Extending the theory of metaphor in marketing: The case of the art gallery

This article was downloaded by: [La Trobe University]On: 07 November 2012, At: 17:57Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Marketing ManagementPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjmm20

Extending the theory of metaphor inmarketing: The case of the art galleryRuth Rentschler a , Uma Jogulu a , Anne Kershaw a & AngelaOsborne aa Deakin University, Melbourne, AustraliaVersion of record first published: 11 Oct 2012.

To cite this article: Ruth Rentschler, Uma Jogulu, Anne Kershaw & Angela Osborne (2012):Extending the theory of metaphor in marketing: The case of the art gallery, Journal of MarketingManagement, 28:11-12, 1464-1485

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2012.715090

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representationthat the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of anyinstructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primarysources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings,demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly orindirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjmm20

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2012.715090

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Journal of Marketing ManagementVol. 28, Nos. 11–12, October 2012, 1464–1485

Extending the theory of metaphor in marketing: Thecase of the art gallery

Ruth Rentschler, Deakin University, Melbourne, AustraliaUma Jogulu, Deakin University, Melbourne, AustraliaAnne Kershaw, Deakin University, Melbourne, AustraliaAngela Osborne, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia

Abstract This study analyses the metaphor of spirituality in the non-profit artgallery, a metaphor overlooked in previous marketing research. Using contentanalysis and interviews in a single depth case study, this article illustrates howspirituality has been a staple in the non-profit art gallery over time. It was foundthat even though the non-profit art gallery acknowledges its use of spirituality,it has a paradoxical attitude to it. Therefore this article (a) traces the historicalinfluences that led to the extension of metaphor in the art gallery and itsrelationship to marketing theory, and (b) draws on Hunt and Menon (1995) toidentify deliberate and emergent strategies using metaphor in the non-profitcultural organisation.

Keywords non-profit marketing; metaphor; art gallery; case study

Introduction

Metaphor, by virtue of its capacity to engage and attract human thoughts (Ortony,1993) through revelation of a special truth about certain phenomena (Inkson, 2007),is a powerful way of summarising an event, picturing an occasion, or making anassociation. Metaphor is employed as a strategy by contemporary marketers in thedevelopment of brand personality, ‘a set of characteristics associated with a brand’(Aaker, 1997, p. 347). Metaphoric transfer of characteristics of the primary subject –the art gallery – provokes an association of those characteristics with the secondarysubject – spirituality.

Metaphor is used widely in the marketing literature. Also, metaphor is usedextensively in the museology literature on art galleries. Despite the importance ofmetaphor in marketing and the centrality of telling stories to a gallery’s positioning,nowhere does this unity appear to have been explored in the marketing literature.In this article, we combine the museology literature with the marketing and metaphorliterature to identify and explicate the metaphor of spirituality in the art gallery.In so doing, we extend the conceptual research on marketing metaphor by Hunt and

ISSN 0267-257X print/ISSN 1472-1376 online© 2012 Westburn Publishers Ltd.http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2012.715090http://www.tandfonline.com

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012

Rentschler et al. Extending the theory of metaphor in marketing 1465

Menon (1995) from the commercial realm to the non-profit cultural realm, usinga case of the non-profit art gallery as our example. Through the deliberate andemergent metaphoric transfer of aspects of experience associated with spirituality,in particular illumination and change, art galleries are a space in which the visitoris encouraged to engage with a transformative experience. We trace the use ofspirituality as a metaphor, examining it as an historical and a contemporary concept(Falk, 2006; O’Malley, Patterson, & Kelly-Holmes, 2008). For example, we explicatethat in a changing marketplace, there are advocates and critiques of the metaphor ofspirituality in the gallery, where galleries are portrayed as ‘civic temples’, ‘sanctuaries’devoted to the ‘muses of mythology’ whose experiences are ‘sacred’, with the‘spiritual aspects’ belonging to the architecture, the experience, and the art, called‘objects’ in the museology literature. Notwithstanding the extensive use of themetaphor of spirituality in museology, and the importance of metaphor to marketingconversations, its potential has been overlooked in the marketing literature.

The rest of this paper relates metaphor to museums and marketing, defines andoutlines the contemporary and historical use of the term spirituality in art galleries,details the research approach, and relates the literature and theory to the casestudy. In conclusion, we discuss how the paper extends marketing theory and anunderstanding of metaphor in the non-profit domain.

Background

Metaphor has been at the centre of robust debate within the marketing andmanagement literature, both in this journal and elsewhere (Cornelissen & Harris,2001; Gioia, Schultz, & Corley, 2002a, 2002b). Although metaphor has beenexamined, particularly in the context of brand building (see, e.g., Herman, 2003),there has been little prior work examining metaphor as a concept in marketing in thenon-profit sector.

One of the values that is looked for in art galleries is spirituality and whetherit has been delivered (Bourgeon-Renault, Urbain, Petr, Marine Le, & Gombault,2006; Chen, 2009). The notion of spirituality in the non-profit art gallery is usedrepeatedly and frequently, as the case study illustrates. However, it is also used ina way that connotes a paradox, and spirituality works against the metaphor on thesurface level but reinforces it at other levels, in the architecture, experience, and artobjects exhibited.

This study of the National Gallery of Victoria (NGV) is Australian, which couldbe seen as a limitation. However, as Duncan (1995) observes, art galleries are aninternational subject, as indeed is the art market. The NGV is a ‘star’ gallery. In thisrespect, this gallery joins a longer international history of producers and consumersinvolved in collecting institutions from early days. Its location in the heart of thecity contributes to its profile and helps deliver stories of its ‘brand spirit’ and artistsas people or celebrities. In its mission, the Gallery has developed and employedstrategies which use metaphor in order to enact a broader set of goals.

A major contribution of this paper is that we draw on the work of Hunt andMenon (1995) to demonstrate the strategic use of metaphoric transfer in marketingin the non-profit cultural domain. Hunt and Menon (1995) examine relevant andvalid metaphors from linguistic construction as well as metaphoric transfers; theirclassic article illuminates the metaphors of war, game, organism, and marriage fromthe military, sport, biology, and sociology respectively.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012

1466 Journal of Marketing Management, Volume 28

Museums and metaphor

There is little agreement on definitions and limited theory development or conceptualunderstanding of metaphor in organisational life (Cornelissen & Harris, 2001).Metaphor is a pervasive, influential, and powerful linguistic tool which has thepotential to shape perception. Metaphor is not rule bound, and thus is located withinthe realm of linguistic creativity (Bauer, 2001, p. 63). Metaphoric imagery is saidto be ubiquitous to the extent that it is often almost inconspicuous in its influence(Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p. 23). Metaphor is used to transform an experience,either historical or contemporary.

While it has pervaded the marketing literatures, we have yet to realise the fullpotential of metaphor in marketing in the non-profit sector (Hunt & Menon, 1995).Hunt and Menon’s (1995) classic article appeared more than a decade ago. However,little progress has been made in the intervening years to extend our understanding ofthe use of metaphor, especially in the non-profit sector. For example, galleries havelong been referred to as cathedrals or temples for the muses (Committee of Inquiryon Museums and National Collections, 1975; Lee, 1972), both of which profferthe metaphor of a gallery as a place of religious contemplation. But it is only morerecently that metaphor has been used for marketing purposes in a non-profit gallery.

Metaphors may also play a unique role in the marketing of art galleries, onedetermined by the distinctive form of value museums provide. Many people whonever visit galleries hold them in the highest regard – a paradox observed by manymuseum workers (O’Neill, 2002). The most ardent supporters and advocates ofart galleries (as well as their critics) might rarely set foot in the door. Withoutdirect experience of them, these stakeholders value galleries for the qualities andopportunities with which they are associated. In such cases, metaphor embodies thepotential or inferred value offered by art galleries.

