Evaluation of Plants Used in Traditional Medicine in ...

J. Himalayan Ecol. Sustain. Dev. Vol. 16 (2021) ISSN 0973‐7502

Evaluation of Plants Used in Traditional Medicine in Bishnupur District of Manipur, Northeast India

Jogesh Laishram1* and Mithra Dey2 1Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Bishnupur District, Utlou, Manipur‐795134, India 2Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar‐788011, India *Corresponding author’s email: [email protected].

ABSTRACT

A survey was undertaken to collect information from 90 traditional healers on medicinal plants from 15 villages located in Bishnupur district, Manipur. During the survey, the indigenous knowledge of local traditional healers and their native plants for medicinal purposes were collected through questionnaire surveys and personal interviews. The investigation found the traditional healers used 112 species of plants belonging to 55 families and 105 genera and 11 plant’s parts for treatment of 44 different types of ailments. 4 life forms of medicinal plants species like herb (54%), tree (26%), shrub (16%) and climber (4%) were observed. The majority of the plants (57%) grows in wild and cultivated, 24% grows in wild and 19% were found cultivated. It was observed that the elderly and poor people were still dependent on medicinal plants at least for the treatment of primary healthcare because of their belief in traditional medicines and inability to meet the expenses of modern healthcare facilities like well‐equipped hospitals. The traditional healers are decreasing in number because modern allopathic medication are replacing their treatment methods. The younger generations are not interested in carrying on this tradition because of their modern and busy lifestyles. Because of urbanization and development there is a great threat of disappearing the traditional knowledge of using medicinal plants for the treatment of ailments. Incorporating scientific methods in traditional treatment, documentation and conservation of traditional medicinal plants will help in the revival of this traditional knowledge of using medicinal plants. Keywords: Traditional healers, Medicinal plants, Bishnupur district, Diseases, Ailments, Treatment

INTRODUCTION

Traditional herbalism is one of the most common methods of treating diseases since ancient times. This is

one of the readily available and cheap methods for treating many diseases. The use of medicinal plants to

cure diseases is an age‐old practice that has developed in recent years (Jaadan et al., 2020). The practice of

herbal medicine is the oldest form of healthcare used for decades in developing and developed countries.

Primitive people have depended on nature for food, shelter, clothing and medicine to cure ailments. These

humans distinguished useful herbs with beneficial effects from inactive or toxic ones (Kunle et al., 2012).

According to literature, approximately 50,000 plant species have medicinal properties (Barboza et al.,

2009). Thus, the basis of modern medicinal drugs such as aspirin, morphine, digitoxin and quinine were

synthesized through scientific validation of herbal medicine (Wachtel‐Galor and Benzie, 2011; Pal and

Shukla, 2003). Today herbal medicine is still the primary healthcare system for about 80% of the world’s

population, especially in developing countries (Kunle et al., 2012; Okigbo et al., 2009; Kamboj, 2000). Over

the years, traditional medicine has provided us with valuable formulas on the selection, preparation and

application of herbal remedies. The same vigorous method clinically and scientifically must be implemented

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to verify the effectiveness and safety of curative products, to be viable alternatives to western medicine

(Pal and Shukla, 2003).

Herbs were dominant in preparing and serving primary healthcare and therapeutic indication due to their

medicinal properties (Bahadura et al., 2020). About 80% of the human population and 90% of livestock is

believed to be dependent on traditional medicine and most of this comes from plants (Aragaw et al., 2020).

In pharmacy, the relationship between the human community and medicinal plants has long been

established (Yeung et al., 2020). Ethnobotanical research studies the region's plants and their practical uses

through the traditional knowledge of local culture and people. The documentation of traditional

knowledge, particularly on the therapeutic uses of plants, has provided many significant modern‐day

pharmaceuticals since its inception (Dey et al., 2021).

Documenting traditional knowledge through ethnobotanical studies is important for conserving and

utilising biological resources. Manipur state in India is known for its richness in biodiversity, including

endemic flora and fauna, varied topographic and climatic features, cultural heritage, etc. The abundance in

the diversity of the forests and its resources is attributed to the state's ideal location in the junction of two

world’s hot spots of biodiversity, the India‐Myanmar hot spot and the Himalayan hot spot of biological

diversity. Out of 34 hot spots across the globe, India has four, and out of the four, Manipur has two ‐

Himalayan and the India‐Burma hot spot. The state of Manipur is the storehouse of biological diversity,

which includes 4000 angiospermic plants species, 430 medicinal plants species, 34 edible fungi species, 500

orchid species and 55 species of bamboo 40 endemic rice cultivars, 160 fish species and 21 species of

migratory aquatic birds. An environment rich in biological diversity offers the broadest array of options for

sustainable economic activity. The state's forests have six major Forest Types and 10 Subtypes. The major

forest types include Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest, Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests, Sub‐Tropical Pine

Forest, Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest, Montane Wet Temperate and Sub‐alpine Forest. However, the state

of Manipur is now facing the problems of biodiversity degeneration due to varied reasons. The loss of

biodiversity often reduces the productivity of ecosystems, thereby shrinking nature’s baskets of goods and

services, from which we constantly draw (Singh, 2016).

