Fabricators, Outils dcaillds or Scalar Cores ?J. PETER WHITE*

ITnn term 'fabricator' was first emplovedin Australia nearlv thirtv vears aeo- todescribe 'a flake

-which bears a slightly

concave arXl battered edge due to its use'(McCarthyJry4t : 263).

-A more detailed

definition was given five years later. Thiswas:

Fabricators and trimming stones areflakes or blades with one or usuallv bothfacets of the working edge batter6d andsplintered from use. The working edgeis frequently gouge-like. The majorlty aretrimmed bifaces. . . ; the punch type hasa working edge at both ends and i5 com-paratively thick (McCarthy et al.,rg46 : 34\.It is the battered, bruised or splintered

working edge which primarily delines thistype (McCarthy, rg43: r4S ; 1964: 2o3.,1967 : 36; Ilume, 1965 : 19 : C. White,1967 :352; Wright, r966:3t-z). McCarthy'slater uses of the term, however, vary thedefinition in other ways. ' Coroid ' fabriiatorsoccur at Capertee (McCarthy, l964: zq) andthis group is distinguished in the definitionin 1967 (McCarthy, tg67 :36). A divisioninto 'norma^l flakes and blades' and 'micro-

liths' has also been made (McCarthy,1948: ro, 16), but this has not been subse-quently maintained. The difierence betweengouge- and punch-t5pes has never beendefined, except to say that the latter are' stout ' (McCarthy, rg4,3: r4S).

The fabricators from two Australian siteshave been measured. Hume (1965: zo, 68)recorded lengths (r.o-S.5crn), and widths(r.ez.5cm) and calculated a L/B ratio(r.A*o.g). Wright (t966 :32) measured the' distance between 8r opposing scaled edges'(actually eighty-one specimensl from Gymea

. Aus{raliaa Museum, Sydney, MS. receivedSeptember 1968.

Reprinted from Manhinil, Oftcial lournal of the Anthrop-ologicol Societies of A*stralio,Vol. 6, No. rz,December, 1968

-

Bay (z.olo.5 cm). More senerallvMcCa*hy 11907 :3Al iefers to l*sth:r-;;;,iJfrom |'-to 2i, bud gives to oih"t fid;;;:In addition, current verbal concepts"referto fabricators as flat, thin in relatioi to theirsize and squarish in plan. None of thesecriteria have been tested however, and Hume(1965 :32) was unable to distinzuish anvcommon shape among his r5g speciirens frorirSassafras I.

-

Fabricators as defined above are found inmany Australian archaeological assemblases.The oldest occurrence appears to be at GrienGull-y, earlier than c. &5oo w (Bowler d aJ.,1966: r53). In New South Wales thev arereported in the 'Capertian' (McC#thvtj64:48 and Tabte 3i though tir"ii-stradilgraphic association is dubious. Thev arecommon in the 'Bondaian' (McCirthv,!948 : g, 3o ; 1964: Table 3 ; Wade, rq67 :8':Megaw, ry66b:8) and in many recent sites(M9gaw, rS5:zq4; r966b-;r3; Hume,1965 ; wadg, \gEj 39; Lampert, personalcommunication). They occur in

-sites of

similar industrial status in New Ensland.dated c. rzoo sc-Ao 160o (M"I8rve;:t966:28fl. A similar technique ippeari innorth-east Tasmania (Brimfield, tfui issue,page 69r).

