Enhancing sustainable heritage tourism in Egypt: challenges and framework of action

Journal of Heritage Tourism (Taylor & Francis) – a pre-print version (2015) (ID: 1029489 DOI:10.1080/1743873X.2015.1029489)

Corresponding author. Emails: [email protected]; marwamagdy111@yahoo.

Com

Enhancing sustainable heritage tourism in Egypt: challenges and

framework of action

Marwa Magdy Ghanem* and Samar Kamel Saad

Department of Tourism Studies, Faculty of Tourism, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 41522 Egypt

Prior research on heritage tourism has suggested a set of general guidelines to

develop sustainability in heritage sites, but these lack details on implementation and

prospective challenges, especially in the developing countries. This research studies

the practical application of sustainable heritage tourism (SHT) in Egypt. In

particular, it investigates the challenges facing the tourism development of the Esna

heritage site, and proposes a framework of action. The emergent challenges are

related to two main aspects: community (e.g. close urbanization and theft of

antiquities) and management (e.g. lack of top management support and

commitment, conflict of authorities, lack of awareness and appropriate skills, and

lack of adequate funding). The study found that the central and most influential

factors are those related to management. The suggested framework of actions

outlines objectives, related actions and implementation responsibilities. The

implementation of the entire suite of actions would enhance the ability of Esna to

conserve heritage, develop local community and assist in facing the challenges to

SHT development. Generally, this study is a step towards a better understanding of

how sustainable heritage tourism could be achieved in developing countries. It also

gives relevant insights to both researchers and practitioners.

Keywords: Sustainability; heritage tourism; community development; developing

countries; Esna; Egypt

Introduction

Heritage-based tourism has become one of the largest and fastest growing sectors of the

global tourism industry (Timothy and Nyaupane, 2009). Being one possible development

strategy for local communities in developing countries, it provides economic supports and

improves communities’ quality of life by providing employment and other economic

opportunities, including better infrastructure (Madden and Shipley, 2012; UNEP, 2005).

However, heritage tourism development may cause negative environmental and socio-

cultural impacts. It may represent a threat in terms of potential degradation of heritage, which

can in turn impact upon dispossessing communities of their cultural integrity and resources,

as well as the benefits of tourism themselves (Aas et al., 2005; Nasser, 2003). The

development of tourism in heritage sites can be either a blessing or a curse, depending on

how tourism development is implemented and managed. Benefiting from the opportunities of

developing tourism while preserving the cultural heritage has driven many researchers (e.g.

Garrod and Fyall, 2000; Kausar, 2012; Landorf, 2009; Nasser, 2003) as well as international

organizations (e.g. the UNESCO World Heritage Centre (WHC)) to attach overriding

importance to sustainable heritage tourism (SHT) development. SHT aims to minimize the

negative impacts of tourism on local communities and the environment while maximizing its

Journal of Heritage Tourism – a pre-print version (2015) (ID: 1029489 DOI:10.1080/1743873X.2015.1029489)

positive contribution to local economies and the conservation of heritage. Researchers

asserted that if heritage tourism is sustainably managed it can contribute to the development

of the local community and to the management and conservation of heritage sites for future

generations (e.g. Hughes and Carlsen, 2010; Lindberg et al., 1999; UNEP, 2005). This is

mainly because it can help increase financial support for conservation from governmental

institutions as well as national and international tourism parties and donor agencies, raising

awareness among visitors and local communities (UNEP, 2005) and encouraging indigenous

people to value their local culture (Nasser, 2003). Tourism development can then help reduce

unsustainable exploitation of natural resources and promote heritage conservation efforts.

However, the sustainable management of heritage sites is a complex process that generally

requires the integration of a wide range of composite and interrelated management

considerations (Leask and Fyall, 2012). This is in addition to the involvement of many

stakeholders whose needs and opinions should be taken into account. Such complicity may

challenge the effective implementation of SHT. Likewise, Pedersen (2002) argued that the

whole process of sustainable development may be straightforward in theory, but it is difficult

to design, implement and maintain in practice. The complexity of the problem is aggravated

by the paucity of academic literature concerned with SHT, communities and economic

development to consult for examples of successes, failures and best practices (Madden and

Shipley, 2012). Wilson and Boyle (2006) revealed that the literature has provided some

guiding principles for the development of sustainable heritage tourism, even though little

guidance or advice is provided on how to achieve such principles in practice. This study aims

to explore the practice of SHT in the context of developing countries.

In particular, it investigates the experience of Esna, an urban heritage site in Upper Egypt, in

terms of sustainability challenges. The study also suggests a framework of actions for an

effective SHT development. The following highlights the general principles and challenges of

SHT as outlined in related literature, followed by a discussion of the methodology

implemented and the case study. Finally the results are presented and the study is concluded

with a framework of action.

SHT: implementation guidelines and challenges

The UNESCO articulated that “heritage is not simply something handed down from the past,

but is a process that must be actively constructed and maintained in the present if it is to have

any sustainable future” (WHC, 2012b, p. 6). It has been suggested that SHT requires agreed

objectives among key stakeholders regarding heritage development (Hughes and Carlsen,

2010) and clear concepts of a particular tourism product that balance both conservation and

business needs (Hughes and Carlsen, 2010; WHC, 2009, Article 111). This is in addition to a

formal long-term management approach that includes a continuous cycle of planning,

implementation, monitoring, evaluation and feedback (WHC, 2009, Article 111). Also, many

researchers lay emphasis on the active involvement of stakeholders, including local

community, in the planning process (e.g. Aas et al., 2005; Hampton, 2005; Rossler, 2012).

The development of tourism in heritage sites was the focus of many studies exploring what

needs to be considered in an effective planning and management process (e.g. Aas at el.,


2005; Helmy and Cooper, 2002; Hughes and Carlsen, 2010), but the most concrete work in

prior research can be attributed to the UNESCO, which developed a set of five strategic

objectives to support the UNESCO World Heritage Centre (WHC) effort in guiding SHT.