Bishnupur district of Manipur has a number of plant species like Acacia fernesiana, Acacia nilotica,

Ageratum conyzoides, Alisma plantago‐aquatica etc. The traditional healers and many elderly people of the

present study villages and districts still depended on the medicinal plants found in the Bishnupur district for

the treatment of certain ailments. Though earlier studies have worked on the ethnomedicinal plants there

is a gap in reporting its extensive uses and new species of medicinal plants used especially by the traditional

healers of new unstudied villages. Further, the present study, which included the lifeform and occurrence of

the medicinal plants in the district, is unique in this field of study. Notable work on the traditional uses of

medicinal plants have been conducted aboard (Okigbo et al.,2009; Kassa et al., 2020; Ambu et al., 2020) in

India (Muthu et al., 2006; Phondani et al., 2009; Panda and Misra, 2011) and in Manipur (Sanglakpam et al.,

2012; Das and Tongbram, 2014; Devi et al., 2017). Sanglakpam et al. (2012) reported the use of 19 genera

of plants species belonging to 13 families for food and 63 genera belonging to 37 families for medicinal

purposes in Bishnupur District, Manipur. Devi et al. (2017) conducted a survey of medicinal plants in 14

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villages of Bishnupur District, Manipur and noted 100 species belonging to 55 families and a total of 87

genera of medicinal plants were found to be used by traditional healers and villagers of the district in curing

diseases and ailments. Kassa et al. (2020) reported that most of the medicinal plants in Sheka zone used to

treat human ailments (77%) and 19% of medicinal plants were used to treat both human and livestock

ailments. Bouafia et al. (2021) conducted the ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal analysis of wild medicinal

plants traditionally used in Naâma, southwest Algeria. The present study was undertaken with the objective

of documenting extensively the medicinal plants utilised by the traditional healers of 15 newly selected

villages of the Bishnupur district for the treatment of various ailments. In this study, the plants species of 15

new villages have been chosen to fill up the research gap and to represent the whole district for assessing

the traditional knowledge of healers.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area

Manipur is a small state located in the north‐eastern region of India. The state lies between 23º83’N and

25º68’N latitude and 93º03’E and 94º78’E longitudes, neighboring Myanmar in the east, Nagaland in the

north, Assam in the west and Mizoram and Tripura in the south. The state is divided into 16 districts with a

total geographical area of about 22,327 sq. km.

Bishnupur district is located in the south‐west between 24o10' & 24o45' North latitude and 93o 45' & 93o 52'

East longitude covering a total area is 496 sq. km with an average altitude of 822.18 m above m.s.l. It is

around 27 km from Imphal, the capital of Manipur. The district is bounded by Senapati and West Imphal

districts in the north, Churachandpur district in the west, Chandel in the south‐east and Thoubal district on

the east (Fig. 1). As per the 2011 census, the total population of the district is 2,40,363. The density of

population is 485 persons per square km. Bishnupur has a sex ratio of 1000 females for every 1000

males and a literacy rate of 76.35% (District Census, 2011). The district is the home of large number of

different tribal communities including Naga, Kabui, Gangte, Kom, etc. The district experiences fair cold

climate during winter and hot in summers. The maximum temperature is 33oC from May to September and

the minimum dips down to 4oC in January. In Bishnupur, the wet season is warm, muggy, and mostly

cloudy, and the dry season is comfortable and mostly clear. Over the year, the temperature typically varies

from 42°F to 85°F and is rarely below 38°F or above 90°F. Based on the tourism score, the best times of

year to visit Bishnupur for warm‐weather activities are from late February to late April and from late

October to mid‐November (Indian Ministry of Forests and Environment, 2011).

175

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the treatment of various ailments of the people

(Muthu et al., 2006; Benarba et al., 2015;

Mahwasane et al., 2013). Eighty males and ten

females in the age group of 60‐80 years were

selected as respondents as this age group knows

more about traditional medicine practices. The

numbers of female traditional healers were less

than males as most of them were confined to

household work and did not have enough time to

practice traditional healing using medicinal

plants. The different types of medicinal plant

species used by traditional healers from all 15

villages, their scientific name, family, life form,

occurrence, local name, parts used, mode of

preparation/ administration, and ailments treated

were collected and noted down.