What is spirituality?

Spirituality is an elusive concept, more often discussed implicitly rather thanexplicitly. Most commonly, spirituality is connected to discourse about a life forcewith a higher purpose. This higher purpose may take many guises. However, acore quality is that of transformation, which seeks to make sense of life throughinterconnecting aspects of things. Spirituality can be about an individual’s journeyto wholeness, an experience, a reaction to an object, or the building in which theobject is held that serves as a gateway to the sacred (Falk, 2006). Spirituality hasbeen linked to how people construct knowledge through symbolic and unconsciousstructuring processes manifested through image, symbol, art, and metaphor, oftenexpressed through imagination and creativity (Anker, 2008). When such expressionis shared with others, spirituality is seen to help to create community (Tolliver &Tisdell, 2006). It is in this transformative sense that spirituality is used in art galleries.

Art galleries and spirituality

The use of spirituality as a metaphor in art galleries acts to associate these institutionswith spiritual qualities. The spirituality metaphor functions as a positioningstatement – it imbues art galleries with virtues of enlightenment, transformation,

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


and authority. Duncan (1995) identifies three aspects of spirituality in art galleries.She acknowledges its influence in the architecture and design of art galleries, theexperience gained by visitors, and in the objects and art found in non-profit artgalleries. All three shape modern ritual in the art gallery. Each has been acknowledged(and critiqued) in the transformative role of art galleries.

In the 200 years since non-profit art collections were first conceived, art galleryarchitecture has borrowed extensively from monumental ceremonial structures suchas Greek and Roman temples. Acknowledging the Greek root of the term museum –museion – art galleries are described as the ‘sanctuary’ or ‘grove’ of the muses(Committee of Inquiry on Museums and National Collections, 1975; Simpson,1998; Spalding, 2002). These ‘sacred temples’ embody ‘wonder’ and ‘delight’(Brahnam; Duncan, 1995; Lee, 1972; Rice, 2003) and provide spaces for personalreflection, public processions, and encounters with ‘awesome and potent effigies’(Duncan, 1995, p. 10). Non-profit art galleries emerged at the same time that Kantand aesthetic theory acknowledged the aesthetic and moral powers of art objects(Duncan, 1995). From this philosophical perspective, art galleries provide locationfor transcendental aesthetic experiences (Whitehead, 2005). A museum becomes‘a repository for masterworks, to be conserved, as in a temple, and eventuallyto be worshipped, subjectively – not a religion in itself, but closely akin to areligious experience’ (Ripley, 1970, p. 127). Art gallery experiences are ‘sacred’ and‘deeply felt’ (Latham, 2007) – more than an encounter with art or something ofbeauty: the architecture, the experience, and the objects provide the opportunityfor personal reflection and change. Minimalist exhibition designs maximise theprofoundly affecting and transcendental nature of art objects (Whitehead, 2005).The fewer the objects and the less distracting the gallery space, the more sacred theencounter with the collection (Duncan, 1995, p. 17). In other words, the experienceand the object are central to the spirituality of the art gallery, which is reinforced byart gallery architecture.

The spiritual quality of artworks has also been considered from the perspective ofthe consumption value of art (Bourgeon-Renault et al., 2006; Chen, 2009). Holbrook(1999) defines individual consumption as relative and interactive, and identifies eightsources of consumption value – including spirituality. Chen’s (2009) study of thevalue perceptions of visitors to art galleries identifies the spiritual aspect of artworks.As Chen (2009) observes from interviews with art gallery visitors, ‘Art responds toquestions about reality and illusion, and provides the value of spirituality’ (p. 931).

The spirituality metaphor is not neutral, as O’Malley et al. (2008) argue aboutmetaphor in another context. It may be expressed in a laudatory way or a criticalsense. So while O’Malley et al. (2008) found that metaphor is typically useduncritically in the marketing literature, this article analyses it critically, identifyinguses of the metaphor to both advocate for and critique the art gallery. Since the1970s, a climate of change has heightened tensions in art galleries, as has long beenrecognised in conceptual and empirical museums literature (Griffin, 1987; Lee, 1972;Lindsay, 1966; McQuade, 1974; Missingham, 1973; Shestack, 1978). Spirituality as ashared language of experience has been criticised as exclusive, elitist, and class-based(Bourdieu, 1984).

‘Temple’ gallery architecture is both physical and perceptual. The majestic, templearchitecture provides the framework for the experience (Bennett, 1995; O’Neill,2002). As Mason (2005, p. 200) notes, ‘every aspect’ of a gallery site ‘communicates’,‘from the architectural style of the building or layout of the site, to the attendants atthe entrance’. In marketing parlance, this is part of the servicescape of the gallery.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


The metaphoric transfer between spirituality and the art gallery creates ‘realms ofenlightenment’ that inspire ‘awe’ and ‘wonder’; modern museum thinking requiresart galleries to share control with their audiences and engage in dialogue aboutmeaning and representation (see, e.g., Mason, 2005; Newman & McLean, 2006;O’Neill, 2002; Sandell, 1998). Art galleries aim to enable visitors to forge newconnections through engagement with and reflection upon the architecture, theexperience, and the objects. Duncan (1995) notes that ‘Museums do not simplyresemble temples architecturally; they work like temples, shrines and other suchmonuments’ (pp. 90–91). They induce a ‘willingness to shift to a state of receptivity’allowing personal transformation to occur.

The three elements of spirituality are summarised in Appendix 1 as the dominantdiscourses on spirituality in the art gallery context: spirituality in the architecture;spirituality in the experience; and spirituality in the objects in the collection.Appendix 1 summarises supporters and detractors of spirituality in art galleryliterature. While each aspect of the spirituality metaphor is identified as a separateand mutually exclusive category, a quick glance at the advocates and critiques columnsshow that this is not always the case.

Method

This study places its boundaries within the interpretive integrationist paradigm(Denzin, 1989) and hence assumes a close link between the role of art galleries andhow individuals experience and create meaning at these galleries. We answer thefollowing questions. What is the systemic character of the metaphor of spirituality asused by the National Gallery of Victoria? How does the National Gallery of Victoria’suse of the spirituality metaphor change over time?

Much of the published research on metaphor in marketing has been dominatedby conceptual work (Cornelissen & Harris, 2001; Hunt & Menon, 1995; Morgan& Smircich, 1980). Conceptual research provides a foundation for further work butleads to difficulty in countering conflicting views and opinions. This article takesa different approach. Building on the conceptual literature, we seek to provideempirical evidence of a metaphor used in the non-profit domain of the art gallery:spirituality. We examine how spirituality as a metaphor is employed at the Galleryusing longitudinal data since the Gallery was opened in 1861. In this respect, ourresearch operates on three levels: spirituality in the architecture, spirituality in theexperience, and spirituality in the objects in the collection.

We used historical and contemporary documents for analysis, adopting a mixedmethod technique to triangulate our findings. In this study, we integrate the principlesof robust qualitative research with the aim of a detailed content analysis of dataderived from both documents and in-depth interviews with staff. Although werecognise that this study is located within one case study site, we believe there isno right number of case studies. Indeed, in the Journal of Marketing Management,the use of a single case study has precedence (Herman, 2003).