These five objectives are described below and will guide our discussion in this section. Apart

from the first objective, ‘credibility’, which has been set to empower one of the duties of the

WHC to nominate heritage for WH list, the strategic objectives give insights regarding what

needs to be considered for the development of SHT in general, not exclusive to the world

heritage sites, as will be elaborated in the following paragraphs. These five objectives are

(Albert, 2012):

Credibility: strengthening the credibility of the WH List, as a representative and a

geographically balanced testimony of cultural and natural properties of

outstanding universal value.

Communication: increasing public awareness, involvement and support for

heritage sites through communication.

Conservation: ensuring the effective material conservation of heritage properties.

Capacity-building: promoting the development and implementation of effective

capacity-building measures.

Communities: strengthening community involvement.

Communication, conservation and capacity-building

The WHC sees effective communication, which is the second objective of the WHC, between

local, national and international parties/populations as a motivation tool for the development

of SHT. According to the WHC, effective communication can be done through raising the

public awareness of preserving heritage, which in turn should increase public support and

involvement in the development of sustainability. Effective communication has not received

adequate attention from prior studies, and would need further research; literature lacks detail

on aspects to improve communication between local and national parties and how this would

enhance the sustainability of heritage tourism. As for effective heritage conservation, the

third objective, researchers (e.g. Helmy and Cooper, 2002; Vinals and Morant, 2012)

investigated its importance for sustainability and the ways to achieve it in practice. They

asserted that, to reach effective conservation, adequate funding, skilled archaeologists, and

determination of carrying-capacity are needed (Helmy and Cooper, 2002; WHC, 2011). The

management of heritage sites should determine their carrying-capacity. This relates to

information on the number of visitors a site can handle without any adverse impact on its

resources or visitors experience. Carrying-capacity should be considered early in the planning

phase, in accordance with financial goals, conservation objectives and available resources

(Vinals and Morant, 2012). As for developing countries, UNESCO expressed its major

concern about carrying out effective heritage conservation due to unplanned and uncontrolled

tourism in many of the heritage sites. This, in many cases, includes inappropriate

infrastructure development at and near to heritage sites (WHC, 2012b). It is believed that

long-term sustainable tourism is only possible through intensive actions and collaboration

between the relevant national authorities dealing with site conservation and tourism policy

issues (Helmy and Cooper, 2002; WHC, 2012b). On the other hand, capacity-building, the

fourth strategic objective of the WHC, is considered important for the management of SHT.

Albert (2012) argued that there is a worldwide lack of local experts in fields such as heritage

management and conservation strategies. Regarding the developing countries, Helmy and

Cooper (2002) referred to the lack of specialists in issues related to the management of


heritage tourism, e.g. evaluating impact of heritage tourism, performing and assessing cost-

benefit analysis, and planning of heritage sites. Developing capacity-building should

“strengthen the knowledge, abilities, skills and behavior of people with direct responsibilities

for heritage conservation and management [and help improve] institutional structures and

processes through empowering decision-makers” (WHC, 2011, p. 4). This can be recognized

by the implementation of an effective training strategy to provide high-level skills for the

conservation and management of heritage sites. Such a strategy should involve practitioners,

including site managers, related governmental institutions and local communities (WHC,

2011).

Community involvement

Since the inclusion of community involvement as a fifth objective for the WHC (WHC,

2007), it has become a key concept for the future of SHT. Contrary to the above three

elements of (communication, conservation and capacity-building), local community

involvement in the planning and implementation processes has been discussed by many

researchers. The importance of such involvement to heritage tourism sustainability and its

positive influence on community development and empowerment has been dealt with (e.g.

Albert, 2012; Hampton, 2005; Millar, 2012; Rossler, 2012; Svensson, 2009; Throsby, 2003).

For example, Kausar (2012) stated that “communities are the actual guardian of the heritage

site, thus maintaining communities’ sense of ownership and attachment through to the site is

crucial for heritage conservation in the long run” (2012, p. 440). Local involvement was,

found to be crucial for assuring the achievement of economic benefits for the locals.

Generally, researchers (e.g. Hampton, 2005; Mowforth and Munt, 2003; Tosun, 2000)

revealed that local communities, especially in the developing countries [the context within

which the case of this study was investigated], reap few benefits from tourism, and thus need

to be involved in the development process so as to guarantee gain of appropriate benefits

from the development of tourism in their areas. Vinals and Morant (2012) attributed the lack

of benefit realization to a lack of adequate capital and professional experience among local

small business people. These are the main reasons why local authorities depend on well-

known international organizations, restricting the role of locals to the provision of labor in

large hotel chains or similar jobs. As a result, local communities get little control over the

way in which the tourism industry is developed, and thus their views are rarely heard

(Mowforth and Munt, 2003).

Stakeholders’ collaboration

Besides community involvement, stakeholders’ involvement and collaboration has been

discussed by heritage tourism literature as a key concept of sustainability, but the literature

lacks detailed strategies on how this could be achieved in practice. It has been recognized,

however, that heritage tourism can be sustainably developed in a way that preserves heritage

and is beneficial to all only if the collaboration of stakeholders is ensured (Hampton, 2005),

each recognizes his responsibility in achieving sustainability (Aas et al., 2005; Camp et al.,

2009), and a common ground between the different interested parties exists (Aas et al., 2005;

Albert, 2012 Camp et al., 2009; Hughes and Carlsen, 2010). Researchers (e.g. Hampton,

2005; Millar, 2012; McKercher and du Cros, 2012) asserted that involving stakeholders in the

planning process and allowing them to raise issues of concern as well as considering their

opinions and expectations is necessary to minimize the conflict caused by different interests

in order to gain support for sustainable tourism.