Somewhat similar artefacts have beenfound in Arnhem Land (McCarthv andSetzlel, 196o:283), though'C. Whiti,s re-analysis of ro8 'fabricators' from theircollections showed that only z-t had bruisedends (1967:355). White's own excavationsproduced 44 similar implements, all of themassociated with her upper industry and datedto less than 6ooorooo sp (to6i: ro8. ?(2.43r, 46t). She has challeneed ihe vatilitiof regarding this group of artefacts as i'type' in Arnhem Land, but no similarchallenge has been made elsewhere. Thismay be because, as she $€gests, bifacially

t6s8 l

Dncrumn rg58 MANKIND Vor,. 6 No. ra

N

,(m(ffi@w

o 5 l+ t

Cm

Frc. I Scalar cores from la^ke Kopiago a,reaTop left: From Aluni, &-4llUl96?Top fight: From Atuni, 8/ir/i962Belou, left anll ight: Made by Hera at Hararege, 2USllS67

Drauing: W. L. Mumford

[6sq ]

Vor.. 6 No. rz MANKIND

[ 6 6 0 ]

Dnceunrn 1968

flaked fabricators usually occur in industrieswhere other forms of bifacial flaking arelacking and there is no technologically similarforgr. In Arnhem Land, where bifaciallyflaked points are common, the integrity ofthe fabricator 'type' is not so readilyapparent. In spite of the functional name,there is no known case of the use of fabricatorsby Australian Aborigines. Horne and Aiston(rgz4:99) reier to 'a stone roughly chippedon both sides, so that an irregular sharp edgeappears', which was used for chipping otherstones, but there is no evidence that thisartefact has any formal similarity to archaeo-logical fabricators. None the less, the bruisedworking edges and the removal of larger flakesfrom the two faces on prehistoric specimensare said to result from use, usually fromretouching or trimming other stone imple-ments such as microliths, Bondi points andelouera (Towle, rg34 i r2o; McCarthy,t94r : z63i rg43: r3o; r94B : zr ; Campbel land Noone, rg43:297). The tool was eitherused in the hand (cf. Semenov, 1964:64) orplaced between a hammer and the implementto be retouched.

Imolements similar to Australianfabri&tors occur in other parts of the worldand are usually called outils dcaill'ds, lamesCcaillds, lames isrluillls or squamous flakes(cf. Wright, 1966). The earliest occurrenceis at Choukoutien (Pei, rg39). In Europethey are common in Aurignacian levels inthe Correze (SY,-ttY, of total industry),but are rare elsewhere in the Perigord inthe Upper Palaeolithic (de Sonneville-Bordes,196o). Some were found at Paviland (Sollas,rgr3) and other discoveries are recorded{Breuil and Lantier, 1965). In Africa theyoccur in the Elmenteitan of Kenya (Leakey,rg3t:t74), in Middle Stone Age industries{Mason, tg67 :75$ and in later industries{rom the Maghreb (Tixier, 1967 :79$ toSouth Africa (Van Riet Lowe, 1946: z4t ;Clark, rg5g:zro). They are generallyunknown in India but J. M. Birminghamrecerrtly reported them from Bengal(ANZAAS paper, t967).

Suggestions as to the use of these artefactsvary widely, although most recognize thefact that a sharp blow of some kind is neededto produce th-e bruised ends. Frequentsuggestions have been chisels (Malan,

rg42 : ng; Clark, r95B : r4g ; Van RietLowe, t946:z4r), adzes, possibly hafted(Clark, r95B: r49), chisel-adzes (Clark,tg5g: zto), pressure flakers (Leakey,rg53 : 63), retouchers or flake-too! fabricatois(Leakey, r93r : r3o, t74) and, when in qaartz,cores (Breuil and Lantier, 1965 : 63). Garrod(19z6:56) refused to postulate a use.

Two main methods of producing theseartefacts have been proposed. Leakey(r93r : 98, r3o) claims that the bruised andbattered ends and the bifacial flaking areproduced on an unretouched flake used as ahand-held tool to back blades and retouchscrapers. In spite of some confusion betweentext, fi.gures and plates (r93r :98, r3o, r58,t74, rB4\, his photograph of a lame icailldplodgged in this way is convincing (r93r :Pl. XVII). Lea"key's work was probablyresponsible for the n"omenclature andlssumehfunction of the Australian examples, but thisis not documented.