Case study

As is typical of research based on qualitative research (Eisenhardt, 1989; Eisenhardt& Graebner, 2007), this study used an iterative approach to circle back and forthbetween data and concepts. The purpose of the case study is to identify themesthrough practical examples of how the art gallery applies the metaphor of spirituality.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


After identifying a theme in the literature, we sought additional field data forcomparison, a practice Yin (2009) describes as theoretical samplings. We use casestudy to understand the Gallery’s natural settings and its role in society, and recognisethe complexity in which the Gallery operates. This approach helps us preserve andbetter understand the wholeness of the case under investigation. The selection ofone Australian case follows arguments by Eisenhardt (1989) and Mintzberg (1979)that theory development and the understanding of phenomena can best be achievedby case study methods. Case study research is well established for investigating aphenomenon in situ which can enable researchers to uncover fresh perspectives (Yin,2009).

Document analysis

Throughout the research, our intent was to increase the authenticity andtrustworthiness of the data (Golden-Biddle & Locke, 2007). In order to do thisand as part of the case study, we analysed how spirituality was used in documents.Historical records were analysed from 1861 (when the art Gallery was established) to2010. Historical records analysed included memoirs, annual reports, strategic plans,exhibition catalogues, the Gallery members’ magazine, the Gallery academic journal,exhibition opening invitations, articles and press clippings from the media, bookspublished about the National Gallery of Victoria, and marketing material, such asbrochures, flyers, and online content. Initially, we trawled through every documentfor every year since the Gallery opened. Once we had a sense of the issues thatthe data uncovered, we focused on detailed analysis of documents every five years.We focused our attention on promotional material due to our interest in and objectiveof the paper in relation to the use of metaphor.

One researcher has a background in art history, another in museum studies, a thirdin linguistics, while a fourth has a background in management. This cross-disciplinaryteam enabled us to use our understanding of content analysis of historical narrativeas data, museology, marketing, and metaphor, thus taking a critical approach toboth primary and secondary sources from multiple perspectives. While uncommon inmarketing studies, this method has been proven useful, such as in marketing articlesby Fillis (2000) and Schroeder (2005).

Annual reports were collected for the period 1861–2010. Annual reports areprepared by art Gallery staff to report to stakeholders on its affairs and its concerns atthe time they were written. We analysed annual reports for every fifth year. Althoughthe format of annual reports varies by year, highlighting the use of spirituality inthem, these reports generally provide similar information that was extracted andanalysed thematically. The aim in analysing annual reports was to use content analysis(Krippendorf, 1980) as a tool of research to reveal periods of development in the artgallery context.

From this approach, two things can be inferred: first, in what way spirituality isconsidered metaphor, and second, what change in emphasis has occurred in the useof the spirituality metaphor over the years studied.

Interviews

We also conducted interviews with key staff, trustees, and volunteers. Interviewsvaried in length. Some were formal and of an hour’s duration. Others were informal

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


and were more like conversations with colleagues. Extensive notes were taken, butinterviews were not recorded. Overall, the interviews were more like ethnographicstudies in observation and discussion with various colleagues. As the Gallery is wellknown to the researchers, staff and volunteers were generous in sharing their viewsover time.

Case study

Historical approach to invoking spirituality

This account of the historical approach to using spirituality as a metaphor at theNational Gallery of Victoria focuses on the marketing story told over time. Thetransformative aspect of the spirituality metaphor is evident in the literature writtenby and about former Gallery directors. For example, Saunders (1984) traces thedevelopment of the Gallery under director Hall’s leadership (1892–1934). Saunders(1984) argues that Hall epitomised the artist/teacher as director, and she devotesmuch of her thesis to the dichotomy between Hall’s striving to develop his art andstriving to develop the Gallery’s collection. Saunders (1984) provides an instructiveaccount of the tensions in the art gallery in seeking to create a spiritual understandingof the objects in the collection.

Director Daryl Lindsay (1942–1956) is credited with transforming the Galleryfrom a ‘dull repository of pictures to a living institution playing a vital part in thelife of the community’ (The Age Art Critic, 1995, p. 14). It was during Lindsay’syears as director that exhibition activities increased significantly (National Galleryof Victoria, 1945–1955). By the end of Lindsay’s term, The Age newspaper creditsLindsay with taking ‘Australian art . . . [to] . . . a younger generation of artists . . .

clamouring for admission’ (The Age Art Critic, 1995, p. 14), reflecting the Galleryas a place of inspiration, education, and social connection which was perceived asspiritual. When Director Eric Westbrook (1956–1973) took over directorship of theNGV, he noted that under his predecessor ‘the whole character of the institution waschanged’ (authors’ emphasis; National Gallery of Victoria, 1956a, p. 1).

The Gallery produces a number of internal documents which employ thespirituality metaphor to varying degrees across time. Examples of use of thespirituality metaphor are provided in catalogues from the 1950s, such as Exhibitionof Modern Art 1956 (National Gallery of Victoria, 1956b) and Italian Art of the 20thCentury 1956 (National Gallery of Victoria, 1956c), which link abstract modernand contemporary art imagery. In the 1960s, the use of metaphor was evident incatalogue, text, and image through exhibition descriptions and main cover designs.Catalogues for exhibitions, such as Chagall (National Gallery of Victoria, 1966a),Conder (National Gallery of Victoria, 1966b), Emilio Greco (National Gallery ofVictoria, 1966c), Frater (National Gallery of Victoria, 1966d), Nolan (NationalGallery of Victoria, 1966e), and Rodin (National Gallery of Victoria, 1966f) in1966 and Marcel Duchamp (National Gallery of Victoria, 1969) in 1969, presentedimagery of objects and artefacts by these artists whose artworks embody and expressspirituality. Titles of exhibitions were descriptive, listing the artists’ names. Annualreports during this period were dull, text-heavy documents with no illustrations, seenas primarily a reporting mechanism to Parliament. While the use of the metaphorwas evident in exhibition catalogues, it was absent from exhibition titles and annualreports until the 1970s.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


The catalogue that accompanied the exhibition Air: A Philip Morris Exhibition inJune 1970 employed metaphoric transfer by using the concept of being in the air,floating in the heavens, to describe metaphorically the visitor’s experience as oneof ascension (National Gallery of Victoria, 1970). Ironically, the exhibition for thisconcept was sponsored by a tobacco company (National Gallery of Victoria, 1970,np). However, there was no implied criticism of this at the time.

As the decades proceed, exhibition titles shift, becoming more steeped inmetaphoric transfer than in description. With the beginning of blockbusterexhibitions in Australia during the 1970s, some international catalogues wereproduced, sponsored by major international companies like BOAC and BritishAirways. BOAC sponsored the John Constable Exhibition held in Melbourne, Sydney,and Auckland in 1973 (National Gallery of Victoria, 1973). During the late 1970sand early 1980s, the exhibitions Freedom from Prejudice, An Introduction to theAustralian Collection of the National Gallery of Victoria (National Gallery ofVictoria, 1979a), Illusions and Reality (National Gallery of Victoria, 1979b), andInside Out (National Gallery of Victoria, 1980) demonstrate a linguistic shift inthe way language is approached by the Gallery when naming its exhibitions. Theexhibition titles provided the public with guidance on how they should experiencethe event, and they link linguistic creativity and sense of spirituality to the Gallery.Words such as ‘freedom’, ‘illusion’, and ‘spirit’ appear in the marketing materialof the Gallery in the late 1970s. In addition, exhibitions explored the spirituallytransformative nature of art. For example, The Spirit and the Subconscious GeorgianaHoughton and Roy Opie exhibition in 1978 (National Gallery of Victoria, 1978b)explored spiritualism and the manifestation of life after death. The Sensuous Line(National Gallery of Victoria, 1978a) explored spirituality behind a collection ofdrawings from Indian painters.

