English Learning Strategies of Vietnamese Tertiary Students

by

Nguyen Thi Boi Hoang (Master of Arts)

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Faculty of Education University of Tasmania

January 2013

i

Declaration of originality

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ii

Statement of authority of access

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iii

Statement of ethical conduct

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iv

Abstract

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vi

Acknowledgements

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vii

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viii

Table of Contents

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xii

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#

xiii

List of Figures

V,%&3(#F=Cj#I.):(<2&06#4301(?.3>#.4#TTR5#,)#2+(#:&33()2#52&7'#====================================#HS#

7%#5,*(898j#TTR#:6055,4,:02,.)#5:+(1(#.4#2+(#:&33()2#52&7'#============================================#\S#

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7%#5,*(;9<j#V,)06#523&:2&3(#.4#2+(#N)%6,5+#T0)%&0%(#T(03),)%#R2302(%'#^&(52,.))0,3(#ONTTR^P#========================================================================================#CHC#

7%#5,*(=9<j#$&18(35#.4#5&3@('#3(5<.)7()25#8'#%()7(3#===============================================#CH\#

7%#5,*(=98j#$&18(35#.4#5&3@('#3(5<.)7()25#8'#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5#=======================#CH]#

7%#5,*(=9:j#;(3:()20%(#.4#5&3@('#<032,:,<0)25#8'#10U.3#==============================================#CHL#

7%#5,*(=9;j#M(5<.)7()25[#<3.4,:,():'#6(@(65#805(7#.)#5:.3(5#.4#,)2(3)02,.)06#520)7037,5(7#2(525#===============================================================================================#CHS#

7%#5,*(>9<j#*+(102,:#523&:2&3(#.4#Y&06,202,@(#4,)7,)%5#=================================================#CSD#

'

xiv

List of Tables

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*086(#\=Fj## B,/"D+@'E&(F$A'+(&@/,*&(/0(.'*(!))-G(%.*2&#=============================================#CFG#

*086(#\=Hj## B/,,*@.*6(H.*2I3/.+$(B/,,*$+.%/"&(0/,(%.*2&(%"(-@+$*(<IJ*#5$+.%"#(

-.,+.*#%*&#==================================================================================================#CF]#

*086(#\=\j## B/,,*@.*6(H.*2I3/.+$(B/,,*$+.%/"&(0/,(%.*2&(%"(-@+$*(8I7/,2ID+&*6(

-.,+.*#%*&#==================================================================================================#CF]#

*086(#\=]j## B/,,*@.*6(H.*2I3/.+$(B/,,*$+.%/"&(0/,(%.*2&(%"(-@+$*(:I-K%$$ID+&*6(

-.,+.*#%*&#==================================================================================================#CFL#

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-@+$*&(8O(:#==================================================================================================#CFS#

*086(#\=Sj## L%M+,%+.*(B/,,*$+.%/"&(D*.N**"(%.*2&(%"(-@+$*(8(+"6(.'*(&52(/0(

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xv

*086(#]=Lj## 7,*C5*"@4(/0(/M*,+$$(&.,+.*#4(5&*(+"6(#,/5A(&.,+.*#4(5&*#========================#C\C#

*086(#]=Sj## 7,*C5*"@4(/0(%"6%M%65+$(&.,+.*#4(5&*(%"(.'*(J*#5$+.%"#(#,/5A#==================#C\F#

*086(#]=Dj## 7,*C5*"@4(/0(%"6%M%65+$(&.,+.*#4(5&*(%"(.'*(7/,2ID+&*6(#,/5A#=================#C\\#

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*086(#]=CFj#T,5&K+$(S+$$%&(.*&.&(/"(/M*,+$$(+"6(#,/5A(&.,+.*#4(5&*(D4(5"%M*,&%.4(

4*+,(#,/5A#=================================================================================================#C]H#

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5"%M*,&%.4(4*+,(#,/5A#=================================================================================#C]\#

*086(#]=C\j#T,5&K+$(S+$$%&(.*&.&(/"(%"6%M%65+$(&.,+.*#4(5&*(D4(5"%M*,&%.4(4*+,(

#,/5A#=========================================================================================================#C]]#

*086(#]=C]j#R+""IS'%."*4(.*&.&(/"(/M*,+$$(+"6(#,/5A(&.,+.*#4(5&*(D4(

+@+6*2%@(2+V/,#=========================================================================================#C]K#

*086(#]=CLj#R+""IS'%"*4(.*&.&(/"(%"6%M%65+$(&.,+.*#4(5&*(D4(+@+6*2%@(2+V/,#==========#CLG#

*086(#]=CSj#-A*+,2+"E&(J+"K(P,6*,(B/,,*$+.%/"(.*&.&(/"#.M*,+$$(+"6(#,/5A(&.,+.*#4(5&*(D4(&*$0I,+.*6(!"#$%&'(A,/0%@%*"@4#===========================================#CLF#

*086(#]=CDj#-A*+,2+"E&(J+"K(P,6*,(B/,,*$+.%/"(.*&.(/"(%"6%M%65+$(&.,+.*#4(5&*(

N%.'%"(J*#5$+.%"#(#,/5A(D4(&*$0I,+.*6(!"#$%&'(A,/0%@%*"@4#========================#CL\#

*086(#]=CKj#-A*+,2+"E&(J+"K(P,6*,(B/,,*$+.%/"(.*&.&(/"(%"6%M%65+$(&.,+.*#4(5&*(

N%.'%"(7/,2ID+&*6(#,/5A(D4(&*$0I,+.*6(!"#$%&'(A,/0%@%*"@4#======================#CLL#

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N%.'%"(-K%$$ID+&*6(#,/5A(D4(&*$0I,+.*6(!"#$%&'(A,/0%@%*"@4#========================#CLS#

*086(#]=FCj#-A*+,2+"E&(J+"K(P,6*,(B/,,*$+.%/"(.*&.&(/"(/M*,+$$(+"6(#,/5A(

&.,+.*#4(5&*(D4(!"#$%&'($*+,"%"#(D*$%*0&#=====================================================#CSG#

*086(#L=Cj#B'+,+@.*,%&.%@&(/0(&.56*".(%".*,M%*N(A+,.%@%A+".&#========================================#CSK#

1

1 Overview of the study

1.1 Introduction

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1.2 Research background

1.2.1 Theoretical background

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1.2.1.2.1 Language learning strategies enhance performance

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1.2.1.2.2 Language learning strategies are transferrable

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1.2.1.2.3 Language learning strategies are contextually and culturally specific

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1.2.2 Contextual background

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11

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1.2.3 Rationale for the study

1.2.3.1 Global research gaps in the field J62+.&%+#,2#+05#8(()#03.&)7#H]#'(035#5,):(#2+(#4,352#3(5(03:+#(44.32#,)#TTR5#?05#

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12

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1.2.3.2 Shortage of LLS research in Vietnam f,@()#2+(#%3.?,)%#3(5(03:+#0:2,@,2,(5#?.367?,7(#,)#2+(#03(0#.4#TTR5"#52&7,(5#

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5((1#.77=#!)#40:2"#W,(2)01(5(#:.)2(A2X5<(:,4,:#3(5(03:+#,)2.#7,44(3()2#05<(:25#.4#

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$%&'()#OFGGL8PZ#-&,#0)7#!)2030<305(32#OFGCFPZ#I0.#OFGGK0PP=#*+,5#60:>#.4#3(602(7#

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13

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1.3 Research aims and objectives

1.3.1 Research aims

*0>,)%#2+(#2+(.3(2,:06#0)7#:.)2(A2&06#80:>%3.&)75#,)2.#:.)5,7(302,.)"#2+(#,55&(#.4#

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14

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3(5(03:+#.8U(:2,@(5=###

1.3.2 Objectives and research questions

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15

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16

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1.4 Significance of the study

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18

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1.5 Research methodology

1.5.1 Research design

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20

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J#Y&(52,.))0,3(#?05#7(@(6.<(7#4.3#2+(#Y&0)2,202,@(#<+05(#0)7#5(1,X523&:2&3(7#

