human

represents the opposite. While both Chiron and the other

centaurs are a combination of man and horse, in Chiron

the human element is firmly in control of the equine,

while in the case of the other centaurs, the animalistic

is dominant, and the human aspect becomes an uncultured

red-neck inhabitant of a trailer park.

Diana Wynne Jones’ centaurs, as already noted, seem

much more human, a fact which is unsurprising when

considering this author’s world view and approach to

fantasy. The representation of fantastic creatures is

part of Jones’ manipulation and subverting of traditional

53

fantasy. While her work is bursting with elements of,

and references to, earlier mythic traditions, including

the Classical,82 she never merely inserts these traditions

into her books unaltered. She herself explained the

reasons for this:

“For one thing, the immense and meaningful weight ofall myths and most folktales could drag a morefragile, modern story out of shape; for another, Ido not find I use these things. They presentthemselves, either for inclusion or as underlay ,when the need arises”.83

As Farah Mendlesohn points out, Jones’ speciality is

liminality, and the liminal figure of the centaur is

therefore ideally suited to her creativity. In her

manipulations of myth and fantasy, Jones created works in

which the mundane, real world is imbued with the

fantastical,84 and the fantastic carries echoes of the

real world. Her centaurs, like her griffins in the Dark

Lord of Derkholm and The Year of the Giffin seem completely human,

82 See e.g. Sharon M. Scapple, “Transformation of Myth in A Tale of Time City”, in Teya Rosenberg, Martha P. Hixon, Sharon M. Scapple, and Donna R. White, eds. Diana Wynne Jones: An Exciting and Exacting Wisdom. Studies in Children's Literature 1. (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2002) 117-124.83 Diana Wynne Jones, Reflections: On the Magic of Writing. (Harper Collins: Kindle Edition, 2012-09-25) (Kindle Locations 1941-1943).84 Farah Mendlesohn, Diana Wynne Jones: The Fantastic Tradition and Children's Literature: The Fantastic Tradition and Children's Literature (Children's Literature and Culture). (London and NY: Routledge, 2005) 135-6.

54

albeit with physical animal characteristics. Her

characters are so well-developed that each individual

centaur or griffin is a personality, whose physical

nature is an element of the whole in the same way that a

human’s hair colour or size might be, rather than the

defining characteristic. Mendlesohn stresses that “when

Jones's characters develop magic it is as a vital aspect

of who they are, but it does not usually serve as a

shorthand description of their personalities”,85 and the

same may be said for the use of fantastical species.

While centaurs as a race may have certain characteristics

that are common to all, this does not detract from their

personalities, which are indistinguishable from mankind.

Such an attitude derives partly from Jones’ views on

ecology and man’s place within the world. Several of her

books reflect her concern for these issues. The Dark Lord of

Derkholm, for example, a book which parodies the fantasy

genre, for all its satire nevertheless features an evil

businessman who is draining the magical world of its

natural resources. Hexwood has the Earth being mined

for flint, the most precious substance in the galactic85 Ibid. 23.

55

empire. A Sudden Wild Magic and the Merlin Conspiracy both feature

global warming.86 That she was an animal lover is also

reflected in her inclusion of creatures in her books, but

again, each animal has a distinct and developed

personality. The cats Throgmorton, Benvenuto and Plug-

Ugly, as well as Mini the elephant,87 for example, are all

characters as elaborate as any human; the hybrid

creatures, the griffins and the centaurs, are even less

distinguishable from humans, and indeed share the

physical space of the world in which the book is set, be

it Earth or elsewhere, with mankind. Animals, humans and

anything in between are all treated as equals.88

Jones also subverts modern fantasy conventions on

occasion through her attitude towards science, in that

science rather than magic is sometimes presented as

explaining events.89 It is Eoin Colfer who develops this

fully however, particularly in his portrayal of the

86 Charles Butler, Four British Fantasists: Place and Culture in the Children’s Fantasies of Penelope Lively, Alan Garner, Diana Wynne Jones, and Susan Cooper. (Lanham, ML: Scarecrow Press, 2006) 127.87 From The Lives of Christopher Chant, The Magicians of Caprona and The Merlin Conspiracy respectively.88 As Mendlesohn (ibid. 13) points out with regard to Wilkin’s Tooth,“Friendship to the animal–familiar world is crucial in fairy tales,and the children must treat the cat as an equal, talk to it, andassume it understands the hint about Puss in Boots”.89 See The Crown of Dalemark, together with Mendlesohn ibid. 130.

56

centaur Foaly. Humans in the Artemis Fowl books are

regarded with disfavour, for it is their destruction and

pollution of the natural world through industrialisation

that has caused the fairy community into hiding deep in

the earth. Mankind are destructive creatures, unlike

fairies, who hesitate to harm even predators such as

trolls and humans. The natural world, with which the

fairies are aligned, is therefore depicted as wholesome

and ideal, but under attack from human industrialisation

and destruction.