From the appointment of Director Patrick McCaughey (1981–1986), the conceptof spirituality shifts to become a critique. A memoir provides evidence that, lookingback to the 1980s, McCaughey (2003) saw the Gallery architecture as like a‘mausoleum’ (pp. 182–183). When McCaughey became director of the Art Galleryof Victoria, his critiques of spirituality infused the exhibitions, art objects, andperceptions of the architecture. McCaughey saw his role as ‘redeeming the greatcollections from apathy and listlessness’; the Gallery organisation was seen as‘irrelevant and out of touch’, Melbourne’s ‘Kremlin’ (2003, pp. 182–183, 233).The criticism was meant to be insulting and anti-spiritual. However, a correlatingshift from authoritative display to participative engagement, in which the individualbecomes the locus of transformation, was under way in the art gallery (Duncan,1995).

In order to overcome this negative impression, McCaughey initiated a hecticcalendar of events. McCaughey (2003) knew from his years as the art critic forthe daily newspaper The Age that, as director, he had to not only ‘do good works’but also ‘tell people about your good works through the media’ (p. 198). UnderMcCaughey’s (2003) leadership, the gallery developed blockbusters for Melbourne,one of which he described as ‘a withering display of aesthetic firepower’ (p. 216).The curators told the story of the transformative power of the exhibition, describingit as ‘solid, sensible, serious Melbourne yearning to improve mankind’, an ‘exercise indoing good’ (p. 217). It took an advertising executive to ‘prompt the question: Is thisgoing to be an enjoyable exhibition?’ (p. 218). In other words, professional Gallerycurators were looking to noble, lofty, spiritual returns from the exhibition, while

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


marketers saw the benefit of promoting it as something to entertain. The cataloguesin 1981 tell the story of perceptions of spirituality. Some examples among manyinclude: Horizons and Beyond Photographic Exhibition (9 Jan–3 May; Boddington,1981), Max Klinger Love Death and Beyond (27 February–4 April; National Galleryof Victoria, 1981b), The Jaguar and The Feathered Serpent Pre-Hispanic Art of Mexicoand Guatemala (April 4–November 11; National Gallery of Victoria, 1981a).

The 1981 Exhibition, The Idea of a Great Gallery, questions the Gallery as anentity: ‘what is the point of an art gallery?’ (Clark, 1981). It condensed the idea ofspirituality in the architecture, in the experience, and in the collection and unifiedthem under one concept. Well-known English connoisseur and exhibition curator,Sir Kenneth Clark (1981), speaks of the function of the non-profit art gallery and itsdeep connection to spirituality and worship:

. . . in the two complete, consistent epochs on which European civilization isbased – the classical and the medieval – works of art were brought togetheras objects or accessories of worship. The first great displays of painting andsculpture in ancient Greece took place in temples, and were made in honour ofthe Gods. (p. 5)

This exhibition presented the Gallery as a place in which to understand the humanspirit, an experience linked to enjoyment, entertainment, and education – beyondcollections and exhibitions but rather in terms of its transformative capacity. Theconcept of spirituality was taken from conveying negative ideas of a ‘mausoleum’ toa positive one of viewing the Gallery as a place in which to nurture and grow thehuman spirit.

The shift from authoritative display to participative engagement begun in the1980s continued into the 1990s with the Gallery engaging with new audiences.The Gallery sought to link the architecture, the experience, and the art to theaudience in a personally transformative way. For example, in exhibitions such asOff The Wall (July, 1992; National Gallery of Victoria, 1992c), aerosol art byyoung artists involved with the Victorian Association of Youth in Communities wereshown. Other examples include Innovation and Invention in Everyday Life (April,1992; National Gallery of Victoria, 1992b), a selection of creative work by olderpeople in Victoria, and The Hidden Imagination (September–October 1992; NationalGallery of Victoria, 1992a). Exhibitions such as Neophytes (March, 1992; Cross,1992), Neophytes Retrospective (April, 1997; Gaitatzis, 1997), linking to the Greekcommunity in Melbourne, provides another example of how the Gallery presenteditself to the audience during the 1990s. ‘The establishment of the Neophytes seriesof contemporary art exhibitions, which has showcased emerging artists of Greek-Australian background, has given the Greek and broader Australian communitiesan opportunity to experience the diversity of contemporary arts practice’ (Gaitatzis,1997, np).

In the new millennium, the Gallery was responding to changing social phenomenaand, through its exhibitions, reflected the connections between the spirituality ofthe objects in the collection and the spirituality of everyday life. For example, XinNian Contemporary Chinese Australian Art (National Gallery of Victoria, 2004c)was produced in English and Chinese, and Living Together is Easy (National Galleryof Victoria, 2004b) was produced in English and Japanese. In designing theseexhibitions, the opportunity for transformative experience was extended to groupspreviously excluded.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


Contemporary approach to spirituality

The contemporary National Gallery of Victoria occupies two closely locatedinner city campuses. The first campus is in a late-twentieth-century building onMelbourne’s wide boulevard entering the city centre or ‘downtown’ area, designedand opened in 1968. The second campus is an early-twenty-first-century building,just a short stroll from the first campus. They are separated by being on eitherside of the Yarra Yarra River, making the two campuses a psychological andphysical distance from one another, with two completely different architecturalstyles. Says Lisa Sassella: ‘This is why we [do not] emphasise . . . the buildings.We want people to . . . build banners for our audiences’ (pers. comm., May 21–November 6, 2007). The redeveloped National Gallery of Victoria rebranded itselfto become the NGV, so that its image was a distinctive and single entity in the publicmind.

The contemporary NGV contains a window on its ‘spirit’ that transfers to itsexhibitions and their promotion. Importantly, the NGV sees itself as doing more thaneducating and entertaining: ‘in a secular context, it builds an emotional experienceabout life, creativity and change’, says Sassella (pers commun, May 21–November 6,2007). These comments highlight the transformative potential of the architecture,the experience, and the art.

Examples of how the NGV employs metaphoric transfers of spirituality in itsexhibitions follow. In the 2000s, the NGV opened a new space dedicated toAustralian fashion and textiles at the Ian Potter Centre, NGV, Australia. Fashionexhibition catalogues such as Twister, The Celebrated Ingenious and Exotic Fashion(National Gallery of Victoria, 2002), Katie Pye Clothes for Modern Lovers (NationalGallery of Victoria, 2007a), and Super Bodies Heroic Fashion From the 1980s(National Gallery of Victoria, 2007b) use the spirituality metaphor by relating it tonature, the native, and the future. Examples include the Akira Isogawa catalogue(National Gallery of Victoria, 2004a) and the exhibition Love, Loss and Intimacy(National Gallery of Victoria, 2010a) and Mari Funaki Objects (National Gallery ofVictoria, 2010b).

The concept of spirituality infuses contemporary annual reports. For example,the 2010 annual report asserts that ‘the relationship between art, meaning andspirituality [is explored] through a number of popular events, including a forumheld in conjunction with the 11th International Istanbul Biennial’ (NationalGallery of Victoria, 2010c, p. 37). The same annual report states that the NGVmission is ‘To illuminate life by collecting, conserving and presenting great art’(National Gallery of Victoria, 2010c, p. 4). The concept of illumination has beenhistorically linked to spiritual and religious enlightenment and transformation (Falk,2006).

The annual reports, exhibition catalogues, marketing flyers, NGV members’magazine, and the academic journal from the founding of the Gallery in 1861 untilthe new millennium expressed spirituality in different ways, but share a focus on thearchitecture, experience, and objects, as summarised in Appendix 2. The evidencepresented in Appendix 2 is provided from NGV documents, books about the NGVby former directors and or curators, and interviews. The use of metaphors wasrelated to the NGV through unexpected phrases within the texts. The use of spiritualmetaphoric transfer shifted over time from the laudatory – see Missingham (1973) –to the critical – see McCaughey (2003).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


Contribution to theory

A recurring theme in marketing research is that metaphor is used by borrowingtheoretical structures from a parent discipline. We have identified a new metaphorbeing used in the non-profit marketing context – spirituality – by linking themuseology and marketing literature with an empirical case study of a non-profitart gallery. We have borrowed the spirituality metaphor from the parent disciplineof museology where it is replete, finding that it is also used extensively in the casestudy NGV documents, memoirs of directors, and interviews with NGV staff. Themetaphor is used in deliberate and emergent strategies in the NGV, where it is bothadvocated and critiqued.

