Anthropology of Consciousness, Vol. 15, Issue 2, pp. 72–92. ISSN1053-4202, © 2005 by the AmericanAnthropological Association. All rights reserved. Please direct all requests for permissions tophotocopy or reproduce article content through the University of California Press’s Rights andPermissions website, www.ucpress.edu/journals/rights.htm.

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Experimental Study of OstensiblyShamanic Journeying Imageryin Naïve Participants I: Antecedents

adam j . rock, ph.d.

Charles Sturt Universitya.rock@unsw.edu.au

peter b. baynes,

ma hons, s .t.l.

Charles Sturt University

paul j . casey, ph.d

Charles Sturt University

abstract

The purpose of the present study was to investigate experimentally theantecedents of ostensibly shamanic journeying imagery associated with the LowerWorld in naïve participants. Forty six participants completed a composite ques-tionnaire consisting of demographic items and the Tellegen Absorption Scale(Tellegen and Atkinson 1974). Participants were randomly assigned to one of fiveconditions: Harner’s (1990) shamanic journeying to the Lower World instructionscoupled with monotonous percussion drumming at either 4 or 8 beats-per-secondfor either 10 or 15 minutes; and sitting quietly with eyes closed for 15 minutes. Par-ticipants’ phenomenology was retrospectively assessed using the Phenomenologyof Consciousness Inventory (Pekala 1991) and a mental imagery checklist. Theresults indicated that there was a statistically significant difference between con-ditions with regards to the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images.After adjusting for Harner’s (1990) instructions, a significant main effect wasfound for both beats-per-second and time with regards to the number of ostensiblyshamanic journeying images reported. There was a statistically significant rela-tionship between condition and the tendency to report mental imagery associatedwith rocky ravines, predatory creatures, and rivers. Religious devotion was foundto be a significant predictor of the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying

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images reported. Religious exposure and trait absorption were significant predic-tors of altered experience. Implications of the findings are discussed and sugges-tions for future research advanced.keywords : shamanism, imagery, epistemology, constructivism, absorption.

introduction

While the key definitional elements of shamanic states of consciousness aresomewhat contentious, it is generally accepted that the cultivation of visual men-tal imagery is integral (Noll 1985). For example, Houran, Lange, and Crist-Houran (1997) examined the phenomenological content of 30 narrativespertaining to shamanic journeying experiences presented in Harner (1990) andfound that 93.3 percent involved some form of visual phenomena. Walsh (1995)asserts that the visual mental images encountered in shamanic states of con-sciousness exemplify form, are highly organised, multi-modal (e.g., auditory,somatic), and compatible with shamanic cosmology (often a three-tiered uni-verse consisting of an Upper, Middle, and Lower World). However, empiricalresearch to date has neglected to investigate the antecedents (e.g., inductiontechniques, personality traits) of shamanic journeying imagery.

Sonic DrivingThe shaman utilises a plethora of techniques for inducing shamanic states ofconsciousness (Walsh 1989). Examples include plant hallucinogens (Boyer,Boyer, and Basehart 1973; Munn 1973; Schultes and Hoffman 1992), sensorydeprivation (Achterberg 1987; Doore 1989), and sweat lodges (Achterberg1987). However, perhaps the most universally practised technique is “sonic driv-ing” (Harner 1987, 1990) in which the shaman focuses his or her attention onthe sound of a monotonous, repetitive drumbeat, while simultaneously culti-vating specific mental imagery (Noll 1987) consistent with shamanic cosmology(Walsh 1995).

A number of studies have reported a statistically significant correlationbetween auditory stimulation and phenomenological effects consistent withaltered states of consciousness (e.g., Neher 1961, 1962; Woodside, Kumar, andPekala 1997). For instance, Neher (1961) investigated auditory driving of corticalrhythms using 40- second intervals of live drumming followed by 40 seconds ofrest, at 3, 4, 6, and 8 beats-per-second. However, Neher (1961) was not con-cerned with the induction of shamanic states of consciousness or shamanicjourneying imagery.

More recent published research has examined the relationship betweenmonotonous percussion drumming and trance postures (Woodside, Kumar, andPekala 1997), shamanic drumming and its impact on immune response andaffect (Harner 1994; Harner and Tryon 1992, 1996), and the phenomenological

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effects of monotonous percussion drumming coupled with hypnosis (Maurer,Kumar, Woodside, and Pekala 1997). Previous research (e.g., Woodside, Kumar,and Pekala 1997) has neglected to provide a rationale for the number of beats-per-second and overall drumming time implemented. Wright (1989:28), review-ing research on shamanic states of consciousness, suggests that it is conceivablethat the use of auditory driving “in the range of low alpha or theta waves” mayassist in producing the multi-modal imagery associated with shamanic states.However, to date, published research has failed to investigate the effect of drum-ming on the cultivation of shamanic journeying imagery.