Herbarium of the plant species collected was

prepared by following the standard methods (Jain

and Rao, 1977). The local names, the specimen of

the medicinal plants and their uses as reported by

the traditional healers were collected and cross‐

checked with the published literature (Sinha,

1996 and Singh et al., 2000) and the specimens of

the medicinal plants which were collected were

identified based on vernacular name, regional

floras and published literature (Deb, 1961; Hore,

1998; Jain and Rao, 1977 and Singh et al., 2003).

For future reference, the voucher specimens

were deposited in the Herbaria of Department of

Forestry and Environmental Science, Pandit Deen

Dayal Upadhyay Institute of Agricultural Sciences,

Utlou, Manipur. For the correct nomenclature of

the plant species, International Plant Name Index

(IPNI) (http://www.ipni.org) and the Plant List

(http://www.theplantlist.org) was followed.

Categorisation of the ailments

The ailments treated were categorized into 7

categories with their corresponding sub‐category.

The seven categories of the ailments treated

were 1) Circulatory system problems 2) External

injuries, bites and dermatological problems 3)

Head, thermoregulatory and nervous system

problems 4) Digestive system and gastrointestinal

problems 5) Cancer and musculoskeletal

problems 6) Oro‐dental and respiratory problems

7) Urogenital, gynaecological and venereal

problems as mentioned in Table 1.

Table 1. Categorisation of the ailments treated

Category of ailment Sub‐category of ailment

Circulatory system problems High blood pressure, Heart problem, Blood in urine, Blood circulation, Purification of blood

External injuries, bites and dermatological problems

Boils, Swelling, Hair fall, Skin disease, Cuts, Wounds, Snakebite, Burnt in the skin, Grey hair

Head, thermoregulatory and nervous system problems

Diarrhoea, Dizziness, Cold, Sleeplessness, Fever, Malaria, Headache

Digestive system and gastrointestinal problems

Piles, Dysentery, Stomach disorder, Constipation, Vomiting, Jaundice, Intestinal worms, Indigestion, Typhoid

Cancer and musculoskeletal problems Gout

Oro‐dental and respiratory problems

Mouth ulcer, Gum problem, Respiratory trouble, Lungs trouble, Cough, Chest pain, Sinusitis, Toothache

Urogenital, gynaecological and venereal problems

Stone case, Urinary problems, Pain in passing urine, White discharge, Diabetes

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A list of plant species used for the treatment of

different ailments are presented in Appendix 1.

The present study recorded 112 species

belonging to 55 families and 105 genera. In terms

of the life form of medicinal plants, species used

herb with 60 species (54%), the tree with 29

(26%), shrub with 18 (16%) and climber with five

species (4%) were observed (Fig. 2). Of the total

number of plants used majority of them, 64

species (57%) grows in the wild and are

cultivated, 27 numbers of species (24%) grow in

the wild and 21 species (19%) were found

cultivated (Fig.3). Mir et al. (2014) also reported

trees with 53 species (40.5%) were the dominant

component followed by 40 (30.5%) herb, 20

(15.3%) shrub, 13 (9.9%) climber and 5 (3.8%)

and out of a total number of plants most of them

grow in wild (119 species, 90.8%), followed by

plants that grow in the wild as well as cultivated

(9 species, 6.9%), while only 3 (2.3%) species are

exclusively under cultivation.

In the 55 plant’s families used for the treatment

of different ailments, plant’s families belonging to

Poaceae, Solanaceae and Zingiberaceae were

found to be used in the highest number of 6

species each followed by Cucurbitaceae,

Lamiaceae and Rutaceae families, which were five

species each (Appendix 1). Among the ailment

categories, Head, thermoregulatory and nervous

system problems and Digestive system and

gastrointestinal problems were treated with the

highest number of plant species (24) each

followed by Oro‐dental and respiratory issues

(22), External injuries, bites and dermatological

problems (19), Urogenital, gynaecological and

venereal problems (13), Circulatory system

problems (8). In contrast, the lowest number of

plant species treated cancer and musculoskeletal

problems (2) (Fig.4). A similar type of study was

also conducted by Das and Tongbram (2014)

.

Fig.2. Percentage of life form of plants species

Herb54%Shrub

16%

Tree26%

Climber4%

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Fig. 3. Percentage of occurrence of plants species used in traditional medicine

Fig. 4. Number of plants species used for treatment of different categories of ailments

Cultivated19%

Wild24%

Wild and Cultivated

57%

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Circulatory system problems

External injuries, bites anddermatological problems

Head, thermoregulatory and nervoussystem problems

Digestive system and gastrointestinalproblems

Cancer and musculoskeletalproblems

Oro-dental and respiratory problems

Urogenital, gynecological andvenereal problems

Number of plant species used

Ail

men

t ca

tego

ry

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Fig. 5. Frequency of plant's part used for the treatment of different ailments

A total of 11 plant’s parts (1. Bark 2. Bulb 3.