,)2(3@,(?5#?(3(#&5(7#4.3#2+(#Y&06,202,@(#<+05(=#J62+.&%+#2+(5(#,)523&1()25#4.3#8.2+#

1(2+.75#3(@.6@(7#03.&)7#2+(#:.3(#,55&(#.4#TTR5"#2+('#?(3(#%&,7(7#8'#7,44(3()2#

.8U(:2,@(5#?,2+#7,44(3()2#4.:&5(5#0)7#:.&67#8(#,)7(<()7()26'#7(@(6.<(7#43.1#2+(#

3(6(@0)2#6,2(302&3(#0)7#0<<3.<3,02(#@06,702,)%#<3.:(55(5=#*+(3(4.3("#2+(#:.):&33()2#

1,A(7#1(2+.75#0<<3.0:+#?05#&5(7#4.3#2+(#7(5,%)#.4#2+,5#52&7'=##R<(:,4,:066'"#2+(#

Y&0)2,202,@(#7020#0)7#Y&06,202,@(#7020#?(3(#:.66(:2(7#02#2+(#501(#2,1(#0)7#1(3%(7#

7&3,)%#2+(#,)2(3<3(202,.)#<+05(=###

1.5.2 The sample

NVT#2(0:+,)%#52044#0)7#52&7()25#02#0#&),@(35,2'#,)#/.#I+,#b,)+#:,2'"#W,(2#$01#?(3(#

:+.5()#05#0#:.)@(),():(#501<6(#4.3#2+,5#52&7'=#*+,5#&),@(35,2'#,5#0#@(3'#7')01,:#

&),@(35,2'#0)7#,5#%3.?,)%#@(3'#4052#,)#5,h(#05#?(66#05#<.<&603,2'=#J2#2+,5#&),@(35,2'"#0#

8,6,)%&06#5'52(1#.4#W,(2)01(5(#0)7#N)%6,5+#,5#).?#&5(7#05#2+(#10,)#60)%&0%(5#4.3#

,)523&:2,.)#0)7#:.11&),:02,.)#01.)%#52044#0)7#52&7()25=#*+(3(4.3("#+(6<,)%#

52&7()25#6(03)#8(22(3#0)7#0:+,(@(#+,%+(3#<3.4,:,():'#,)#N)%6,5+#8(:.1(5#(55()2,06#

0)7#0#2.<#<3,.3,2'#02#2+,5#&),@(35,2'=#-(5,7(5"#2+(#1,55,.)#0)7#:.11,21()2#.4#2+(#

&),@(35,2'#03(#2.#(Y&,<#52&7()25#?,2+#<3.<(3#>).?6(7%(#0)7#6,4(X6.)%#6(03),)%#5>,665#

5.#2+02#2+('#03(#4&66'#<3(<03(7#4.3#0#4&2&3(#.4#:+0)%(#0)7#:+066()%(5=#*+02#,5#2+(#

3(05.)#?+'#%3(02#(44.325#03(#8(,)%#<&2#,)2.#<3(<03,)%#52&7()25#4.3#5(64X7,3(:2(7#

6(03),)%#.3#6(03),)%#0&2.).1'=#-(,)%#0#<.<&603#&),@(35,2'#,)#/.#I+,#b,)+#I,2'"#2+(#

8,%%(52#:,2'#.4#W,(2#$01"#2+(#&),@(35,2'#02230:25#2+.&50)75#.4#52&7()25#43.1#

7,44(3()2#<0325#.4#2+(#:.&)23'#0)7#5+.&67#:.)52,2&2(#0#501<6(#40,36'#3(<3(5()202,@(#

.4#2+(#603%(3#<.<&602,.)#.4#W,(2)01(5(#2(32,03'#52&7()25=#

21

! 7/,(.'*(A%$/.(&.564j(*+(#501<6(#,):6&7(7#KS#@.6&)2((3#52&7()25#?+.#?(3(#

W,(2)01(5(#2(32,03'#52&7()25#0)7#3(46(:2(7#2+(#7,@(35,2'#.4#80:>%3.&)75#,)#

2(315#.4#%()7(3"#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#0)7#0:07(1,:#5<(:,4,:02,.)5=###

! 7/,(.'*(C5*&.%/""+%,*(&5,M*4X#]L\#52&7()25#02#2+(#:+.5()#&),@(35,2'#

<032,:,<02(7#,)#2+,5#Y&(52,.))0,3(#5&3@('=#*+(#501<6(#?05#52302,4,(7#.)#

@03,086(5#5&:+#05#%()7(3"#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#0)7#0:07(1,:#

5<(:,4,:02,.)5=#*+(5(#@03,086(5#?(3(#&5(7#2.#8&,67#0#1023,A#&<.)#?+,:+#

0)06'5,5#:0)#<3.:((7=#*+(#501<6(#.4#]L\#<032,:,<0)25#,)#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#

5&3@('#?05#603%(#().&%+#2.#,7()2,4'#<022(3)5#.4#60)%&0%(#52302(%,(5#&5(7#8'#

52&7()25#0)7#5&8520)2,06#().&%+#2.#:0<2&3(#5,%),4,:0)2#:.33(602,.)#8(2?(()#

@03,086(5=##

! 7/,(.'*(&*2%I&.,5@.5,*6(%".*,M%*N&X#*+(#501<6(#:.)5,52(7#.4#2()#NVT#2(0:+,)%#

52044#0)7#2()#NVT#52&7()25#02#2+(#:+.5()#&),@(35,2'=#*+(#501<6(7#2(0:+,)%#

52044#:01(#43.1#7,44(3()2#7(<0321()25#0)7#2+(#52&7()25#3(46(:2(7#2+(#

7,@(35,2'#.4#80:>%3.&)75#,)#2(315#.4#%()7(3"#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#

0)7#0:07(1,:#5<(:,4,:02,.)5=#*+(#,)2(3@,(?#501<6(#.4#2()#NVT#2(0:+,)%#52044#

0)7#2()#52&7()25#066.?(7#4.3#0#<3.8(#4.3#3,:+(3#0)7#1.3(#,)X7(<2+#

,)4.3102,.)#.)#,55&(5#03,5,)%#43.1#.3#3(602(7#2.#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#3(5&625=##

1.5.3 Instruments and data analysis

*+,5#2+(5,5#52&7'#?05#0)#(A<6.302.3'#0)7#7(5:3,<2,@(#52&7'#.4#2+(#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#

52302(%,(5#.4#2(32,03'#52&7()25#02#0#W,(2)01(5(#&),@(35,2'=#J#1,A(7#1(2+.75#

0<<3.0:+#?05#(1<6.'(7#,)#7020#:.66(:2,.)#0)7#0)06'5,5"#,)@.6@,)%#0#:.18,)02,.)#.4#

Y&(52,.))0,3(5#0)7#5(1,X523&:2&3(7#,)2(3@,(?5=#!):.3<.302,)%#8.2+#Y&0)2,202,@(#0)7#

Y&06,202,@(#3(5(03:+#,)#2+,5#1,A(7#1(2+.75#0<<3.0:+#()086(7#2+(#3(5(03:+#

.8U(:2,@(5#2.#8(#0:+,(@(7#,)#0#+.6,52,:#0)7#7(20,6(7#10))(3"#.44(3,)%#2+(#3(5(03:+#

?,2+#0#4,31#4.&)702,.)#2.#()5&3(#@06,7,2'#0)7#3(6,08,6,2'=#J#5&1103'#.4#3(5(03:+#

,)523&1()25#2.%(2+(3#?,2+#:.33(5<.)7,)%#7020#0)06'5,5#,5#<3.@,7(7#8(6.?=#OV&32+(3#

7(20,65#:0)#8(#4.&)7#,)#I+0<2(3#H#0)7#\P=##

22

Table 1.1: Summary of instrument and data analysis

M(5(03:+#.8U(:2,@(5#OMiP# !)523&1()25# J)06'2,:#<3.:(7&3(5#MiCj#*.#,7()2,4'#2+(#43(Y&():'#0)7#<022(3)5#.4#TTR#&5(#01.)%#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#2(32,03'#52&7()25=###MiFj#*.#,)@(52,%02(#2+(#3(602,.)5+,<#8(2?(()#TTR#&5(#0)7#6(03)(3#@03,086(5#5&:+#05#%()7(3"#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5"#0:07(1,:#10U.35"#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'"#0)7#8(6,(45#08.&2#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%=#