Epistemological ConstructivismIn the philosophy of religion, epistemological constructivists assert that one’sreligious belief-system “shapes” the phenomenological content of a mysticalexperience both conceptually and linguistically (Katz 1978). Applied to shaman-ism, then, the constructivist view would imply that a percipient’s religious milieu“shapes” the phenomenological content of a shamanic state of consciousness(Gill 1984, 1985; Gimello 1978, 1983; Hick 1981, 1989; Moore 1978; Owen 1983;Penner 1983; Smart 1978, 1983; Streng 1978). Consequently, it is arguable that aChristian, for example, is equipped with a fixed conceptual and linguistic systemderived from his or her religious tradition that precludes the possibility of experi-encing shamanic journeying imagery. It would seem to follow that exposure anddevotion to a Christian religious tradition would inhibit a naïve participant’s abil-ity to cultivate shamanic journeying imagery despite the “requisite” stimulusbeing applied (e.g., sonic driving coupled with Harner’s 1990 shamanic journey-ing to the Lower World instructions).

Previous research suggests that the phenomenological content of shamanicstates of consciousness may be influenced by one’s belief structures. For exam-ple, Harner (1973) conducted a survey of ethnographic sources pertaining toSouth American Indian yage experiences, which revealed that shamans onlyreport Judaeo-Christian imagery if they have been missionized.

In contrast, Houran, Lange, and Crist-Houran (1997:63) analysed 30 narra-tives pertaining to shamanic journeying experiences found in Harner (1990) andconcluded that, “the contents of the shamanic experiences are not influencedexclusively by beliefs and other cultural factors.” It should be noted, however,that the narratives were derived from workshops conducted by Harner (1990)and therefore suffer from the methodological shortcomings of non-experimentalresearch (e.g., a lack of standardization, no random assignment, baseline condi-tion, or attempt to control for extraneous variables). Furthermore, Houran,Lange, and Crist-Houran’s (1997) study examined belief in the paranormal orsupernatural rather than devotion and exposure to a particular religious tradition.Finally, while the study considered “visual phenomena” it neglected to distinguishshamanic journeying imagery from non-shamanic imagery.

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Trait AbsorptionPrevious research examining the relationship between sonic driving and theinduction of shamanic states of consciousness (e.g., Woodside, Kumar, andPekala 1997) has neglected to consider the importance of a participant’s person-ality traits. For example, trait absorption has been significantly positively corre-lated with receptivity to altered states of consciousness associated withmeditation (e.g., Pekala, Wenger, and Levine 1985; Weinstein and Smith 1992).

Walsh (1989) asserts that production of a shamanic state of consciousness iscontingent upon distracting stimuli being undermined by a percipient’s ability toplace attentional focus on, for example, the shamanic journeying instructionsand monotonous percussion drumming. Consequently, one might expectthat high absorption ability may enhance responsiveness to the induction ofshamanic states of consciousness and associated journeying imagery.

The Present StudyAs previously stated, Wright (1989:28) suggests that it seems probable that theuse of auditory driving “in the range of low alpha or theta waves” assists in pro-ducing the multi-modal imagery associated with shamanic states of con-sciousness. Consequently, the present study aimed to determine what numberof beats-per-second (8 beats corresponding to low-range alpha, versus 4 corre-sponding to theta) and what length of overall drumming time (10 versus 15minutes) was associated with the highest number of ostensibly1 shamanic jour-neying images. An additional aim was to determine whether naïve participants’religious devotion, religious exposure, and trait absorption were statisticallysignificant predictors of: (a) the experiencing of ostensibly shamanic journey-ing imagery associated with the Lower World; and (b) “altered experience”(Pekala 1991)2.

The present study consisted of a 2 × 2 (beats × minutes) between-subjectsfactorial design coupled with a control condition resulting in five conditions:(1) Harner’s (1990) shamanic journeying to the Lower World instructions cou-pled with monotonous percussion drumming at 4 beats-per-second for a periodof 15 minutes (SonDr-4/15); (2) Harner’s (1990) shamanic journeying to theLower World instructions coupled with monotonous percussion drumming at4 beats-per-second for a period of 10 minutes (SonDr-4/10); (3) Harner’s (1990)shamanic journeying to the Lower World instructions coupled with monoto-nous percussion drumming at 8 beats-per-second for a period of 15 minutes(SonDr-8/15); (4) Harner’s (1990) shamanic journeying to the Lower Worldinstructions coupled with monotonous percussion drumming at 8 beats-per-second for a period of 10 minutes (SonDr-8/10); and (5) No shamanic journey-ing to the Lower World instructions (Harner, 1990), and no monotonouspercussion drumming; sitting quietly with eyes closed for a period of 15 minutes(SQ-EC).

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The study’s design allowed the investigation of five related questions:1. Is there a statistically significant difference between discrete levels of

condition in regard to the number of ostensibly shamanic journeyingimages reported and altered experience scores?

2. After statistically controlling for the influence of Harner’s (1990)shamanic journeying instructions to the Lower World, is there a statisti-cally significant main effect for both the number of beats-per-secondand overall drumming time on the number of ostensibly shamanicjourneying images reported?

3. Is there a statistically significant relationship between discrete levels ofcondition and the “outward” appearance of ostensibly shamanic jour-neying images?

