Roman Amphitheatres and Spectacula: a 21st Century perspective: papers from an international conference held at Chester,

16th-18th February, 2007

Contents

1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................. 1 Tony Wilmott

Amphitheatre planning

2 The setting out of amphitheatres: ellipse or oval? – Questions answered and not answered.................................... 5 Mark Wilson Jones

Regional studies

3. The amphitheatres in Hispania: recent investigations. ...................................................................................................15 Rosalía Durán Cabello, Carmen Fernández Ochoa and Ángel Morillo Cerdan

4. Amphitheatres in the Roman East........................................................................................................................................29 Hazel Dodge

5. Amphitheatres of Auxiliary Forts on the Frontiers..........................................................................................................47 C. Sebastian Sommer

Single site studies

6 . Excavations on the legionary amphitheatres of Chester (Deva), Britain .....................................................................63 Tony Wilmott and Dan Garner

7. Excavations on the legionary amphitheatre of Burnum, Croatia...................................................................................75 Željko Miletić and Miroslav Glavičić

8. The Roman amphitheatre at Richborough (Rutupiae) Kent: non-invasive research................................................85 Tony Wilmott, Louise Martin and Neil Linford

9. The Trier amphitheatre, an ancient monument in the light of new research............................................................95 Hans-Peter Kuhnen

10. Theatres and Amphitheatres in Augst (Augusta Raurica), Switzerland.....................................................................105 Thomas Hufschmid

11. The amphitheatre of Serdica, Sofia, Bulgaria....................................................................................................................119 Zharin Velichkov

Colour plates 1-39...................................................................................................................................... between pages 126 and 127

75

7. Excavations of the legionary amphitheatre at Burnum, Croatia

Miroslav Glavičić and Željko Miletić

Department of Archaeology, University of Zadar, Croatia

The archaeological landscape of Burnum Written historical sources, epigraphic monuments and data acquired in old and new archaeological excavations have shown that the archaeological assemblage of Burnum in the province of Dalmatia comprised several different components: a Roman legionary camp with its territory, an auxiliary castellum and a municipum which developed from the canabae and settlement of Liburnian Burnistae (Gradina near Puljani) (Plate 23).

The Oppidum on Gradina near Puljani on the left bank of the Krka River was the centre of Liburnian Burnistae (Zaninović 1968, 119). Their territory was also on the west bank of the river, bordering with the territory of Varvaria (Čače 1989, 78-79, 86). Original Liburnian territory spreads west of the Krka River, and the reason for developing main settlement of this community on the east bank is exceptionally favourable position of Gradina. Surrounded by deep canyon of the Krka River, it has the form of a peninsula, naturally protected from three sides, except on the narrow terrestrial side, where a defensive wall was built, remains of which are still preserved, at places up to 6m high. All river crossings could be observed from the oppidum. This favourable strategic position was the crucial factor in the development of this civitas peregrinorum, as opposed to neighbouring ones that did not become recognized in early Roman times.

A summer legionary camp (castra aestiva) was set up by the end of the Roman Republic because of its position bordering with aggressive Delmatae, and at the beginning of the Roman Imperial period a permanent military camp was built in Burnum, on the right bank of the Krka River, opposite to the main hill-fort settlement of the autochthonous Burnistae. The Castrum was the centre of the legionary territorium whose boundaries were demarcated by terminal inscriptions (M. Zaninović 1985, 63-79) (Plate 24).

Legio XX (named Valeria Victrix some time later) resided in the summer camp, arriving from Hispania around 20 BC (Manning 2000, 69-70). Its presence in the province of Illyricum was confirmed by inscriptions (CIL 3, 2911, 2836, 2030; Cambi, 2005, 53, fig. 68). At the turn of the millennium the winter camp (castra hiberna) of the troops operating in Illyricum was still Aquileia in northern Italy, where several inscriptions mentioning the Legio XX were found, contemporary with those from Burnum (CIL 5, 948,

939; Ritterling 1924-1925, col 1770). Only after Bato’s rebellion (AD 6-9) was subdued, could a permanent stone camp in Burnum be built. This happened between AD 14 (the beginning of mandate of the provincial governor Publius Cornelius Dolabela) and the first visit of the prince Drusus Julius Caesar in the year AD 17 (Tacitus, Annales, 2. 44; Patsch 1897a, col 1069; Rendić-Miočević 1952, 41-50). Legio XI was stationed in this early camp.