Challenges of sustainable heritage tourism

Although both developed and developing countries struggle to achieve an effective

preservation of the past, the developing countries appear to face unique challenges (Timothy

and Nyaupane, 2009). Many of these challenges are economic in nature and are related to

lack of adequate funding, which generally creates problems in terms of training and heritage

conservation (Timothy et al., 2009). Also among the challenges of sustainable tourism in

developing countries is the lack of proactive legislations (Timothy and Nyaupane, 2009) and

policies that take into account the issues of sustainability (WHC, 2012a). Furthermore, the

majority of less-developed countries provoke problems regarding empowerment of people in

a collaborative development process (Timothy et al., 2009) that takes into account

consideration of stakeholders’ needs and/or establishment of an effective dialogue between

them (WHC, 2012a). Prior research has highlighted a number of challenges related to

community involvement and collaboration of the development of stakeholders. Such

challenges need to be heeded for and manipulated in the planning and implementation

process.

Challenges related to the development of stakeholders’ collaboration could be attributed to

the added cost to the planning and development process (Aas et al., 2005), the identification

of legitimate stakeholders (Hampton, 2005), and the capacity of the latter to participate in the

decision-making process (Aas et al., 2005; Tosun, 2000; WHC, 2009). As for the challenges

of community involvement, particularly in developing countries, Tosun (2000) found that the

true local community participation in the tourism development process may suffer many

operational (e.g. lack of co-ordination and information), structural (e.g. lack of expertise, lack

of appropriate legal system, lack of trained human resources) and cultural challenges (e.g.

low level of awareness in the local community). It was suggested that in order to tackle such

possible challenges and enable community involvement, some steps need to be taken. First,

Tosun (2000) argued for a total change in socio-political, legal, administrative and economic

structure. These in addition to specific strategies at local, national and international levels

should be developed to successfully handle the outlined challenges. Second, true public

participation should intend not only to keep the local community informed, but also to

actively solicit and value their opinions and participation as well as their contribution to the

improvement of the environment and its heritage-based tourism activities (Camp et al., 2009).

Also, the UNESCO WHC (WHC, 2012a) added that local communities need to be seen as

partners in the tourism management of heritage sites; the work of the local authorities needs

to be integrated with the local communities in order to make the sustainable development of

heritage sites successful.

Research methods

A qualitative approach is adopted to investigate the experience of heritage tourism

development in Esna within its natural context, based on perspectives, attitudes and

experiences of stakeholders (Hesse-Biber and Leavy, 2010). Three unstructured exploratory

interviews were conducted with one of Esna’s local residents and two employees in the

Egyptian Tourism Development Authority. The exploratory interviews helped to explore the

setting of Esna, grasp initial ideas about the relationships between the various stakeholders,

identify key stakeholders that can provide the study with rich information and clarify some

important issues that needed further investigation during the field study. The fieldwork study

was conducted in the period between February and September 2013. Purposive sampling,


particularly snowball purposeful sampling technique, was used to identify representatives

from groups of stakeholders and identify cases of interest from people who are thought to be

able to identify the relevant cases and provide rich information (Patton, 2002).

The empirical data were collected using a combination of data collection techniques (data

triangulation) to cover multiple stakeholders’ perspectives and increase the credibility of the

study. First, 17 semi-structured interviews were conducted: 5 interviews with locals of Esna

(include 4 members of the Group of For You My City (Esna) and an ex-member of the

Egyptian Parliament); 6 interviews with governmental officials responsible for tourism and

heritage development; 4 with managers of travel companies who provide Nile cruises in

Upper Egypt (where Esna city is located); and 2 with academics (one of whom has carried

out some excavations in the area of Esna). Interview sessions lasted between 45 and 60

minutes. Second, past and new conversations on online forums and pages (i.e.

tripadvisor.com and touregyptforums.net) were analyzed wherein tourists and some interested

local people1 usually get together to discuss issues related to tourism, heritage and problems

of Esna. Third, document analysis of Egyptian governmental and UNESCO WHC reports on

sustainable heritage management were critically reviewed (e.g. MSEA and UKDID, 2005;

WHC, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012a, 2012b).

Data analysis was performed using Miles and Huberman’s (1994) approach. The coding

process (codes and categories) began with a set of general themes that emerged from the pre-

fieldwork stage (preliminary literature review and the exploratory interviews). Codes and

categories were further refined and research findings were presented in the form of concepts

and propositions (Miles and Huberman, 1994). Concepts sharpen abstracts of categories

(Tesch, 2013) and are generalized from empirical facts (Taylor and Bogdan, 1998), whereas

propositions explain the relationships between concepts (Tesch, 2013). In this study,

concepts represent the challenges of SHT in Esna, and propositions represent the possible

relationships between them. Reflecting on research findings, the researchers suggested a

framework of actions to be considered for the effective implementation of SHT in Esna.

Further, results of the study are discussed in light of prior theories with the aim of securing

more validity for the research outcomes.

The story of heritage tourism in Esna

Esna is a small city located on the west bank of the Nile, about 55 km to the south of Luxor.

The main attraction of the city is the WHS of Khnum Temple (eighteenth dynasty, New

Kingdom of the Pharaonic Era), the only remainder of four Pharaonic temples. Most of the

ruins around the Temple and the old city of Esna are yet to be explored as they mainly lie

beneath today’s local dwellings. The Khnum Temple, which has been so far only partially

excavated, is about 9 meters below street level (MSEA and UKDID, 2005), a position that

negatively influences its actual condition of preservation.