4. Do religious devotion, religious exposure and trait absorption signifi-cantly predict the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying imagesreported and altered experience? For the sake of completeness, the following auxiliary research questionwas formulated:

5. Within each discrete level of condition, are there any statistically signifi-cant relationships between phenomenology of consciousness (sub) dimen-sions and the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images reported?

method

ParticipantsForty-six first-year psychology students (31 [67.4 percent] females and 15 [32.6percent] males), at Charles Sturt University–Riverina, volunteered to participate.Participants ranged in age between 17 and 62 years (M = 23.48, SD = 9.40). Ofthe sample, 17 were Catholic, 6 were Anglican, 2 were Presbyterian, 2 were simplyChristian, 2 were Lutheran, 1 was Protestant, 1 was Baptist, 1 was Jehovah’s Witness,1 was Uniting Church, and 13 claimed to be without religious membership.

Students participated in the present study in order to partially fulfill a three-hour research requirement. However, participation was voluntary in so far as thestudents had a choice between participation in a variety of psychology researchprojects or the completion and submission of a written assignment. Participantswere treated in accordance with the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Codeof Conduct (American Psychological Association 1992).

Materials and Apparatus A composite questionnaire consisting of the demographic items (i.e., sex, age, reli-gious devotion, and religious exposure) and the Tellegen Absorption Scale (TAS)was administered to all participants prior to the treatment and control procedures.

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The TAS is a 34-item scale developed to quantify trait absorption: “a dispo-sition for having episodes of ‘total’ attention that fully engage one’s representa-tional (i.e., perceptual, enactive, imaginative, and ideational) resources”(Tellegen and Atkinson 1974:268). The TAS is the most widely used measureof this theoretical construct. Items include, “Some of my most vivid memoriesare called upon by scents and smells;” and, “At times I somehow feel the pres-ence of someone who is not physically there.” With regard to the psychometricproperties of the TAS, Tellegen (Roche and McConkey 1990:93) reported aninternal reliability of r = .88 and a 30-day test-retest reliability of r = .91. In sup-port of the scale’s construct validity, Lynn and Rhue (1986) reported a correla-tion of r = .75 between Tellegen’s scale and Wilson and Barber’s inventory ofchildhood imaginative involvement. The TAS utilises a true–false responseformat. The person’s propensity for absorption is determined by calculatingthe number of “true” responses. However, it might be argued that a Likert scaleis more sophisticated than a true–false response, and thus more adequatelyequipped to capture the complexity of the phenomena being measured. Con-sequently, for the purpose of the present study the response format was trans-formed into a 5-point likert scale (1 to 5) ranging from strongly disagree tostrongly agree.

At the conclusion of the treatment and control procedures all participantswere administered the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory (PCI) and amental imagery checklist.

The PCI is a 53-item scale used “to assess phenomenological state effects asso-ciated with specific stimulus conditions (e.g., hypnosis, drugs, meditation)”(MacDonald, LeClair, Holland, Alter, and Friedman 1995:218). Items cover 12key dimensions for phenomenologically mapping states of consciousness: Posi-tive Affect, Negative Affect, Altered Experience, Visual Imagery, Attention, Self-Awareness, Altered Awareness, Internal Dialogue, Rationality, VolitionalControl, Memory and Arousal (Pekala 1985; Pekala and Kumar 1984, 1986;Pekala and Levine 1981, 1982). The PCI possess adequate psychometric proper-ties. For example, Pekala, Steinberg, and Kumar (1986) reported coefficientalphas between .70 and .90 for all dimensions suggesting that the PCI has a goodinternal consistency. In support of the scales criterion validity, Pekala, Steinberg,and Kumar (1986) found that subjects exposed to different stimulus conditionsreceived significantly different PCI scores. This finding suggests that the PCI cansuccessfully distinguish between qualitatively different states of consciousness.Participants are required to respond on a seven-point likert scale (Pekala andWenger 1983; Pekala, Wenger, and Levine 1985).

The number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images reported was meas-ured using each participant’s narrative comments coupled with a mentalimagery checklist3. The checklist was derived, in part, from Eliade (1964),Harner (1990), and Kalweit (1988), and included mental imagery associated with

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the following: (1) experiences of light and fire; (2) obstacles (e.g., bridges, rockyravines); (3) predatory creatures (e.g., snakes and dragons); and (4) water. Itemsrelating to religious mental imagery (e.g., the Blessed Virgin Mary, Buddhistdeities) and UFO phenomena (e.g., spinning silver discs) were also included.Whilst UFO phenomena have been tangentially linked to shamanism (see Ring1988), such phenomena are not held to be motifs associated with the “geography”of the shaman’s Lower World. Consequently, this item was included for the pur-pose of functioning as a distracter.

Two open-ended items addressing the mental imagery and sounds associatedwith: (1) one’s descension to the Lower World; and (2) one’s observations beyondthe “doors” were also included.

A mylar-covered single-headed round frame drum 16 inches in diameter anda “Sonar 8” tympani mallet were used for the purpose of inducing a shamanicstate of consciousness. A “Qwik Time” quartz metronome was used for the pur-pose of standardizing the number of beats-per-second. An “Audiosonic” portableradio cassette recorder was used for the purpose of playing the pre-recorded ver-bal instructions. A stopwatch was used for the purpose of timing the treatmentand control procedures.