Mi]j#*.#7(@(6.<#2+(#%&,7,)%#<3,):,<6(5#,)#3(602,.)#2.#TTR5#4.3#2(0:+,)%X6(03),)%#<30:2,:(5#0)7#<.6,:'=####

^&(52,.))0,3(#5&3@('#####

^&0)2,202,@(#7020#0)06'5,5#.4#<032,:,<0)25[#3(5<.)5(5#2.#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#?05#:.)7&:2(7#&5,)%#9(5:3,<2,@(#R202,52,:5#O5&:+#05#43(Y&():'"#1(0)"#1(7,0)#0)7#R20)7037#7(@,02,.)P=#*.#0,7#2+(#0)06'5,5#.4#7020"#2+(#R202,52,:06#;0:>0%(#4.3#2+(#R.:,06#R:,():(#OR;RRP#0)7#NA:(6#FGGS#5.42?03(#?(3(#&5(7=#####

MiHj#*.#(A<6.3(#52&7()25[#0)7#2(0:+(35[#<(3:(<2,.)5"#022,2&7(5#0)7#(A<(3,():(5#:.):(3),)%#TTR5=###Mi\j#*.#(A01,)(#2+(#:&33()2#2(32,03'#NVT#(7&:02,.)#:.)2(A2#2+02#0::.11.702(5#TTR5=###

R(1,X523&:2&3(7#,)2(3@,(?5###

^&06,202,@(#7020#0)06'5,5#?05#&)7(320>()#.)#5(1,X523&:2&3(7#,)2(3@,(?#230)5:3,<25#&5,)%#2+(102,:#0)06'5,5#2.#,7()2,4'#:.7(5"#:02(%.3,(5#0)7#2+(1(5=###

1.5.3.1 Quantitative stage J#3(@,(?#.4#2+(#6,2(302&3(#,)7,:02(5#2+02#5(@(306#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#.)#TTR5#+0@(#8(()#

7(@,5(7"#01.)%#?+,:+##2+(#-.,+.*#4(H"M*"./,4(0/,()+"#5+#*()*+,"%"#(Y-H))Z(

7(@(6.<(7#8'#iA4.37#OCKKG0P#+05#2+(#1.52#?,7(6'#2(52(7#@06,7,2'#0)7#3(6,08,6,2'#

OI+01.2"#FGG\P=(#b.52#7(5:3,<2,@(#52&7,(5#+0@(#&2,6,5(7#2+(#520)7037,h(7#R!TT"#

(5<(:,066'#2.#:.66(:2#7020#.)#4.3(,%)#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35#OI.+()"#CKKDZ#$',>.5#m#

iA4.37"#CKKHZ#c+032.)"#FGGGP=#/.?(@(3"#2+(#R!TT#,5#3(<.32(7#2.#+0@(#5.1(#

6,1,202,.)5"#?+,:+#)((7#2.#8(#0<<3.<3,02(6'#0773(55(7=#-(5,7(5"#2+(#:.)2(A2&066'#

7,@(35(#)02&3(#.4#60)%&0%(#2(0:+,)%#0)7#6(03),)%#7,:202(5#2+02#).#3(5(03:+#

,)523&1()2#,5#<(34(:26'#&5086(#,)#(@(3'#(7&:02,.)06#5(22,)%=##

*+,5#3(:.%),2,.)#<3.1<2(7#2+(#070<202,.)#.4#2+(5(#(A,52,)%#2..65#2.#7(@(6.<#0#

3(@,5(7#Y&(52,.))0,3(#4.3#2+,5#52&7'#X#*+(#N)%6,5+#T0)%&0%(#T(03),)%#R2302(%'#

^&(52,.))0,3(#ONTTR^P=#*+(#NTTR^#?05#1.3(#3(6(@0)2#2.#2+(#:&33()2#(7&:02,.)06#

23

:.)2(A2#0)7#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#2(32,03'#52&7()25#?(3(#&5(7=#*+(#:.)523&:2,.)#<3.:(55#

.4#2+(#NTTR^#?05#805(7#.)#2+(#3,%.3.&5#3(@,(?#.4#3(602(7#6,2(302&3(#O(=%="#i[b066('#

0)7#I+01.2#OCKKGPZ#iA4.37#OCKKG0PZ#!"#$!!""#!!"#$%&$%'"!!"""!!!!"#$%&'%(&!#)&!

!!""!#!!"#0)7#,)@.6@(7#2+(#:.)5&6202,.)#.4#(A<(325#,)#2+(#4,(67"#05#?(66#05#2+(#

W,(2)01(5(#NVT#2(32,03'#52&7()25#2+3.&%+#4.:&5#%3.&<#7,5:&55,.)5=#b.7,4,:02,.)5#,)#

?.37,)%5#0)7#523&:2&3(#0)7#077,2,.)5#.4#52302(%,(5#?(3(#107(=#*+(#73042#

Y&(52,.))0,3(#2+()#?()2#2+3.&%+#0#<,6.2#4,(67#<3(X2(52,)%#?,2+#5202,52,:06#1(2+.75#2.#

()5&3(#,25#@06,7,2'#0)7#3(6,08,6,2'=#*+(#,),2,06#:.)5&6202,.)"#6,2(302&3(#,)<&2"#0)7#2+(#

<,6.2#2(52,)%#.4#2+(#73042#@(35,.)#.4#2+(#,)523&1()2"#?(3(#2.#:3(02(#0#@06,7#:.)2(A2X

5()5,2,@(#0)7#6(03)(3X0<<3.<3,02(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#.4#TTR5#01.)%#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#

2(32,03'#52&7()25=##OV.3#4&32+(3#7(20,65#3(%037,)%#2+(#:.)523&:2,.)#0)7#7(5:3,<2,.)#.4#

2+(#R!TT"#5((#I+0<2(3#H#0)7#\P=##

1.5.3.2 Qualitative stage *.#0,7#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#,)#7,5:.@(3,)%#3,:+(3#0)7#7((<(3#,)4.3102,.)#3(602,)%#2.#TTR5#

01.)%#W,(2)01(5(#2(32,03'#52&7()25#0)7#2+(#0::.11.702,.)#.4#2+(,3#TTR#&5(#,)#2+(#

:&33()2#(7&:02,.)06#5(22,)%"#5(1,X523&:2&3(7#,)2(3@,(?5#?(3(#:.):&33()26'#&5(7#05#0#

Y&06,202,@(#,)523&1()2#.4#2+(#52&7'=#-(:0&5(#52&7()25#,)+(3()26'#+0@(#,)7,@,7&06#

7,44(3():(5"#Y&06,202,@(#7020#43.1#2+(#5(1,X523&:2&3(7#,)2(3@,(?5#:.&67#8(#&5(7#2.#

,66&52302(#+.?#2+(#.@(3066#<,:2&3(#(1(3%,)%#43.1#2+(#NTTR^#?05#,):,7()2066'#3(602(7#

2.#.3#7,@(32(7#43.1#,)7,@,7&06#52&7()25=#!55&(5#<(320,),)%#2.#2+(,3#@,(?5#0)7#

022,2&7(5#2.?0375#TTR5#,)#%()(306#05#?(66#05#2+(,3#)((75#0)7#(A<(:202,.)5#:.&67#8(#

(44,:,()26'#(A<6.3(7#2+3.&%+#2+(5(#5(1,X523&:2&3(7#,)2(3@,(?(7=#*+(#302,.)06(#

8(+,)7#2+(#&5(#.4#5(1,X523&:2&3(7#.2+(3#2+0)#523&:2&3(7#,)2(3@,(?5#?05#2+02#2+('#

066.?(7#4.3#0#+,%+(3#46(A,8,6,2'#,)#0<<3.0:+,)%#2+(#<3.86(1#0)7#:3(02(7#

.<<.32&),2,(5#4.3#)(?#,55&(5#2.#03,5(#06.)%#2+(#?0'=#*+,5#4,25#,)#?(66#?,2+#2+(#&5(#.4#