The camp has a rectangular form with approximate dimensions 330m x 295m, the side proportions being 10:9. If the large triangular area on the north-western side (that could serve as granary as in similar area in Carnuntum) was also a part of the camp, its area would be several hectares larger. The camp at Burnum was divided into two large units. The majority of military barracks were within larger, north-western part, the so-called retentura. In somewhat smaller south-eastern praetentura, towards the Krka canyon, besides the headquarters, there was probably a hospital (valetudinarium) and barracks of the protective departments. Older and smaller principia (dimensions 46 x 53 m) were built in this period (Reisch 1913, 123-124).

Inscriptions of the governor of Dalmatia, Publius Anteus Rufus show that important building activities on the camp buildings were completed in AD 51 or 52 (CIL 3, 14987; Patsch 1897a; Reisch 1913, 124-128; Abramić 1924, 222). A larger principia was built, which erased the earlier structure (Reisch 1913, 129; Abramić, 1924, 221-225; Zabehlicky-Scheffenegger & Kandler 1979, 10). Its approximate dimensions are 104m x 73m, which makes the usual architectural proportion √2 (=1,41):1. This edifice consisted of two long side wings with several rooms, and of the narrow back wing with rooms around central military sanctuary (aedes), with a row of arcades separating it from the courtyard (forum). It is reasonable to conclude that this so called pretorium, as it was referred to in scientific literature, is actually principia, and the headquarters of the camp. Stratigraphically recovered finds from systematic excavations started in 2003, indicate that first solid amphitheatre was built during Claudius’ reign (Cambi et al. 2006, 26).

Legio XI was replaced by IIII Flavia Felix, arriving in Dalmatia around AD 70 from Mainz, after the Legio IIII Macedonica had been reconstituted (Ritterling 1924-1925, col 1540-1541; Betz 1938, 46-48). It had been stationed in Burnum until AD 86, when it was transferred to Singidunum

ROMAN AMPHITHEATRES AND SPECTACULA

76

in Moesia. From that moment there were no more Roman legions in the province of Dalmatia, because legio VII Claudia Pia Fidelis had already left the camp at Tilurium.

Thorough study of aerial photos, survey of the terrain and analysis of inscriptions mentioning auxiliary units were crucial for locating the remains of an auxiliary castellum, east of the legion camp during recent archaeological excavations in Burnum. It is not possible to determine its chronological relation with the castra for the time being. If we apply an analogy with Aquincum on the Pannonian limes, it is possible that the members of auxiliary units built the first solid castra, necessary for accommodation of Legio XI.

It is possible that there was another auxiliary castellum in Burnum. An enclosure of rectangular form with approximate dimensions 143m x 101m was detected during the archaeological excavations in 2006. Its eastern wall had doors with three passages, once vaulted, with the range of almost 11m.

Epigraphic records show that at least four auxiliary units were stationed at Burnum during the 1st century. The Ala I Hispanorum from immediately after the rebellion AD 6-9 until AD 42 when it was transferred to Aquincum in Pannonia, Cohors II Cyrrhestarum sagittaria (since around AD 42 until around AD 60 it was stationed in the province of Dalmatia, in Tilurium and satellite fortresses, where it was disbanded around AD 80), Cohors III Alpinorum (since around AD 60 until around AD 70, it remains in the province in castellum in Humac near Ljubuški, where it remained until AD 93) and Cohors I Montanorum civium Romanorum (since around AD 70 until around AD 86 when it was transferred to Albertfalva/Budapest in Pannonia) (Patsch 1897, 198; Betz 1954-1957, 84-85; Alföldy 1962, 263-270, 293-294; Raknić 1965, 71-84; Wilkes 1969, Appendices VIII – IX; Suić 1970, 93-130; Cambi 1994, 158-162; Spaul 1994, 145; Spaul 2000, 266-268, 294-295, 431).

The existence of one or two auxiliary camps solves the problem of accommodation of auxiliary units in Burnum during the 1st century. In rather small castra there is not enough place for them and the legion. The castellum also shows where auxiliary units were stationed in the 2nd and 3rd century at the time when Burnum became a municipal town, and the castra lost its military character, as shown by the civilian structures introduced into the enclosure (Medini 1989, 255). Detachments of Legio VIII Augusta were stationed there during the reign of Antoninus Pius. (E. Ritterling 1924-1925, col 1659; A. Betz 1938: 50-52; 72).

