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Extension Agents' Awareness of ClimateChange in EthiopiaDagmawi M. Abegaza & Padraig Wimsb

a Crop Research, Kulumsa Agricultural Research Centre, PO BOX11211, Asella, Ethiopiab Agriculture and Food Science Centre, University College Dublin,Belfield, Dublin 4, IrelandPublished online: 26 Aug 2014.

To cite this article: Dagmawi M. Abegaz & Padraig Wims (2014): Extension Agents' Awarenessof Climate Change in Ethiopia, The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, DOI:10.1080/1389224X.2014.946936

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2014.946936

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Extension Agents’ Awareness of ClimateChange in Ethiopia

DAGMAWI M. ABEGAZ* and PADRAIG WIMS†*Crop Research, Kulumsa Agricultural Research Centre, PO BOX 11211, Asella, Ethiopia; †Agriculture andFood Science Centre, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland

ABSTRACT Purpose: The fact that highly vulnerable countries like Ethiopia face far greaterchallenges from climate change makes agricultural adaptation a top priority. Even though thepublic agriculture extension system in Ethiopia plays a central role in facilitating and supportingadaptation, very limited information is available on how aware the actual extension agents (EAs)are regarding the issue. Therefore, this research attempts to provide a specific insight on the currentlevel of awareness and understanding of EAs regarding climate change.Methodology: Survey questionnaires and semi-structured key-informant interviews were used tocollect primary data from extension agents and decision-makers.Findings: Results indicated that generally EAs had a good perception of climate change as well asits impact on agriculture & natural resource use and availability. Also, there was a consensusamong EAs regarding certain changes in weather patterns and the frequency of extreme events.Weaknesses and challenges concerning the level of priority given to climate change and adaptation,capacity-building efforts and access to resources were identified as well.Practical implications: Identified challenges imply the need for a synchronized approach towardsclimate change adaptation and capacity-building to enhance EAs awareness on the issue. Also, thefindings highlight the urgent necessity to prioritize climate change as an extension programmingissue and to develop clear mitigation and adaptation approaches.Originality/value: This research is original and highly valuable to identify weaknesses and strengthsregarding EAs’ awareness of climate change adaptation.

KEY WORDS: Climate change, Adaptation, Agricultural extension, Climate change awareness,Ethiopia, Climate change response

Correspondence address: Dagmawi M. Abegaz, Crop Research, Kulumsa Agricultural Research Centre,PO BOX 11211, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Tel: +251-926808035. Email: dagmawi99@yahoo.com

Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension2014, 1–17, iFirst

1389-224X Print/1750-8622 Online/14/000001-17 © 2014 Wageningen Universityhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2014.946936

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Introduction

Although numerous controversies surround the issue of climate change, it can generallybe defined as ‘a change in the climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to humanactivities that alter the composition of the global atmosphere in addition to naturalvariability observed over comparable time periods’ (IPCC 2007). Studies have shown thatatmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) are increasing as a result ofhuman activity, and such emissions are probably responsible for climatic changes(Boykoff 2008; Hope 2009; Nelson et al. 2009). It is also accepted that global climatechange will likely continue over the following decades (IPCC 2007; Nelson et al. 2009;Simpson and Burpee 2014).

The relationship between climate change and agriculture is quite complex and diverse.Bosello and Zhang (2005) state that climate change and agriculture interdependenciesevolve dynamically over time, they often cover a large spatial and temporal scale, and arestill surrounded by large uncertainties. However, scholars agree that climate has obviousand direct effects on agricultural production (Lybbert and Sumner 2012; Simpson andBurpee 2014; Nederlof, Wennink, and Heemskerk 2010). For instance, climate changecan affect crop yields both positively and negatively, as well as the types of crops that canbe grown in certain regions (Dhaka, Chayal, and Poonia 2010). Even though someprediction models imply that there will be positive sides (Nelson et al. 2009), the overallimpacts of climate change on agriculture are expected to be negative, ultimatelythreatening national and global food security. This is particularly true for developingregions (Deressa, Hassan, and Ringler 2011; Bryan, Deressa, and Gbetibouo 2009;Nederlof, Wennink, and Heemskerk 2010).