ProcedureThe experimental setting for all conditions was the Examination Centre,Boorooma Campus, Charles Sturt University–Riverina. It was a 15-metre m by40-metre room with muted lighting, sparsely furnished (a few desks and chairs),and devoid of external influences (e.g., noise).

Participants were randomly assigned to one of five conditions: SonDr-4/15,SonDr-4/10, SonDr-8/15, SonDr-8/10, or SQ-EC. After the general nature of thestudy was explained and consent forms completed all participants were adminis-tered a composite questionnaire. The composite questionnaire consisted ofdemographic items and the TAS.

SonDr-4/15. Following Harner (1990), participants in this condition were instructedto remove their shoes and lie on the floor, placing their right forearm over theireyes. Participants were then instructed to:

Visualise an opening into the earth that you remember from some time inyour life. It can be an opening that you remember from your childhood, orone you saw last week, or even today. Any kind of entry into the ground willdo-it may be a hole made by a burrowing animal, a cave, a hollow treestump, a spring, or even a swamp. It can even be a man-made opening. Theright opening is one that really feels comfortable to you, and one that youcan visualise. Spend a couple of minutes seeing the hole without going in it.Note its details clearly.

[Harner 1990:32]

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Participants were subsequently allocated two minutes to visualise their chosen“opening into the earth” (Harner 1990:32). At the conclusion of the two-minuteperiod participants were instructed as follows:

Visualize your opening into the earth, enter it, and begin the journey. Godown through the opening and enter the Tunnel. At first the tunnel may bedark and dim. It usually goes underground at a slight angle, but occasionallyit descends steeply. The Tunnel sometimes appears ribbed, and often it bends.Occasionally one passes through the Tunnel so fast it is not even seen. In fol-lowing the Tunnel you may run up against a natural wall of stone or someother obstacle. When this happens, just go around it or through a crack in it.If this fails, simply come back and try again. At the end of the Tunnel you willemerge out of doors. Examine the landscape in detail, travel through it andremember its features. Explore until you are signalled to come back, and thenreturn up through the Tunnel. Do not bring anything back with you. This isonly an exploratory journey.

[Harner 1990:32]

The experimenter’s assistant then proceeded to beat the drum at a tempo of4 beats-per-second for a period of 15 minutes.

At the conclusion of the 15-minute period the experimenter’s assistant struck“the drum sharply four times to signal” to all participants that it was time toreturn. The experimenter’s assistant then “immediately beat the drum very rap-idly for about half a minute to accompany” participants “on their return journey”(Harner 1990:32).

SonDr-4/10. Participants in this condition were instructed the same as theSonDr-4/15 condition. However, they received monotonous percussion drum-ming at 4 beats-per-second for 10 minutes.

SonDr-8/15. Participants in this condition were instructed the same as theSonDr-4/15 condition. However, they received monotonous percussion drum-ming at 8 beats-per-second for 15 minutes.

SonDr-8/10. Participants in this condition were instructed the same as theSonDr-4/15 condition. However, they received monotonous percussion drum-ming at 8 beats-per-second for 10 minutes.

SQ-EC. Participants in this condition were not administered Harner’s (1990)shamanic journeying to the Lower World instructions or monotonous percus-sion drumming. Participants were instructed to sit quietly with eyes closed for 15minutes.

After the completion of the experimental procedures all groups were admin-istered a composite questionnaire consisting of the PCI and the mental imagerychecklist.

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results

A one-way between-subjects MANOVA revealed a statistically significant differ-ence between discrete levels of condition in regards to the number of ostensiblyshamanic journeying images reported and altered experience, F (8, 70) = 2.16,p < .05; Pillai’s trace = .40; partial eta squared = .20.

Separate univariate analyses revealed a statistically significant result for thenumber of ostensibly shamanic journeying images reported, F (4, 35) = 5.06,MSE = 1.41, p = .003. Post-hoc comparisons using the Tukey test showed that themean score for the SonDr-8/15 group (M = 4.00, SD = 1.22) was significantlyhigher compared to the SonDr-4/10 and the SQ-EC groups (M = 1.91, SD = 1.58,and M = 1.75, SD = 1.39, respectively). In contrast, a nonsignificant result wasobtained for altered experience, F (4, 35) = .33, MSE = .56, p > .05.

A one-way between-subjects ANOVA was again performed to examine theimpact of discrete levels of condition on the number of ostensibly shamanic jour-neying images reported; however, on this occasion all light experiences wereeliminated.4 A statistically significant main effect for condition was found, F (4, 41) =4.02, MSE = 0.98, p < .01. Post-hoc comparisons using the Tukey test once againrevealed that the mean score for the SonDr-8/15 group (M = 2.22) was signifi-cantly higher compared to the SonDr-4/10 and the SQ-EC groups (M = 0.73,and M = 0.50, respectively).