Our contribution to theory is summarised in Table 1, which illustrates how themetaphor – spirituality – is used by the NGV in deliberate and emergent marketingstrategies. In so doing, we draw on theory developed by Hunt and Menon (1995),showing that metaphor is as useful and pervasive in the non-profit cultural sector asit is in the commercial sector. The six columns in Table 1 relate to the source of themetaphor, its ontology, concepts, theory, and values, as per Hunt and Menon (1995).

Ontology in Table 1 refers to the entities that are presumed to exist in themetaphorical structure and relate to religious academies, cathedrals, temples, andmausoleums for worshippers, supplicants, and people seeking guidance. Ontology isimportant for theory development, as it suggests new ways of linking ideas. We foundthat galleries use the terms associated with spiritual institutions, such as ‘temples’ forthe architecture of the art gallery, as they are seen to be filled with ‘symbolism’, evenin their physical prominence ‘on a hill overlooking a grand parkway’ (Rice, 2003,p. 92). Critics of the art gallery as temple ontology saw the art gallery as a ‘Kremlin’or ‘mausoleum’ (McCaughey, 2003, pp. 182–183).

Concepts are the major organising ideas which provide the underpinning fortheory development, springing from its heuristic value that can be applied inmarketing (Hunt & Menon, 1995). Concepts in Table 1 relate to transformation,illumination, revelation, theism, atheism, and pantheism. These concepts are usedfrequently in the literature on the art gallery, with examples relating to the ‘godlike’gallery which arouses wonder and delight in a similar manner to a religiousexperience (Lee, 1972). The pantheistic approach to this concept is exemplified bythe art gallery being denoted as a ‘grove for the muses’, where the gallery was a‘sanctuary’, devoted to the ‘muses of mythology’ (Committee of Inquiry on Museums

Table 1 Dimensions of the metaphoric transfer in the non-profit art gallery.

Metaphor Source Ontology Concepts Theories ValuesSpirituality Religion Religious

academies,cathedrals,nuns, priests,worshippers,supplicants,peopleseekingguidance

Transformation,illumination,revelation,pantheism,theism,atheism

Theory ofcreation;theory ofreligion

Transformative,contemplative,creative,reflective,educative

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


and National Collections, 1975; Simpson, 1998). The NGV ‘changes’ people by theircontemplative experiences.

The theories in Table 1 for the spirituality metaphor are borrowed from religionand creationism. Following Hunt and Menon (1995), ‘metaphoric transfers arethose that are theoretically rich’ (p. 86). The theories from the source disciplinemust apply in the adopting discipline, where the transformative underpinning oftheories of religion and creation pertain to the way that the art gallery employsmetaphoric transfer. Examples in the literature were related to the view that artgalleries ‘enlighten’ (O’Neill, 2002), perform a ‘ritual’ (Duncan, 1995) and aretemples to high culture (Rice, 2003). Sir Kenneth Clark (1981) exemplifies its usewhen he describes ‘works of art ... brought together as objects or accessories ofworship’ (p. 5).

A metaphor’s values pertain to its underlying ‘goals, motivations, objectives, ideals,aspirations, and ethics’ (Hunt & Menon, 1995, p. 88). Visitor experiences of artgalleries and their art works are sources of value that we obtain from consumption(Bourgeon-Renault et al., 2006; Holbrook, 1999). Metaphoric transfer in terms ofvalues, illustrated in Table 1, relate to the transformative, contemplative, creative,reflective, and educative means by which visitors experience the architecture and theobjects in the collection. The transformative, contemplative, creative, reflective, oreducative value is perceived to be through engagement with the architecture, theexperience, and the art: ‘Art responds to questions about reality and illusion andprovides the value of spirituality’ (Chen, 2009), building an ‘emotional experienceabout life, creativity and change’ (Sassella, pers. comm., 2007).

The richness of the metaphor is that it presents a different face to marketing inthe non-profit cultural sector where collaboration, co-operation, and co-optationare often seen as more important than competition in marketing strategy (Kotler& Scheff, 1997). The metaphor of spirituality is considered ‘deeply satisfying’ (Dean,1971) more than it is considered from a negative vantage point, expressing ‘deep andprofound meanings’ of ‘Zen spirituality’ (National Gallery of Victoria, 2008). Thespirituality metaphor pervades the non-profit art gallery literature and is evident inthe case study of the NGV. Through this case analysis, we have realised one moreaspect of metaphor in marketing that has been overlooked previously.

Conclusions

Metaphor plays an important role in marketing, as it prompts new ways of thinkingthat add to the richness of marketing management. This article asked two questions.What is the systemic character of the metaphor of spirituality as used by theNational Gallery of Victoria? How does the National Gallery of Victoria’s use of thespirituality metaphor change over time? In answering these questions, we have seenthat the metaphor of spirituality is replete in the museology literature. It is also usedin deliberate and emergent ways in the gallery selected for the case study. Evidenceis provided from interviews, historical and contemporary documents, and memoirsof formers directors. The metaphoric transfer from spirituality is both ‘systematicand thoughtful’ and ‘non-systematic and indiscriminate’ (Hunt & Menon, 1995),emerging as a constant leitmotif over time.

While the leitmotif of spirituality is constant, its use can be either positive ornegative, as advocate or critic. Use of the metaphor has changed as the Gallery haschanged. Some instances were critical such as those of then director McCaughey in

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


the 1980s. Others in the contemporary NGV are laudatory, such as comments madeby the General Manager Marketing, Lisa Sassella. These differences are consistentwith Hunt and Menon’s (1995) view that metaphor in marketing consists of multipleelements rather than isolated ones. The use of the metaphor of spirituality in theGallery is both dormant in the earlier years of the twentieth century and alive incontemporary times, more negatively used in the 1980s and more positively used inthe twenty-first century, reinvented as an association with the NGV brand. However,the metaphor of spirituality has always been more important rather than trivial inseeking to understand the NGV and its marketing domain and strategic intent.

The articles by Anker (2008), O’Malley et al. (2008), and Tuominen (2007), aswell as Hunt and Menon (1995), are all conceptual articles. They are illustrativeof examples where authors have used other metaphors in business marketingcontexts. Our research is both conceptual and empirical. We extend the work ofothers by taking metaphor to the non-profit cultural domain, both conceptually andempirically, thus developing marketing theory. We translate concepts used extensivelyin the museology literature into terms of value and use to marketing academics.

Acknowledgements

We thank Claudia Escobar who worked on this project as a research assistant.

References

Aaker, A.J. (1997). Dimensions of brand personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 34(3),347–356.

Ames, M.M. (2005). Museology Interrupted. Museum, 57(3), 44–50.Anker, K.E. (2008). Exploring the intelligent art installation as a space fore expansion of the

conscious mind. Technoeteic Arts: A Journal of Speculative Research, 6(3), 251–258.Bauer. (2001). Morphological Productivity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Bennett, T. (1995). The birth of the museum: History, theory, politics. London: Routledge.Boddington, J. (1981). Horizons and beyond exhibition. National Gallery of Victoria,

Melbourne, Australia.Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste. (R. Nice, Trans.).

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Bourgeon-Renault, D., Urbain, C., Petr, C., Marine Le, G.-E., & Gombault, A. (2006). An

experiential approach to the consumption value of arts and culture: The case of museumsand monuments. International Journal of Arts Management, 9(1), 35–47, 76.

