Forests near and far: an anthracological perspective on Ebla.

EBLA AND ITS LANDSCAPEEarly State Formation in the Ancient Near East

Edited byPaolo Matthiae and Nicolò Marchetti

Walnut Creek, California

LEFT COAST PRESS, INC.1630 North Main Street, #400Walnut Creek, CA 94596http://www.LCoastPress.com

Copyright © 2013 by Left Coast Press, Inc.

Editorial Staff

Frances Pinnock (head), Marta D'Andrea, Maria Gabriella Micale, Sara Pizzimenti, Agnese Vacca

The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme, Ideas, under grant agreement no. 249394, project "EBLA CHORA - The early state and its chora. Towns, villages and landscape at Ebla in Syria during the 3rd Millennium b.c."

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by anymeans, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,without the prior permission of the publisher.Illustrations, if not otherwise credited, are copyrighted to the Ebla Chora Projectand require due credit as such if reproduced in any form.

ISBN 978-1-61132-228-6 hardcover

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ebla and its landscape : early state formation in the ancient Near East / edited by Paolo Matthiae and Nicolò Marchetti.pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-61132-228-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-61132-230-9 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-61132-674-1 (consumer ebook)

1. Ebla (Extinct city)—Antiquities. 2. Ebla (Extinct city))—Politics and government. 3. Landscape archaeology)—Syria-Ebla (Extinct city) 4. Social archaeology)—Syria-Ebla (Extinct city) 5. City and town life)—Syria-Ebla (Extinct city) 6. Excavations (Archaeology))—Syria-Ebla (Extinct city) 7. Material culture )— Syria-Ebla (Extinct city) 8. Geomorphology)—Syria-Ebla (Extinct city) 9. Plant remains (Archaeology))—Syria-Ebla (Extinct city) 10. Animal remains (Archaeology)—Syria-Ebla (Extinct city) I. Matthiae, Paolo. II. Marchetti, Nicolò, 1968-

DS99.E25E27 2013

939.4'33—dc23

2013000596

Printed in the United States of America

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of AmericanNational Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library

Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

INTRODUCTION. Representing the Chora of Ebla

P. Matthiae and N. Marchetti. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

PART 1. TOWN ARCHAEOLOGY

CHAPTER 1. A Long Journey. Fifty Years of Research on the Bronze Age at Tell Mardikh/Ebla

P. Matthiae. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

CHAPTER 2. The Royal Palace. Functions of the Quarters and the Government of the Chora

P. Matthiae. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

CHAPTER 3. Palace vs. Common Glyptic in Early Syrian Ebla and Its Territory

F. Pinnock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

CHAPTER 4. Popular Iconographies in a Courtly Environment. Clay Figurines from Royal Palace G and the Coroplastic of Inner Syria during EB IVA

L. Peyronel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

CHAPTER 5. Centralization and Redistribution. The Pottery Assemblage of Royal Palace G

S. Mazzoni. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89

CHAPTER 6. Form and Content. A Preliminary Functional Interpretation of the Storage Jars from Royal Palace G

M. D'Andrea and A. Vacca. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111

CHAPTER 7. Working for the Elites. The Pottery Assemblage of Building P4

N. Marchetti. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

PART 2. REGIONAL ARCHAEOLOGY

CHAPTER 8. Exploiting Diversity. The Archaeological Landscape of the Eblaite Chora

S. Mantellini, M.G. Micale, and L. Peyronel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163

CHAPTER 9. Trends in Village Life. The Early Bronze Age Phases at Tell Tuqan

F. Baffi and L. Peyronel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

CHAPTER 10. Assembling the Evidence. Excavated Sites Dating from the Early Bronze Age in and around the Chora of Ebla

E. Ascalone and M. D'Andrea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215

CHAPTER 11. Regional Approach and Archaeological Surveys in Northern Syria. An Overview

S. Mantellini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238

PART 3. TEXTUAL EVIDENCE

CHAPTER 12. Defining the Chora of Ebla. A Textual Perspective

M.G. Biga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259

CHAPTER 13. Distribution and Exchange of Goods in the Chora of Ebla

G. Ferrero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268

CHAPTER 14. Of Plants and Trees. Crops and Vegetable Resources at Ebla

G. Marchesi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274

PART 4. GEOMORPHOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING

CHAPTER 15. A Land in Its Setting. Remote Sensing Satellite Imagery for the Characterization of the Eblaite Chora