Van Riet Lowe (1946 : z4r), on the otherhand, points out that the retouch on eachend, the removal of surficial flakes andbevelling and curving of the edge can all beproduced by a bipolar percussion technique,with the pebble . . . ' [being] held in a verticalposition on a stone anvil and struck with ahammer stone. . . ' . Inskeep (t967 :5$)doubts that this technique wouldin fact produce lames dcaillds, 6ut gives noreasons. Van Riet Lowe appears to considerthat even if these tools were used as chisels,their form is produced by primary flaking.Clark sees some end bruising as being causedby use (1958: r4gt rg5g: r77) although healso refers to larnes icailld,s as cores.

These functional suggestions all assumethat outil,s icaillds were implements even iftheir precise function has not yet been deter-mined and mav actuallv have varied withtime and place.

However, I now propose to show thatartefacts from New Guinea which could beclassified as fabricators or outils eca:il,l6sare in fact cores which were never used astools and that the same is likelv to be truefor Australian specimens.

IIIn tg67 I spent three months observing themanufacture and use of fla.ked stone tools

e

Dncounon 1968

among Duna-speakers near Lake Kopiagoin the Western Highlands of New Guinea.The groups with which I worked had been inregular contact with European technologyonly since the late rg5os and the area wasopened to non-administration personnel onlyin 1964.

Duna stone technology is similar to thatfound elsewhere in the Highlands (Blackwood,r95o : 3r ; White, J. P., tg67: Ch. 4), and,apart from axes, which are acquired by trade,the only stone tools they know consist ofunretouched flakes (are). For some functionsthese are mounted in a 'pitpit' handle andare then called are kwo. Most are kuo arethin flalies less than 3 cm long. The Dunasay that are ' stop inside' the flint nodulesand a"re revealed by flaking. The flintnodules thev use are mostlv somewhatlarger than iist-size and the himmers mayweigh up to r.5kg.

There are two methods of flaking stoneamong the Duna and each of these has twovariants. With the first method all actiontakes place within the hands. Either thecore is held with the dorsal surface of theflake-to-be against the heel of the palm andthe platform facing the operator so thatflakes are detached into the hand (cf. White,J. P., 1967:Pl. 4-214-4), or occasionallythe core is struck verticallv downward on toa stationary, hand-held himmer. The firstvarjant is very common throughout theHighlands and is normall]'used by the Dunato break large nodules.

The other method of flaking uses a bipolartechnique, in which the core is held verticallyon an anvil and pounded until it shatters(cf. Van Riet Lowe, 1946). A variant of thisinvolves wrapping a strip of thin bark severaltimes around the core and holding thisinstead of the stone while flaking (Prere I).Once the core is shattered (the detachingof one or two flakes is insuffrcient), the barkis unwrapped and the broken material tippedinto the oalm of the hand to be picked over.Flakes deemed suitable for toois are kept,small, unsuitable flakes discardecl, and thecore is re-wrapped for further flaking. Thesame platforms are usually re-used, but thisdepends to some extent on how the materialhas broken, since acute angled edges ({6o')are preferred for platforms.

Vor,. 6 No. rz

There seem to be four advantages to thislast variant:

r. The bark wrapping directs the forceof the hammer blow down the core so thatmore long and thin flakes are produced bythis simple and uncontrolled process.These flakes are required for vine fibrescrapers.

z. Smaller oieces of stone can be flaked"thus producing more of the fine, thin flakesless than 3 cm long which are preferred foraxe kwo.

3. All flakes are kept neatly togetherfor selection and are not scattered aroundby the flaking process as is the case whenan unwrapped core is flaked by thismethod. This is patricularly importantsince anv flake matt be a suitable tool andall flakei must theiefore be inspected.

4. Raw material is used moreeconomically since much smaller pieces ofstone can be flaked without risk of damageto the worker's hand.The result of flaking broken flint nodules

in this way is that thin rather squarish coreswith bruising and splintering at both endsare sometimes produced. Both variantsof the second method seem to produce thesecores, but I suspect that the second variantproduces them more often. Their productionseems to depend largely on the thinness ofthe core being used, which is not controllableby the stone worker.