Bourke, G. (1975). Exhibition catalogues from January 1975–December 1975, performances,documents, film, video catalogue. National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia.

Brahnam, J.R. (1994). Sacrality and Aura in the museum: Mute objects and articulate space.The Journal of the Walters Art Gallery (52/53), 33.

Bunbury, A. (2005). Albrecht durer master of the renaissance. National Gallery of Victoria,Melbourne, Australia.

Chen, Y. (2009). Possession and access: Consumer desires and value perceptions regardingcontemporary art collection and exhibit visits. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(6),925–940.

Clark, K. (1981). The idea of a great gallery. National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne,Australia.

Committee of Inquiry on Museums and National Collections. (1975). Report of theCommittee of Inquiry on Museums and National Collections including the Report of

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


the Planning Committee on the Gallery of Aboriginal Australia (‘The Piggott Report’).Canberra, Australia.

Cornelissen, J., & Harris, P. (2001). The corporate identity metaphor: Perspectives, problemsand prospects. Journal of Marketing Management, 17, 49–71.

Cross, T. (1992). Exhibition catalogues 1992. Neophytes. National Gallery of Victoria,Melbourne, Australia.

Dean, S. (1971). Rhinocervs durer and his time. National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne,Australia.

Denzin, N.K. (1989). Interpretive interactionism. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.D’Harnoncourt, A., DiMaggio, P., Perry, M., & Wood, J. (1991). The museum and the public.

In M. Feldstein (Ed.), The economics of art museums (pp. 35–60). Chicago: University ofChicago Press.

Duncan, C. (1995). Civilizing rituals: Inside public art museums. London: Routledge.Eisenhardt, K.M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management

Review, 14(4), 532–550.Eisenhardt, K.M., & Graebner, M.E. (2007). Theory building from cases: Opportunties and

challenges. Academy of Management Journal, 50(1), 25–32.Falk, J.H. (2006). An identity-centred approach to understanding museum learning. Curator,

49, 151–166.Fillis, I. (2000). Being creative at the marketing/entrepreneurship interface: Lessons from the

art industry. Journal of Research in Marketing and Entrepreneurship, 2(2), 125–137.Gaitatzis, E. (1997). Exhibition catalogues 1992. Neophytes retrospective. National Gallery of

Victoria, Melbourne, Australia.Gioia, D.A., Schultz, M., & Corley, K.G. (2002a). On celebrating the organizational identity

metaphor: A rejoinder to Cornelissen. British Journal of Management, 13(4), 269–275.Gioia, D.A., Schultz, M., & Corley, K.G. (2002b). Metaphorical shadow boxing: A response

to Cornelissen’s reply to our rejoinder. British Journal of Management, 13(4), 281.Golden-Biddle, K., & Locke, K. (2007). Composing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage.Griffin, D. (1987). Managing in the museum organisation I: Leadership and communication.

International Journal of Museum Management and Curatorship, 6, 387–398.Hancocks, A. (1988). Art museums in contemporary society. Curator, 31(4), 257–266.Herman, R. (2003). An exercise in early modern branding. Journal of Marketing Management,

19, 709–727.Holbrook, M.B. (Ed.). (1999). Consumer value: A framework for analysis and research.

London: Routledge.Hooper-Greenhill, E. (1997). Museums and the shaping of knowledge. London: Routledge.Hunt, S.D., & Menon, A. (1995). Metaphors and competitive advantage: Evaluating the use of

metaphors in theories of competitive strategy. Journal of Business Research, 33(2), 81–90.Inkson, K. (2007). Understanding careers: The metaphors of working lives. Thousand Oaks,

CA: Sage Publications.Kotler, P., & Scheff, J. (1997). Standing room only: Strategies for marketing the performing

arts. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.Krippendorf, K. (1980). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Beverly Hills:

Sage.Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press.Latham, K.F. (2007). The poetry of the museum: A holistic model of numinous museum

experiences. Museum Management and Curatorship, 22(3), 247–263.Lee, S. (1972). The art museum as a wilderness area. Museum News, 51(2), 11–12.Lindsay, D. (1966). The leafy tree my family. Melbourne, Australia: F.W. Cheshire.Lorente, J.P. (1998). Cathedrals of urban modernity: The first museums of contemporary art,

1800–1930. Aldershot, England: Ashgate.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


Mason, R. (2005). Museums, galleries and heritage: Sites of meaning-making andcommunication. In G. Corsane (Ed.), Heritage, museums and galleries: An introductoryreader (pp. 200–214). London: Routledge.

McCaughey, P. (2003). The bright shapes and the true names: A memoir. Melbourne, Australia:Text Publishing.

McQuade, W. (1974, July). Management problems enter the picture at art museums. Fortune,pp. 100–103.

Mintzberg, H. (1979). An emerging strategy of ‘direct’ research. Administrative ScienceQuarterly, 24, 580–589.

Missingham, H. (1973). They kill you in the end. Sydney, Australia: Angus & Robertson.Morgan, G., & Smircich, L. (1980). The case for qualitative research. Academy of Management

Review, 5(4), 491–500.National Gallery of Victoria. (1945–1955). Annual reports 1945/46 to 1955/5. Melbourne,

Australia: National Gallery of Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1956a). Annual report 1955–56. Melbourne, Australia: National

Gallery of Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1956b). Exhibition of modern art 1956. Melbourne, Australia:

National Gallery of Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1956c). Italian art of the 20th century. Melbourne, Australia:

National Gallery of Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1962). Four arts in Australia. Melbourne, Australia: National

Gallery of Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1966a). Chagal. Melbourne, Australia: National Gallery of

Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1966b). Conder. Melbourne, Australia: National Gallery of

Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1966c). Emilio Greco. Melbourne, Australia: National Gallery

of Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1966d). Frater. Melbourne, Australia: National Gallery of

Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1966e). Nolan. Melbourne, Australia: National Gallery of

Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1966f). Rodin. Melbourne, Australia: National Gallery of

Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1969). Marcel Duchamp. Melbourne, Australia: National

Gallery of Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1970). Air: A Philip Morris exhibition. Melbourne. Australia:

National Gallery of Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1973). John Constable exhibition. Melbourne, Australia:

National Gallery of Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1978a). The sensuous line. Melbourne, Australia: National

Gallery of Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1978b). The spirit and the subconscious Georgiana Houghton

and Roy Opie. Melbourne, Australia: National Gallery of Victoria.National Gallery of Victoria. (1979a). Freedom from prejudice. An introduction to the

Australian collection of the National Gallery of Victoria. Melbourne, Australia: NationalGallery of Victoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (1979b). Illusions and reality. Melbourne, Australia: NationalGallery of Victoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (1980). Inside out. Melbourne, Australia: National Gallery ofVictoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (1981a). The jaguar and the feathered serpent: Pre-Hispanic artof Mexico and Guatemala. Melbourne, Australia: National Gallery of Victoria.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


National Gallery of Victoria. (1981b). Max Klinger: Love, death and the beyond. Melbourne,Australia: National Gallery of Victoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (1992a). The hidden imagination. Melbourne, Australia:National Gallery of Victoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (1992b). Innovation and invention in everyday life. Melbourne,Australia: National Gallery of Victoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (1992c). Off the wall. Melbourne, Australia: National Galleryof Victoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (2002). Twister: The celebrated indigenous and exotic in fashion.Melbourne, Australia: National Gallery of Victoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (2004a). Akira Isogawa. Melbourne, Australia: National Galleryof Victoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (2004b). Living together is easy. Melbourne, Australia: NationalGallery of Victoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (2004c). Xin Nian contemporary Chinese Australian art.Melbourne, Australia: National Gallery of Victoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (2007a). Katie Pye: Clothes for modern lovers. Melbourne,Australia: National Gallery of Victoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (2007b). Super bodies heroic fashion from the 1980s. Melbourne,Australia: National Gallery of Victoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (2008). Annual Report Melbourne: Australia National Gallery ofVictoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (2010a). Love, loss and intimacy. Melbourne, Australia: NationalGallery of Victoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (2010b). Mari Funaki: Objects. Melbourne, Australia: NationalGallery of Victoria.