Next to the military camp there are canabae – vicus militaris (Zaninović 1985: 66-67). This urbanized area is still visible in the landscape as karst meadows criss-crossed with large piles of stone, whereas areas without traces of Roman architecture

consists of eroded karst terraces, cliffs and cavities in limestone. The area of the canabae was crossed by roads towards Scardona, Asseria/Sidrona (Zaninović 1974, 310-311; Miletić 2006, 129-130) and ad imum montem Ditionum Ulcirum, (CIL 3, 3201 + 3198b = 10159 + 10156b; Bojanovski, 1974, 203-219), bordered with documented necropolises. Finds of altars dedicated to Jupiter point to conclusion that central sanctuary was positioned in the area of the canabae (Patsch 1897, 190; Suić 1970, 112; 1979, 137). An aqueduct with its source in Plavnopolje passed through the legionary territory, including the area of canabae in its final part (Ilakovac 1982, 35-105, 1984). Workshops for producing bricks lay on the border with Varvaria (Patsch 1900, 95-87). Pliny writes about Burnistae as one of the most important civitates peregrinorum, not mentioning any privileges whatsoever (Naturalis Historia III, 139). It was only at the beginning of the 2nd century that they were rewarded for loyalty and cooperation with the Roman army. Burnum became a municipal town in AD 118 at the latest, which is confirmed by honorary inscription of the Emperor Hadrian and inscriptions mentioning town magistrates (Zaninović 1968, 124). The municipality was probably also referred to as canabae and civitas peregrinorum. The amphitheatre Roman military amphitheatre was built in the south-western periphery of the complex of Roman military camp about 500m from the principia and close to the road leading to Varvaria and Asseria (Cambi et al. 2006). Archaeological excavations revealed two main building phases (the first one during Claudius’ reign, and the second one in Vespasian’s time).1 Architectural solutions utilizing the terrain configuration were discovered and documented, namely the large karst valley which was adapted to meet needs of the amphitheatre builders.

Archaeological excavations started at the site of the ‘supposed’ amphitheatre. Older researchers explicitly stated that on the site of Karlovac there had been an amphitheatre (Bulić 1879, 84; Marun 1998, 137, 155, 165), but their statements were put in doubt some time later (Suić 1976, 170; 1981, 281). As there are several more karst valleys enclosed by walls and used for agricultural purposes close to amphitheatre remains, such scepticism is not surprising. Visual perception of the entire area is prevented by wood and bush, and the stone piles did not show any architectural

1 The supervisor of the entire research project is N. Cambi, and archaeological excavations were managed by Joško Zaninović, Željko Miletić and Miroslav Glavičić. Dražen Maršić, Mato Ilkić, Ivana Jadrić, Igor Borzić and Mate Radović also took part in excavation campaigns as well as students of archaeology from the University of Zadar. Martina Baranić made the architectural documentation, and Frederik Levarda is entrusted with conservation of archaeological material.

MIROSLAV GLAVIČIĆ AND ŽELJKO MILETIĆ: EXCAVATIONS OF THE LEGIONARY AMPHITHEATRE AT BURNUM, CROATIA

77

Fig. 7.1 Aerial view of the amphitheatre of Burnum before excavations (photo by: S. Ferić). forms so they could be interpreted as a consequence of land clearance. Analysis of the aerial photos, however, revealed the very regular elliptical form of the stone embankments, with four recesses that could be entrances and passages to arena (Fig. 7.1). This was confirmed by a field survey. (Plates 25 and 26 show the terrain and a close up of the excavated amphitheatre including the features described below) The excavation started on the southern side that was easily approachable, where the side walls of the entrance were discovered, stretching funnel-like outside the outer ring of the amphitheatre ellipse. Next to the left side wall a square structure was added, preserved on the level of the first row of stones above ground. As a brick with the stamp of the fourth legion (legio IIII Flavia Felix) was found in its foundations, it is reasonable to conclude that this structure, whose function is unknown for the time being, was added after the arrival of this legion in AD 69. The funnel walls were built by arranging horizontally smaller rectangular roughly dressed stones that were joined by abundant but poor quality mortar. The front of the southern entrance was built using larger finely dressed stones that were arranged in a more regular and precise manner, and the side walls of the passages sloping towards arena were also built more solidly.