Among the Duna these cores are not usedat all. They are waste material, part of arange of waste which includes other kinds ofcores produced by the same technique.Frcunp r shows four of the bifacial, double-ended cores I collected from the piles of wastestone. These cores are identical as regardsflaking to Australian ' fabricators '. The end-bruising is similar (Prern II) and so is thesurficial flaking and general patterning.Even the gougeJike end is present on someexamples and seems to result from blowsbeing more frequently directed at the centreof the platform. Bruising at one end only,which is common to both Australian andNew Guinea collections, occurs when thecore breaks transversely during flaking toproduce two ' fabricators', each with asingle 'working edge',

MANKIND

[66r ]

Vor. 6 No. rz MANKIND

166z )

Drcruern 1968

._ In order to compare the Australian andNew brunea material more closely com_parative measurements have been" made.The samples usedl are:

, .Gy*g" Bay.(Megaw, tg66a), N:42. AllraDrrcators wtuch were listed in R. V. S.Wrig.ht's lotes as whole, irrespective of tireirstratigraphic position. Wrifht,s puttiitreatrgures (1966) include broken and . possible,specrmens.

- Bobadeen (Moore, unpubl.), N:-32. AIIfabricators and ' utilized ior".','with Bruisingqn both ends were included, si"ce

-iil"

distinction between these two '"f.r.",

*u,made on the basis of shape ana thictcness anaend-bruising occurs on sbme . utilized cores ,(Moore, personal communication). Brokenpreces were excluded.

Capertee 3 (McCarthy, 1964), N:zg. Allspecrmens classified as fabricators inMcCarthy's original boxes in tfre eusliafia"Museum were measured- except for clearly

H*:1"": llfilgte5' aberrarir pi"""r--[.g.unmodtned-flakes). Some specimens werti onorsplay and were not measured.. Lake Kopiago, N:4o. All specimensnavlng-two or more' working edges , bifaciallybruised and splintered. weie J.f""tJ t -"T2r cores collected in the field. Threeartefacts have four bruised edges and-h;vebeen measured twice. Cores #ith ;;li-;""bruised edge were excluded.

----J ---

The measurements taken on each samplewere:

. (r) Length. The maximum distanclDetween opposed 'working

edges,.- (z) Breadth. The maxiirurn"dimension of

the stone in the same plane as the . workingedges'.

. (3) Thickness. The maximum dimensioni1_1_Bhn"

at right angles to the .;;;ki;gedges'.

The results are presented in Table I. Irrt"S"i.q- to length, there is no clear patternoI dtfierentlation between the New- SouthWales and Lake Kopiago ,"*pflr.

--ifr"

Capertee 3 and Lake' K"opiag" 'J.A*"".

could have come from the simE sarirrte. Uuiall other- samples are sigrrifica"tfv ,jif".e"irrom each other. The absence of patterning

_1 For each Australian site another worker,sselection-of fabricators has been ".;til

.;e;;;;;to bias the sample in favour of -y ""g"-""i,-

*-'

ry1y well reflect such factors as local avail-ability and tlpe of raw material...Ih" B/L ratios group all New Southwates - sarnples together and distinzuishthem trom the Lake Kopiago sample. "Themeasurements suggest that the New Southwales specrmens are rather less square thanthose from Lake Kopiago. This igain maybe partly a reflection of'raw *at"ri.i-t"iltprop.a,ply also relates to a local technologicaltradition.

- On the basis of comparative measurementsthe Lake Kopiago aid New So"tf,

-Wrf",

samples are not from the same source. Thiswe would not expect. However, this doesnot mean that the technological processeswhich produced them are diffJrent Ji;;-thi,rs Judged on the nature of flaking and generalpattern. Provided that, as in ihis caie. thesizes are not grossly dissimilar,

""a, ". otn",

archaeologlcal considerations will now demon_strate, there is some reason to think ofAustralian specimens as cores, n"* C"i"er"11$,tus,lrati"an. specimens were probably theend-resuJt of similar processes.