G. Bitelli, E. Mandanici and L. Vittuari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295

CHAPTER 16. Analysis of CORONA Imagery of the Ebla Region

N. Galiatsatos and S. Mantellini. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302

CHAPTER 17. From Wetland to Desert. A Geomorphologic Approach to the Eblaite Chora

V. Cantelli, V.M.L. Martina and L. Picotti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

CHAPTER 18. A Thin Basis. The Soil Landscape of Ebla and Tell Tuqan

A. Arnoldus-Huyzendveld. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324

CHAPTER 19. Modern Agriculture in the Ebla Region

P. Rossi Pisa, F. Ventura and M. Vignudelli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 334

PART 5. ARCHAEOMETRY AND BIOARCHAEOLOGY

CHAPTER 20. Archaeometrical Analysis of Metal Objects from Royal Palace G

A.C. Felici and M. Vendittelli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

CHAPTER 21. Archaeometrical Analysis of Pottery Production at EB III-IVA Ebla and Tell Tuqan

M.L. Santarelli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

CHAPTER 22. Archaeometrical Analysis of Architectural Components of Royal Palace G

M.L. Santarelli and G. Spreafico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .367

CHAPTER 23. Consuming Plants. Archaeobotanical Samples from Royal Palace G and Building P4

C. Wachter-Sarkady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376

CHAPTER 24. Forests Near and Far. An Anthracological Perspective on Ebla V. Caracuta and G. Fiorentino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

CHAPTER 25. Exploiting Animals. The Zooarchaeological Evidence through the Early Bronze Age at Ebla C. Minniti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

CHAPTER 26. Natural Resources, Technology and Manufacture Processes at Ebla. A Preliminary Assessment L. Peyronel and A. Vacca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

CHAPTER 27. Just at that Time. 14C Determinations and Analysis from EB IVA Layers

L. Calcagnile, G. Quarta, and M. D'Elia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

CONCLUSIONS. In Search of an Explanatory Model for the Early Syrian State of Ebla P. Matthiae and N. Marchetti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .459

ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .519

ABOUT THE AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

COLOUR PLATES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

Chapter 24

Forests Near aNd Far an anthracological Perspective on ebla

V. Caracuta and G. Fiorentino

1. introduction1

The development of the first urbanized societies in the near east had a large impact on the natural environment, affecting vegetal cover as well as soil erosion rates. The expansion of cereal cultivation and livestock breeding, together with the rise of smelting activities, had widespread repercussions on the landscape (Renfrew 1979; Fall, Falconer, and lines 2002; Redman 2004).

it may be assumed that the combined impact of human activities and climate change also led to massive changes in the area where ebla was situated. nowadays this part of syria is semiarid, almost empty of arboreal plants, and is mostly devoted to extensive cereal cultivation. The present situation is thus quite different from what emerges from the epigraphic evidence found in Royal palace G and dated to the early bronze iVa, which points to a variety of environments (Milano 1981; 1987a; 1990b; archi 1999a).

The progressive destruction of regional forests probably started in the eb iii, when the first urban settlement was established, and continued until the end of the city-state of ebla, which is in Middle bronze iib (ca. 1600 b.c.).

The study of the exploitation of wood species through the analysis of charcoal remains from ebla has proved to be relevant not only to historical reconstruction. in fact, analysis of the charcoal collected in the 2003–2007 field campaigns provided a unique opportunity both to investigate the processes, which led

to the impoverishment of the local ecosystem, and to conduct a realistic assessment of present trends in relation to the past (Fiorentino and caracuta in press). However, caution is required when using charcoal for environmental studies, because this form of evidence does not reflect the ancient vegetation directly, but rather the human choices concerning fuel, carpentry, and other activities involving the use of wood.

This study took into account the context in which the evidence was collected and the way in which fresh wood was probably used. species used as fuel were considered representative of local vegetation, since ‘economy of effort’ meant that it was logical and efficient to use locally available resources (Vernet 1997). On the other hand, species used for construction and furniture were assessed case by case, bearing in mind that the regional trade system could supply luxury and specialized goods over long distances.