National Gallery of Victoria. (2010c). NGV 09/10 annual report. Melbourne, Australia:National Gallery of Victoria.

Newman, A., & McLean, F. (2006). The impact of museums upon identity. InternationalJournal of Heritage Studies, 12(1), 49–68.

O’Malley, L., Patterson, M., & Kelly-Holmes, H. (2008). Death of a metaphor: Reviewing the‘marketing as relationships’ frame. Marketing Theory, 8(2), 167–187.

O’Neill, M. (2002). The good enough visitor. In R. Sandell (Ed.), Museums, society, inequality(pp. 24–40). London: Routledge.

Ortony, A. (1993). Metaphor and thought (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Rice, D. (2003). Museums: Theory, practice and illusion. In A. McClellan (Ed.), Art and itspublics: Museum studies at the millennium (pp. 77–96). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Ripley, D. (1970). The sacred grove: Essays on museums. London: Victor Gollancz.Sandell, R. (1998). Museums as agents of social inclusion. Museum Management and

Curatorship, 17(4), 401–418.Saunders, H. (1984). L. Bernard Hall and the National Gallery of Victoria: ‘Conflict and

change’. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Melbourne, Melbourne.Schroeder, J. (2005). The artist and the brand. European Journal of Marketing, 39(11),

1291–1305.Shestack, A. (1978). The director: Scholar and businessman, educator and lobbyist. Museum

News, 57(2), 27–91.Simpson, T.K. (1998). Abode of the modern muse: The science museum. In J. van Doren (Ed.),

Great ideas today (pp. 1–66). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Brittannica.Spalding, J. (2002). The poetic museum: Reviving historic collections. Munich: Prestel.The Age Art Critic. (1995, April 9). Daryl Lindsay: His achievements as Art Director. The Age.Tolliver, D.E., & Tisdell, E.J. (2006). Engaging spirituality in the transformative higher

education classroom. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 109, 37–47.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


Tuominen, P. (2007). Emerging metaphors in brand management: Towards a relationalapproach. Journal of Communication Management, 11(2), 182–191.

Weil, S.E. (1990). Rethinking the museum and other meditations. Washington, DC:Smithsonian Institution Press.

Whitehead, C. (2005). Visting with suspicion. In G. Corsane (Ed.), Heritage, museum andgalleries: An introductory reader (pp. 89–101). London: Routledge.

Witcomb, A. (2003). Re-imaging the museum: Beyond the mausoleum. London: Routledge.Yin, R.K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.). Los Angeles: Sage.

About the authors

Ruth Rentschler (PhD Melbourne) is professor and Chair in Arts and EntertainmentManagement, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia. She has published widely in thecultural field, having authored or co-authored two research books, four edited books, andmany refereed articles. Ruth is on the board of the Art Gallery of Ballarat, Multicultural ArtsVictoria, and VicHealth.

Corresponding author: Ruth Rentschler, 70 Elgar Road, Burwood, Australia 3125.T +613 9244 6228E [email protected]

Uma Jogulu (PhD Ballarat) is a senior lecturer at Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia. Shepublishes in the area of cross-cultural management, particularly the careers of middle managersand immigrant managers. She has drawn on her understanding of metaphor through teachingin organisational behaviour.

Anne Kershaw (Hons Melbourne; M Museum Studies Deakin) is a lecturer at DeakinUniversity, Melbourne, Australia. Her area of research expertise is museums and galleries. Sheis currently studying for her PhD on museums and community collaborations.

Angela Osborne (Hons LaTrobe) is a prospective PhD candidate at Monash University,Melbourne, Australia, researching word formation. She has worked on research projects atDeakin on topics such as arts participation by cultural and linguistic minorities and intellectualproperty rights for Indigenous artists. She has produced quality publications, including anA-grade journal, a chapter in a high-quality book, and a number of conference papers in theareas of media analysis and intercultural relationship building.D

ownl

oade

d by

[L

a T

robe

Uni

vers

ity]

at 1

7:57

07

Nov

embe

r 20

12


Appendix1Dom

inantdiscourse

onspiritualityintheartgallery

context

Dom

inantdiscourse

Advocates

Critiques

Spiritualityinthe

architecture

‘Assymbols,museumsarebestcharacterisedas

temples,indeedmanymuseumbuildingssuchasthe

PhiladelphiaMuseumofArtprominentlyplacedona

hilloverlookingagrandparkway,concretelyembody

thatsymbolism’(Rice,2003,p.92).

Themuseumisagroveforthemuses(Simpson,1998).

‘Thesenewcivictemplesweretypicaldevelopmentsof

thenineteenthcentury,butperhapsnoneofthem

deservesmorerightfullythetitleof“cathedralsof

urbanmodernity”thanthosespeciallyconsecratedto

contemporaryart’(Lorente,1998,p.15).

‘Theartgalleryisasettingforpublicprocessions,

communalgatherings,andinteriorsanctuaries

designedfor“awesomeandpotenteffigies”’(Duncan,

1995,p.10).

‘Museion,inGreek,wasthesanctuarydevotedtothe

musesofmythology’(CommitteeofInquiryon

MuseumsandNationalCollections,1975,p.5).

Artmuseumsare‘godlike’,‘arousewonderanddelight’

andare‘wildernessareas’(Lee,1972).

‘Museumsarenolongerbuiltintheimageofthat

nationalistictempleofculture’(Hooper-Greenhill,1997).

Spiritualityinthe

experience

Artgalleryexperiencesaredeeplymoving.Anaesthetic

experienceismorethanaspecialencounterwithart

orbeauty,butissacred.(Latham,

2007).

‘Thepoeticmuseumwillthennotbejustarepositoryfor

pastthoughtsandfadingmemories,butwillbecomea

palaceofwonderanddiscovery–ahome,onceagain,

fortheMuses,thosemagnificent,spiritedandinspiring

daughtersofMemory.’(Spalding,2002,p.167).

‘Museumsarecompromisedinstitutions,caughtbetween

theirtwindesiresforbothauthenticityandthe

spectacular’(Ames,2005,p.44).

‘...formostofthenineteenthcenturytherewasan

internationalconsensusamongculturaldecisionmakers

inthewestthatthefirstresponsibilityofapublicart

museumwastoenlightenandimproveitsvisitors

morally,sociallyandpolitically’(O’Neill,2002,p.25).

Theageofthepassivevisitorhaspassed(Hooper-Greenhill,

1997).

(Continued)

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


Appendix1(Continued).

Dom

inantdiscourse

Advocates

Critiques

‘Artgalleryaudiencescanexperience“threeminutesof

ecstasyindescribingTurner’sBurningoftheHousesof

Parliament”’(D’Harnoncourt,DiMaggio,Perry,&Wood,

1991,p.36).

‘amuseumwasarepositoryformasterworks,tobe

conserved,asinatemple,andeventuallytobe

worshipped,subjectively–notareligioninitself,but

closelyakintoareligiousexperience’(Ripley,1970,

p.127).