Flower 4. Fruit 5. Whole plant 6. Stem 7. Shoot 8.

Root 9. Seed 10. Rhizome 11. Leaf) were

recorded to be used by the traditional healers for

treatment of different types of ailments (Fig. 5).

Similarly, Phondani et al. (2009) also documented

the uses of 100 medicinal plant species belonging

to 91 genera and 51 families to cure 60 types of

different ailments. The use of 44 species of

angiosperms against 62 diseases like bronchitis,

tuberculosis, asthma, diarrhoea, dysentery,

measles, malaria, cholera, ulcerations and

typhoid (Pal and Palit, 2011) has earlier been

reported. The local people used 48 wetland

plants under 40 genera and 23 families against 47

ailments Panda and Misra (2011). The present

study is in agreement with Devi et al. (2017),

which comprised of a wide survey of medicinal

plants where 100 species belonging to 56 families

and a total of 87 genera of medicinal plants were

found to be used but in congruence with

Thokchom et al. (2015) who recorded 63 plant

species belonging to 56 genera and 41 families

which were used by Chakpa community to treat

over 25 diseases and ailments. Similar

observations were reported by Zˇivkovic et al.

(2020) who noted that 86 medicinal plants

belonging to 43 families were used to treat

0 10 20 30 40

Bark

Bulb

Flower

Fruit

Whole plant

Stem

Shoot

Root

Seed

Rhizome

Leaf

Number of ailments treated

Pla

nt p

art

used

180


gastrointestinal ailments, respiratory problems

and skin diseases.

In this study, it was noted that leaf was the most

frequently used part of the medicinal plants as

they were used for the treatment of 33 ailments,

followed by fruit for 23 ailments, rhizome for

eight ailments, bark and root for five ailments,

seed for four ailments, flower for three ailments,

stem and shoot for two ailments and bulb and

whole plant each of which was used for the

treatment of 1 ailment (Fig. 5). A similar study

was conducted by Muthu et al. (2006) where the

traditional healers used 85 species of plants

distributed in 76 genera belonging to 41 families

to treat various diseases like skin diseases, poison

bites, stomachache and nervous disorders.

Traditional uses of medicinal plants for the

treatment of various diseases were also reported

in a study by Ambu et al., 2020.

12 methods of preparation of medicinal plants

were found for the treatment of ailments. They

were crushed, pasted, roasted, soaked, heated,

dried, filtered, boiled, grinded, fried, cooked and

made into tablets (Appendix 1). These findings

were in congruence with the results of Naïve et

al. (2021). Seven methods such as apply, drink,

eat, bath, chew, inhale and insert were used as a

mode of administration of medicinal plants

(Appendix 1). Such findings were also reported by

Dogor et al. (2018); Hussain et al. (2018); Jadid et

al. (2020).

It was observed that 11 medicinal plant’s species

were used for the treatment of cough followed by

9 for fever, 7 for a stomach disorder, 6 for

intestinal worms, boils and dizziness, followed by

5 to treat jaundice, piles and dysentery diseases.

4 were used for the treatment of intestinal

worms, cough, malaria, high blood pressure,

urinary problems, swelling, wounds, toothache,

skin disease and headache. 2 plants species were

used for diarrhoea, gout and indigestion. It was

also recorded that one species was used for the

treatment of hair fall, cold, mouth ulcer, grey

hair, respiratory trouble, lung trouble, heart

problem, constipation, sleeplessness, vomiting,

snake bite, blood in urine, pain in passing urine,

blood circulation, white discharge, sinusitis,

purification of blood, typhoid. Overall, 44

different types of ailments were treated using

112 species of medicinal plants. The study is in

line with Taid et al. (2014), who recorded 21

species of plants belonging to 16 different

families which have been used traditionally to

help fight uterus infection, to restore

menstruation irregularity, enhance fertility in

both males and females, to stop excessive

bleeding during menstruation and wound healing,

energy stimulants and promote conception by

local traditional healers. Another study also

recorded 97 medicinal plants belonging to 46

families and 86 genera for the treatment of

diseases of the respiratory system, circulatory

system etc. (Naïve et al. (2021).

The investigation found that the traditional

healers in the Bishnupur district have a rich

knowledge of using medicinal plants for the

treatment of various ailments. Overall, it was

noted that there is still the existence of

traditional knowledge in the 15 study villages in

the form of using medicinal plants by the

traditional healers for treatment of various

ailments. The traditional healers used to charge

some minimal amount from the people who

came to treat them, and hence this profession is

an essential part of their livelihood. The elderly

persons of the villages are still depending on this

treatment method because of their belief in it.