1 Group of For You My City (Esna) on Facebook: Group of Esna Today on Facebook:

https://www.facebook.com/groups/201906795037/; and Friends of the Egyptian heritage Conservation Society:

https://www.facebook.com/groups/egy.hs/

https://www.facebook.com/groups/201906795037/

https://www.facebook.com/groups/egy.hs/


There are other two main tourist attractions in the modern city of Esna. The first is an old

tourist-oriented Ottoman-era souq dating to the 19th

century, filling a couple of streets near

the river bank. The second is two barrage bridges straddling the Nile, one built in 1908 under

the British administration of Egypt and reopened in 1994 (MSEA and UKDID, 2005), and the

other “New Barrage” inaugurated in 2008 (Luxor Governorate, 2010). Nile Cruises ply the

River between Luxor and Aswan, and their ships used to queue for hours waiting for their

turn to pass through the bridges. During the waiting time, tourists used to visit Esna’s Temple

and market and buy different kinds of merchandise (e.g. weaving products, perfumes and

Pharaonic souvenirs) made by Esna’s artisans. However, since the opening of the second

bridge in 2008, all cruises are now able to pass directly from Luxor to Aswan and return

without stopping at Esna. As Esna’s economy used to depend mainly on revenues from

heritage tourism, this has sharply decreased the tourist flow and thus the income of the

Temple, goods sales and the quality of life of local people. Many of the locals who worked in

the market and who used to earn their living from tourism have turned to other jobs. This has

naturally affected the living conditions of many families in Esna and caused the loss of

valuable experiences and skills, particularly in local handcrafts. Also, as a result of the

decline of tourism in Esna, the Khnum Temple is neglected and its conservation is negatively

influenced (for more on this, visit TripAdvisor website, page of Esna, where tourists express

their views on the poor condition of the Temple area).

It was not until the early 1990s that Egypt recognized in a general sense the importance of

developing SHT, but even with this flurry sustainability was not effectively maintained

(WHC, 2008); many of the Egyptian heritage sites, including WHSs, continue receive little

attention from the government and suffer many issues. This applies to the WHS of Khnum

Temple and the city of Esna, which in general lack tourism development and appropriate

tourist facilities. The poor situation of Esna’s heritage tourism and resultant problems of the

community (e.g. increased poverty rate, neglect of heritage sites conservation and loss of

professional workers) call for urgent solutions to the Temple-related issues through actual

application of sustainable development.

Thus, this study suggests including the Temple of Khnum as an endangered WHS monument.

This may presumably attract international support not only for the conservation of the temple,

but also for the community and heritage tourism development in Esna.

Results

This section details the results of investigating the experience of Esna. In particular, it

discusses the challenges facing the development of sustainable tourism in the site and

highlights the relationships among them. This is followed by a discussion on the suggested

framework of actions to consider in a SHT planning process.

Challenges of sustainable heritage tourism (SHT) development

The results found that the development of SHT in Esna are beset with many challenges that

negatively influence heritage conservation, tourist visits and the local community’s cultural

life. Challenges are here divided into two main groups, community and management, each of

which includes sub-divisions, as discussed below.

Community-related challenges

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aswan


The empirical findings demonstrated that, being surrounded by modern towns, the heritage of

Esna is substantially prone to damage because of the pollution caused by the abutting

urbanization. Furthermore, monuments are stolen and sold on the black-market by some of

the local populace.

Pollution resulting from close urbanization: the environmental pollution caused by the

crowded urban districts near the monuments aggravates the issue; the exhausts emitting from

the workshops, restaurants and traffic congestion raise the range of temperature and humidity

in air, causing different damaging aspects such as salinity, rock weakness and cracks at the

Temple. Also, the poor sewage-water system leaks into the groundwater table, causing a

complex of harmful effects on the city’s monuments and cultural life (for more details see

section ‘Absence of sustainable planning for heritage sites’). Many of the local stakeholders

suggested moving Esnaians to another place, giving a more appropriate chance to restore the

affected parts of monuments.

Antiquities theft: The plunder of artefacts and antiquities is an old practice in Egypt.

However, because of the chaos following the revolution of 25th January 2011 and the

resultant semi-breakdown in the Egyptian security system, the reported incidents of

antiquities thefts have remarkably increased. The survey identified that Esna has witnessed

quite a big number of such offences over the last three years. As one of the Esnaians explains,

“many locals excavate for buried antiquities beneath their houses. They collect, smuggle and

illicitly sell the antiquities, sometimes with the help of professional thieves and dishonest

officials”. Shockingly, an Esnaians noted, “It is common to find people in Esna publicly and

barefacedly talking about excavating and selling antiquities, as if it was legal”. It is worth

mentioning that some archaeologists launched a public campaign in 2012 aiming at raising

indigenous peoples’ awareness of heritage and its preservation. However, this effort needs a

lot of support, interaction and involvement of all stakeholders in order to make a satisfying

effect.

On the other hand, the Egyptian Law of Antiquities (Law No. 3, 2010) does not support

antiquities’ protection; an archeologist argued that this law has many loopholes, such as

allowing private possession of antiquities and carrying out urban constructions in

archaeological areas. This is believed to lead to and encourage illegal activities against

antiquities.

Management-related challenges

According to stakeholders’ perspective, the poor governmental management, which is

represented in issues such as the lack of top management support, low awareness and

inappropriate skills and knowledge, is believed to be a main cause for the deteriorating

situation of Esna. The following challenges have been denoted by stakeholders.

Authorities’ conflict and lack of cooperation: It was observed that conflicts and lack of

cooperation among governmental authorities have had a recognizable effect on the

development of Esna’s infrastructure. A manager of environmental affairs in Esna said “I see

that many of Esna’s problems are to be blamed on bureaucracy as well as ambiguity of who

is responsible for what. This has led to that many of the projects in Esna, whether initiated by

the government or individuals are not progressing well”. For example, a conflict between the

Authority of Sewage Water and the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation on financial


responsibilities resulted in discontinuation of two projects set to solve problems related to

sewage water and groundwater table. Also, property litigation between the Ministry of

Agriculture and the Ministry of Antiquities regarding King Farouk’s palaces (mid-nineteenth

century heritage) was noted. Such a conflict led to severe delay in restoring the palaces,

resulting in the theft of their furniture and deterioration of their foundations.

Lack of top management support and commitment: Commitment and support of top

management in both the Tourism Ministry and the Ministry of Antiquities are found to

significantly influence Esna’s tourism development and heritage conservation. According to

stakeholders, support of top management is critical to formulate sustainable plans as well as

supportive decisions and legislation. Many local community groups expressed their

exasperation towards official authorities in this regard. Also, such groups stated that there is

hardly any sound communication between the local community and the top management.