III

4l has been shown earlier, Australiarrfabricators are normally interpieted ;i"d,for, making other smail, .weli-shaped-r;;;tools - Bondi points, elouera, etc. Theoccurrence of the two should therefore bedirectly_correlated. In fact, tfris is-noithecase. For instance at Green Gully fabricatoisare associated only with

-. thumbnail

:.9T1p"F'.and probably pre-date any micro_nrnrc uadttron so lar recorded in Australia.. In some New South Wales sites occupied.in recent times fabri:ators increas; f;threlatively_and absolutely ., U""t"a

-f,Ua"s

o_ecrease (.hlume, ry65: -,i; Wade, !967 :3il.Hume (1965 : 25) con;ludes that at SfssifriliIabrrcators and backed blades .are.

. .standing in a perfect inverse relationshipwlth one another' and points out that wheirfabricators are commoi the industrv as-awhole is 'rather

amorphous ,na'o"aii_ffrentiated' (rg6S : Br).

' At Gvmea Bav.

clated to rz2o+So ne (New Soutti Walesji(Mggawr ry67 :2fl, eighty-nine fabricatorllnd -olty lour well_made stone tools wereround (Megaw, r966a: 3r). A similar picturers grven by recent Ievels in sites 5CU5/_,

I1l{

€

ilI

I

SCALAR CORES

J. Peter White

Pr-ere I Flaking stone at llararege, Lake Kopiago, 1967.Photo.-The author. Reproduced by permission of the Trustees, Australian X{use1m

Plerp II Side and end view of scalar core produccd at Aluni, Lake Kopiago, 6 Novembcr 1967. 'I'heplatform is 19 mm longPhoto.-C. V' Turner. Reproduced by permission ol the Trustees, Australian Nluselm

(") (b)

Drcnunnn 1968

Sample sizeLengthBreadthThicknessB/L ratio

Gymea Bay

422 . 0 + 0 . 61 ' 8 + 0 ' 60 . 7 + 0 ' 30.92*0. r0

Bobadeen

f e :I s :

MANKIND

Tasr.n ICores ond fabricatorc

Mean and standa,rd deviation (cm)1t tests of Lengths and B/L ratios^

S,:significani at to/o lei'el19.5.:not significant at 5o/o level

282 .6 10 .62 . 1 + 0 . 81 . 1 + 0 . 40 '82*0 . I1

Capertee 3 Gymea

Vor.. 6 No. ra

Lake Kopiago

432 . 0 t 0 . 32 . 8 * 0 . 71 . 0 1 0 . 30 .s8 i0 .21

Bobadeel

322 .0 *0 .51 . 6 + 0 . 50 . 7 t 0 . 30 .8 r+0 .26

Teer-e IsBIL rutio

LakeKopiago

La.ke KopiagoI*ngth Capertee'3 " :.

GymeaBobadeen

TCUSI- and at Kurnell and Wattamolla(Megaw, personal communication) as wellas site 2CU5l- (Glover, E., personal com-munication).

The lack of association between fabricatorsand sophisticated or even retouched stonetools at some sites suggests that if they wereprehistoric machine tools their products wereirot made of stone. Nor were their productsbone .tools. This is seen by contrasting theevidence from Gymea Bay, where only twobone tools were found (Megaw, tg66a:3$,with that from Durras, where at least zr8bone points were made, but where fabricatorswere absent from the excavation (Lampert,1966).

No evidence is available to consider whetherfabricators may have been used to makewooden tools.

wWith the Lake Kopiago evidence in mind,it is instructive to consider the sites of Durrasand Sassafras I from another point of view.These sites have been chosen because in allor part of each there are no or few clearly" typed' implements and this situation is

parallel to that at Lake Kopiago, where theindustry consists exclusively of flakes andchunks without secondary retouch.

Sassafras I. Hume's thorough descriptionofthisindustry (1965 : 17,22) canbe analysedto produce the data in Table II.