Once local species were identified, we attempted to draw a picture of the landscape around ebla and to detect the changes that occurred between eb iVa and Mb i as a consequence of the human exploitation of natural resources and short-term climate changes.

2. environmental setting

With an average precipitation of 400 mm/y and an average temperature of 17°c, the site of ebla, 50 km south of aleppo, belongs to the subarid area of the syrian territory that marks

404 V. Caracuta and G. Fiorentino

the transition between the Mediterranean coastal landscape and the arid inland (pabot 1957; Roberts and Wright 1993). The contrast between the arid eastern steppes and the more humid western belt is partially mitigated by the presence of the Jebel arbayin, a hill covered by Mediterranean woodland, and of the river Quweiq, now almost dried up (Zohary 1973).

in good climatic conditions, water, wood, and land for cultivation were available nearby. nevertheless, drought and anthropogenic factors (i.e., deforestation) drastically reduced these resources and limited the settlement development. considering that the ebla kingdom developed during a period of significant climate change, analysis of the anthracological evidence and of changes in its composition might tell us much about the city relationship with local resources.

3. contexts of sampling

The anthracological remains analyzed here were recovered during the 2003–2007 excavation campaigns, as charcoal dispersed in strata, concentrations of charred material, and burnt timber.

Within the scope of the specific research program aiming at reconstructing the use of territory by the township of ebla, our interest was mainly devoted to the samples collected over the years in Royal palace G. in this regard, the largest amount of samples analyzed was collected in the administrative Quarter, and particularly in the treasury Room (l.2982), in the Throne Room l.2866 and its annexes (l.8495 and l.8496), in the kitchen (l.2890), while other important samples were recovered in the court of audience l.2752, and in staircases of the Monumental stairway.

as stated previously, in order to make a comparison on territory exploitation, many samples were also collected in Mb i-ii contexts (mostly residential areas, administrative buildings, and a votive well): domestic quarters, such as area b east, were carefully sampled, with materials collected from a kitchen (l.8455), a courtyard (l.8454), a storeroom (l.9512), and

two cooking ovens (t.8662, t.8673). in all these loci wood was used as timber, furniture, and fuel. information on timber and furniture, especially luxury handicrafts, was also inferred from the analysis of charred beams and poles found in the governement buildings (palace FF and palace Q) and the Residency in area Z. The investigation of primary contexts, such as those where wood was burned accidentally or intentionally in the location of use, was integrated with the investigation of secondary contexts, such as the midden of the eastern Fortress (area ee). The evidence found here included material that was burnt both before being discarded (layers 2–5) and after (layers 1–3–4–6–7). Finally, the sampling of the Mb votive well (F.9308/F.9301), dug as part of a ritual for the temple built on the site of the eb iVa temple of the Rock (temple HH), provided data on the use and meaning of wood fuel/offerings in collective rituals.

4. methods

samples of soil were collected from hearths, layers with high concentrations of burnt material, and deposits of discarded charred material from domestic and ritual activities. When wooden beams or residues of furniture were found burned in situ, handpicking of samples was preferred. all the soil specimens were wet-sieved to separate the mineral matrix from the flora and fauna remains.

The flots were dried, labeled, and identified by observing the main anatomical features of the charcoal remains on fresh fractures through dark and light field microscopy. identification was carried out by consulting various atlases of wood anatomy (Greguss 1955; 1959; Fahn, Werker, and bass 1990; schweingruber 1990) and making comparisons with reference material collected in the field by the authors from a number of locations in syria and stored in the laboratory of archaeobotany and palaeocology at the University of salento. The use of such reference material was essential because of the large number of endemic species in the near east.

405Forests Near and Far

5. the use of wood in ebla

a total of 2849 anthracological remains were analyzed: 464 dating from eb iVa (table 24.1) and 2,385 from Mb i-ii contexts (table 24.2), which allows us to gain a diachronic perspective. twenty-three taxa were identified: Olea europaea (olive) was the most frequent, but significant differences were found between the eb iVa and Mb i-ii phases and between different contexts within the same phase (Figure 24.1).