The passage, which was 4.40 m wide and 12.38 m deep, was filled with stones and parts of calcareous tufa blocks from the

collapsed vault, which had covered the passage, and the neighbouring part of the auditorium. The side walls of the passage were formed by two massive walls serving as a basis of the vault construction. Parts of the vault remained in situ on these walls. The vault rested on both sides on cornices, made of unadorned slabs of limestone, and it consisted of arches of cuneiform calcareous dressed stones interchanging with calcareous tufa blocks in a regular rhythm (one calcareous and three tufa arches). The floor of the passage sloped towards the arena, and it was cut into the bedrock which also served as a basis for side walls. At the end of the passage, from the place where the vault ended all the way to the arena entrance, there were recesses in the side walls with stairs for directing the spectators to the tiered seating. A monumental inscription of the Emperor Vespasian that originally stood over the main entrance was found in the debris of the collapsed vault during the excavations. The slab was broken in two pieces. The left part of the inscription was found in the debris at the beginning of the entrance, and the right part laid on the floor in front of the entrance. The inscription was inscribed in a large block of quality limestone, 294cm long, 100cm high and 32cm thick. The inscription was inscribed using monumental Roman capitals in a moulded field in the shape of a tabula ansata (Fig. 7.2) and it reads (in resoration):

ROMAN AMPHITHEATRES AND SPECTACULA

78

Fig. 7.2 Emperor Vespasian’s inscription, erected over the south entrance of the Burnum amphitheatre (photo by: M. Glavičić).

IMP(erator) CAESAR VE[S]PASIANUS

AUG(ustus) PONT(ifex) MAX(imus) / TRIB(unicia) POT(estate) VII IMP(erator) XVIII P(ater) P(atriae).

The explicit mention of the tribunician power held by Vespasian for the eighth time, is of exceptional importance because it reveals the precise date of the inscription to be AD 76/77, and confirms the end of the works on the amphitheatre, which were financed by the Emperor, as his name is in nominative case. Works were performed by members of the fourth legion (legio IIII Flavia felix) which was stationed in Burnum at the time.

The inscription which stood at the front of the southern entrance explicitly states that Vespasian was the donor of the finances and it precisely dates the inscription to the AD 76/77. However, there are indications that building was started earlier. During the archaeological excavations, a thin but rich cultural layer was documented at the southern entrance, containing a mass of finds. These included numerous pottery shreds (amphora parts, plain pottery shreds, terra sigillata fragments, lamp fragments) and glass (luxury glasses and bowls), bronze, copper and silver late Republican and early Imperial coins, parts of military equipment (usually bronze aucissa fibulae, bronze and silver-plated belt buckles and rings of military belts, bronze and silver-plated pendants (Fig. 7.3)). Also in this deposit were a bronze strigil, bronze vessel simpulum, bronze bell from a tintinabulum, a legionary ivory stamp, horse equipment, iron nails, and some iron tools and weapons.

As a natural karst valley was used for building of the amphitheatre, it was necessary to prepare the terrain before the work began. The terrain was levelled by cutting and hewing bedrock, especially next to the walls, which provided better foundations and material for building. Larger cavities were filled, and areas were levelled with soil, which became a

Fig. 7.3 Silver pendant in the form of a phallus, part of the military equipment (photo by: M. Glavičić).

rich source of archaeological finds, explaining the compact cultural layer in front of the entrance and underneath the stands and outer embankment of the auditorium. All finds can be easily dated to the early Imperial period, but the most important finds with reference to date are the coins. Almost all of the coins found (about 80) date to the beginning of the Empire. ainly sestertia, dupondia and asses were found, minted from the reign of Augustus to that of Claudius. Few coins from Republican era were found, which were in use for a long time owing to their quality and constant value. Judging from the archaeological finds (especially coins), we can assume that building of the amphitheatre started as early as Claudius’ time, which is also the period when the first building phase was finished. Confirmation of this hypothesis can also be found in the section of layers of the south-western segment of

MIROSLAV GLAVIČIĆ AND ŽELJKO MILETIĆ: EXCAVATIONS OF THE LEGIONARY AMPHITHEATRE AT BURNUM, CROATIA

79

the auditorium. Two phases of levelling of the cavea can be seen in this section. In the first, lower levelling was achieved by filling the cavities in the karst fissure with stone blocks and irregular stones of different dimensions covered with soil. The second was higher and steeper, made of smaller stones mixed with soil. As archaeological material from the soil of the first levelling corresponds to the material from cultural layer next to side walls of the entrance, we can conclude that levelling of the shallow slope of the embankment of the first phase was simultaneous with the levelling of the southern entrance area. The dating evidence confirms that this occurred during the reign of Claudius. In the debris of the second levelling, when the auditorium slope became steeper, there was no datable material. However, as the auditorium level corresponds to the original height of the side walls of the southern passage, dated by Vespasian’s inscription, we can conclude that they were contemporary, and therefore that the second levelling is dated to the second building phase when southern entrance was reconstructed and the auditorium embankment enlarged.