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But due to the establishments of the increasing

number of modern medical healthcare facilities

decline in the traditional uses of medicinal plants

is observed. It can be seen that there are some

elderly persons and poor people who cannot

afford to meet the expenses of modern

healthcare treatment are still depending on the

traditional healers to get their treatment done at

a minimal cost.

CONCLUSIONS

The traditional healers are on the decline because

modern allopathic medicines are replacing their

methods of treatment. Urbanization and

deforestation, which has been taken on a large

scale, are resulting in the destruction of medicinal

plants. There is a very high chance that this

traditional form of using medicinal plants for the

treatment of certain ailments will vanish in the

near future. To sustain this knowledge,

conservation of medicinal plants and transmitting

the knowledge to younger generations are

necessary. Hence, the traditional knowledge

practice by the traditional healers needs to be

conserved, which will help not only in revival of

the traditional knowledge of using medical plants

but also conserve the surrounding ecosystems.

Application of scientific methods in traditional

medicinal plants treatment will help in preserving

this valuable conventional knowledge.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors acknowledges the village authorities,

local guides and those respondents who spared

their valuable time during the survey and shared

vital informations. The authors also highly

acknowledges the anonymous reviewers and

editors whose comments and suggestions help in

improving the manuscript immensely.

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185


Appendix 1

List of plant species used for treatment of different ailments (species are arranged alphabetically in order of family)

Scientific name Family Life form

Occurrence Local name Parts used

Mode of preparation/ administration Ailments treated

Adhatoda vasica Nees

Acanthaceae S WC Nongmangkha

Leaf

Paste was applied to boils or swelling in the body.

Boils, Swelling

Andrographis paniculata Wall.ex Nees

Acanthaceae H WC Vubati Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves were taken. Gum problem

Codonacanthus pauciflorus Nees.

Acanthaceae H W Nongpok langthrei

Leaf Crushed leaves’ juice was drank with honey.

Dizziness

Phlogacanthus curviflorus Nees

Acanthaceae S WC Nongmankha Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves in water were taken.

Fever

Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harms

Alangiaceae T W Kokan Leaf Juice of the crushed leaves with water was drank with salt.

Malaria

Sagittaria sagittifolia Linn.

Alismataceae H WC Kou‐kha

Root

Liquid of the boiled roots in water was taken with honey.

Cough

Allium odorum Linn.

Alliaceae H WC Maroi nakupi Leaf

Liquid of the crushed, soaked leaves in water was drank with salt after filtering.

Stone case

Allium hookeri (Thw.)

Amaryllidaceae H WC Maroi napakpi Leaf Fresh leaves were consumed along with food.

High blood pressure

Centella asiatica Linn.

Apiaceae H WC Peruk Leaf Crushed leaves along with some common salt were applied on the wound by tying it with a clean cloth.

Cuts and wounds

Eryngium foetidum Linn.

Apiaceae H C Awaphadigom Leaf Paste of leaves and Ngari (fermented fish) were grinded, mixed and applied on infected part.

Swelling in body


Plumeria acuminata Ait.

Apocynaceae T WC Khagi‐leihao Bark Liquid of the boiled barks in water were taken.

Malaria

Acorus calamus Linn.

Araceae H W Okhidak Rhizome Crushed rhizome juice was taken with honey.

Cough

Ageratum conyzoides Linn.

Asteraceae H W Khongjai napi Leaf Juice of the crushed, soaked leaves in water was drank with salt.

Diarrhoea

Crasscephalum crepidioides (Benth.) Moore

Asteraceae

H W Tera paibi Leaf, shoot

Liquid of the boiled leaves and shoots in water was drank with crystal sugar.

Stomach disorder

Eclipta alba (Linn.) Hassk.

Asteraceae H W Uchi‐sumban Leaf Extract of the grinded leaves was taken with little honey.

Cough and fever

Averrhoa carambola Linn.

Averrhoaceae T WC Heinijom Fruit Extracted juice from the fruit was drunk after adding some honey.

Stone case

Basella alba Linn.

Basellaceae C W Urok sumban Leaf Crushed leaves juice were applied on boils.

Boils

Oroxylum indicum (Linn.) Vent.

Bignoniaceae T W Shamba Bark

Liquid of the boiled bark in water are taken or the extract of the grinded bark was applied in the infected part of the joints.

Gout

Brassica campestris Linn.

Brassicaceae H C Hanggam Leaf Crushed leaves were applied on the forehead.

Headache

Nasturtium indicum Linn.

Brassicaceae H WC Uchi‐hangam Leaf Crushed leaves were applied on forehead.

Headache, dizziness

Ananas comosus (Linn.) Merrill

Bromeliaceae H C Keehom Fruit Fruit was consumed with salt. Piles

Cannabis sativa Linn.