They said that many of the suggestions they presented to enhance tourism and community life

were met with a considerable degree of indifference and unresponsiveness; an Esnian activist

from the group ‘For You My City’ said:

“The projects which many people propose to the governorate officials are usually

neglected and kept in drawers for ever. There are many discussions and promises,

but no action is taken on the ground. I think that our team and online page whose

links I have already sent you are good example for the fact that the Esnians,

especially their young people, have been playing an active role towards a positive

change. The problem lies in the lack of funds and proper decisions on the part of the

officials”.

Moreover, one of the residents articulated that “some projects that directly affect Esna have

been implemented without involving us as if we do not exist”. Many of the stakeholders

blamed the inadequate support and commitment of the Tourism and Antiquities Ministries on

reasons such as poor managerial awareness, as well as the lack of knowledge, skills and

appropriate training programs. Also, discussions of stakeholders revealed that the absence of

top managers’ commitment is attributed to unstable strategies for sustainable development of

heritage sites in Egypt, which in turn negatively influence the development of tourism and

heritage in Esna. Stakeholders explained that such unstable strategies have led managers to

take decisions according to personal preferences. A tourism manger in a tour company said

that “most [governmental] decisions are taken based on personal preferences. They do not

follow established plans; strategies and plans change by the changing of ministers”.

Lack of awareness, appropriate knowledge and skills: According to stakeholders, the lack of

awareness, appropriate knowledge and skills of sustainable practices has resulted in taking

casual and problem-making decisions regarding tourism and the general development of

Esna. For example, building Esna’s second lock was a problem-making decision that

critically affected the tourism industry and local community life (for more on this, see the

section of ‘The story of heritage tourism in Esna’). Also, building a sanitary landfill in the

vicinity of the housing area in Eldeir Village and locating a medical waste incinerator in the

yard of the Chest Hospital are two other examples of bad decisions. It is worth mentioning

that locals protested several times against such projects hoping to stop their initiation, but

their voices have fallen on deaf ears. Poor knowledge and skills represent a taxing challenge

that calls for adequate training programs for governmental managers and staff. It is worth

mentioning here that the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities has already arranged for


training programs, but these, as indicated by employees in the Tourism Ministry, were

shockingly found not to be suitable for the sustainable management of heritage sites or the

skills and knowledge needed for implementation, posing more critical questions about the

proficiency of the decision makers themselves.

Absence of sustainable planning for heritage sites: Although the Egyptian Ministry of

Tourism and Antiquities recognized the importance of adopting sustainable plans for the

development of heritage sites, the results asserted that there are only general objectives and

policies without detailed strategies and plans to reflect such policies in practice. In their

report, the UNESCO (WHC, 2008) expressed its concerns about the danger that the Egyptian

WHSs, including the Temple of Khnum, may be exposed to random development and an

absence of sustainable planning. The mission also expresses its concern that, despite

consistent expert advice against the implementation of a series of projects deemed harmful to

the antiquities and to Outstanding Universal Value of the site, most of these projects have

proceeded and materialized ignoring all such advice. The mission regrets that, despite the

repeated call for an integrated well-coordinated Management Plan that would encompass the

whole property on both the East and West Banks, no such plan has as yet been drawn up

(WHC, 2008, p. 20). This gives another example of the deficiency of top management

support for and commitment towards the development of sustainability, a case that would

apply to many of the Egyptian heritage sites.

The poor infrastructure (e.g. sewage and healthcare systems) of Esna can indicate further

defective planning for the development of tourism and heritage conservation. Esna’s

infrastructure is deemed inappropriate (indeed harmful) to heritage resources, and to the

quality of tourist experience and of local community’s living. The groundwater tables that

roll in under the city, added to the bad sewage system leaking beneath Khnum Temple,

caused cracking of the surface of the Temple and the deterioration of some of its murals

(MSEA and UKDID, 2005). This being said, little attention has been given by the authorities

to solve infrastructure problems and help preserve heritage. When asking a manager in the

Ministry of Antiquities, he stated that there will be a future plan for the conservation of

Khunm Temple. However, he acknowledges that no measure has yet to be taken on the

ground.

Lack of adequate funding and financial mismanagement: The lack of funding has been

affirmed by the stakeholders to have naturally had a negative influence on tourism

development and heritage conservation in Esna. A tourism manager in the Ministry of

Tourism asserted that there is no funding assigned to develop heritage tourism in Esna. He

elaborated, “Attention and thus funding, should it exist, is usually assigned to better-known

heritage sites as in Giza, Luxor and Aswan”. According to a manager and an archaeological

officer in the Department of the Ancient Egyptian Antiquities, the budget of the Ministry of

Antiquities, the responsible governmental body for conserving heritage sites in Egypt, mainly

comes from the revenues of the tourists’ visits to the heritage sites. This budget, he continues,

is generally limited; it is barely enough for the conservation of the few endangered

monuments. They also asserted that current conservation projects do not include the WHS of

Khnum Temple or any of the heritage sites of Esna. Also, a manager in the Department of

Ancient Egyptian Antiquities said that “due to the decline of tourist influx after the revolution

of 25th January (2011), the limited budget dedicated to heritage conservation has naturally

decreased and that caused postpone of the work in many of conservation projects”. Thus,


securing funding for the conservation of Esna’s heritage seems to be questionable in the near

future.

Framework of actions for the development of SHT

Based on the results of the field study and the general principles of SHT outlined in the

literature, the researchers suggested that adopting an integrated long-term sustainable plan

that takes a holistic approach to conservation, tourism and local community development is a

key to SHT development. Such a plan should be supported by efficient policies, legislations

and development strategies that include continuous cycle of monitoring and evaluation

efforts. A framework of actions is suggested to tackle the aforementioned challenges noted in

the results and enhance the development of sustainability in Esna. These actions would help

achieve development in three main areas: (i) management-related issues regarding

governmental organizations where the structure and capacity of the planning and

management process are improved; (ii) community development, which suggests ways to

improve the economy and increase benefits to local community, maximize the share of tourist

market and enhance the requested skills and knowledge; and (iii) heritage site conservation,

which presents ways of reducing the negative impacts on Esna’s heritage. To make progress

towards achieving such objectives, a number of stakeholders need to be actively engaged in

the actions set out in this framework. Responsible parties for implementation have thus been

identified for each of the suggested actions (see Table 1).