Most of the material recovered from Royal palace G belongs to Abies sp. (fir), Cedrus libani (cedar), and Arundo donax (reed), with slightly smaller amounts of Olea europaea (olive) as well as fragments of Platanus sp. (plane tree), Populus/Salix (poplar/willow), Fraxinus sp. (ash tree), and Pomoideae (fruit trees) (table 24.1 and Figure 24.2).

The high frequency of firs and cedars in Royal palace G was explained by the need for luxury raw material for construction. large chunks of beams and columns of cedar wood were found in the treasury Room (l.2982) and in the annexes of the Throne Room (l. 8495, l.8496) (Figure 24.6). Fir was more ubiquitous, and several fragments in the form of residues of roof beams, together with remains of reed, were found in the kitchen of the administrative Quarter (l.2890).

The wood used for furniture differed significantly from the one employed as timber for construction. The steps of the stairs (layer 4d) were made of plain wood, while a Pomoidaea (fruit tree) and Fraxinus sp. (ash tree) were used for the manufacture of luxury pieces of furniture (a chair and a table, inlayed with mother-of-pearl) that were found in the room l.2601 (Figure 24.5). also olive tree wood was used for the production of precious objects such as miniature statues plated in gold, found in the court of audience (l.2752).

The comparison with the following Mb i-ii periods shows significant differences: olive wood became the most popular species used for construction and as fuel, and remains of olive beams and charcoal were found in the private

houses of area b east, in the Residency of area Z, and in one room (l.8751) of palace FF. On the other hand, Middle bronze palaces feature a significant use of black pine (Pinus cf. nigra) and aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis). Oaks (Quercus calliprinos, Q. ithaburensis, and an undetermined deciduous species) were found only in domestic contexts (Figure 24.4) and in the votive well (F.9308/F.9301), where they had been discarded as the residue of ritual fires (Fiorentino and caracuta 2010). no more information can be inferred from the midden (area ee), since remains of oaks were found both in the pits (layers 2–5), filled with charred debris probably resulting from the cleaning of cooking ovens, and in the hearth layers (layers 1–3–4–6–7), where old timbers were thrown and probably burned in situ. Finds of the atlas mastic tree (Pistacia khinjuk/atlantica) were limited to the votive well and the midden (table 24.2 and Figure 24.3).

Fruit trees such as Pistacia vera (pistachio), Prunus cf. dulcis (almond), and Prunus cf. avium (wild cherry) are significantly attested in eb iVa and Mb i-ii. Remains of wild cherry were found almost everywhere at the site, this species being used for furniture and fuel in domestic contexts (area b east), as well as luxury goods, as testified by the evidence found in the Mb i-ii palace FF.

6. natural woodland and culti-vated plants as sources of wood

ecologically, the twenty-three identified species vary in their provenance, reflecting the complex system of supply at the base of the ebla economy. On the basis of the types of wood employed in furniture production and in building, it is possible to maintain that in eb iVa these materials were chosen for reasons of status regardless of the cost and the effort necessary to obtain them.

cedar and fir may have been imported from the anti-lebanon mountain range or the amanus Mountains. These regions were largely exploited for wood since the third millennium b.c., also by southern Mesopotamia, as documented by the inscription of Gudea of lagash, dated from


the twenty-second century b.c. (Rowton 1967; linder 1986).

The only information about the environment that can be inferred from the eb iVa contexts concerns the presence of a riverine forest, probably on the banks of the nearby Quweiq, which yielded Populus/Salix (poplar/willow), Platanus sp. (plane tree), and Fraxinus sp. (ashtree). Residues of this woodland appear to have survived until the Mb i-ii, since Fraxinus sp. was used as fuel in domestic ovens and Ulmaceae were discarded in the votive well.

during Mb i-ii, olive, almond, and pistachio groves might have been planted around the site of ebla, as indicated by the presence of remains of such species in hearths and ovens; yet, textual evidence supports the hypothesis that such species had been cultivated since eb iVa (archi 1991; Milano 2006; see also Wachter-sarkady, in this volume).

as stated before, more species are attested in the Middle bronze period: pruning provided fuel for cooking, and fruit species were purposely selected as fuel for ritual hearths. analyses reveal that oaks, mastic trees, and pistachios were also chosen for this purpose, so if we assume that the first species to be used for fuel was the nearest available, we may infer that these species were the closest to the site (Miller 1990; Willcox 1991).