The Need for Adaptation

According to Nelson et al. (2009) on-going social and economic challenges will likelybuild up, mainly for those societies which are already vulnerable and highly dependent onclimate-sensitive resources. That is to say developing countries, where the majority ofpopulation as well as the national economy is agriculture-based, are expected to be mostvulnerable to climate change. Cairns et al. (2013), Bryan, Deressa, and Gbetibouo (2009)and Nederlof, Wennink, and Heemskerk (2010) also argue that climate change will have asignificant impact on agriculture as well as livelihood of the populations of thedeveloping world, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Adaptation to climate change should be a top priority in Ethiopia, as agricultureremains by far the most important sector. Agriculture contributes some 44% to thecountry’s GDP and about 84% of the national population is rural, deriving livelihoodsfrom agriculture and natural resources (Adem and Bewket 2011). Climate related hazardsin Ethiopia include drought, floods, heavy rains, strong winds, frost and heat waves(NMA 2007). Most rural communities are already highly vulnerable to weathervariability. For instance, in 2008 around 12.6 million people were affected by droughtand in 2011 an estimated 3.2 million people were affected by drought-induced foodshortages and food insecurity (Adem and Bewket 2011). Also, mapping reports confirmEthiopia’s high vulnerability to climate change with the least capacity to respond topossible consequences (McSweeney, New, and Lizcano 2008; Falco, Veronesi, andYesuf 2011). NMA (2007) and Georgis (2010) list high dependency on rainfall,

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under-development of water resources, high population growth rate, low adaptivecapacity, weak institutions and lack of awareness as reasons for the high vulnerabilityof Ethiopia. According to Funk et al. (2012) fast population growth and the expansion offarming and pastoralism under a drier, warmer climate could considerably increase thenumber of at-risk people in Ethiopia.

It is generally agreed that adapting to climate change is the best option at hand tominimize impacts and risks, and possibly harness new opportunities. The definition ofadaptation best suited for this study is given by Pielke (1998, 159) as ‘the adjustment inindividual, group and institutional behaviour in order to reduce society’s vulnerabilitiesto climate’. Agrawal (2008) stresses that how people respond to the impacts of climatechange and variability often determines their prospects for growth, equity, and sustain-ability. According to Bryan, Deressa, and Gbetibouo (2009) adaptation of the agriculturalsector to the adverse effects of climate change is imperative to protect the livelihoodsof the poor and to ensure food security. Akponikpè, Johnston, and Agbossou (2010)also underline that adequate and relevant agricultural adaptation strategies are the onlysolution for poor populations. However, adapting agriculture to climate change hasproven to be a complex process. Hope (2009) and Bryan, Deressa, and Gbetibouo (2009)also stress that a successful adaptation in agriculture is usually multi-dimensional andrequires a well coordinated action by relevant stakeholders.

Observed Trends and Policy Responses

According to Georgis (2010), Nelson et al. (2009) and Hulme et al. (2001) Africa iswarming at a faster pace and is likely to continue to do so. Boko et al. (2007) noted thatthere have been decadal warming rates of 0.29° Celsius in African tropical forests and0.10–0.3° Celsius in Ethiopia and South Africa. Also, Barrios, Bertinelli, and Strobl(2006) state that generally there has been a decline in rainfall on the African continentsince the 1960s.

Agrawal (2008), Adem and Bewket (2011) and Simpson and Burpee (2014) describechanges in mean temperatures and precipitation, greater range in seasonal and inter-annual variation, change in frequency and intensity of extreme events, and destructivetransformations of ecosystems as the main manifestations of climate change. Georgis(2010) confirms weather variability and the frequencies of extreme events have increasedover recent times in Ethiopia. Previous research shows an overall decline for rainfall inmost major dry land areas of Ethiopia and interviews with farmers across the nation alsoconfirmed the same experience (Deressa et al. 2009). There were observed changes inmean annual temperature (0.28° Celsius increase per decade) between 1960 and 2006(McSweeney, New, and Lizcano 2008) and changes in precipitation and rainfall areexpected to show changes in the coming decades (NMA 2006).

Summarized data (adapted from Keller 2009) of past-observed trends, as well as futureprojections (from 1920–2040) of rainfall and precipitation show similar results (Figure 1).

It is globally accepted that strategies to control probable causes of climate change andmitigate its impacts are best coordinated and implemented at national level. Accordingly,the Ethiopian government launched its own National Adaptation Programmes of Action(NAPA) and Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA) in 2007 and 2010 respec-tively and recently completed Ethiopian Program of Adaptation to Climate Change(EPACC). Capacity-building, improving natural resource management, enhancing irrigation

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and water harvesting, strengthening early warning systems and awareness creation wereidentified as priority projects to address adaptation needs of the country (NMA 2007).