From this table the following conclusionsmay be drawn:

(i) Cores as defined by Hume occur in anapproximately inverse proportion tofa6ricators (columns r and z). There is noapparent reason for this unless tabricatorsare interpreted as a kind of core.

(ii) The number of cores is not constantlyretat6d to the number of flakes (col. 5),whereas this relation is much more constantif fabricators are included with cores (col. 6).

(iii) In the upper levels cores decrease innumber vet the-implement/waste flake ratio(col. z) suggests thit in this phase the site ismore'l ikeiy to be a workshop (White, C.,tg67 : t6g, 267 ; Jones, tg66: 4-6; InskeeP,rg5gi g4). The problem largely disappearsif fabricators are regarded as cores.

It should also be noted that quartz tendsto replace quartzite in the upper levels where

q

N.S.N.S.

x

N.S.xS.

xq

xN.S.

S.S.

l 66sl

Tesr-B Ie

Vor. 6 No. ra MANKIND

Tesrn IISassaJras I

Drcrunnn 1968

Col.

Spit

I234o6n

8I

I , 3 4 o 6

Cores(no.)

Fabricators(no.)

Implements(no.)

Uamodifedfla.kes(no.)

l a sPerffnjace

l+2 aspercentage

o t 4

No. offlakesl

implement- t t

72646323t36 . 86 . 44 . 7

t0I8I

202 l264

2039333114l6

D.r

t7l8q q

2766o l

1886730

10201298l l88l70sr037742

1086426140

1 . 0o . 7o , 70 . 50 . 72 - 71 . 96 . 92 . 8

2 . 93 . 73 .42 . 32 .O4 . 72 . 46 . 32 . 9

fabricators increase (Trr1r", IS6S:ZZ). Thisis relevant in view b, r:r"rrrl.s remark thatquartz-is flaked more easily by tir" Uipol",method (Breuil and Lantier] ,qOS-,-6:i.'"'"

Durr.as.. Lampert,s. erridenle (1966)suggests.that little flaking of stone o"","ir""ali_*: :it"ji?:"r arthousfr .$y it; i;;;iy, rJped' rmplements were found comparello r5S unretouched flakes, most of th; f,"L;.'showed some signs of

"tirirrii"" ,

11266 :.rr2), so that "the n"*U". -oi:iu"#"

flakes is low. The absence of cores i;;";;h;,indicator and a third is it "

-i"ii"riJ"rir

flakes are larger-than l, x l;_.---rv"_iniri.me.asure more than r, xriz (cf. White. C.r967 : xo5). ft is interesting'that'.i-tir;u;iithe site is neither a workshZp;;;;;;;;?.f3b_ricators it is dated to a peri6d-i<r. ;;;;;9."K.BZs) when fabricutoii-

"=rL

-;ir;';;d'tool ' in use. If they *";; t";i; th;r,absence is difficult to eiplain.. -Tt seems clear that tld pieience of manv'Jabricators'

in recent N."w S;t'.i,i;il{sites is best expl_ainsa Uy consia".iru ifr"rr" *cores, waste products w hich were,rot"irrterrdJtor use.as tools. These cores probablv resultfrom the production

"t i*"rj-ir#J *niHwere. mostly used as tools withoui-f";ih;;

modification. The maker,s .ii""ti".i^ *..probably.on the flakes and ""t;;-th; ";;:product (core_ or fabricator). lilri,l.

'ri.

lr,seems probabte that fabricators from earlieislres ln australia belong within the sametradition.s Measured in the Austrafian Museum.