Excavation of the eastern entrance started from the outer side, where side walls of the funnel were discovered. Unlike those at the southern entrance, these were cut into the outer embankment and did not stretch outside auditorium line. It was discovered that the left outer wall connected with the wall of the outer ring of a structure in the line of the outer embankment of the auditorium. The original height of this structure is not known (only the first row of horizontally arranged stones was preserved). Walls were built using the same technique as in the southern entrance, and the front of the entrance was also built of finely dressed larger stone blocks. The entrance was somewhat narrower, being 2.85 m wide. The eastern passage was 15.20m long and vaulted in the same manner as the southern one, by a combination of stone and tufa arches which interchanged rhythmically (one limestone and three calcareous tufa arches) thus making the vault of the passage. Cuneiform stones of the arches and parts of tufa blocks were found in the passage debris, and moulded limestone blocks of the vault cornice were also discovered in situ. The passage was not vaulted in its entire length, and it ended with a wall preventing spectators from entering the arena, that is it directed them left or right to the stands. However, the stands could be reached from the arena. In the arena ring there were doors leading to a small chamber from which left and right stairways led to the first row of seats and further to the stands. Bedrock was cut into here as well, which is obvious from the way in which the passage floors slope shallowly towards the arena. Dressed sheer rock at the entrance served for the foundation of the front walls and at the same time formed the level of the floor, after existing cavities had been filled with stones and soil and covered with the packed gravel which formed the solid surface of the floor. The excavation of the eastern entrance revealed numerous pottery sherds, smaller fragments of glass vessels, pieces of

military equipment, adornments and especially coins which are the best material to date the layer. These dated to the early Empire (from Augustus to Claudius). The finds material corresponds to that found in the southern entrance funnel both chronologically and typologically, indicating that there was just one levelling of the entire area on which amphitheatre was built. The northern entrance was in a better state of preservation than the southern. It was of approximately same width (4.33 m), but somewhat higher and longer (18.75 m). The entrance was funnel-like, but unlike the southern entrance, the side walls did not stretch outside the seating area. The left side wall was also considerably shorter, and it can be supposed that different terrain characteristics led to deviation from the usual form. It seems that the surrounding terrain was higher and steeper, so that spectators or other groups entering the amphitheatre were not channelled frontally but sideways, along the line of the outer perimeter wall. The passage was vaulted in the same way as the other entrances, with alternating limestone and tufa arches (one stone and three tufa), but as this passage was higher, the walls and vault cornices slope very steeply down towards the arena. Owing to the better quality of building the northern entrance walls and side walls of the passage were better preserved, with vault arches which can be traced through its entire length, and there are places with the lower parts of the arches with cuneiform stone slabs and tufa blocks preserved in situ. The arches rested on simple white limestone mouldings, identical to the ones from the southern and eastern passages. A part of the northern passage towards the arena was not vaulted. This is where recesses with stairways (8 or 9 stairs) were documented on both sides of the passage (Fig. 7.4) used for reaching the platform (podium) at the level of the first seating row, and thence to the cavea. The floor of the passage is actually bedrock that was hewn, with traces of solid mortar used for smoothing the surface. The stone floor is present in the funnel as well. As this part of the amphitheatre was cut into bedrock, not built up as elsewhere, there was no cultural layer here as at the southern and eastern entrances.