A two-way between-groups analysis of covariance was performed to determine ifthere was a statistically significant main effect for the number of beats-per-secondand overall drumming time on the number of ostensibly shamanic journeyingimages (revised)5 reported, after adjusting for the covariate of Harner’s (1990) shamanicjourneying to the Lower World instructions. A significant main effect was reportedfor beats: F (2, 40) = 5.07, MSE = .99, p < .05. Additionally, there was a significantmain effect for time: F (1, 40) = 5.07, MSE = .99, p < .05. There was not, however,a significant interaction effect, F (2, 40) = 1.18, MSE = .99, p > .05.

A standard multiple regression analysis revealed that a combination of reli-gious devotion, religious exposure, and trait absorption statistically signifi-cantly predicted altered experience, F (3, 42) = 6.08, MSE = .65, p = .002; butnot the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised), F (3, 42) =1.84, MSE = 1.18, p > .05. However, it is noteworthy that a bivariate regressionanalysis revealed that religious devotion was found to contribute significantlyto the prediction of the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images(revised) reported. Table 1 and 2 displays the correlations between variables,the unstandardised regression coefficients (B) and intercept, the standardizedregression coefficients (β), the semi partial correlations (sr2) and R, R2, andadjusted R2.

A series of 5 × 2 (condition × image yes–no) chi-square tests for independencewas performed in order to determine whether there was a statistically significant

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table 1 . standard multiple regression of religious

devotion, religious exposure and trait absorption

variables on altered experience

ALT. EX. REL. REL. TRAIT sr2

Variables (DV) DEV. EXP. ABSORP. B β (unique)

RELIGIOUS DEV. .034 .087 .303

RELIGIOUS EXP. −.120 .639 −.041* −.345 0.068

TRAIT ABSORP. .477 −.093 .060 .029** .526 0.268Intercept = −.343

Means 2.89 2.46 11.93 120.67 R2= .303

Standard .93 3.26 7.79 16.84 Adjusted R2= .253deviations R= .550

*p < .05**p < .01

table 2: standard multiple regression of religious

devotion, religious exposure and trait absorption

variables on number of ostensibly shamanic

journeying images (revised) reported

S.JOUR. REL. REL. TRAIT sr2

Variables (DV) DEV. EXP. ABSORP. B β (unique)

RELIGIOUS DEV. .219 .133* .388 0.087

RELIGIOUS EXP. −.040 .639 −.040 −.281

TRAIT ABSORP. −.170 −.093 .060 −.008 .117Intercept 2.243

=Means 1.15 2.46 11.93 R2= .116

Standard 1.11 3.26 7.79 Adjusted R2= .053deviations R= .341

*p < .05**p < .01

relationship between discrete levels of condition and the “outward” appearanceof ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised). Table 3 shows that statisti-cally significant relationships were found between discrete level of condition andtendency to report mental imagery associated with rocky ravines, χ2 (4, N = 45) =13.17, p < .01; predatory creatures, χ2 (4, N = 45) = 10.25, p < .05; and rivers,χ2 (4, N = 45) = 12.08, p < .05.

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For the SonDr-4/15 condition, body image was significantly positively corre-lated with the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised)reported, r = .82, p < .01. Furthermore, state absorption, direction, fear, and pos-itive affect were all significantly positively correlated (p < .05) with the numberof ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised) reported (r = .70; r = .74;r = .73; r = .64 respectively).

For the SonDr-8/15 condition, state absorption, rationality, positive affect, joy,and love were all significantly positively correlated (p < .05) with the number ofostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised) reported (r = .75; r = .68; r = .77;r = .67; r = .76 respectively). In contrast, arousal was significantly negatively cor-related with the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised)reported, r = −.79, p < .05.

No variables were statistically significantly correlated with the number ofostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised) reported for the SonDr-4/10,SonDr-8/10 or SQ-EC conditions.

discussion

Discrete Level of Condition and Ostensibly Shamanic Journeying ImageryA statistically significant difference was found between discrete levels of condi-tion in regards to the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying imagesreported. Specifically, the mean score for the SonDr-8/15 condition was signifi-cantly higher compared to the SonDr-4/10 and the SQ-EC conditions.

Monotonous percussion drumming at 8 beats-per-second may produce syn-chronous brain activity corresponding to low-range alpha waves. Additionally,monotonous percussion drumming at 4 beats-per-second may result in thetawave production. This is congruent with Wright’s (1989:28) suggestion that

table 3: χ2chi-square tests for independence

between condition and ostensibly shamanic

journeying images (revised) reported

1 2 3 4 5SonDr-4/ SonDr-4/ SonDr-8/ SonDr-8/ SQ-

Variable 15 10 15 10 EC χ2 p

Fire 11.1% 0% 0% 25% 12.5% 4.70 .320Water 66.7% 54.5% 88.9% 87.5% 50% 5.38 .250River 33.3% 18.2% 88.9% 37.5% 25% 12.08 .017Rocky ravine 22.2% 27.3% 77.8% 50% 0% 13.17 .010Predator 55.6% 9.1% 33.3% 12.5% 0% 10.25 .036Bridges 0% 18.2% 22.2% 12.5% 25% 2.62 .623