It might be thought that as semi-animal, and

therefore aligned with the natural world, the figure of

Foaly would be depicted animalistically, but that is not

the case; magic in Colfer’s world, as already outlined,

is closely connected to technology. Foaly, the non-

magical creature and technological genius, is possessed

of abilities that surpass even magic, and the fact that

he is a hybrid human-animal is interesting from this

regard. By making Foaly a creature without magical

powers, but with huge technological ability, Colfer is in

effect moving him as far away from an animal as it is

57

possible to be. Non-human animals are traditionally

regarded as unconnected to technology; the ability to use

create and use tools is one of the things that separates

human from beast. Indeed, as critical animal studies

examine, animals themselves, particularly in agriculture,

are categorised in many cases as mere machines as a

result of human exploitation and technologies.90 Few

animals have played so central a role in such

technologies as the horse, employed as transport for

humans, war machine, and agricultural tool, among other

uses. Modern research reveals growing awareness of

animals’ ability to use technology, as projects such as

the Animal Computer Interaction Lab at The Open

University reflect.91 The depiction of Foaly as a master

of, rather than a tool of technology, inverts

expectations of what a (half) equine animal can do, which

in turn leads to questions about the role of both animal

and human in the world. Just as the portrayal of the

young master criminal Artemis Fowl subverts expectations

with regard to child and adult roles, so the creation of

90 See e.g. Glen A. Mazis, Humans, Animals, Machines: Blurring Boundaries. (NY:SUNY Press, 2008) 1-19.91 http://www.open.ac.uk/blogs/ACI/ (accessed 22/12/14)

58

Foaly blurs the boundaries between the animal world and

the human through the use of the figure of the centaur.

If the bestial elements of centaurs are absent in

the world of Colfer, they are notably present in that of

Ellen Jensen Abbot. Although the Watersmeet books preach

a message of racial tolerance, and, as argued above,

stress that centaurs are no more inherently evil than any

other group, nevertheless the graphic descriptions of the

more savage tribes of centaurs reflect a sense of

horrifying bestiality. Abisina begins by hating all

centaurs, and this seems to be borne out by the evidence

when centaurs are first encountered in the books. Yet

she herself, as a descendant of both centaur and human,

is in a sense a hybrid herself, just as true centaurs

are. As the works progress, it becomes clear that

bestiality is not the province of animals, nor virtue

that of humans. This is symbolised both by Abisina

herself, and by her father who can actually change his

shape from human to centaur and back again, at will.

According to this philosophy, animals and humans are on a

par, and all races contain members who are noble and

59

those who are evil. Such an equivalence epitomises

postmodern views of the world in general, and animals in

particular, and the centaurs in this case, who appear

partly animalistic in shape, and revealed to be no

different from those in human form.

From Chiron to Foaly: The Transformation of the Centaur

It is clear that the roots of classical myth can

often be glimpsed behind the centaurs of modern juvenile

fantasy novels. Modern centaurs are often heavily

influenced by the classical depictions of Chiron and are

depicted as wise and highly intelligent beings, while

others are more like the bestial rapists of the

centauromachy. Each author however uses the figure of

the centaurs in order to reflect deeper ideas, exploiting

the liminal nature of these creatures, who are set apart

from others, both in the human world and not in it.

Such ideas reflect developments of deeper ideas about the

role and nature of non-human animals in the world, which

the centaur is ideally formed to highlight. As the

fantasy genre for children has developed, during a period

60

in which the roles of children, adults and animals have

all been questioned, the centaur has proved a useful

foil, cantering in the end a long way from his original

roots in ancient Greece.

Index

Abbot, Ellen Jensen, 1, 26–28, 36animal studies, 28–37anthropomorphism, 29Artemis Fowl. See Colfer, Eoin, See Colfer, Eoinbestiary, 9Centauromachy, 4centaurs, 1–39as hybrid, 29, 31, 32, 35, 36, 37bestial nature, 8–9bestiality, 4, 5, 6, 8, 15, 16, 19, 26, 27, 36, 37esoteric knowledge, 3, 10, 11, 13, 14, 30, 31in classical myth, 1–5in Diana Wynne Jones, 21–23in Ellen Jensen Abbot, 26–28in Eoin Colfer, 24–25in J. K. Rowling, 12–17in Rick Riordan, 17–21medieval, 6–9

Chiron, 1, 2–3, 5, 6, 12, 17, 19, 20, 23, 25, 33, 37Colfer, Eoin, 1, 24–25, 35use of technology, 36

Dante, 6–7, 8, 17Deep Secret. See Jones, Diana Wynneecology, 28, 34Firenze, 13–17, 32Foaly, 1, 24, 25, 35, 37Galen, 2Harry Potter. See Rowling, J. K.Heracles, 3, 4–5Ixion, 4, 8Jones, Diana Wynne, 1, 21–23, 33–35Lewis, C. S., 1, 10, 12, 13, 17, 23, 25, 29

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attitude to animals, 29–30Christianity, 30

liminality, 34Narnia. See Lewis, C. S.Nessus, 5, 6Riordan, Rick, 1, 17–21, 32Rowling, J. K., 1, 12–17, 31–32

Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, 12, 15hierarchical society, 31

Talking animals. See anthropomorphism

62