Q. ithaburensis, Q. calliprinos, and Pistacia khinjuk/atlantica were all to be found in the local woodlands, but Quercus ithaburensis and Q. calliprinos may have originated from the Mediterranean belt, the eastern edge of which is marked by the Jebel arbayin, while the deciduous Quercus species and Pistacia khinjuk/atlantica originated further east.

timber for construction may thus have been the object of trade over relatively long distances (Willcox 1992), so the black pine is likely to have been imported from the taurus Mountains, while the aleppo pine, typical of the Mediterranean maquis, probably grew in the

site’s surroundings (Fiorentino and caracuta in press).

7. conclusions

The study of the use of wood species in ebla through the analysis of charcoal remains has thrown light on the purposes for which wood was employed, on the origin of raw materials, and consequently on the distribution of natural woodland.

as a result, we have shown that during eb iVa, timber used for the construction of palaces, such as Abies sp. and Cedrus sp., was imported from the anti-lebanon and/or amanus Mountains. On the other hand, the evidence from Mb i-ii contexts shows that pine, above all black pine, was preferred as timber in palace buildings. nowadays, the distribution of Pinus nigra is limited to the amanus Mountains, close to the turkish border (Zohary 1973).

On the basis of the available evidence we should infer that in Mb i-ii locally available wood, such as Olea europaea and Prunus cf. avium, was preferred in private houses buildings and furniture manufacture, while it is quite likely that since eb iVa fruit trees, including Prunus. cf. dulcis and Pistacia vera, which had ritual significance, were cultivated in orchards or preferentially selected from the available wild resources.

Finally, the natural woodland was characterized to the east by Quercus-Pistacia steppe-forests, and in the western hills by Mediterranean trees. between these two ecological zones there was riparian vegetation, probably on the banks of the nearby river Quweiq. in fact, remains of riparian vegetation are also recorded in eb iVa contexts, but the evidence is too scanty to infer information about the distribution of such resources and the impact of their use by humans between eb iVa and Mb i-ii.

The study of paleoclimate, based on the isotopic signature of plant macroremains, reveals that eb iVa was characterized by moister conditions than Mb i-ii (Fiorentino et al. 2008; 2012;


Roberts et al. 2011). it may be assumed that the overexploitation of wood for timber and fuel, together with the clearing of land for agriculture, increased the rate of soil erosion, resulting in a shift in the climax vegetation from forests to lower plant communities. nonetheless, the processes could not have been completed during the few centuries of eb iVa, and it must be assumed that during Mb i-ii there were still plenty of woodlands available.

anthracological analyses in the wider surrounding region (Willcox 1974; deckers 2005; deckers and Riehl 2004; 2007; pessin 2007; Fiorentino and caracuta in press) have shown that the natural arboreal vegetation in the subarid areas between the Mediterranean and

the desert further inland was mainly composed of steppe-forest. Our study shows that around ebla in the bronze age this vegetation was interrupted by orchards and, in the Jebel arbayin to the northeast, by Mediterranean forest.

notes

1 The authors wish to thank prof. paolo Matthiae, di-rector of the ebla archaeological expedition, for al-lowing them to study the archaeobotanical remains. special thanks also to luca peyronel, Francesca baffi, Marco Ramazzotti, and alessandra enea, who took care of all our needs in the field. Without their helpful assistance, this research would not have been possible.

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l.2982 treasury Roomcarpentry/furniture

4 26 6 - - - - 1 - - - - - - 9 1 - - - - - - -

l.2890 kitchen // 115 - - - - 61 - - - 17 - - - - 2 - - - - - - - -

liv.4d stairs // 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - -

1030 unknown // 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - -

l.8496administrative

Quarter// 12 31 - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - -

l.8495 // // 39 29 - - - - - - - 10 - - - - - - - - - - - - -

l.2752court ofaudience

// 48 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

l.8606 staircase // - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30 - - - - - - - - -

l.8612 room // 1 - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

l.2601 room // - - - - - - - 2 - - - - - - 5 - - - - - - - -

l.8729 sacellum mat - - - - - 6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

total=464 224 86 6 - - 67 - 4 - 28 - - - 35 13 1 - - - - - - -

table 24.1. Royal palace G, eb iVa.