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auditory driving “in the range of low alpha or theta waves” may assist in pro-ducing the multi-modal imagery associated with shamanic states of conscious-ness. Nevertheless, this is a curious assertion given that shamanic states areecstatic states of consciousness (Eliade 1964), and thus associated with high levelsof arousal (Walsh 1995). Thus, shamanic states of consciousness should be asso-ciated with high-range alpha waves or beta waves characteristic of arousal, asopposed to low-range alpha and theta waves that are coupled with relaxationand drowsiness, respectively. It is arguable that as one’s arousal increases (andthus one’s brain-wave activity shifts from theta to alpha to beta patterns), theother phenomenal properties of shamanic states also intensify, including thenumber of ostensibly shamanic journeying images encountered by the percipi-ent. This may partially explain the finding that the mean number of ostensiblyshamanic journeying images (revised) reported by participants assigned to theSonDr-8/15 condition was significantly higher compared to the SonDr-4/10 andthe SQ-EC conditions.

This finding may also partially be explained by the fact that participants in theSonDr-8/15 condition were allocated a further five minutes to cognitively traversethe “landscape” (thereby increasing the probability of encountering ostensiblyshamanic journeying images), compared to their SonDr-4/10 counterparts.Moreover, the significantly higher mean score of the SonDr-8/15 condition maybe attributable to the fact that participants in the SQ-EC condition were notadministered shamanic journeying instructions or monotonous percussiondrumming.

A further explanation for the observed difference between the SonDr-8/15,SonDr-4/10 and SQ-EC conditions might reside in the assertion, derived from aparticipant’s narrative comments, that the tempo of drumming is positively cor-related with the velocity of one’s “stream” of mental imagery. It may be such thatparticipants who were administered monotonous percussion drumming at 8beats-per-second experienced a greater number of mental images compared totheir 4 beats-per-second and baseline condition counterparts, thereby increasingthe probability that several mental images may be interpreted, at least ostensibly,as shamanic journeying images.

It is also noteworthy that there was no significant difference between condi-tions in regard to scores on the altered experience variable. This result may bepartly due to the qualitative similarity between monotonous percussion drum-ming conditions. Additionally, the baseline condition may have been inade-quate, consequently failing to produce phenomenological characteristicsindicative of normal waking consciousness. Participants in the baseline condi-tion who deemed sitting quietly with their eyes closed for a period of 15 minutesrather insipid may have experienced subjective time dilation, and hencereported a high intensity rating with regards to alterations in time sense thatwas incongruent with the phenomenology of normal waking consciousness.

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Furthermore, sitting quietly with eyes closed may have predisposed participantsto daydreaming, and thus reporting higher intensity ratings pertaining to amountof imagery.

Beats-per-second, Drumming Time, and Ostensibly ShamanicJourneying ImageryAfter adjusting for Harner’s (1990) shamanic journeying to the Lower Worldinstructions, a significant main effect was found for both beats-per-second andtime in regard to the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised)reported. However, there was not a significant interaction effect between inde-pendent variables. This suggests that the impact of number of beats-per-secondon the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised) reported isnot a function of time, and vice-versa.

Discrete Level of Condition and “Outward” Appearance of OstensiblyShamanic Journeying ImageryThere was a statistically significant relationship between discrete level of condi-tion and the tendency to report mental imagery associated with rocky ravines,battles with predatory creatures, and rivers. Specifically, the SonDr-8/15 condi-tion elicited the highest percentage of rocky ravine images, followed by theSonDr-8/10, SonDr-4/10, SonDr-4/15, and SQ-EC conditions, respectively. TheSonDr-4/15 condition produced the highest percentage of predator images, fol-lowed by the SonDr-8/15, SonDr-8/10, SonDr-4/10, and SQ-EC conditions,respectively. Finally, the SonDr-8/15 condition was associated with the highestpercentage of river imagery, followed by the SonDr-8/10, SonDr-4/15, SQ-EC,and SonDr-4/10 conditions, respectively. These observations have not beeninvestigated by previous research. It is noteworthy that battles with predatorycreatures and rivers are core shamanic journeying images associated with theLower World in shamanic cosmology (Kalweit 1988). Interestingly, discrete levelof condition was not significantly related to less ontologically significantshamanic journeying images such as light, fire, and water. Light, fire, and waterare associated with a certain degree of non-specificity, and consequently lendthemselves to conflation with mental images of a secular origin.

It is possible that the entry into the earth that a participant chooses to visu-alise functions as a contextual variable, “shaping” the kind of visual mentalimagery encountered beyond the “doors.” One potential solution is to stan-dardise the entry into the earth visualised by participants. However, thesame entry into the earth would likely produce different associations in partic-ipants equipped with qualitatively distinct cognitive schemas. Additionally,Wittgenstein’s (1958) private language argument logically precludes a nonpriv-ileged observer from determining whether a particular set of linguistic terms(i.e., instructions designed to elicit the visualisation of a specific entry into the

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earth), are linked to identical phenomenal properties in different privilegedobservers (i.e., the elicitation of identical “entry into the earth” imagery). Fur-thermore, Harner (1990) contends that participants will experience greatersuccess visualising an entry into the earth for which they have experientialknowledge.