2+(102,:#0)06'5,5#O4.3#4&32+(3#7(20,65#3(%037,)%#2+(#:.)523&:2,.)#0)7#7(5:3,<2,.)#.4#

Y&(52,.)#,2(15#4.3#2+(#5(1,X523&:2&3(#,)2(3@,(?5P=##

24

1.6 Ethical considerations

*+(#<3(5()2#3(5(03:+#?05#%30)2(7#4&66#(2+,:06#0<<3.@06#ON2+,:5#M(4(3():(#$.j#

/GGCCHCSP#8'#2+(#/&10)#M(5(03:+#N2+,:5#I.11,22((#.4#2+(#B),@(35,2'#.4#*0510),0"#

J&52306,0#OR((#J<<()7,A#CP=##

*+(#:.)7&:2#.4#3(5(03:+#,)#0)'#5.:,.X:&62&306#0)7#<3.4(55,.)06#5(22,)%#,5#%.@(3)(7#

8'#2+(#<3,):,<6(5#.4#(2+,:5"#?+,:+#03(#1(0)2#2.#7(4,)(#0)7#U&52,4'#7(5,3086(#3(5(03:+#

:.)7&:2=#!)#0)'#3(5(03:+#?+,:+#,)@.6@(5#0)7#,1<0:25#&<.)#+&10)5"#3(5(03:+(35#

)((7#2.#:.)4.31#2.#2+(#+,%+(52#520)70375#.4#(2+,:06#<30:2,:(#OI.11.)?(062+#.4#

J&52306,0"#FGGSP=#N2+,:5#).2#.)6'#.44(3#%&,7(6,)(5#<(320,),)%#2.#2+(#3,%+25"#7,%),2'#0)7#

504(2'#.4#+&10)#5&8U(:25"#8&2#065.#1.),2.3#2+(#,)2(%3,2'#.4#2+(#3(5(03:+#()2(3<3,5(#

OI.A"#*.?)5()7"#;3(2."#c..7%02("#m#d.6.<0:>"#FGGKP=#J::.37,)%#2.#2+(#$02,.)06#

R202(1()2#.)#N2+,:06#I.)7&:2#,)#M(5(03:+#!)@.6@,)%#/&10)5#OI.11.)?(062+#.4#

J&52306,0"#FGGSP"#3(5(03:+(35#03(#3(Y&,3(7#2.#.85(3@(#2+(#4.&3#%&,7,)%#<3,):,<6(5#.4#

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7(4,)(7#,)#2+(#$02,.)06#R202(1()2#O<=#CFP#05#4.66.?5=##

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25

! E&52,:(#3(Y&,3(5#2+02"#?,2+,)#0#<.<&602,.)"#2+(3(#,5#0#40,3#7,523,8&2,.)#.4#

2+(# 8()(4,25# 0)7# 8&37()5# .4# <032,:,<02,.)# ,)# 3(5(03:+# 0)7"# 4.3# 0)'#

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*+(#4,352#<3,):,<6(#.4#,)2(%3,2'#7,:202(5#2+02#(@(3'#3(5(03:+#(44.32#,5#7,3(:2(7#2.?0375#

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0)7#?+.#?(3(#4&66'#:0<086(#.4#10>,)%#0)#0&2.).1.&5#.3#@.6&)203'#7(:,5,.)#05#2.#

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.)#2+(,3#6(03),)%#.3#2(0:+,)%#0)7#?,2+.&2#+0@,)%#2.#%,@(#0)#(A<60)02,.)=#!)#077,2,.)"#

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3(5(03:+(3#,)#066#,)2(3@,(?#230)5:3,<25"#0)7#066#,)4.3102,.)#?05#23(02(7#,)#0#

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2+(#3(5(03:+=#*+(#:.1<6(2(7#5&3@('#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#+0@(#8(()#52.3(7#,)#0#6.:>(7#

4,6,)%#:08,)(2#,)#2+(#:+,(4#,)@(52,%02.3[5#.44,:(=#*+(#7020#0)06'5,5#0)7#5&85(Y&()2#

?3,2,)%#.4#2+(#2+(5,5#+0@(#8(()#52.3(7#?,2+#<055?.37#<3.2(:2(7#5(3@(35=#J66#7020#?,66#

8(#7(523.'(7#042(3#0#<(3,.7#.4#4,@(#'(035#43.1#2+(#:6.5(#.4#2+(#52&7'=##

26

*+(#2+,37#<3,):,<6(#.4#8()(4,:():(#1.),2.35#2+(#:.):(<2#.4#5(:&3,2'#.3#504(2'#.4#

+&10)#5&8U(:25"#?+(3(#066#:03(#1&52#8(#20>()#8'#2+(#3(5(03:+(35#2.#()5&3(#2+02#0)'#

<.2()2,06#7(23,1()25#2.#<032,:,<0)25#03(#1,),1,5(7#.3#(6,1,)02(7=#!)#2+,5#:&33()2#

52&7'"#).#+031#?05#7.)(#2.#2+(#<032,:,<0)25#02#0)'#520%(=#M(%037,)%#2+(#7020#

:.66(:2,.)"#2+(3(#?(3(#).#5()5,2,@("#<(35.)06#.3#:&62&306#,55&(5#2+02#:.&67#.44()7#.3#

:3(02(#0)'#7,523(55#.)#2+(#<032#.4#2+(#<032,:,<0)25=##

1.7 Limitations of the study

T,1,202,.)5#03(#7(4,)(7#05#:.)5230,)25#&<.)#2+(#52&7'#2+02#03(#0:>).?6(7%(7#,)#

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03(#7(5:3,8(7#05##_2+.5(#:.)7,2,.)5#8('.)7#2+(#:.)23.6#.4#2+(#3(5(03:+(3#2+02#10'#

<60:(#3(523,:2,.)5#.)#2+(#:.):6&5,.)#.4#2+(#52&7'#0)7#2+(,3#0<<6,:02,.)#2.#.2+(3#

5,2&02,.)5a#O<=#HKP=#!)#:.)5,7(302,.)#.4#2+(#08.@(#7(4,),2,.)"#2+(3(#03(#05<(:25#.4#2+,5#

52&7'#2+02#10'#6,1,2#,25#%()(306,508,6,2'"#8&2#2+('#065.#<3.@,7(#4.:&5#4.3#4&2&3(#

3(5(03:+#7,3(:2,.)5=##

V,3526'"#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#5&3@('#,)@(52,%02(7#2+(#<022(3)5#.4#TTR#&5(#0)7#(A<6.3(7#

2+(#@,(?5#2.?0375#TTR5#.4#&)7(3%307&02(#NVT#52&7()25#0)7#52044#02#0#&),@(35,2'#,)#

W,(2)01=#-(5,7(5"#2+(#5(6(:2,.)#.4#203%(2#<.<&602,.)#0)7#5&3@('#<032,:,<0)25#,)#2+,5#

52&7'#?05#5&8U(:2#2.#.<<.32&),2'k:.)@(),():(#0)7#<&3<.5(4&6#501<6,)%#0)7#2+&5#

2+(#4,)7,)%5#.820,)(7#,)#2+,5#52&7'#?(3(#).2#)(:(5503,6'#3(<3(5()202,@(#.4#066#

W,(2)01(5(#52&7()25#0)7#NVT#52044#,)#W,(2)01=#I.)5(Y&()26'"#2+(#3(5&625#3(%037,)%#

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2+,5#,55&(#?(3(#<032,:&603#2.#.)(#()@,3.)1()2#?,2+#,25#:.)2(A2&06#:+030:2(3,52,:5=#