Management-related issues

Results on the challenges of SHT in Esna underscored the significant influence of

management-related issues on sustainability. The management-related issues, e.g. limited

budget for heritage conservation and poor management of central problems such as the effect

of the ground and drainage water on the monuments leading to a slow, albeit terrifying,

deterioration. This has, in the aftermath of the 25th

January revolution, been replaced with a

rapid and more destructive relapse caused by the poor management of emergent harmful

practices such as the theft of antiquities. The latter has been caused by the drastically

declining living conditions of the locals. With the priorities of the present government mainly

directed to economic development and restoring the security system of Egypt, the current

political, economic and security instability will hinder any possible efforts for sustainable

development. This entails creative answers to the deficiencies in the planning and

management process, especially among the formal authorities who make decisions. In this

regard, the suggested framework of actions provides three objectives to improve issues of

management. These are foster co-operation and quality communication with stakeholders;

sustainable planning; building the capacity of decision-makers and site managers and

fundraising (see Table 1).

Community development

Based on stakeholders’ interviews, Egypt needs to construct a reasonable level of

development in its community as a primary step towards sustainability. As in many

developing countries, the locals of Egypt with their severe socioeconomic status caused by

poverty and low awareness can counteract the sustainability of heritage sites (through theft of

antiquities, and urbanization of monument locales). Enhancing the economic opportunities of


the local community (while improving social conditions) is believed to be a key step to

manipulate the community-related challenges, create better community life and underpin

sustainable tourism efforts in heritage sites (see Table 1 for some suggestions on enhancing

economic and social life of Esnaians through the development of sustainable tourism).

On the other hand, results on the challenges of sustainable development in Esna shed extra

light on the need to provide the indigenous Esnaians with training programs to raise their

awareness and build up their work experience. Such programs should enhance the local

people’s knowledge and skills, so as to enable them to participate effectively in the

development process and value heritage preserving practices and income–generating

activities. The proposed framework of actions provides some suggested programs/courses to

be carried out/organized by the government and NGOs (Table 1).

Heritage site conservation

The discussions with the stakeholders have revealed a great worry and a substantial risk to

the future of heritage sites in Esna, especially the Khnum Temple, given the existing complex

of challenges and threats. The results asserted the need to set an integrated management plan

with a long term vision for developing heritage tourism in Esna, based on stakeholders’

involvement. Such a plan should balance between heritage conservation, local community

interests and the general guidelines of sustainable tourism approach. The suggested

framework (see Table 1) presents actions to prevent looting/poaching of antiquities and

protect Esna’ heritage assets for the future generations.

Table (1): Framework of actions for the development of SHT

Objectives Actions Potential implementation parties

Management-related issues

Foster co-

operation and

quality

communication

with

stakeholders

Provide strategies to coordinate between the Tourism Ministry and other governmental

authorities in the domain of culture heritage conservation (e.g. Ministry of Antiquities) in

terms of planning.

Council of Ministers in corporation with

related ministries and governmental

authorities

Initiate and retain a regular dialogue with stakeholders, including industry and the local

community, in the early planning process and during the implementation phase. This would

ensure effective communications among stakeholders and help determining how the

industry can contribute to community development and heritage conservation.

Ministry of Tourism, Ministry of

Antiquities and the Governorate of Luxor in

cooperation with the local NGOs

Sustainable

planning

Strengthen the enabling environment by integrating principles of SHT into heritage site

planning and provide supporting policies, strategies, legal and administrative frameworks


Antiquities and the Governorate of Luxor

Complete the terminated infrastructure projects (e.g. constructing the sewage disposal

system and fixing the drinking water networks). Such projects should be operated in an eco-

friendly manner

Authority of Sewage Water and the

Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation

Conduct a reporting, measuring and reactive monitoring mechanisms of the sustainable

heritage site management plan in order to control the impacts of tourism on the heritage

destinations, increase the availability of good practices and encourage officials to act

responsibly in terms of heritage conservation and economic benefits to the local

communities


Antiquities and the Governorate of Luxor

Building

capacity of

decision-makers

and site

managers

Organize awareness campaigns and training courses for managers in government-related

authorities so as to improve techniques of heritage sites planning, increase managers’

commitment and collaborations to sustainability, and train managers on practical ways to

involve community and other stakeholders in the decision-making process.


Antiquities and the Governorate of Luxor,

in cooperation with the UNESCO WHC and

the advisory bodies of the World Heritage

Convention (WHC, 2011)

Fundraising Encourage funding and ensure its appropriate use; securing adequate funding for different

aspects of sustainable development (e.g. heritage conservation, appropriate infrastructure,

training programs and expertise employment) is essential

Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Tourism

and Ministry of Antiquities in cooperation

with the Egyptian Federation of Tourism

enterprises and associated NGOs Provide applicable strategies to avoid financial mismanagement, e.g. specifying aspects of

expenditure and continuous evaluating of managers’ performance

Objectives Actions Potential implementation parties Heritage site conservation

Protect heritage

site

Build a new living community for Esna’s indigenous people far enough from the heritage

sites and supported with a transport network connecting them with the neighbouring cities

Luxor Governorate, Ministry of Housing,

Utilities and Urban Communities

Implement stalled sewage and groundwater projects planned by the government Authority of Sewage Water and the

Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation

Push to list the Temple of Khnum on the UNESCO World Heritage in Danger Ministries of Antiquities and Culture

Encourage tourism organizations to donate for the preservation of Esna’s heritage sites. This

is to be achieved by the adoption of such strategies as reducing their taxes and giving them

priority in marketing

Ministry of Tourism and Tourism

Promotion Authority in cooperation with

associated governmental and NGOs

Determine the carrying-capacity of each of Esna’s heritage sites and the types of human

activity therein accepted

Ministry of Antiquities and Ministry of

Tourism

Prevent

antiquities

poaching/

looting

Study, evaluate and archive heritage sites in Esna by specialists in archaeology and art

history

Ministry of Antiquities

Enhance the security system of heritage sites and work with relevant international agencies

and organizations (e.g. UN-related organizations) to prevent further looting of antiquities.