Predictors of Number of Ostensibly Shamanic Journeying Imagesand Altered ExperienceReligious devotion was found to contribute significantly to the prediction of thenumber of ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised) reported; specifi-cally, a statistically significant positive correlation between religious devotionand the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images reported. This is aninteresting finding given that all religious devotees in the present study claimedto be Christian. This finding fails to support an application of the epistemologi-cal constructivist thesis to shamanism whereby one might contend that a Christianis equipped with a fixed conceptual and linguistic system that precludes the pos-sibility of experiencing shamanic journeying imagery. A possible explanation forthis result is that one’s religious reference frame (Van der Lans 1987) may only“shape” one’s phenomenology if it has been triggered by contextual variables(e.g., demand characteristics, embedded cues). The possible absence of contex-tual variables may have rendered ineffectual the religious reference frames ofthe Christian devotees, thereby enabling the emergence of shamanic journeyingimagery once the requisite stimulus was applied.

However, rendering ineffectual one’s religious reference frame fails toaccount for the statistically significant positive correlation between religiousdevotion and the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised)reported. Eliade (1964) has contended that shamanism is the world’s oldest reli-gion. It is arguable that religious devotion (irrespective of one’s religious tradi-tion) may predispose one to experiencing visual mental imagery associated withany religious tradition provided that the requisite stimulus is applied.

Trait absorption contributed significantly to the prediction of altered experi-ence. This finding is congruent with previous research conducted by Pekala,Wenger, and Levine (1985). However, such support needs to be interpreted withcaution, given that Pekala, Wenger, and Levine’s (1985) study used stimulusconditions consisting of sitting quietly with eyes open, the reading of erotica,and relaxation-meditation. Additionally, religious experience was found to con-tribute significantly to the prediction of altered experience. Specifically, reli-gious experience was statistically significantly negatively correlated with alteredexperience. This finding has not been investigated by previously publishedresearch; however, it suggests that as one’s religious indoctrination intensifies,one’s propensity for experiencing alterations in phenomenal properties isreduced.

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PCI Correlates of the Number of Ostensibly Shamanic Journeying ImagesFor the SonDr-4/15 condition, body image was significantly positively correlatedwith the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised) reported.This finding supports Walsh’s (1995) assertion that alterations in one’s body image(one’s self-sense is experienced as a “soul” distinct from the physical body) are a keyphenomenal property of shamanic states of consciousness. However, such supportmust be interpreted with caution given that the body image minor dimension ofthe PCI includes self-expansion and unitive absorption, and yet excludes the pos-sibility of one experiencing a “soul” distinct from one’s physical body.

For the SonDr-8/15 condition, state absorption was significantly positivelycorrelated with the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised)reported. This finding supports Walsh’s (1995) assertion that an increase in con-centration is held to occur during shamanic states of consciousness. Addition-ally, positive affect, joy, and love were all significantly positively correlated withthe number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised) reported in thecontext of the SonDr-8/15 condition. This result may be interpreted as beingconsistent with Houran, Lange, and Crist-Houran’s (1997). However, it isimportant to acknowledge that Houran, Lange, and Crist-Houran neglected toclarify whether the aforementioned “intense emotional feelings” were indica-tive of positive or negative affect. Rationality was also significantly positively cor-related with the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised)reported. It would appear that as one’s thinking becomes clearer or easier tocomprehend, the number of ostensibly shamanic mental images encounteredincreases. Consequently, conceptually muddled thinking may inhibit the culti-vation of ostensibly shamanic journeying images. In contrast, arousal was sig-nificantly negatively correlated with the number of ostensibly shamanicjourneying images (revised) reported. This finding suggests that arousal mayimpede one’s ability to experience ostensibly shamanic journeying images. Thisis an interesting result given that high levels of arousal are often associated withshamanic states of consciousness (Walsh 1995). If arousal is indicative of stress,then one’s subjective cognitive response may be an inability to concentrate(Phares 1992).

No PCI variables were statistically significantly correlated with the number ofostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised) reported for the SonDr-4/10,SonDr-8/10 or SQ-EC conditions. This finding may be partially be explained bythe fact that participants in the SonDr-4/10 and SonDr-8/10 conditions were allo-cated 5 minutes less journeying time (thereby decreasing the probability ofencountering ostensibly shamanic journeying images), than their SonDr-4/15and SonDr-8/15 counterparts. Moreover, the nonsignificant correlations for theSQ-EC condition may be explained by the fact that these participants were notadministered shamanic journeying instructions or monotonous percussiondrumming.

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Possible Methodological Limitations and Suggestions for Future ResearchAs previously mentioned, sitting quietly with eyes closed may have been an inad-equate control condition, consequently failing to produce phenomenologicaleffects indicative of normal waking consciousness. Participants in the SQ-ECcondition who were rather bored may have observed that time appeared to“drag,” and as a result reported high intensity rating with regards to alterations intime sense. However, SQ-EC participants should not have experienced phe-nomenological effects consistent with an altered state of consciousness, giventhat the requisite stimulus (i.e., sonic driving) was not administered. Instructingparticipants to sit quietly with their eyes open may circumvent this potentialproblem.