Role of Extension Service

Institutions play an important role in adaptation at multiple scales – from inception totransfer of technologies, and access to agricultural innovations by vulnerable smallholders(Lybbert and Sumner 2012). Agrawal (2008) highlights the influence of institutions inadaptation and climate vulnerability in the following critical ways: first, they shapeimpacts and vulnerability in social and ecological contexts; second, institutions mediatebetween individual and collective responses to climate impacts and thereby influence theoutcomes of adaptation; finally they act as the means of delivery of external resources tofacilitate adaptation, and thus govern access to resources such as information, technology,funds, and leadership. However, there needs to be changes in knowledge, attitudes,resilience capacities, and skills of the relevant service providers and institutions (Ozor andCynthia 2011).

Agricultural extension, according to Leeuwis (2006, 26), is ‘a series of embedded com-municative interventions that are meant, among other things, to develop and/or induceinnovations which help to resolve (usually multi-actor) challenges’. The public agricul-tural extension service under the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development(MoARD) is primarily responsible for providing such services to the agricultural sectorin Ethiopia as well. The extension system has federal and regional dimensions, with theWoreda (district) Offices of Agriculture and Rural Development (OoARD) being thelowest in the hierarchy (Gebremedhin 2006). Here, the core institutions are the AgricultureTechnical and Vocational Education and Training (ATVET) centers and the FarmerTraining Centers (FTCs), which are currently producing, as well as using, extension agents(EAs) (MoARD 2010). The ATVET centers provide education to the majority of EAsin five disciplines (i.e., animal science, animal health, agricultural cooperatives develop-ment, natural resources, and plant science) using a curriculum introduced by MoARD(Davis et al. 2010).

It is known that extension services have the potential to influence farmers’ decision tochange their farming practices in response to climate change (Nhemachena and Hassan

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Figure 1. Observed precipitation and temperature changes in Ethiopia with simulated changes by22/23 GCMs* (the light colored lines show observations likely flawed by network density changes

and measurement errors in the first half of 20th century). Source: Keller 2009.

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2007; Maddison 2007; Falco, Veronesi, and Yesuf 2011). A study on EAs in southernEthiopia states that effectiveness of extension work highly depends on the availability ofextension professionals who are qualified, motivated, committed and responsive (Belayand Abebaw 2004). Research conducted in some African countries show many front-lineextension staff in Africa lack competences such as knowledge, skills and attitude thatthey need in order to be effective in their work (Lindley 2000). This underlines thenecessity for EAs to be equipped with the right knowledge and information required toprovide advisory service that can successfully show alternatives and initiate attitudinalchange. Simpson and Burpee (2014) also confirm that EAs will need to programmaticallyprepare in order to help farmers undertake a succession of adaptive responses to emergingchallenges of climate change.

Research Objectives

Adaptiveness presupposes adaptive capacity and those affected by climate change expectrelevant entities to facilitate processes and enabling conditions on adaptation to climatechange (Speranza, Kiteme, and Opondo 2009). However, not much is known aboutcurrent awareness and preparedness of the Ethiopian agriculture extension system andextension agents (EAs).

This information gap can be a major constraint when it comes to evaluating theadaptation process and devising efficient agricultural adaptation and mitigationapproaches required to face impacts of climate change.

Therefore, the objective of this paper is to provide a micro-level analysis on:

. the level of priority given to climate change and adaptation in the extension serviceand investigate capacity-building efforts

. EAs’ overall perception of certain issues regarding climate change and adaptation,and to develop a general reflection on how the extension system is responding tothe challenge

Methodology

Study Area

The research was carried out around Addis Ababa, the economic and political capital ofEthiopia. The research area was selected on the basis of socio-economic and agro-ecological characteristics, i.e. farming population density, involvement in agriculturalactivities, as well as availability and accessibility of EAs. Timeframe and budget allocatedfor data collection were also considered.

Addis Ababa is located 2,408 meters above sea level with average daily temperature ofabout 16° Celsius, having a mean annual precipitation of about 1180 millimeters and auni-modal rainfall regime starting from June to September (CSA 2002).

The region includes urban and peri-urban areas. There are ten administrative districts inand around Addis Ababa, seven of these are peri-urban and have agriculture offices thatprovide various extension services. The peri-urban areas where data were collected arewidely involved in various agricultural activities and are typical of rural areas of Ethiopia.