Ministries of Tourism and Antiquities in

cooperation with the Egyptian Ministry of

the Interior

Amend the Egyptian law in terms of antiquities violation; strict articles ruling out the

private property of antiquities and banning construction in archaeological areas should be

added

Ministry of Antiquities and the Egyptian

Parliament

Provide moral and financial incentives to those among the locals who help protect Esna’s

antiquities from larceny

Ministry of Antiquities, the Egyptian

Ministry of the Interior, Luxor Governorate,

and associated NGOs

Use Geographic Information System in detecting places where antiquities may be buried Ministry of Antiquities

Objectives Actions Potential implementation parties Community development

Economic and

social life

enhancement

through development of

sustainable tourism

Support small and medium tourist enterprises (SMTE) by a workable funding mechanism National financial organizations (e.g. Social

Fund for Development, National Bank of

Egypt and Industrial Development, and

Workers Bank of Egypt)

Guide tourists to the methods of supporting the local community. For example, tourists can

increase local purchases, use local guides and donate for community development

Tourism Promotion Authority, Tourism

companies, the Egyptian Federation of

Tourism enterprises and local NGOs

Increase the financial resources assigned to Esna’s infrastructure projects by seeking

donations from the international community and allocating a portion of the profit of Esna’s

heritage sites to the city’s development

Ministry of International Cooperation,

Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Antiquities

and Ministry of Housing, Utilities and

Urban Communities

Include Esna in the tourist itinerary of the Nile cruises, whether as a main tourist attraction

or as an optional trip

Ministry of Tourism, Tourism Promotion

Authority, the Egyptian Federation of

Tourism enterprises and Tourism companies

Organize special events that would promote Esna’s culture, history and life (e.g. festivals,

concerts, and conventions on Esna’s history, archaeology, anthropology etc.). Such events

can be financially and technically supported by private and public organizations, and would

be used for the benefit of local infrastructure projects


Authority, Tourism companies, Ministry of

Culture, local NGOs and the Governorate of

Luxor

Diversify Esna’s tourism product (e.g. Bedouin tourism, eco-tourism and cultural heritage

tourism). Promoting Esna as a versatile destination is likely to increase visitor demand


Authority and Tourism companies

Help marketing local products through promotion at local, regional and international levels.

Local products can be promoted in brochures and in-flight magazines.


Authority in cooperation with the tourism

industry (e.g. airline companies, hotels and

tourism companies)

Building

capacity of

local

community

(training and

awareness)

Help indigenous people understand legal rights and procedures that would help them

manipulate socioeconomic problems such as social insurance, housing finance and capital

market laws

Ministry of Culture in cooperation with

associated NGOs

Train local people in tourism related activities (e.g. interpretation and marketing skills for

local products) so that they can contribute to tourism development and receive benefits of

tourism.

Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Tourism

and associated NGOs

Objectives Actions Potential implementation parties

Guide SMTEs to benefit from technical and financial services provided by national and

international organizations. This is in addition to encouraging major tourism companies to

support SMTEs with business expertise. This would qualify managers to plan for and

organize enterprises, produce and develop high quality tourism products and services and

create a competitive advantage in the tourism market

Ministry of Tourism, Ministries of

Antiquities and Culture, the Egyptian

Federation of Tourism enterprises and local

NGOs.

Raise public awareness and building pride through acquaint indigenous people with the

history of their culture and civilization, an indispensable measure to get them to care for

their heritage and convey such an attitude to the following Esnian generations

Ministry of Tourism, Ministries of

Antiquities and Culture and local NGOs.

Organize awareness campaigns about environment. Such campaigns should focus on the

environmental conditions in Esna and how to decrease the range of pollutants and manage

waste in environmentally and economically beneficial ways

Ministry of Environment and associated

NGOs

Encourage the indigenous people of Esna to be involved in the development process. Such a

procedure would decrease the possible conflict between the interests of the governmental

authorities and those of the community

Ministry of Tourism, Luxor Governorate

and local NGOs

17

Discussion and conclusion

This study attempts to achieve a better understanding of the practical applications of SHT in

developing countries. More particularly, it investigates the challenges of SHT in Esna, a

heritage site in Egypt, and suggests a framework of action for development that can help in

realizing the opportunities of the development for SHT (e.g. effective community

development and heritage conservation).

The challenges of applying a sustainable development in Esna have been classified into two

main types: community-related and management-related. The community-related challenges

include factors that have a direct influence on the deterioration of Esna’s cultural heritage.

These are: (i) the pollution caused by the close urban district; and (ii) the antiquities theft,

which is a direct result of societal poverty and limited awareness. The results coincide with

the views of Hawass (1998), who argued that population pressure is, and will continue to be,

the major challenge to the sustainability of heritage tourism. The results called for an urgent

management plan to save Esna’s heritage that should encourage proactive actions toward

building for Esnian people a new village with appropriate infrastructure (e.g. decreasing

ground water table and fixing the sewage system). As for antiquities theft, the results revealed

that the Esnian populace, whose livings have long been attached with the Temple, are now

violently turning against it and their local heritage in general. Raising their awareness through

fervent campaigns and training programs is critical in this stage. This would help indigenous

people value their cultural heritage and its preservation (Nasser, 2003). However, the extent

to which such promotional procedures are successful is generally changeable, subject to an

array of socio-economic variables. In Esna’s case, the situation is significantly difficult. The

desperate populace, due to poverty and ignorance, began to infringe their cultural heritage

through theft and the like to earn their livings. In order for promotional activities to be

fruitful, the people should be convinced that their long-term financial wellbeing depends on

the adoption of sustainable development in the Temple site. Therefore, the study further

suggests promoting tourism activities in Esna in order to add economic and cultural value to

the heritage sites, for instance by including Esna in the itinerary of the Nile cruises, varying

tourist products, creating special events about culture and heritage and supporting the SMTE

of Esna with funding and expertise from national and international non-profit organizations.