The term landscape, featured in Harner’s (1990) shamanic journeying to theLower World instructions, may have functioned as an embedded cue, linguisti-cally conditioning participants to report ostensibly shamanic imagery such asrivers, waterfalls, rocky ravines, and mountains. Consequently, future researchmight investigate whether the mental imagery reported by naïve participants islargely due to demand characteristics, rather than access to the shaman’s LowerWorld with the assistance of monotonous percussion drumming. Futureresearch might also assess the extent to which activating one’s religious refer-ence frame (Van der Lans 1987) manipulates the phenomenological propertiesassociated with shamanic journeying instructions and monotonous percussiondrumming.

In the present study, participants’ narrative comments were insufficient to dis-tinguish false-positives or ostensibly shamanic journeying imagery that is demon-strated to have a non-shamanic (or secular) origin from authentic shamanicjourneying imagery. An uncovering technique may be required in order todelineate the ontological foundations of ostensibly shamanic journeyingimagery (e.g., whether the mental imagery is derived from the recall and super-imposition of autobiographical memories upon one’s phenomenological spaceor associated with a transegoic state). Rock and Baynes (2005 [this Issue]) suggestthat a partial solution may be Watkins’ (1971) Affect Bridge. The Affect Bridge isimplemented in a hypnotherapeutic context for the purpose of allowing theclient to place attentional focus on a specific (usually maladaptive) emotion,regressing to one’s initial encounter with the emotional state, and thereby delin-eating its aetiology (Watkins and Watkins 1997). Rock and Baynes (2005)describe a non-hypnotic version of the Affect Bridge (Watkins 1971), developedby the second author so that it can be administered in a non-clinical setting forthe purpose of facilitating normal remembering in shamans and experimentalparticipants concerning the origin of shamanic journeying imagery. The ModifiedAffect Bridge enables one to investigate whether the epistemology of shamanicstates of consciousness involves the recall and superimposition of autobiograph-ical memories “within” one’s phenomenological space.

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conclusions

The findings of the present study suggest that, of the stimulus conditions imple-mented, Harner’s (1990) shamanic journeying to the Lower World instructionscoupled with monotonous percussion drumming at 8 beats-per-second for aperiod of 15 minutes is the most noteworthy antecedent of ostensibly shamanicjourneying imagery. It would appear that both the number of beats-per-secondand overall drumming time are important, yet non-interactive components ofsonic driving resulted in significant main effects for both variables in regards tothe number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised) reported.

The finding that religious devotion contributed significantly to the predictionof the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying images (revised) reported failsto support an application of the epistemological constructivist thesis to shaman-ism whereby one might argue that a Christian is equipped with a fixed concep-tual and linguistic system that precludes the possibility of experiencing shamanicjourneying imagery. Moreover, the finding that naïve participants are cognitivelycapable of generating visual mental images consistent with shamanic cosmol-ogy, provided the requisite stimulus has been applied, suggests that ostensiblyshamanic journeying imagery is not simply an exteriorisation of one’s culturalcosmology.

endnotes

1. The qualifier “ostensibly” was used because it was unclear what the sufficient condi-tions were for a mental image to be deemed genuinely shamanic. Nevertheless, onemight argue that there exist at least two necessary conditions:

N1: The mental image, x, must occur during a shamanic journeying experience; andN2: The outward appearance of x must be consistent with shamanic cosmology.

Clearly, the presence of both N1 and N2 do not constitute a sufficient condition (i.e.,ensure that x is genuinely shamanic). For example, during a shamanic journeyingexperience (N1) one may encounter an x consistent with the “geography” of theshaman’s Lower World (N2) (e.g., a predatory creature such as a tiger). However, it ispossible that the “tiger” may merely be a distracting thought associated with, forinstance, a circus performance that the participant viewed the evening prior to theshamanic journeying induction.

2. Altered experience is a major dimension of the Phenomenology of ConsciousnessInventory (Pekala 1991) and consists of the following minor dimensions: body image,time sense, perception and meaning.

3. It is important to acknowledge that the mental imagery checklist was not designedto be exhaustive, but rather to be used in conjunction with the two open-endedquestions constructed to elicit narrative comments.

4. The decision to eradicate visual mental imagery indicative of light experiences wasreached on the grounds that such imagery is not restricted to the shamanic journeying

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experience, often occurring in other states of consciousness (e.g., the “bardo” statesof Tibetan Buddhism, the near-death experience) (Eliade 1964; Kalweit 1988). Onemight further contend that, in comparison to more explicit mental imagery (e.g., afierce battle with a jaguar) that may be readily co-mapped with ethnographic reportsof a shamanic nature, the broad-spectrum of possible light experiences results in agreater risk of conflation with secular or non-shamanic imagery (e.g., a sunny day atthe beach).

5. This variable refers to the number of ostensibly shamanic journeying imagesreported minus all light experiences.

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