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Investigative Techniques

Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were employed for primary data collection(i.e., a mixed method approach) which is advised to better explore and explain theresearch aims and objectives (Hall and Howard 2008), and also to provide multipleapproaches in answering research questions, rather than restricting or constrainingresearchers’ choices (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie 2004). Similar studies on climate changeperceptions show that conducting surveys and then comparing the responses withavailable data is among the most common approaches (Thomas et al. 2007; Deressa,Hassan, and Ringler 2011).

Accordingly, semi-structured key-informant interviews consisting of four fundamentalthemes to investigate the level of priority given to climate change, the responses of theextension system, capacity-building efforts and farm-level interventions were designed.Survey questionnaires (consisting of 24 questions, both closed and open ended) were alsodesigned with the following main sections;

. social background of extension agents

. opinions on climate change

. training opportunities, access to resources on climate change and adaptation, andsources of information

. climate change risk perceptions and observed changes in weather patterns

Sampling, Data Collection and Analysis

Samples were used to select respondents as it is common to systematically select a sampleof the population under study when complete coverage is impractical or unnecessary(Sarantakos 2005). Resources available, analysis (type and number of comparisons), andsample homogeneity were considered in deciding the sample size.

Four districts (i.e., Akaki, Nefasilk Lafto, Gulele and Yeka) were selected out of theseven in and around Addis Ababa based on their involvement in agriculture, number andavailability of active EAs (minimum of 15) and accessibility for transport. Afterwards,agents who had two years or more work experience as EAs were selected and surveyquestionnaires were administrated to a total of 60 EAs (15 from each of the four districts)from July to September 2012 following pre-test.

Detailed semi-structured interviews were also conducted with three key informants atmanagement positions (i.e., the Head of Akaki District Agricultural Office, the Head ofSocioeconomics and Research Extension at Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research(EIAR), and the Head of Agricultural Extension of Addis Ababa Agricultural Bureau) toget a general reflection on how the extension system is responding. The three keyinformants were selected by the researcher using purposive sampling, based on the highlevel of responsibilities of these individuals.

The quantitative data was analyzed using statistical software (PASW 18.0: ChicagoSPSS Inc.)

Descriptive statistics (frequency distribution, percentages, measures of central tendencyand variability) were used to describe the data. Cross-tabulations and T-tests were used toexamine relationships between variables.

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Results

Priority Given to Climate Change

Each of the three key informants was questioned on the level of priority given to climatechange and adaptation in the extension system. The Head of Akaki District AgriculturalOffice and the Head of Agricultural Extension at Addis Ababa Agricultural Bureaureported that there was no clear policy or strategy currently in place giving the issuespecial priority. However, the Head of Socioeconomics and Research Extension at EIARsaid mainstreaming climate change in agricultural research (together with household foodsecurity and technology dissemination) was one of the three pillar projects beingundertaken at national level, and that efforts are being made to make sure generatedtechnologies are climate change sensitive.

Dissemination of climate change-sensitive agricultural technologies, promoting sustain-able land use and rehabilitating degraded areas, promoting soil and water conservationmethods, farm diversification, and agro-forestry were mentioned by all three intervieweesas the main actions with regard to how the extension system is responding to climatechange. In addition to the above, according to the Head of Socioeconomics and ResearchExtension at EIAR, integrated farming and conservation agriculture are getting moreattention in extension messages, and research is being done to determine the adoption ofimproved technologies, to characterize adaptive strategies, and to investigate determinantsof adaptive capacity with respect to climate change. The output of such research isexpected to provide estimates of vulnerability of farming communities, and provide ameans of enhancing their adaptive capacity. Also, the Socioeconomics and ResearchExtension department at EIAR is involved in preparing promotional materials, trainingmanuals and production guidelines for extension workers and producers with regard totechnologies useful in adapting agriculture to climate change.

Concerning capacity-building efforts (current and planned) to enhance the knowledgeof extension staff and/or capacity of the extension service on climate change andadaptation, two of the interviewees responded that there were short-term training,workshops or seminars in recent years, the exception was the Head of Akaki DistrictAgricultural Office, who claimed that there were no such opportunities so far. However,the two interviewees who indicated that they had exposure to such capacity-buildingopportunities mentioned that these events were not an integral part of their work-plan andalmost all were initiated and carried out by external institutions. This can explain thedifferent perceptions about the access to capacity-building opportunities. More impor-tantly, all the key informants said they are not aware of any current or future strategyaimed at enhancing the knowledge and capacity of extension staff on the issue.