Although there has as yet been no excavation of the western entrance, it is reasonable to expect the same building techniques and the same constructive elements of the passage vaulting as at other passages, with the possibility that it might be the best preserved because of the huge amount of soil and stones covering it. The western passage is not in the middle of the ellipse, but it is slightly pitched to the north-west, which is also the case with the eastern passage whose deviation is towards the south-east. Excavations of the area within the arena ellipse revealed that the bedrock was first hewn to level the arena, and then the wall surrounding the arena was built, using large, regular white limestone blocks arranged in regular horizontal courses. Seven such courses survived in the place with the best

ROMAN AMPHITHEATRES AND SPECTACULA

80

Fig.7.4 Vaulted entrance on the northern side of the Burnum amphitheatre, with side staircase (photo by: M. Glavičić). preservation. Originally there were at least nine courses, as that height matches the level of the floor of the first row of the stands (podium). The cavea was reached by stairways from the main entrances as described above. Another opening, several metres wide, was discovered in the north-eastern part of the arena’s perimeter wall. Rather small, roughly dressed blocks were used for blocking this entrance, and the reason for this action remains unknown for the time being. During clearing of the north-western part of the arena, a small rectangular chamber was discovered which functioned as a sanctuary with an altar that was dedicated probably to Nemesis. The imprint of the altar’s lower part was visible in the mortar. The sanctuary was built in the western passage axis and it seems like a subsequent alteration of a stairway entrance, similar to the one documented at the opposite eastern part of the arena, which needs to be verified by the excavation of the western entrance.

After the entire arena surface was cleared in segments, its dimensions were defined measuring 44 x 33 m, giving the regular ellipse proportion 4:3. The arena floor was formed by hard packed gravel covering the levelled bedrock surface. When clearing the north-eastern segment of the arena, next to the perimeter wall, a channel was revealed stretching

beneath the seating. Excavations showed that the natural terrain configuration was used in this case as well, i.e. the upper surface of the bedrock was hewn and covered with a sand floor. Rough vertical hewing of the bedrock in order to widen the channel used for draining water from the arena can also be noticed. The entire course of the channel in the arena has not been excavated, and as water never remains in the arena, even during the longest rainy periods, it is reasonable to conclude that there was a system of drainage channels hewn in the bedrock. Archaeological material identical to that found at the southern and northern entrance was discovered in the channel debris (Fig. 7.5), proving uniform levelling and terrain preparation for the amphitheatre building during Claudius. –

Several fragments of limestone semi-columns were found during the clearing of the arena. Originally they stood in the auditorium, but as they were found at different places, it cannot be determined in which part of the auditorium such colonnade was positioned. On one of these columns a literate soldier had engraved the inscription: > POMPEI (the century of Pompeius)

MIROSLAV GLAVIČIĆ AND ŽELJKO MILETIĆ: EXCAVATIONS OF THE LEGIONARY AMPHITHEATRE AT BURNUM, CROATIA

81

indicating that the century commanded by a certain Pompeius took part in building the amphitheatre. As the auditorium has not yet been excavated, we still do not know where the dignitary’s box for commanders and other distinguished persons was, though it may have been in the western side of the amphitheatre, as this was the most convenient place given the position of the sun for spectacles taking place in the early afternoon. The number of rows of seats in the stands, which were divided by entrances into four segments is also unknown. The approximate number of spectators that could be accommodated in the Burnum amphitheatre is six thousand or some thousand more.

As conservation of the side walls of the southern entrance was a necessity, the seating banks next to these walls had to be penetrated. The embankment was formed by a large quantity of irregular broken stone, and it is worth mentioning that under the embankment the bedrock was flattened such that its outcrops were hewn and levelled, and cavities were filled with stones and material containing great amount of archaeological finds. A massive dry-stone wall serving as a horizontal dividing line between the stands junction and the outer embankment was visible within the structure of the embankment, in the crown of the auditorium ellipse. Transverse dry-stone wall constructions were connected with this wall from the outer amphitheatre ring to the edge of the arena ellipse. Irregular rectangular dry-stone wall cells were formed in this way, filled with crushed stones of different sizes. As the cells were filled, the dry-stone walls were built gradually, taking some of the embankment’s weight and preventing it from collapsing. The same gradual and controlled method of embankment building with dry-stone wall structures, with cells dividing the auditorium embankment into segments, was probably used in other parts of the amphitheatre auditorium, though this has to be confirmed by excavation.

During the archaeological excavations of the amphitheatre at Burnum the southern, eastern and northern entrances with vaulted passage were discovered, the arena ellipse was unearthed, two phases of building were recognized, and architectural solutions utilizing the terrain configuration were documented. During the excavation thorough archaeological documentation was made, numerous small archaeological finds were classified, some of the metal finds have already been conserved, and professional catalogue classification is underway. Precise architectural documentation has also been made, making possible the exact reconstruction of the excavated parts and creation of three-dimensional models. It is also a sound basis for conservation which has already started in the first phase funnel walls of the southern entrance. The front and the side walls of the passage were consolidated and reconstructed. In the next phase they will be vaulted, and a replica of the Vespasianic inscription will be put on the front.