*+(#<.55,8,6,2'#.4#10>,)%#%()(306,502,.)5#8('.)7#2+(#8.&)703,(5#.4#2+,5#5(22,)%#?05#

Y&,2(#6,1,2(7"#062+.&%+#,)2(3(52,)%#,)5,%+25#:0)#8(#&5(4&6#4.3#5,1,603#:.)2(A25"#?+(3(#

N)%6,5+#,5#20&%+2#0)7#6(03)2#05#0#4.3(,%)#60)%&0%(=#V.3#0#1.3(#3.8&52#4,)7,)%#?,2+#

603%(3#%()(306,h02,.)5"#4&2&3(#3(5(03:+#:.&67#,)@.6@(#0#?,7(3#30)7.1#501<6,)%#.4#

2+(#203%(2#<.<&602,.)=##

R(:.)76'"#2+(#%3.&<5#.4#52&7()25#0)7#2(0:+(35#<032,:,<02,)%#,)#2+(#,)2(3@,(?#?(3(#

Y&,2(#51066#+.?(@(3"#?+02#:.&)25#1.3(#,)#2+(#,)2(3@,(?#<3.:(55#,5#2+(#7(<2+#302+(3#

2+0)#83(072+#.4#7020=#*+(#,)2(3@,(?#<3.:(55#7(<()7(7#&<.)#?+02#2+(#<032,:,<0)25#

27

:+.5(#2.#<3.@,7(#0)7#5+03(#?,2+#2+(#3(5(03:+(35=#!)#40:2"#2+(#3,:+)(55#.4#,)4.3102,.)#

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,)2(3@,(?5"#7(5<,2(#2+(#51066#)&18(3#.4#,)2(3@,(?#<032,:,<0)25"#+05#3()7(3(7#2+,5#

,55&(#)(%6,%,86(=##

1.8 Structure of the thesis

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! 5).P0%;'A'(A01,)(5#2+(#3(602(7#6,2(302&3(#5&33.&)7,)%#2+,5#,55&(#.4#TTR5"#

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0773(55(7=#R<(:,4,:066'"#,2#6..>5#02#2+(#+,52.3,:06#<(35<(:2,@(5#0)7#

7(@(6.<1()2#.4#3(5(03:+#.)#TTRX3(602(7#03(05"#,)2(3)02,.)066'#0)7#6.:066'=#

*+(5(#10,)#03(05#,):6&7(5j#60)%&0%(#52302(%'#7(4,),2,.)#0)7#:6055,4,:02,.)Z#

5&::(554&6#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35Z#40:2.35#044(:2,)%#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35[#52302(%'#

:+.,:(5#0)7#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#52302(%'#,)523&:2,.)=#J22,2&7(5#.4#2(0:+(35#0)7#

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! 5).P0%;'L'.&@'N#3(<.32#2+(#4,)7,)%5#43.1#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#5&3@('#0)7#2+(#

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2+3.&%+#302,.)06#0)06'5,5#<3.:(7&3(=#I3,2,:06#U&7%1()25#03(#&5(7#2.#0)06'5(#

0)7#<3.@,7(#%3(02(3#,)5,%+25#,)2.#2+(#30?#4,)7,)%5=##

! 5).P0%;'G#7,5:&55(5#2+(#4,)7,)%5"#022(1<2,)%#2.#10>(#5()5(#.4#?+02#+05#

8(()#4.&)7=#N@06&02,.)"#5')2+(5,502,.)"#:.1<03,5.)5#0)7#:.)230525#03(#107(#

0:3.55#2+(#%3.&<5#.4#<032,:,<0)25"#0:3.55#2+(#2?.#,)523&1()25#0)7#?,2+#2+.5(#

.4#<3(@,.&5#52&7,(5#,)#2+(#4,(67=#;.55,86(#(A<60)02,.)5#4.3#:(320,)#<022(3)5"#

28

@,(?5#0)7#<+().1()0#03(#065.#<3.@,7(7#805(7#.)#2+(#:.)2(A2&06#:6&(5#0)7#

,)X7(<2+#3(46(:2,.)5=##

! 5).P0%;'O#:.):6&7(5#2+(#2+(5,5#?,2+#0#7,5:&55,.)#.4#2+(#,1<6,:02,.)5#.4#2+(#

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2+(5(#,1<6,:02,.)5=#*+(#4,)06#<032#.4#2+,5#:+0<2(3#.&26,)(5#5.1(#

3(:.11()702,.)5#4.3#4&32+(3#3(5(03:+#,)@(52,%02,.)5=##

1.9 Conclusion

*+,5#:+0<2(3#5(3@(5#05#0#%()(306#,)23.7&:2,.)#2.#2+(#<3(5()2#52&7'=#!2#+05#4,3526'#

6..>(7#02#2+(#2+(.3(2,:06#0)7#:.)2(A2&06#302,.)06(#.4#2+(#52&7'"#&)7(35:.3,)%#2+(#

%0<#,)#>).?6(7%(#0)7#2+(#)((7#4.3#:033',)%#.&2#2+,5#3(5(03:+#52&7'#.)#TTR5#,)#

:.)2(1<.303'#W,(2)01"#(5<(:,066'#02#2(32,03'#6(@(6=#*+(#.8U(:2,@(5#1(0)2#2.#8(#

0:+,(@(7#0)7#2+(#52&7'#5,%),4,:0):(#+05#8(()#7(20,6(7=#J)#.@(3@,(?#.4#2+(#

1(2+.7.6.%'#0)7#6,1,202,.)5#+05#065.#8(()#,):6&7(7=#*+,5#:+0<2(3#+05#:.):6&7(7#8'#

<3(5()2,)%#2+(#523&:2&3(#0)7#.&26,)(#.4#2+(#?+.6(#2+(5,5=#J5#0#?+.6("#:+0<2(3#C#+05#

:.)20,)(7#2+(#4&)701()206#80:>%3.&)7#,)4.3102,.)#2.#60'#0#4,31#4.&)702,.)#4.3#2+(#

4.66.?,)%#:+0<2(35=##

*+(#)(A2#:+0<2(3#:.)20,)5#0)#(A2()5,@(#3(@,(?#.4#2+(#6,2(302&3(#:.):(3),)%#TTR5#0)7#

,25#3(602(7#:.):(<25"#&<.)#?+,:+#2+(#52&7'#?05#805(7=#*+(#3(@,(?#8(%,)5#?,2+#2+(#

,7()2,4,:02,.)#0)7#:02(%.3,502,.)#.4#TTR5=#!2#2+()#4.:&5(5#.)#2+(#).2,.)#.4#5&::(554&6#

6(03)(35"#4.66.?(7#8'#2+(#,)46&():(#.4#6(03)(3#@03,086(5#0)7#6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2#.)#

TTR#&5(=#!2#065.#(A<6.3(5#2+(#7(@(6.<1()2#0)7#,1<6(1()202,.)#.4#TTR#,)523&:2,.)#

?+,:+#,5#50,7#2.#+0@(#0#<.5,2,@(#,1<0:2#.)#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#<(34.310):(=

29

2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

*+,5#:+0<2(3#,5#1(0)2#2.#<&2#2+(#,55&(#.4#TTR5#,)#8.2+#+,52.3,:06#0)7#:.)2(1<.303'#

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3(5(03:+(35#0)7#5:+.6035"#,5#:.1<,6(7#0)7#.3%0),5(7#2+(102,:066'=#V3.1#0#%()(306#

@,(?"#7(5:3,<2,@(#3(5(03:+#,)#2+,5#03(0#40665#,)2.#4.&3#83.07#03(05j#2+(#7(5:3,<2,.)#.4#

5&::(554&6#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35Z#TTR#,)523&:2,.)#0)7#2+(#,)46&():(#.4#6(03)(3#@03,086(5#

0)7#6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2#.)#TTR#&5(=#c+,6(#2+(#10U.3,2'#.4#TTR#3(5(03:+#,5#.4#0#