On what is being done at field level to support farmers and facilitate adaptation, allthree key informants mentioned training, on-farm research trials and demonstration ofclimate change sensitive agricultural technologies as the main means of support andfacilitation. The head of Socioeconomics and Research Extension at EIAR additionallymentioned creating and strengthening of Farmer Research and Extension Groups(FREGs) also formerly known as Farmer Research Groups (FRGs) at local agriculturalresearch centers, and using them for provision of different resources and trainingmaterials to Farmer Training Centers (FTCs) to facilitate scaling up/out of climate changesensitive technologies and alternative farming systems.

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Social Background of Extension Agents

Out of the 60 respondents 25% were female and 75% were male, and their ages rangedbetween 22 and 58 years with mean age of 31. The survey also revealed the majority ofEAs (58%) were 30 years old or under, and had a working experience in the extensionsystem ranging from a minimum of two years to 37 years with an arithmetic mean of8.8 years. About half of the respondents had experience of six years or less, and similarproportion graduated in the last eight years.

The survey data showed 46.7% of respondents had a diploma qualification, followedby first degree (35%); certificate (11.7%); second degree (5%); secondary schoolgraduates (1.7%). The highest proportion of respondents worked on crop production(38.3%), followed by animal production and health (26.7%). Natural resource, forestry,energy and soil conservation sector take up 10%. The sectors of agricultural input,irrigation, land management and development, and agricultural produce marketing sectorstogether made up the remaining 25%.

Opinions on Climate Change

Some 71.7% of EAs agreed climate change is indeed taking place, 18.3% said they didnot know and six respondents (10%) said climate is not changing.

The various levels of qualifications were grouped into two (that is, respondents with adegree and those without a degree) to examine association between the levels ofeducation of EAs and their response on whether or not climate change is taking place.The result showed a higher proportion of respondents without degree (75%) believed thatclimate is changing compared to those with degrees (66.7%). Interestingly, higher numberof EAs with degrees responded that they did not know whether or not climate is changing(25%), while only 13.9% of those without degree gave same response. However,statistical significance and strength of this relationship cannot be commented on due tolimitation of samples for chi square test.

Additional analysis was executed to examine the relationship between the respondents’age and their attitude on whether or not climate is changing, and the association betweenthe two was found to be highly insignificant (t = 0.259; df = 47; Sig = 0.85), as the meanage of those who said climate is changing was 31.2 years while that of respondents whosaid climate is not changing was 30.3 years.

Responses on whether or not climate is changing at global or national level differedacross gender. A much higher proportion of women (86.7%) believed climate change istaking place, while 66.7% of male respondents believed so. Some 11.1% of male EAsbelieved that climate is not changing which is slightly higher than percentage of womenwith the same opinion (6.7%). Even though significance of the relationship betweenresponses given and gender cannot be statistically proved, the results suggest a higherproportion of women tend to believe climate is changing.

Training Opportunities, Access to Resources and Sources of Information

When asked if the respondents believe they have adequate access to resources aboutclimate change and adaptation (such as policies and strategies, up to date information,easily available and user-friendly data, scientific publications, reading materials and

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manuals, etc.), the highest proportion (56.9%) said they did not know, only 20.7%believed they have adequate access and 22.4% did not think so.

Extension Agents were then asked to select from a list of possible information sourcesthat they have (or they would) used regarding climate change and adaptation. Mass media(including local radio, television and newspapers) were the most frequently mentionedsources of information (n = 29) followed by training, workshops and seminars (n = 23).Scientific reports and experts in the extension system were each mentioned 16 times, andInternet 13 times. Local agriculture research centers and/or researchers were the leastmentioned source of information (n = 6).

Analysis carried out to find out what proportion of EAs had previous chance to buildand update their knowledge particularly on climate change and adaptation showed thatthe majority of EAs (56.7%) have not received any type of training or attended anyseminar, workshop or similar event. However, the remaining 43.3% had some kind ofexposure to the matter at least once. The data also revealed all of the respondents whohad exposure did so in the last five years (from 2007 to 2012).

Analysis executed to examine the association between previous training exposure andbelief on whether or not climate change is taking place indicated there is hardly adifference in response between those with previous training exposure and those withoutthe opportunity. Chi square test also confirmed that the difference between the groups isnot statistically significant (chi sq = 0.277; df = 2; Sig = 0.871).