Fig. 7.5 Fragment of a lamp in the form of a tragic mask, found in the channel under the arena (photo by: Ž. Miletić).

Conclusions On the basis of the archaeological excavations which took place at the amphitheatre at Burnum in yearly excavation campaigns from November 2003 to October 2006 it is possible to make the following conclusions. At the site of Karlovac in Burnum a Roman military amphitheatre was discovered, which typologically belongs to the amphitheatres with four entrances (two main entrances in the crown of the ellipse and two side ones). Natural terrain configuration was utilized, and wherever possible bedrock of the karst valley was adapted by hewing, which made building much easier. Members of Legio XI started building the amphitheatre at Burnum, making all necessary preparations and terrain levelling and some time later they also built the amphitheatre. Rich archaeological material which can be dated to Claudius’ time (especially coins) confirms this. The amphitheatre at Burnum achieved its final form in AD 76/77 when Vespasian’s inscription marking the end of the works was placed at the front of the southern entrance. Members of Legio IV performed the works financed by Vespasian, and they can be referred to as a reconstruction or a construction of an annex to the amphitheatre. In that time the passages were vaulted and funnel walls were added at the entrances, the auditorium was enlarged, and the perimeter arena wall was covered with regular soft limestone blocks. Other reconstructions were made some time later, the most prominent being the construction of a sanctuary in the arena at the place of the former stairway in the western passage axis,

ROMAN AMPHITHEATRES AND SPECTACULA

82

and probably this was not the only sanctuary. It is not known how long the amphitheatre at Burnum functioned, but it is obvious it collapsed due to decay. Building material was of rather bad quality so it was decaying slowly even without negative outer influences such as weathering factors and extreme cold and heat, which only accelerated its decay. Stone decay destroyed the stability of the building, which eventually led to the collapse of vaults and side walls, that is visible in the excavated passages of the southern and northern entrances. Some natural disaster might have contributed to amphitheatre’s decay. The exact time of amphitheatre’s complete destruction cannot be determined, but it is clear that in the course of centuries there were no larger adaptations or reutilizations of amphitheatre stones as building material. Future archaeological excavations, especially the forthcoming excavation of the western entrance and the auditorium, as well as the surrounding area covered with architectural remains, should solve some of the open questions about the construction and function of this building, which played an important role in the everyday life of the soldiers stationed at Burnum and of the inhabitants of settlements which developed close to the legionary military camp.

References

Abramić, M., 1924, ‘Militaria Burnensia’, in M. Abramić & V. Hoffiller (eds), Strena Buliciana, pp. 221-228 (Zagreb – Split). Alföldy, G., 1962, Die Auxiliartruppen der Provinz Dalmatien, Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 14, pp. 259-296. Betz, A., 1938, Untersuchungen zur Militärgeschichte der römischen Provinz Dalmatien, (Wien) Betz, A., Neue Inschriften aus dem römischen Dalmatien’, Vjesnik za arheologiju i historiju dalmatinsku, 56-59, 1954-1957, pp. 82-87. Bojanovski, I., 1974, Dolabelin sistem cesta u rimskoj provinciji Dalmaciji, Djela XLVII - Centar za balkanološka ispitivanja 2, (Sarajevo) Bulić, F., 1879, ‘Cenni archeologico-epigrafici sui distretti di Zara, Benkovac, Knin, Sebenico’, Bullettino di archeologia e storia dalmata, 2, sv. 6, pp. 17-25. Cambi, N., 1994‚ Stele iz kasnoantičke grobnice u Dugopolju’, Vjesnik za arheologiju i historiju dalmatinsku, 86, pp. 147-181.