PhaSe

ar

ch

aeo

log

ica

l c

on

teX

tFu

nc

tio

nu

Se o

F

wo

od

Abies sp.

Cedrus libani

Pinus halepensis

Pinus cf. nigra

Cupressus sp.

Arundo donax

Capparis sp.

Fraxinus sp.

Leguminosae

Olea europaea

Pistacia cf. vera

Pistacia cf. palaestina

Pistacia khinjuk/atlantica

Platanus sp.

Pomoideae

Populus/Salix

Prunus cf. avium

Prunus cf. dulcis

Quercus deciduous

Quercus cf. calliprinos

Quercus cf. ithaburensis

Rhamnus/Phillyrea

Ulmaceae

mba

domestic contextb-est

l.84

54co

urty

ard

carp

entr

y/fu

rnitu

re-

-16

--

-3

--

135

--

--

7-

29-

11

--

-

t.86

62co

okin

g ov

enfu

el-

-21

--

--

31-

317

--

--

--

69-

41

--

-

l.84

55ki

tche

nca

rpen

try/

furn

iture

--

1-

--

--

-61

--

--

--

--

1-

--

-

t.86

73co

okin

g ov

enfu

el-

-50

--

-25

--

68-

--

--

-8

-2

--

--

l.86

50ro

omca

rpen

try

--

--

--

--

-15

--

--

--

--

--

--

-

l.95

12sto

rero

omca

rpen

try/

furn

iture

--

1-

--

--

-9

--

--

--

--

--

--

-

Middenee

laye

rs 2

-5pi

tsov

en fu

el-

--

1-

--

-5

136

1812

15-

2-

33-

2424

191

1

laye

rs1-

3-4-

6-7

hear

ths

carp

entr

y/fu

rnitu

re-

--

--

--

--

7825

719

-3

-48

-47

3938

-6

Ritual well HH

F.93

08/F

.930

1vo

tive w

ellov

en fu

el-

2-

21

-5

2-

283

39-

7-

--

6331

204

2611

54

8

noble house Z

397

ritua

l fue

l/offe

ring

--

--

--

--

-2

--

--

--

--

--

--

-

709

--

--

--

--

-2

--

--

--

--

--

--

-

l.75

13-

--

1-

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

564

--

--

--

-1

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

-

550

--

-2

--

--

-5

--

--

--

2-

--

--

-

l.78

90-

--

--

--

--

3-

--

--

--

--

--

--

l.78

60-

--

--

--

--

1-

--

--

--

--

--

--

palace Q

l. 3

006

-1

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

-

l.82

78-

-2

3-

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

l.82

77ca

rpen

try/

furn

iture

--

64

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

1

l.82

77ca

rpen

try/

furn

iture

--

1-

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

-

l.31

46ca

rpen

try/

furn

iture

--

-2

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

-

l.31

46ca

rpen

try/

furn

iture

--

-2

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

1

l.31

45ca

rpen

try/

furn

iture

--

3-

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

-

palace FF

l. 8

751

room

--

-1

--

--

-11

--

--

--

59-

--

--

-

to

t al=

2385

-3

101

181

033

345

1126

8219

410

120

311

3128

391

172

517

tabl

e 24

.2. M

ba c

onte

xts.


Figure 24.1. comparison between the species found in eba and Mba contexts. The woody plants have been listed according to the eco-geographic group to which they belong (vertical axis).

Figure 24.2. table showing the function of each species in the eba, as inferred from the findspots.


Fig

ure

24.3

. tab

le sh

owin

g th

e fu

nctio

n of

eac

h sp

ecie

s in

the

Mba

, as i

nfer

red

from

the

finds

pots.


Figure 24.4. transversal section of four different taxa: a) Quercus deciduous, b) Quercus cf. calliprinos, c) Rhamnus/Phillyrea, d) Prunus cf. dulcis.


Figure 24.5. ebla, Royal palace G (eb iVa), wooden table from l.2601.

Figure 24.6. ebla, Royal palace G (eb iVa), rooms l.8495 and l.8496.

Figure 24.7. ebla, area b east, oven t.8602 (Mba).

Forests near and far: an anthracological perspective on Ebla.

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Transcript of Forests near and far: an anthracological perspective on Ebla.