‘Tocontrolamuseummeanspreciselytocontrolthe

representationofacommunityanditshighestvaluesand

truths.Itisalsothepowertodefinetherelativestanding

ofindividualswithinthatcommunity.Thosewhoarebest

preparedtoperformitsritual–thosewhoaremostable

torespondtoitsvariouscues–arealsothosewhose

identities(social,sexual,racialetc.)themuseumritual

mostfullyconfirms’(Duncan,1995,p.6).

‘theissueofmarketingisafascinatingonethatraisesevery

museumhacklethatIknow

...marketinghastodowith

products,andifyousay,letuschangetheproducttofit

whattheaudiencewants,thatmakeseverybodynervous’

(D’Harnoncourtetal.,1991,p.37).

Spiritualityofthe

objectsinthe

collection

‘Artrespondstoquestionsaboutrealityandillusionand

providesthevalueofspirituality.Thisspiritualaspect

belongstoartitself.Bothcollectionandvisitpermit

accesstotheartworksandcontactwithaspirituality

thatisnotalwayspresentindailylife’(Chen,2009,

p.931)[Resultsofempiricalresearchintovalue

perceptionsofcontemporaryartcollectorsandexhibit

visitors].

‘Tosometwentiethcenturyartists,themuseumhas

appearedinmuchthesamewaysasitdidtothefictive

boxerfromSouthPhilly[RockyBalboa,playedby

SylvesterStalloneinRockyIII],asatempletohigh

cultureforeverinaccessibletotheiraspirations’(Rice,

2003,p.80).

‘Materialismandthetempleasatreasurehouse’,section

headinginRe-ImaginingtheMuseum:Beyondthe

Mausoleum(Witcomb,2003,p.104).

(Continued)

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012



Dom

inantdiscourse

Advocates

Critiques

‘Insomewaysthemodernist“whitebox”and“black

cube”displaysarevehiclesandcelebrationsofthis

ideathatthereis,afterall,somethingprofoundly

affectingandtranscendentalaboutartobjects,

throughtheirattempttocreate(impossibly)

distraction-freeor“neutral”conditionsofengagement

wherebyouraestheticresponsescanbepurer’

(Whitehead,2005,p.92).

‘Probablynomoreuselesspublicinstitutionwasever

devisedthanthatpopularideal,theclassicalbuildingofa

museumorart,filledwithrareandcostlyobjects

...Itis

easytoevadetheimportanceofthisobviousfactbyairy

talkoftheupliftvalueofarchitecturalfacadesinthe

classicmanner,orpricelessantiques,ofpaintingsby

masters,andofancientporcelains,jadesandlacquers,to

saynothingofwhales,Indiansandmastodons

...Butthe

evasiondoesnotserve.’(JohnCottonDana,1916,quoted

inO’Neill,2002,p.26).

‘EveneducatedethnicEuropeanpeoplenownolongerhave

thebasicknowledgeofclassicalmythologicaland

Christianiconographyrequiredtoreadmuchofwestern

art’(O’Neill,2002,p.38).

Objectsarenolongerpresentedontablesforthecurious

observer.Nowmaterialthingsarepresentedinrelation

totheneedsofpeoplewhoexperiencethemuseum

(Hooper-Greenhill,1997).

Museumsareaboutideasnotthings(Weil,1990).Art

galleriesneedtodevelopbeyondstorehousesinorderto

survive(Hancocks,1988).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012


Appendix2NGVandspirituality:Longitudinaldataanalysis

Dom

inantdiscourse

Advocates

Critiques

Spiritualityinthe

architecture

TheexhibitionAir:APhilipMorrisExhibitioninJune1970isthe

firstexhibitionthatusestheconceptofairasaspiritual

metaphorformarketinganexhibition(NationalGalleryof

Victoria,1970,np).

‘Themethodsofdisplayhavebeensimplifiedtothepoint

wheretheybecomeinvisible,allowingtheviewertoengage

directlywitheachworkwithoutdistraction’(National

GalleryofVictoria,2002,p.2).

TheNGVwasseenas‘irrelevantandoutoftouch’,

Melbourne’sKremlin,thearchitectureasa‘burden’

with‘mausoleum-likewalls’(McCaughey,2003,

pp.182–183).

Spiritualityinthe

experience

‘Thisisauniqueexhibitionofavitalandrewardingartwhich

hasbeenpractised,andisstillpractised,byallpeoplewith

oneoftheoldestandmostdeeplyintegratedformsof

culturallifeknowntous’(Missingham,1973,np).

‘...aworldmagicallyconvincingyetimaginativelyseparate

fromours

...’

’(NationalGalleryofVictoria,1961,np).

‘Whatisneededfirstisacceptanceoflifeandenvironmentas

theyare;anindissolubleidentitywithnatureasitisone’s

owncorneroftheearth.Apoeticrelationshipwiththe

rocks,thecitiesandthearidairgrowsoutofthis

acceptance,andstyleisonlyaminormatterbesideit’

(NationalGalleryofVictoria,1962,np).

‘TheNationalGalleryiscommittedtomakingcultural

institutionsmoreaccessible,interestingandappealingto

thelargecommunity.Theaccessgallerywillnotonly

provideinvaluableexperiencefortheparticipantsbut

enrichavisittotheGallery’(Cross,1992,np).

McCaughey(2003)sawhisroleas‘redeemingthegreat

collectionsfromapathyandlistlessness’through

exhibitionsthatappealedtoabroadpublic(p.233).

‘we[donot]emphasise

...thebuildings.Wewant

peopleto

...buildbannersforouraudiences

...ina

secularcontext,[theNGV]buildsanemotional

experienceaboutlife,creativityandchange’

(Sassella,pers.comm.,May21–November6,2007).

(Continued)

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012



Dom

inantdiscourse

Advocates

Critiques

Spiritualityofthe

objectsinthe

collection

‘Youcanlookateachofthesepaintingsasathinginitself,

likeavaseorasunset.’

(NationalGalleryofVictoria,1950–1954,np).

‘Butthemainemphasisisonthegreatartistictradition.Even

thosewhohavenoaccesstoitsgreaterprofunditiesfind

thisdeeplysatisfying,consolingtothespiritand

illuminatingintheunderstandingofthemiracleswith

whichmanissurrounded’(Dean,1971,np).

‘Whenconsideringtheexhibition,mightnotthisberegarded

alsoasstatementsbytheartistsonman’spreoccupation

withthereflectionofrealityratherthanrealityitself?’

(Bourke,1975,np).

‘...anditisSpiritualists’beliefthattheywerepaintedbya

spiritthroughGeorgianaHoughtonwhowouldherselfhave

madeinatrancewhileexecutingthem’(NationalGalleryof

Victoria,1978b,np).

‘...thereisacontradictionasthescenegathersmomentum

andweperceivethoseswirlingformsrighthereonthe

earth,withasenseofsmallecologiesblossomingin

reverse,mysteriesteemingwithinformation–couldwebut

unlockit’(Boddington,1981,p.3).

‘TheworksbyKimHoaTramareimbuedwiththesimplicity

andpurityofZenspirituality:theartisticconceptionisdeep

andfar-reaching.Mostpeopledonotunderstandwhysuch

simplelinescanexpresssuchdeepandprofound

meanings.Inreality,thesimplerthepainting,theharderit

istoachieve.ThatistheconceptionandmeaningofZen

painting’(NationalGalleryofVictoria,2008,viewed

26August,2011,athttp://www.ngv.vic.gov.au).

Saunders(1984)providesaninstructiveaccountofthe

tensionsintheartgalleryinseekingtocreatea

spiritualunderstandingoftheobjectsinthe

collection

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

La

Tro

be U

nive

rsity

] at

17:

57 0

7 N

ovem

ber

2012

Extending the theory of metaphor in marketing: The case of the art gallery

Documents

Transcript of Extending the theory of metaphor in marketing: The case of the art gallery