Cambi, N., 2005, Kiparstvo rimske Dalmacije, (Split: Književni krug) Cambi, N., Glavičić, M., Maršić, D., Miletić, Ž. & Zaninović, J., 2006, Amfiteatar u Burnumu. Stanje istraživanja 2003. – 2005., Katalozi i monografije Burnuma I, (Drniš – Šibenik – Zadar: NP Krka) Čače, S., ‘Pogranične zajednice i jugoistočna granica Liburnije u kasno predrimsko i u rimsko doba’, Diadora 11, pp. 59-91. Ilakovac, B., 1982, Rimski akvedukti na području sjeverne Dalmacije, (Zagreb: Arheološki muzej Zadar – Sveučilišna naklada Liber) Ilakovac, B., 1984, Burnum II. Der römische Aquädukt Plavno polje - Burnum, Bericht über die Forschungen 1973 und 1974, (Wien: Verlag der ÖAW) Manning, W. H., 2000, ‘The fortresses of legio XX’, in R. J. Brewer (ed.) Roman Fortresses and their Legions. Papers in honour of George C Boon, pp. 69-81 (London – Cardiff: Society of Antiquaries of London – National Museums & Galleries of Wales) Marun, L., 1998, Starinarski dnevnici, Katalozi i monografije 4 (Split: Muzej hrvatskih arheoloških spomenika) Medini, J., 1979, ‘Iovilae zavjet iz Burnuma’, Radovi Filozofskog fakulteta u Zadru 18(8), pp. 137-165. Medini, J., 1989, ‘Metroaca Burnensia’, Diadora 11, pp. 255-284. Miletić, Ž., 2006, ‘Roman Roads along the Eastern Coast: State of Research’, in S. Čače, A. Kurilić & F. Tassaux (eds) Les Routes de l’Adriatique antique – géographie et économie, Bordeaux – Zadar, pp. 125-136. Patsch, C., 1897, ‚Archäologisch-epigrapische Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der römischen Provinz Dalmatien II’, Wissenschaftliche Mittheilungen aus Bosnien und der Hercegovina 5, 1897, pp. 177-241. Patsch, C., 1897a, ‘Burnum’, Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft III. 1, col. 1068-1070 (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzlersche Verlagsbuchhandlug) Patsch, C., 1900, ‚Archäologisch-epigrapische Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der römischen Provinz Dalmatien IV’, Wissenschaftliche Mittheilungen aus Bosnien und der Hercegovina 7, pp. 33-166. Raknić, Ž.‚ 1965, Dvojni epigrafički spomenik iz Burnuma’, Diadora 3, pp. 71-84.

MIROSLAV GLAVIČIĆ AND ŽELJKO MILETIĆ: EXCAVATIONS OF THE LEGIONARY AMPHITHEATRE AT BURNUM, CROATIA

83

Reisch, E., 1913, ‘Die Grabungen des Österreichischen archäologischen Institutes während der Jahre 1912 und 1913. Das Standlager von Burnum’, Jahreshefte des Österreichischen archäologischen Institutes in Wien 16, Bbl., pp. 112-135. Rendić-Miočević, D., 1952, ‘Druzov boravak u Dalmaciji u svjetlu novog viškog natpisa’, Vjesnik za arheologiju i historiju dalmatinsku 54, pp. 41-50. Ritterling E., 1924-1925, ‘Legio’, Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft XII.1-2, col. 1186-1829 (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzlersche Verlagsbuchhandlug) Spaul, J. H., 1994, Ala2, The auxiliary cavalry units of the pre-Diocletianic imperial Roman army (Andover: Nectoreca Press) Spaul, J. H., 2000, Cohors2. The evidence for and a short history of the auxiliary infantry units of the Imperial Roman Army, British Archaeological Reports S841 (Oxford) Suić, M., 1970‚ Noviji natpisi iz Burnuma’, Diadora 5, pp. 93-130.

Suić, M., 1981, Zadar u starom vijeku, (Zadar: Filozofski fakultet Zadar) Suić, M., 1976, Antički grad na istočnom Jadranu, (Zagreb:) Wilkes, J. J., 1969, Dalmatia, (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul) Zabehlicky-Scheffenegger, S. & Kandler, M., 1979, Burnum I. Erster Bericht über die Kleinfunde der Grabungen 1973 und 1974 auf dem Forum (Wien 1979) Zaninović, M., 1968, ‘Burnum. Castellum – municipium’, Diadora 4, pp. 119-129. Zaninović, M., 1974, ‘Kninsko područje u antici’, Arheološki radovi i rasprave 7, pp. 301-316. Zaninović, M., 1985, ‘Prata legionis u Kosovom polju kraj Knina s osvrtom na teritorij Tilurija’, Opuscula archaeologica 10, pp. 63-79.