In addition to promoting sustainable tourism in Esna, such activities can create a better socio-

economic life for Esna’s community and work as a quick solution to underpin the local

people’s commitment to the heritage place. Further, the present law should be amended: strict

articles that prohibit the private property of antiquities and ban construction on archaeological

sites should be enacted.

On the other hand, management-related challenges have been found to have a significant

negative influence on the development of services, infrastructure and heritage conservation in

Esna. This group of challenges are classified into five sub-challenges: conflict and lack of

cooperation among authorities; lack of top management support and commitment; non-

existence of sustainable tourism plans and thus related legislations; inadequate funding; and

low awareness and inappropriate skills and knowledge of top managers. Some of these

challenges are supported by prior research. Helmy and Cooper (2002) and Nyaupane (2009)

identified conflict and lack of co-operation among authorities as recognized challenges facing

the sustainability of heritage sites. Nyaupane (2009) articulated that “Differences in values,

interests, expectations and priorities among stakeholders […] may create conflict in heritage

and can be a challenge for its preservation and management” (2009, p. 1). Thus, the results

18

suggested that a plan of SHT should take into account the conflicts with a solution-oriented

attitude, encourage cooperation and eliminate differences in interests.

This study confirms the recommendations of Camp et al. (2009) and Millar (2012), that

stakeholders should be involved in the early stages of the planning process, especially the

local community. Moreover, the results suggested assigning responsibilities for each

stakeholder in terms of sustainable development implementation and monitoring

stakeholders’ commitment towards such responsibilities. Agreeing with Timothy et al.

(2009), it was found that inadequate funding is a key challenge to SHT in developing

countries. The results revealed that inadequate funding of Esna’s tourism development and

heritage conservation hinder the implementation of appropriate infrastructure projects,

training programs for governmental employees and effective conservation of the WHS of

Khnum Temple and other heritage sites. This study suggests ways to increase funds such as

seeking donations from international community and lowering costs by exploiting local

resources. Timothy and Nyaupane (2009) and WHC (2012b) articulated that many of the

developing countries lack proactive legislation regarding sustainability. In accord with this,

the results found that although there is a policy of general sustainable tourism development in

Egypt, it lacks appropriate methods and stable strategies to ensure policy implementation. As

a result, commitments of top managers are negatively influenced and it becomes common to

see tourism strategies being ignored, or uncompleted projects. This suggests including

detailed plans for SHT development in the national framework of policies and overseeing

their implementation.

Although it has not been dealt with in prior studies, top management support and

commitment has emerged as important driver of SHT. The results found that top managers'

lack of support and commitment negatively influences assigning appropriate funding, training

programs and hiring appropriate expertise. Also, it has been found that top managers’ lack of

support and ardency is a result of inadequate awareness, skills, training, strategies and

legislation. In this connexion, Tosun (2000) said that many managers do not involve

community participation because they do not recognize its importance or they may have little

idea of how to incorporate it in their planning. Thus, the lack of awareness, knowledge and

skills is a challenge that calls for appropriate training programs to build the capacity of

governmental managers and staff with direct responsibilities for heritage conservation and

management. It is believed that providing appropriate training and thus securing adequate

expertise should enhance decision-making and support planning and implementation of

sustainability in heritage sites.

To conclude, the results found that the array of challenges in the face of SHT development of

Esna have significant and direct influence on the deterioration of its heritage and culture. It is

believed that this qualifies the Khnum Temple (the main attraction of Esna’s heritage

tourism) to be a WHS in Danger site. This requires a considerable effort from the Tourism

Ministry and the Ministry of Antiquities to prepare a well-written document - with the

support of the results of this study - to include the WHS of Khnum Temple in the UNESCO

List of WHS in Danger. Also, the government should carefully consider the management-

related influences in seeking to promote the sustainable development of heritage sites. This is

because the central and most influential of the emergent factors – indeed the causative factor

of the others – is the management dimension, such as the absence of sustainable plans and

strategies, as well as support and commitment of top managers, and a lack of adequate

funding. To assist the development of SHT in Esna, this study proposed a framework of

actions that serves the development of three areas: (i) management-related issues regarding

19

governmental organizations, whereby the structure and capacity of the planning and

management process are improved; (ii) community development, which suggests ways to

improve the economy and increase benefits to local community, maximize the share of tourist

market and enhance the requested skills and knowledge; and (iii) heritage site conservation,

which presents ways of reducing the negative impacts on Esna’s heritage. Also, suggestions

of possible implementation parties for each action are also proposed in the framework.

The authors of this study recognize that each case study context has its own features and

characteristics and thus we cannot offer a one size fits all approach for the practical

application of SHT. However, we believe that the findings of this paper can inform other case

studies, especially in the context of developing countries. Although “the very significance of

the heritage resources means that the sites all require individual approaches to their effective

management” (Leask and Fyall, 2012, p. 36), there are general important factors for all

heritage sites and other factors that are specific to each context. Further research is suggested

to investigate more successful and failed experiences and compare its results to the findings

of this study. Also, although this study sheds light on some of them, causes of and relations

among the challenges and ways to tackle them still need further exploration. Also, the

allocation of more detailed responsibilities for each stakeholders group as suggested by this

study and finding ways for the monitoring and evaluation of their accomplishment is another

suggested area for future research. Such a flow of research would enhance our understanding

on the practice of SHT and help its implementation in developing countries become real and

not only in theory.

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Enhancing sustainable heritage tourism in Egypt: challenges and framework of action

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