With regards to awareness of any changes in the messages of extension system inresponse to climate change, 50.9% of respondents said they were aware of such changesand 49.1% responded they did not know.

Risk Perceptions and Observed Changes in Weather Patterns

The overwhelming majority of respondents (91.5%) agreed that climate change has/willhave impact on the agricultural sector.

To further investigate EAs’ understanding of the extent of risk posed by climate changeon agricultural sectors and availability and use of natural resources, the respondents wereasked to give their opinions. As the summary shows (Table 1) the majority of EAsbelieved that climate change affects (or it will affect in the near future) crop production,animal production and husbandry, and natural resource management to a very high orhigh degree.

With regard to whether or not human activities (such as urbanization, industrialization,agriculture etc.) affect climate change in anyway, 72.4% of EAs agreed human actionsaffect climate; 17.2% did not believe so; 10.3% stated they didn’t know.

Regarding the level of priority given to climate change and adaptation by the extensionsystem, only about a quarter of respondents said climate change and adaptation are one ofthe top priorities, while 59.6% believed the extension system should give more attentionto the matter.

Individual observations of weather patterns and frequency of extreme events wereincluded in the survey questionnaire as supplementary indicators of EAs awareness. Thiswas on the basis of their personal experience as EAs and/or if they have agrarian socialbackground over their lifetime. According to the results (summarized in Table 2) themajority of respondents stated they have witnessed a decrease in rainfall amount, an

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increase in temperature and drought frequency, as well as changes in rainfallpredictability, distribution and timing.

Climate Change Awareness Index

An index was developed to get a somewhat general depiction of how aware therespondents are after selected variables were first re-coded on right/wrong basis and thengiven points. Here it is important to state that the awareness index is not meant to be adefinitive and comprehensive evaluation, but rather a preliminary check to assess whetherEAs are conscious of certain basic issues (that climate change is taking place and humanactivities have a part, that it has impact on agriculture, and whether they have madecorrect observations on weather variability).

Table 1. Summary of responses on the extent of climate change impacts

Sector Scale N° % Cumulative %

Crop production Very high degree of impact 34 58.6 58.6High degree of impact 20 34.5 93.1Small degree of impact 4 6.9 100No influence 0 0I don’t know 0 0

n = 58 100%Animal productionand husbandry

Very high degree of impact 23 39.7 39.7

High degree of impact 21 36.2 75.9Small degree of impact 10 17.2 93.1No influence 1 1.7 94.8I don’t know 3 5.2 100.0

n = 58 100%Natural resources(use and/oravailability)

Very high degree of impact 29 50.0 50.0

High degree of Impact 13 22.4 72.4Small degree of impact 10 17.2 89.7No influence 1 1.7 91.4I don’t know 5 8.6 100.0

n = 58 100%

Table 2. Summary of responses regarding changes in weather patterns

Indicator No change Increased Decreased I don’t know

N° % N° % N° % N° %Rainfall (amount) n = 59 6 10.2 4 6.8 48 81.4 1 1.7Temperature n = 59 2 3.4 55 93.2 2 3.4 - -Drought (frequency) n = 59 6 10.2 35 59.3 3 5.1 15 25.4Flood (frequency) n = 59 13 22 28 47.5 5 8.5 13 22

Indicator No change There is change I don’t knowN° % N° % N° %

Rainfall (predictability) n = 59 2 3.4 55 93.2 2 3.4Rainfall (distribution) n = 58 5 8.6 40 69 13 22.4

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For this purpose, each response on the following variables was cross-checked withwidely accepted literature findings and available recorded climate data (both national andinternational):

. responses on whether climate is changing at global or national level

. responses on whether various human activities affect climate in anyway

. observed changes in temperature at national level

. observed changes in rainfall amount at national level

. responses on whether or not climate change has an impact on the agricultural sector

Various literature confirm that climate is changing at national and global levels (IPCC2007; Hope 2009; UNDP 2007; Georgis 2010; IPCC 2014; Nelson et al. 2009). Also it isaccepted that different human activities affect climate in various ways (IPCC 2007; Ademand Bewket 2011; Ozor and Cynthia 2011).