7(5:3,<2,@(#0)7#(A<6.302.3'#)02&3("#2+(3(#+05#8(()#0#8.7'#.4#,)2(3@()2,.)#3(5(03:+#

?+,:+#,5#7(@.2(7#2.#TTR#,)523&:2,.)=#b0U.3#3(5(03:+#52&7,(5#5&33.&)7,)%#2+(5(#

2+(1(5#03(#3(<.32(7#0)7#7,5:&55(7#2+.3.&%+6'#,)#2+,5#:+0<2(3"#?+,:+#%,@(5#0#5.6,7#

2+(.3(2,:06#0)7#5:,()2,4,:#80:>%3.&)7#4.3#2+(#:&33()2#52&7'=#f0<5#,)#2+(#4,(67#03(#065.#

,7()2,4,(7#2.#3(,)4.3:(#2+(#5,%),4,:0):(#0)7#<&3<.5(4&6)(55#.4#2+(#:&33()2#52&7'=##

J#:.1<3(+()5,@(#5(03:+#0)7#3(@,(?#.4#2+(#(1<,3,:06#6,2(302&3(#?05#:.)7&:2(7#43.1#

2307,2,.)06#3(5.&3:(5"#,):6&7,)%#8..>5"#U.&3)065"#0)7#.2+(3#<&86,5+(7#7.:&1()25#

:.66(:2(7#8'#5(@(306#&),@(35,2'#6,8303,(5#0)7#2+(#$02,.)06#T,8303'#.4#J&52306,0=#!)#

077,2,.)"#(6(:23.),:#7020805(5#0)7#0%%3(%02.35"#<032,:&6036'#J&52306,0)#N7&:02,.)#

!)7(A#OJsN7&:02,.)P"#;3.Y&(52"#J:07(1,:#R(03:+#;3(1,(3"#!)4.310?.367"#0)7#

N7&:02,.)#M(5.&3:(5#!)4.3102,.)#I()2(3#ONM!IP"#?(3(#2+.3.&%+6'#5(03:+(7#2.#6.:02(#

0)7#.820,)#2+(#3(6(@0)2#7.:&1()25#,)#2+,5#3(5(03:+#4,(67=#d('#?.37#5(03:+(5"#?+,:+#

,):6&7(7#$*+,"%"#(&.,+.*#%*&O($+"#5+#*($*+,"%"#(&.,+.*#%*&O($*+,"*,(&.,+.*#%*&O(

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R,1,603#5(03:+(5#?(3(#5&85(Y&()26'#:.)7&:2(7#&5,)%#f..%6(#R:+.603#0)7#R&11.)#

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2+(#2.<,:#.4#,)2(3(52=#*+(#3(4(3():(#6,525#.4#2+(5(#,7()2,4,(7#032,:6(5#?(3(#2+()#

10)&066'#5:0))(7#2.#4,62(3#.&2#.2+(3#52&7,(5#?+,:+#?(3(#).2#:0<2&3(7#,)#2+(#

7020805(5=#V&32+(31.3("#5(@(306#>('#3(5(03:+(35#,)#2+(#4,(67#?(3(#:.)20:2(7#2.#

055,52#?,2+#2+(#,7()2,4,:02,.)#0)7#0220,)1()2#.4#.2+(3#3(6(@0)2#3(5(03:+#52&7,(5=#

M(%037,)%#2+(#5(6(:2,.)#:3,2(3,0"#<3,103'#3(5(03:+#52&7,(5#.4#8.2+#Y&0)2,202,@(#0)7#

30

Y&06,202,@(#0<<3.0:+(5"#?+,:+#?(3(#.3,%,)06#?.3>5#<&86,5+(7#,)#N)%6,5+"#?(3(#

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(44(:2,@(#?0'#,)#<.5,2,.),)%#2+(#03(05#.4#(A<(32,5(#0)7#(A<6.3,)%#2+(#7(<2+#0)7#

?,72+#.4#2+(#1.52#:,2(7#5:+.6036'#?.3>#,)#2+(#4,(67=#

*+(#6,2(302&3(#3(@,(?#,):6&7(5#<&86,5+(7#7.:&1()25#43.1#CKS]#2.#FGCF=#*+3.&%+.&2#

2+(#2+3((X'(03#<(3,.7#.4#2+(#<3(5()2#3(5(03:+#52&7'"#<(3,.7,:06#5(03:+(5#0)7#

3(@,(?5#.4#2+(#3(6(@0)2#6,2(302&3(#?(3(#7.)(#02#0#H#Q#L#1.)2+#,)2(3@065#2.#()5&3(#

2+(#:&33():'#.4#2+(#,55&(5#8(,)%#,):6&7(7#0)7#7,5:&55(7=#c+()#2+(#:+3.).6.%,:06#

(A2()2#.4#2+(#6,2(302&3(#(A2()75#2.#2+(#1.52#:&33()2#?.3>#.4#3(5(03:+(35#,)#2+(#4,(67"#

2+,5#52&7'#:.&67#8(#50,7#?,2+#:.)4,7():(#2+02#,2#,5#&<X2.X702(#?,2+#2+(#602(52#

6,2(302&3(#<(320,),)%#2.#TTR5=##

2.2 Theoretical underpinnings of LLSs

*+(#2+(.3(2,:06#&)7(3<,)),)%5#.4#TTR5#?(3(#0773(55(7#,)#2+,5#52&7'#2+3.&%+#2+(#

7,44(3()2#0<<3.0:+(5#2.#TTR#:.):(<2&06,h02,.)#0)7#:02(%.3,502,.)=#!)#2(315#.4#

7(4,),)%#0)7#:6055,4',)%#TTR5"#10)'#3(5(03:+(35#+0@(#7(@(6.<(7#2+(,3#.?)#7(4,),2,.)#

.4#52302(%,(5#0)7#2+(#+,(303:+,:06#3(602,.)5+,<#01.)%#2+(1=#J#:.1<3(+()5,@(#

3(@,(?#.4#6,2(302&3(#5,):(#2+(#CKSG5#+05#3(@(06(7#0#60:>#.4#&)0),1,2'#.)#+.?#0#

6(03),)%#52302(%'#,5#:.):(<2&06,5(7=#*+,5#,5#<3.8086'#8(:0&5(#.4#2+(#7,@(35,2'#.4#

:.)2(A25#0)7#2+(.3(2,:06#4301(?.3>5#.)#?+,:+#2+(#2(31#$*+,"%"#(&.,+.*#4#,5#

5,2&02(7=#J::.37,)%#2.#I.+()#OFGG]P"#0#?,7(#30)%(#.4#03(05#+0@(#8(()#7.:&1()2(7#

2.#5(3@(#05#2+(#2+(.3(2,:06#4.&)702,.)#4.3#2+(#7(@(6.<1()2#.4#TTR5"#,):6&7,)%#

(7&:02,.)06#<5':+.6.%'"#:.%),2,@(#<5':+.6.%'"#:3.55X:&62&306#<5':+.6.%'"#

,)4.3102,.)X<3.:(55,)%#2+(.3'"#5.:,.X:&62&306#2+(.3'"#5.:,06#:.)523&:2,@,52#2+(.3'"#

60)%&0%(#2(0:+,)%#0)7#6(03),)%"#0<<6,(7#6,)%&,52,:5"#5.:,.6,)%&,52,:5"#0)7#

<5':+.6,)%&,52,:5#OI.+()"#FGG]P=#*+,5#7,@(35,4,:02,.)#,)#2+(.3(2,:06#4.&)702,.)5#+05#

6(7#2.#2+(#,)(@,2086(#60:>#.4#0%3((1()2#.)#2+(#7(4,),2,.)#0)7#+():(#:6055,4,:02,.)#.4#

TTR5"#?+,:+#+05#8(()#0)#()7&3,)%#,55&(#5,):(#2+(#(036'#70'5#.4#3(5(03:+#.)#TTR5=#J5#

i[b066('"#I+01.2"#R2(?)(3Xb0)h0)03(5"#dt<<(3#0)7#M&55.#OCKD]P#<&2#,2"#_u*v+(3(#

,5#).#:.)5()5&5#.)#?+02#:.)52,2&2(5#0#6(03),)%#52302(%'#,)#5(:.)7#60)%&0%(#.3#+.?#