Cannabinaceae H WC Ganja Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves were taken with sugar.

Dysentery

Carica papaya Linn.

Caricaceae T C Awa‐thabi Root Liquid of the boiled roots in water were taken after adding little crystal sugar.

Urinary problems

Xanthium Compositae H WC Hameng Leaf Juice of the crushed leaves was drank Diarrhoea


strumarium Linn. sampakpi with common salt.

Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.

Convolvulaceae H WC Kolamni Whole plant

The boiled of whole plant in water was drank after filtering and adding jaggery.

White discharge

Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn.

Cucurbitaceae Cl C Torobot Fruit Crushed fruits were applied on legs or foots by tying with a clean piece of cloth.

Dizziness

Cucumis sativus Linn.

Cucurbitaceae Cl C Thabi Fruit The fruit was eaten as raw or eat as champhut (boiled food with a hint of sugar).

High blood pressure

Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.) Standl.

Cucurbitaceae Cl WC U Khongdrum Fruit Boiled fruit in water was taken. Jaundice

Lagenaria vulgaris Ser

Cucurbitaceae Cl W Koubuyai Rhizome Rhizome was chewed directly.

High blood pressure, cough

Melothria perpusilla (Blume) Cogn.

Cucurbitaceae Cl W Lamthabi Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves in water was taken.

Jaundice

Cyperus rotundus Linn.

Cyperaceae H W Sembang kouthum

Rhizome Juice of the grinded rhizome was drank.

Stomach disorder

Scleria terrestris (Linn.) Fuss.

Cyperaceae H W Lam thangjou Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves in water was taken with sugar.

Urinary problem

Dillenia indica Linn.

Dilleniaceae S WC Heigri Fruit Fruit cooked with fresh milk and consumed.

Heart problem

Dryopteris marginata (C.B. Cl.) Christ

Dryopteridaceae H W Lai‐chankhrang Leaf Juice of the grinded leaves was applied to boils.

Boils

Emblica officinalis Gaertn.

Euphorbiaceae T WC Heikru Fruits Fruits were eaten as raw. Constipation and piles

Jatropha curcas Linn.

Euphorbiaceae S W Awa kege Bark Extracted juice from the bark was applied on cuts and wounds.

Cuts and wounds

Phyllanthus urinaria Linn.

Euphorbiaceae H W Chakpa‐heikru Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves in water along with 4‐5 cardamom seeds and

Diabetes


sugar were taken.

Ricinus communis Linn.

Euphorbiaceae S W Kege Leaf Dried leaves mixed with honey were eaten.

Piles

Cajanus cajan (Linn.) Millsp.

Fabaceae H WC Mairongbi

Leaf

Dried, ground leaves’ powder was applied to tooth and gum.

Toothache and gum problems

Phaseolus lunatus Linn.

Fabaceae H C Kalandri Leaf Crushed leaves were applied on the forehead.

Intestinal worm

Vigna mungo (Linn.) Hepper

Fabaceae

H C Shagol‐hawai

Seed

Soaked, softened, ground seed with garlic was applied to the affected tooth.

Toothache

Xylosma longifolia Clos

Flacourtiaceae T WC Nongleisang Leaf Paste of the crushed leaves with glycerine was applied to the infected part of the skin.

Skin disease

Elsholtzia blanda Benth.

Lamiaceae H WC Lomba Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves was water is taken.

High blood pressure

Leucas aspera Spreng.

Lamiaceae H W Mayang lembum

Leaf Few drops of the extracted liquid of the crushed leaves were put inside the nostrils and inhaled.

Sinusitis

Mentha arvensis Linn.

Lamiaceae H C Nungshi‐hidak Leaf Juice of the crushed leaves was drank with salt and water.

Indigestion

Ocimum gratissimum Linn.

Lamiaceae H C Ram tulsi

Leaf

Juice of the grinded leaves was taken with honey.

Fever and cough

Scutellaria discolor Colebr.

Lamiaceae H WC Yenakhat Leaf Juice of crushed leaves was applied to cuts and wounds.

Cut and wounds

Cinnamomum tamala Nees and Eberm.

Lauraceae T WC Tejbat Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves in water were taken. .

Cough, headache and dizziness.

Allium sativum Linn.

Liliaceae H C Chanam Bulb Liquid of the boiled juice of grinded bulb with water was drank.

Stomach disorder

Aloe barbadensis Mill.

Liliaceae S WC Ghritakumar Leaf Crushed leaves were applied on the forehead.

Dizziness


Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Liliaceae H WC Nungarei Leaf Fried leaves were applied on the boils along with little ghee.

Boils

Pratia nummularia Kurz

Lobeliaceae H WC Keehom‐maan Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves in water were taken.