The fact that climate change already has, and will continue to impact on agriculturedirectly and indirectly is well documented (Lybbert and Sumner 2012; Dhaka, Chayal,and Poonia 2010; Nelson et al. 2009; Ozor and Cynthia 2011; Nederlof, Wennink, andHeemskerk 2010).

Data regarding weather variability in Ethiopia including temperature and rainfallamount changes are given in Georgis (2010), Keller (2009), Funk et al. (2012), Deressaet al. (2009) and McSweeney, New, and Lizcano (2008).

Then the points were added yielding scores on a 0–5 scale, with a score of 5 meaningall five responses were correct, and a score of 0 meaning all given responses wereincorrect (according to the above literature). Frequency analysis is summarized inFigure 2.

For the purpose of running analysis and categorizing responses, the sum of scores forclimate change awareness index were grouped into two categories, that is, respondentswho scored between 0 and 3 were labeled as the ‘Less Aware’ group; and respondents

Score 15%

Score 23%

Score 330%

Score 449%

Score 513%

Figure 2. Climate change awareness index scores and their respective percentage.

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who scored between 4 and 5 were labeled as the ‘More Aware’ group. Some 38.3% oftotal respondents fell into the ‘Less Aware’ group while 61.7% belonged to the ‘MoreAware’ group, getting only one or two responses wrong. Further analysis was executed toinvestigate if climate change awareness index scores differed across gender, and theresult showed that a higher proportion of females fell in the ‘More aware’ group (80%)compared to males (55.6%).

The means of scores in climate change awareness index were compared with previousexposure to training opportunities to check possible association between the two, and theresults revealed that the means of scores between the two groups were not statisticallysignificantly different (t = 0.150; Sig = 0.980; df = 58), suggesting that climate changeawareness was not influenced by previous exposure to training.

Also, analysis on EAs’ work experience and scores in climate change awareness indexrevealed that the correlation between the two variables is very weak and not statisticallysignificant (Pearson Correlation –.179; Sig = 0.172).

Finally, analysis to find out if scores in climate change awareness index differed acrossthe two groups of educational qualifications (i.e., respondents with a degree and thosewithout) showed there was no statistically significant difference between means of scoresamong the two groups (t = 0.056; df = 58; Sig = 0.822).

Discussion

Both the literature reviewed and the primary data presented in this paper indicate that thegovernment of Ethiopia has given increased attention to the agricultural extension systemin recent years. The fact that nearly half of the EAs had work experience of six years orless and that all EAs who had previous exposure to training opportunities particularly onclimate change and adaptation did so in the last five years is possibly an outcome of this.According to Davis et al. (2010) the number of Agriculture Technical & VocationalEducation and Training (ATVET) colleges and graduating EAs has increaseddramatically.

However, the evidence from both the literature and the results presented in the presentpaper indicate that there is no clear sign of mainstreaming climate change in ATVETcurriculums. This should be investigated and reconsidered as pre-service climate changeand adaptation education is vital to prepare EAs to face rising technical andmethodological challenges (Simpson and Burpee 2014). Furthermore, IPCC (2014)describe adaptation itself as a social learning process and highlights educational programson climate change and adaptation as critical factors in building social resilience fromindividual to institutional levels.

Regarding the level of priority given to climate change and adaptation in the extensionsystem, the key informant responses reported in this paper imply lack of commonunderstanding among decision-makers at different positions. The survey analysis alsoreveals that only about a quarter of EAs believe climate change and adaptation is one of thetop priorities, while half of the EAs are not aware of any changes in extension messages andpriorities as a response to climate change. Integration in adaptation planning and decision-making process is crucial in embedding climate sensitive thinking in existing and newinstitutions (IPCC 2014). Moreover, lack of a synchronized strategy and commonunderstanding on climate change can undermine adaptation efforts significantly. Aaheimet al. (2008) and Reid, Huq, and Murray (2003) stress such unorganized approaches tend to

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make efforts autonomous and unconscious (also known as spontaneous adaptation),triggered by ecological and other stress; while planned adaptation is a long-term solutionrooted in awareness, deliberate policies and action needed to moderate the situation.

The information gathered on capacity-building efforts is somewhat concerning. Themajority of the EAs in the survey responded that they don’t know if they have access torelevant resources and similar proportion of EAs claimed they never had any type ofexposure or training on climate change and adaptation. The key informants also indicatedthat there are no current (or future) coordinated and planned strategies to build staffawareness on the issue. Moreover, the effectiveness of previous training is questionableas quantitative analysis showed previous efforts had little effect when it came toinfluencing EAs’ attitudes. More coherent work needs to be done on this as adaptationrequires adequate information on risks and vulnerabilities in order to identify needs andappropriate adaptation options to reduce risks and build resilience (IPCC 2014).