2+(5(#7,44(3#43.1#.2+(3#2'<(5#.4#6(03)(3#0:2,@,2,(5w#(@()#?,2+#2+(#%3.&<#.4#0:2,@,2,(5#

31

1.52#.42()#3(4(33(7#2.#05#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5"#2+(3(#,5#:.)5,7(3086(#:.)4&5,.)#08.&2#

7(4,),2,.)5#.4#5<(:,4,:#52302(%,(5#0)7#08.&2#2+(#+,(303:+,:#3(602,.)5+,<#01.)%#

52302(%,(5a#O<=#FFP=#b.3(#3(:()26'"#9x3)'(,#OFGG]"#<=#CLLP#5202(7"#_?(#:0)).2#.44(3#0#

?02(32,%+2#7(4,),2,.)#.4#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5=a##

*.#<60:(#2+(#7,5:&55,.)#.)#TTR5#,)#8.2+#+,52.3,:06#0)7#:.)2(1<.303'#:.)2(A25"#

@03,.&5#7(4,),2,.)5#0)7#5:+(1(5#.4#:02(%.3,502,.)#05#403#80:>#05#CKS]#?(3(#230:(7#

0)7#3(@,(?(7=#*+(#>('#2(315#0)7#05<(:25#3(602(7#2.#TTR5#?+,:+#03(#1.52#3(6(@0)2#2.#

2+(#:&33()2#52&7'#03(#(5<(:,066'#&)7(35:.3(7#0)7#7,5:&55(7#,)#2+(#4.66.?,)%#5(:2,.)=##

2.2.1 LLS conceptualisation: Interplay of theoretical perspectives

*+(3(#,5#6,226(#:.)5()5&5#.)#2+(#:.):(<2&06,502,.)#.4#2+(#2(31#_6(03),)%#52302(%'a=#

*086(#F=C#8(6.?#<3(5()25#0#:+3.).6.%,:06#5&1103'#.4#2+(#1.52#43(Y&()26'#:,2(7#

7(4,),2,.)5#.)#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#8'#3().?)(7#3(5(03:+(35#?+,:+#03(#&)7(3<,))(7#

8'#@03,.&5#2+(.3,(5=##

Table 2.1: Definitions of learning strategies

M#0),;_$%.;' /%4*&*0*,&6'9%.;&*&"'60;.0%"*%6'.;%'777''

M&8,)#OCKS]"#<=#\HP#

2+(#2(:+),Y&(5#.3#7(@,:(5#?+,:+#0#6(03)(3#10'#&5(#2.#0:Y&,3(#>).?6(7%(=##

M,%)('##OCKSD"#<=#CL]P#

%()(306#.<(302,.)5#.3#<3.:(7&3(5#2.#0,7#2+(#0:Y&,5,2,.)"#3(2()2,.)#0)7##3(23,(@06#.4#>).?6(7%(#0)7#<(34.310):(=##

-3.?)#(2#06=##OCKDH"#<=#D]P##

2+(#5'52(102,:#0<<6,:02,.)#.4#7(6,8(302(#<60)5"#3.&2,)(5"#.3#0:2,@,2,(5#2.#()+0):(#6(03),)%=##

R2(3)#OCKDH"#<=#\G]P##

<032,:&603#4.315#.4#.85(3@086(#6(03),)%#8(+0@,.&3"#1.3(#.3#6(55#:.)5:,.&56'#(1<6.'(7#8'#2+(#6(03)(3=##

9(33'#0)7#b&3<+'##OCKDL"#<=#FP##

0#:.66(:2,.)#.4#1()206#20:2,:5#(1<6.'(7#8'#0)#,)7,@,7&06#,)#0#<032,:&603#6(03),)%#5,2&02,.)#2.#40:,6,202(#0:Y&,5,2,.)#.4#>).?6(7%(#.3#5>,66=##

$,58(2#0)7#R+&:>51,2+#OCKDL"#<=#LP##

,)2(%302(7#5(Y&():(5#.4#<3.:(7&3(5"#2+(#0<<3.<3,02(#5(6(:2,.)#0)7#46(A,86(#070<202,.)#.4#?+,:+#,5##2.#1((2#2+(#)((75#.4#0#5<(:,4,:#6(03),)%#5,2&02,.)=##

c(,)52(,)#0)7#b0'(3#OCKDL"#<=#HC]P##

8(+0@,.&35#0)7#2+.&%+25#2+02#0#6(03)(3#()%0%(5#,)#7&3,)%#6(03),)%#0)7#2+02#03(#,)2()7(7#2.#,)46&():(#2+(#6(03)(3[5#():.7,)%#<3.:(55=##

c()7()#0)7#M&8,)#OCKDS"#<=#CKP#

2+(#8(+0@,.&35#0)7#2+.&%+2#<3.:(55(5#2+02#6(03)(35#&5(#,)#2+(#<3.:(55#.4#6(03),)%#,):6&7,)%#0)'#5(25#.4#.<(302,.)5"#52(<5"#<60)5"#3.&2,)(5#&5(7#8'#2+(#6(03)(3#2.#40:,6,202(#2+(#.820,),)%"#52.30%("#3(23,(@06"#0)7#&5(#.4#,)4.3102,.)=#

d,38'##OCKDD"#<=#FHGP#

2+(#1(0)5#.4#5(6(:2,)%"#:.18,),)%"#3(7(5,%),)%#:.%),2,@(#3.&2,)(5#4.3#<(34.31,)%#5<(:,4,(7#205>5=##

b0'(3## 8(+0@,.&35#.4#0#6(03)(3#2+02#03(#,)2()7(7#k#2.#,)46&():(#+.?#

32

M#0),;_$%.;' /%4*&*0*,&6'9%.;&*&"'60;.0%"*%6'.;%'777''

OCKDD"#<=#CCP# 2+(#6(03)(3#<3.:(55(5#,)4.3102,.)=##R:+1(:>##OCKDD"#<=#]P#

0#5(Y&():(#.4#<3.:(7&3(5#4.3#0::.1<6,5+,)%#6(03),)%=##

c07(#(2#06=##OCKKG"#<=#C]GP#

0#:.)4,%&302,.)#.4#7,44(3()2#20:2,:5"#7(6,8(302(6'#5(6(:2(7#0)7#:03(4&66'#1.),2.3(7#4.3#0#<032,:&603#<&3<.5(#4.3#(44(:2,@()(55=##

i[b066('#0)7#I+01.2#OCKKG"#<=#CP##

2+(#5<(:,06#2+.&%+25#.3#8(+0@,.&35#2+02#,)7,@,7&065#&5(#2.#+(6<#2+(1#:.1<3(+()7"#6(03)#.3#3(20,)#)(?#,)4.3102,.)=#

iA4.37##OCKKG"#<=#DP#

2(:+),Y&(5"#8(+0@,.&35"#0:2,.)5"#2+.&%+2#<3.:(55"#<3.86(1#5.6@,)%"#.3#52&7'#5>,665#20>()#8'#2+(#6(03)(3#2.#10>(#6(03),)%#(05,(3"#4052(3"#1.3(#5(64X7,3(:2(7"#1.3(#(44(:2,@("#0)7#1.3(#230)54(3086(#2.#0#)(?#5,2&02,.)=###

V.A#0)7#b022+(?5##OCKKCP#

:.):(3)(7#?,2+#+.?#6(03)(35#&5(#2+(,3#830,)5#:.)5:,.&56'#0)7#<&3<.5(4&66'#2.#+0)76(#2+(,3#6(03),)%#0)7#10>(#,2#1.3(#(44(:2,@(=##