VSome outil,s haill,6s from other parts of theworld may well be cores too, Uutit is aificuftto make accurate interpretatio"r- i"- th"absence

.of c_om-prehensiv6 "ol".iio"J'no".rne scattered distributiol of. owtil,s icail,lCs

il ,]T" and space however suggests that it

luy ?" trequenfly correct to interpret them

as cores srnce their re_appearanie or re_development i" th"n a mltter of simplenaKlng. technique rather than compiexrecnnolog'y. 'l he, persistence of this technioue1n "r,

alea over time, as recently in south_elitAusrrarta or South Af1ca, will presumablypoi$ to the existence ot . io""t t"it

"oi#ldrtradition, but it will not be """"rrrry

io'r"-"isul-tural links between vanous occulrenceswidely separated. in space and time.. 1., do not wish to argue that all outitshftpt. were waste-prodirct d;r.-- ii;;

arreracts .may- well have had differentruncrtons m dift'erent industries. possiblv ityrn ..alwayg be difficult to a"i."l-- til"*ru^nctlons srnce most stone_on_stone blows*}-1:y v"ery similar bruisinganerpri"i#ri::-rouch.., Mrcroscopic studies may providbsome gurde, but each case must be judged onits merits at present.

- For New Guinea and Austra^lia at least.the term 'fabricator,

should le "l*a"*ilIt is a term which has already t"a t"-"""f"ri"Ii

by re-naming an object alieady "d";;;i;l;named outside Australia. It is a functionit

term used in a situation where th;;" -h;

never been any evidence of that functi

166+1

€

?..\'-..':::5s*'r'"-'

Drcrltmn 1968 MANKIND

BIBLIoGRAPEY

Vor.. 6 No. rz

and where there is now ethnographic evidencesussesting an entirelY different function.

i-pfop6se that these artefacts be called' scalir iores'. These may be described inmuch the same terms as McCarthy used:Scalar cores are bipolar cores with opposingends battered, splintered and bruised. Theseends are from several mm to z cm long,straieht when viewed from either face, andstraiiht or slightlv curved when viewedend-6n. The aigle-between the faces at thebruised ends is less than 6o". The removalof flakes from both ends is visible on eachface.

The interpretations in this paper ?{ederived initlally from the ethnographicrecord. They show the value of inter-

relating studies of traditional stone tech-nologies and prehistoric assemblages in orderto

-make implement typologies more

intelligible.

Achnoulad'gementsMy research at Lake Kopiago, August-November 1967, was financed by the Trusteesof the Australian Museum, whom I wish tothank. In the field I was greatly helped byMr and Mrs L. Steadman, Messrs I. Smalleyand Poke Kama. I also wish to acknowledgethe co-operation and assistance of MessrsR. M. Jones, J.V.S.Megaw, D' J. Mulvaney,F. D. McCarthy, D. R. l\[oore, R. V. S.Wright, Mrs J. Smith and Dr C' White.

BowrBn, T. \f., I\Iur-veNov, D. J., Cesuv, D. A.

exo D.c,-RnecH, T. A. 1967. Green Gully Burial.

Nature. Lond., zr3, r5z-4.Bnourr., I{. eNo LeNrrnn, R. 1965. Men o.f the

Old Stone Age. London.Bmrrmrrr-o, Eennv H. 1968. Bipolar Scallr

Artelacts from North Eastern Tasmania-MeNxrNo, 6, rz,69o-2.

Cenpesr-r-, T. D. lNo NooNr, H. V. V. a943.

South Australian Microlithic Stone Implements.Rec. S. Aust . Mus. ,YI I , z8r-3o7.

Cr-enx, I. D. 19.58. Some Stone Age Wood-workin! Tools iq Southern Africa. S.A- Arch'Bull.. tz (sz\, u,+-52.

Cr-enx,-I.-D. '

rsSS. -

The Prehistory of SouthernAfrica. Harmondsworth.

oa SoNNevrr-rp-Bonpos, D. 196o. Le Pal'dolithiqueSubiri,eur en Pirigord- Bordeaux.

Ganrioo, D. A. E. -1926.

The Upper PalaeolithiaApe in Britain. Oxford.

HonlNB. G. eNo Arsros, G. 1924. Sauage Li'fein Cintral Australia. London.

HuIrrB, S. H. R. 1965. The Analysis -of a- StoneAssemblage to Determine Change' UnpublishedBA (Hons) thesis, Department of Anthropology,University oI SYdneY.

h.rsreoe, Ii. R. -rq6Z'

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