Urinary problems

Magnolia champaca (Linn.) Baill. ex Pierre

Magnoliaceae T WC Leihao Flower Liquid of the boiled flowers in water was taken with some sugar.

Purification of blood

Magnolia grandiflora Linn.

Magnoliaceae T WC U‐thambal Leaf Cooked leaves were eaten with dry fish. Diabetes

Bombax ceiba Linn.

Malvaceae T WC Tera Fruit Crushed fruit juice was drank with some honey.

Respiratory trouble

Hibiscus rosa‐sinensis Linn.

Malvaceae

S

WC Juba kusum Flower Flower was added to boiled milk and taken along with some salt.

Fever and blood circulation

Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker

Meliaceae T WC Heirangkhoi Seed Grinded seeds with honey were applied directly on the infected part of the mouth.

Mouth ulcer

Azadirachta indica A.Juss.

Meliaceae T WC Neem Leaf Took bath with boiled leaves in water. Skin disease

Melia azedarach Linn.

Meliaceae T WC Seizrak Leaf Extracted liquid of the crushed leaves was drank and taken with honey.

Intestinal worms in children

Toona ciliata M. Roem

Meliaceae T WC Tairel Leaf Crushed leaves were applied on the infected part of the tooth.

Toothache

Mimosa pudica Linn.

Mimosaceae S WC Kangphal

ikaithabi/Lam ikaithabi

Leaf Juice of the crushed leaves were taken with honey.

Jaundice

Parkia javanica Merr.

Mimosaceae T WC Yongchak Fruit Liquid of the boiled fruit in water were taken.

Dysentery

Musa X paradisiaca Linn.

Musaceae H C Laphu tharo Fruit Vegetable salad made of small cut pieces of Laphu tharo (inflorescence of banana), hentak (fish paste) and red

Malaria


chilli powder were taken.

Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.

Myrtaceae T WC Nasik Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves in water were used as shampoo and applied on hair.

Hair fall

Eugenia jambolana Lam.

Myrtaceae T WC Jam Bark Liquid of the boiled barks in water were taken after adding little salt.

Dysentery

Psidium guajava Linn.

Myrtaceae T WC Pungdol Leaf Leaves were cooked with Ngamu (Channa punctatus) fish and eaten.

Dysentery

Nyctanthes arbor‐tristis Linn.

Oleaceae S WC Singarei

Leaf

Liquid of the boiled leaves in water were taken.

Malaria

Jussiaea repens Linn.

Onagraceae H WC Ishing ‐Kundo Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves in water were drank with sugar.

Jaundice

Oxalis corniculata Linn.

Oxalidaceae H WC Yensil Leaf/stem

Liquid of the boiled leaves and stems in water were taken with some salt.

Indigestion

Plantago major Linn.

Plantaginaceae H WC Yempat Leaf Roasted and crushed leaves wereapplied on boils.

Boils

Plumbago auriculata Lam.

Plumbaginaceae S W Telhidak Root Extract of crushed roots with honey was taken.

Fever, stomach disorder

Arundo donax Linn. Poaceae H W Yenthou

Shoot Liquid of the boiled shoot was taken.

Intestinal worm in children

Coix lacryma‐jobi Linn.

Poaceae H W Chaning Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves in water was drank with little sugar.

Urinary problems

Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers.

Poaceae H W Tingthou Leaf Crushed leaves’ juice was taken after adding some honey.

Vomiting

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn) P.Beauv.

Poaceae H W Pungphai Leaf Juice of the grinded leaves was taken after adding some honey.

Stomach disorder

Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.) P. Beauv.

Poaceae H W Hup Leaf Extract of crushed leaves was applied immediately on the infected part.

Snake bite

Saccharum officinarum Linn.

Poaceae H C Chungou Stem The stem was directly eaten. Jaundice


Fagopyrum esculentum Moench

Polygonaceae H C Yendem amubi Leaf, root

Juice of the crushed leaves and roots were drank with some honey.

Swelling of gums

Polygonum posumu Ham.

Polygonaceae H C Phakpai Leaf Extracted juice of the crushed leaves were applied on the forehead.

Fever

Rumex maritimus Linn.

Polygonaceae H WC Torongkhongch

ak Leaf

Paste of the crushed leaves was applied to the infected part of the skin.

Skin disease

Punica granatum Linn.

Punicaceae T WC Kaphoi Leaf Fried leaves mixed with mustard oilwere applied to the burnt part of the body.

Burnt in the skin

Ziziphus jujuba Mill.

Rhamnaceae T WC Boroi Leaf Paste of the crushed leaves with lime was applied on the forehead.