Measures specified by the key informants as responses to climate change beingundertaken by the extension system are indeed ideal to support adaptation and buildresilience via diversification of incomes, stable yields and long-term ecological benefits.Farming systems such as agro-forestry have been found to be promising in parts of Africa(WB 2008; Simpson and Burpee 2014). Making use of biodiversity in crops and wildplants, and integration of livestock into farming systems have been documented asadaptive strategies in Nigeria (Morton 2007). At the same time, increasing implementa-tions of soil and water conservation techniques have also been observed in severalAfrican countries as adaption measures (Wit 2006; Simpson and Burpee 2014).According to IPCC (2014) the above measures and climate change-sensitive technologydisseminations (via Farmer Research Groups/Training Centers) fall under physical(technological and ecosystem based) and social (educational, behavioral and informa-tional) categories of adaptation options. Nevertheless, various socioeconomic and otherchallenges remain when it comes to large scale adoption of such technologies (WB 2008;Bryan et al. 2009).

When it comes to EAs’ opinions regarding basic issues on climate change and itspossible impact on the agricultural sector it can be said the majority of respondents are onthe right track. That is, numerous research findings confirm that climate is changing(IPCC 2007; Hope 2009; UNDP 2007; Georgis 2010; IPCC 2014; Nelson et al. 2009).Also, literature shows that climate change already has, and will continue to impacton agriculture directly and indirectly (Lybbert and Sumner 2012; Dhaka, Chayal, andPoonia 2010; Nelson et al. 2009; Ozor and Cynthia 2011; Nederlof, Wennink, andHeemskerk 2010).

The majority of respondents also agreed on decreased rainfall, increased temperature,increased drought frequency, and changes in rainfall predictability and distribution.Literature also confirms weather variability has increased in Ethiopia over recent decadesand generally supports the above observations (Deressa et al. 2009; McSweeney, New,and Lizcano 2008; Georgis 2010; Funk et al. 2012).

Local agricultural research centers were among the least mentioned sources ofinformation for EAs when it came to climate change and adaptation, implying thatcooperation and linkage between research centers and the extension system/EAs areweak. IPCC (2014) underline the importance of shared learning on adaptation and thatresearch partnerships and networks are vital in knowledge exchange and awareness-raising from individual to institutional levels. The most frequently mentioned source of

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supplementary information by EAs (i.e., mass media) should be further exploited in acareful manner. According to Boykoff (2008) media have the potential to effectivelycommunicate as well as the potential to misrepresent, misunderstand, distort andmisinform the climate science they cover.

No statistically significant relationship was observed between climate changeawareness and work experience, awareness and levels of education, or between aware-ness and previous exposure to training opportunities. A more comprehensive measurefor awareness (with additional indicators and larger sample size) should be developedto investigate the relationship between awareness and relevant independent variablesin depth.

Conclusions

The evidence from primary and secondary data as well as consecutive analysis indicatethat there are gaps when it comes to climate change and adaptation particularly in capacity-building efforts, mainstreaming climate change education in ATVET curriculums, linkagebetween EAs and relevant stakeholders, and access to relevant resources.

Approaches and measures mentioned by the three key informants as responses toclimate change are indeed ideal options at hand to support adaptation and reduce thevulnerability of rural communities. Moreover, involvements of the extension system(at the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research) in research concerning adaptivestrategies and capacities, as well as vulnerability estimations provide the basis for thedevelopment of appropriate adaptation policies and strategies.

The consensus among EAs regarding possible impact of climate change on theagricultural sector, changes in weather patterns and frequency of extreme events, togetherwith EAs’ scores in climate change awareness, imply that the majority of EAs areconscious and aware that climate is indeed changing and that it poses certain new risks.

Overall, the outcomes of this research point out the need to clearly set the level ofpriority towards climate change and adaptation and establish a solid strategy in theextension system. Also, more should be done to improve EAs’ access to relevant andupdated scientific resources. It is imperative that capacity-building efforts focusing onclimate change and adaptation should be planned for the future in a coordinated andeffective manner. Finally, knowledge and information exchange between relevantstakeholders (especially agricultural research centers) and EAs should be improved andexploited to enhance extension services.

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