Headache

Prunus persica (Linn.) Batsch

Rosaceae T WC Chumbrei Leaf

Tablets were made by rolling in between the palm from the mixture of the crushed leaves and common salt and inserted in the infected areas of the anus.

Piles

Rosa chinensis Jacq.

Rosaceae S C Ador gulap Fruit Juice extracted from crushed fruit was applied on the wounds.

Wounds

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis

Rubiaceae S WC Kaboklei Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves in water were drank with salt.

Blood in urine, pain in passing urine

Knoxia roxburghii M.A. Rau.

Rubiaceae H WC Meitei lembum Leaf Cooked leaves were eaten. Stomach disorder

Meyna laxiflora Robyns

Rubiaceae T WC Heibi Seed Grinded and seeds soaked in water was given to children in the age group of 7 to 10 years after filtering the mixture.

Cough, Intestinal worm

Oldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb

Rubiaceae H WC Lin‐ marei Leaf Paste of the grinded leaves was applied on boils and burns.

Boils and burns

Aegle Rutaceae T WC Harikhagok Fruit Roasted fruit in red hot charcoal and Stomach


marmelos Linn. taken. disorder

Citrus limon (Linn.) Burm.f.

Rutaceae T WC Champra Fruit Juice of the fruit mixed with honey, egg’s yolk and milk was taken.

Lungs trouble

Citrus latipes (Swingle) Tanaka

Rutaceae T C Heiribob Fruit Juice of the fruit mixed with little salt and drank.

Cold and cough

Murraya paniculata (Linn.) Jack

Rutaceae S WC Kamini Kusum Leaf

Juice of the crushed leaves was taken with honey.

Fever, typhoid

Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb.

Rutaceae S C Mukthrubi Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves were taken. Chest pain

Sapindus trifoliatus Linn.

Sapindaceae T WC Kekru Fruit Juice from crushed fruit was taken with honey.

Intestinal worm in children

Mimusops elengi Linn.

Sapotaceae T WC Bokul Seed Grinded seeds were drink with water or applied on the infected part of the tooth.

Toothache

Houttuynia cordata Thunb.

Saururaceae H WC Toningkhok Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves in water were drank.

Dysentery

Capsicum annuum Linn.

Solanaceae S C Morok Fruit Grinded, fruit mixed with little water was applied on the infected part.

Gout

Datura suaveolens Willd.

Solanaceae H WC Sagol‐hidak

Leaf

Paste of crushed leaves was applied on forehead.

Dizziness

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.

Solanaceae H C Khamen ashinba

Fruit Slice from fruit was applied on the burn. Burn

Nicotiana tabacum Linn.

Solanaceae H WC Hidakmana Leaf Piece of the leaf was applied on the part infected with piles.

Piles

Solanum indicum Linn.

Solanaceae S WC Leipungkhangg

a Fruit Crushed fruits were taken with honey. Fever

Solanum torvum Swartz

Solanaceae S WC Sing khanga Fruit Boiled fruits with Chinghi (traditional natural herbal shampoo made from rice

Grey hair


water) were applied in the grey hairs.

Celtis australis Linn Ulmaceae T WC Heikreng Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves in water were taken after mixing little crystal sugar.

Stone case

Oreocnide integrifolia (Gaudich.) Miq.

Urticaceae H W U‐khajing Leaf Liquid of the boiled leaves in water were taken.

Diabetes

Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene

Verbenaceae H W Chinglengbi Leaf Extracted juice of the crushed leaves was applied on the infected gum.

Bleeding gum

Vitex trifolia Linn. Verbenaceae S W Urikshibi Leaf Juice of the crushed leaves with honey was given to children.

Intestinal worms in children

Alpinia galanga (Linn.) Willd.

Zingiberaceae H W Kanghu Rhizome Grinded rhizome is taken after the extracted juice was mixed with honey.

Cough in children

Curcuma longa Linn.

Zingiberaceae H WC Yaingang Rhizome Juice of the crushed rhizome was drank by adding some honey and water.

Cough, chest pain, sleeplessness

Hedychium spicatum Buch.‐ Ham.

Zingiberaceae H WC Takhellei hangampal

Rhizome Rhizome was eaten with food. Cough and fever

Kaempferia rotunda Linn.

Zingiberaceae H WC Leibaklei Rhizome Paste of the crushed rhizome was applied on the swelling of the body.

Swelling

Zingiber cassumunar Roxb.

Zingiberaceae H WC Tekhao‐yaikhu Rhizome Juice extracted from grinded rhizome was applied on the skin.

Skin disease

Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Zingiberaceae H C Shing Rhizome Liquid of the boiled rhizomes was drank. Chest pain

Legend: H = Herb, S = Shrub, T = Tree, Cl = Climber, C = Cultivated, W = Wild, WC = Wild and Cultivated

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