-3.?)##OCKK\"#<=#CCHP#

5<(:,4,:#1(2+.75#.4#0<<3.0:+,)%#0#<3.86(1#.3#205>"#1.7(5#.4#.<(302,.)5#4.3#0:+,(@,)%#0#<032,:&603#()7"#.3#<60))(7#7(5,%)5#4.3#:.)23.66,)%#0)7#10),<&602,)%#:(320,)#,)4.3102,.)#

c(,)52(,)"#/&510)"#0)7#9,(3>,)%#OFGGG"#<=#SFSP#

0)'#2+.&%+25"#8(+0@,.&35"#8(6,(45"#.3#(1.2,.)5#2+02#40:,6,202(#2+(#0:Y&,5,2,.)"#&)7(3520)7,)%"#.3#602(3#230)54(3#.4#)(?#>).?6(7%(#0)7#5>,665=#

b03,0),##OFGGF"#<=#FP#

0)'#0:2,.)5#?+,:+#'.&#+0@(#2.#20>(#2.#5.6@(#0#<3.86(1#,)#6(03),)%#2.#+(6<#'.&#10>(#2+(#1.52#.4#'.&3#6(03),)%#<3.:(55"#2.#5<((7#&<#0)7#.<2,1,h(#'.&3#:.%),2,@("#044(:2,@("#0)7#5.:,06#8(+0@,.&3##

I+01.2##OFGG\"#<=#C\P#

2+(#:.)5:,.&5#2+.&%+25#0)7#0:2,.)5#2+02#6(03)(35#20>(#,)#.37(3#2.#0:+,(@(#0#6(03),)%#%.06=##

I.+()##OFGG]P##

:6055,4,(7#05#:.)5:,.&5#1()206#0:2,@,2'=#*+('#1&52#:.)20,)#).2#.)6'#0)#0:2,.)#8&2#0#%.06#O.3#0)#,)2()2,.)P#0)7#0#6(03),)%#5,2&02,.)=#c+(3(05#0#1()206#0:2,.)#1,%+2#8(#5&8:.)5:,.&5"#0)#0:2,.)#?,2+#0#%.06k,)2()2,.)#0)7#3(602(7#2.#0#6(03),)%#5,2&02,.)#:0)#.)6'#8(#:.)5:,.&5=##

M&8,)#OCKS]P#+05#8(()#?,7(6'#:3(7,2(7#4.3#+(3#<,.)((3,)%#022(1<2#,)#,)@(52,%02,)%#

6(03),)%#52302(%,(5"#(5<(:,066'#01.)%#5&::(554&6#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35=#-&,67,)%#.)#+(3#

3(5(03:+#,)#2+(#4,(67#.4#5(:.)7#60)%&0%(#0:Y&,5,2,.)#5,):(#CKSC"#5+(#5&%%(52(7#2+02#

5&::(554&6#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35#?(3(#:0<086(#.4#10>,)%#:.)5:,.&5#(44.325#2.#3(%&602(#

2+(,3#6(03),)%#<3.:(55#0)7#2+02#5.1(#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#?(3(#:.)23,8&2.3'#2.#

60)%&0%(#6(03),)%=#!)#+(3#401.&5#<&86,:02,.)#,)#CKS]"#M&8,)#7(4,)(7#6(03),)%#

52302(%,(5#05#_2+(#2(:+),Y&(5#.3#7(@,:(5#?+,:+#0#6(03)(3#10'#&5(#2.#0:Y&,3(#

>).?6(7%(a#O<=#\HP=#R.1(#.2+(3#3(5(03:+(35"#062+.&%+#&5,)%#062(3)02,@(#2(315"#065.#

<3.@,7(7#0#5,1,6036'#5+.32#0)7#5+03<#7(4,),2,.)#(1<+05,h,)%#2+(#%()(306#3.6(#.4#

52302(%,(5#,)#40:,6,202,)%#6(03),)%#0)7#<(34.310):(=#-3.?)"#-30)54.37"#V(33030"#0)7#

33

I01<,.)(#OCKDHP#5&%%(52(7#2+02#52302(%,(5#?(3(#_2+(#5'52(102,:#0<<6,:02,.)#.4#

7(6,8(302(#<60)5"#3.&2,)(5"#.3#0:2,@,2,(5#2.#()+0):(#6(03),)%a#O<=#D]P#0)7#R:+1(:>#

OCKDDP#5202(7#2+02#52302(%,(5#?(3(#_0#5(Y&():(#.4#<3.:(7&3(#4.3#0::.1<6,5+,)%#

6(03),)%a#O<=#]P=#

M,%)('#OCKSDP#<.52&602(7#0).2+(3#7(4,),2,.)#4.3#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5"#?+,:+#

0::()2&02(5#2+(#3.6(#.4#52302(%,(5#,)#()+0):,)%#2+(#:.%),2,@(#<3.:(55(5#,)#6(03),)%=#

/,5#7(4,),2,.)#3(075#2+02#52302(%,(5#03(#_%()(306#.<(302,.)5#.3#<3.:(7&3(5#2.#0,7#2+(#

0:Y&,5,2,.)"#3(2()2,.)#0)7#3(23,(@06#.4#>).?6(7%(#0)7#<(34.310):(a#O<=#CL]P=#*+,5#

:.%),2,@(#<(35<(:2,@(#.)#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#?05#2+()#20>()#&<#8'#.2+(3#3(5(03:+(35"#

?+.#(1<+05,5(7#2+(#3.6(#.4#52302(%,(5#,)#,)46&():,)%#2+(#_6(03)(35[#():.7,)%#

<3.:(55a#Oc(,)52(,)#m#b0'(3"#CKDL"#<=#HC]P#.3#2+(#,)4.3102,.)#<3.:(55,)%#Ob0'(3"#

CKDD"#<=#CCP=#c()7()#0)7#M&8,)#OCKDSP#065.#<60:(7#0)#,1<.320):(#.)#2+(#:.%),2,@(#

(6(1()2#,)#2+(,3#7(4,),2,.)"#?+,:+#,5#@(3'#1&:+#0#1.3(#(608.302(7#@(35,.)#.4#

M,%)('[5#7(4,),2,.)"#_2+(#8(+0@,.&35#0)7#2+.&%+2#<3.:(55(5#2+02#6(03)(35#&5(#,)#2+(#

<3.:(55#.4#6(03),)%#,):6&7,)%#0)'#5(25#.4#.<(302,.)5"#52(<5"#<60)5"#3.&2,)(5#&5(7#8'#

2+(#6(03)(3#2.#40:,6,202(#2+(#.820,),)%"#52.30%("#3(23,(@06"#0)7#&5(#.4#,)4.3102,.)a#O<=#

CKP=##

V3.1#0#5,2&02,.)06#<(35<(:2,@("#9(33'#0)7#b&3<+'#OCKDLP#+,%+6,%+2(7#2+(#

5,2&02(7)(55#.4#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#?,2+#2+(#,)5(32,.)#.4#_6(03),)%#5,2&02,.)a#,)#2+(,3#

7(4,),2,.)"#?+(3(8'#52302(%,(5#03(#_0#:.66(:2,.)#.4#1()206#20:2,:5#(1<6.'(7#8'#0)#

,)7,@,7&06#,)#0#<032,:&603#6(03),)%#5,2&02,.)#2.#40:,6,202(#0:Y&,5,2,.)#.4#>).?6(7%(#.3#

5>,66a#O<=#FP=#c,2+#0#5,1,603#4.:&5#.)#2+(#:.)2(A2&06#7(<()7():(#.4#52302(%,(5"#$,58(2#

0)7#R+&:>51,2+#OCKDL"#<=#LP#7(4,)(7#52302(%,(5#05#_,)2(%302(7#5(Y&():(5#.4#

<3.:(7&3(5"#2+(#0<<3.<3,02(#5(6(:2,.)#0)7#46(A,86(#070<202,.)#.4#?+,:+#,5#2.#1((2#

2+(#)((75#.4#0#5<(:,4,:#6(03),)%#5,2&02,.)=a#

T02(3#3(5(03:+(35#077(7#2+(#<5':+.6.%,:06#0)7#(1.2,.)06#(6(1()25#2.#2+(#7(4,),2,.)#

.4#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5=#V.3#(A01<6("#iA4.37#OCKKG0P#(608.302(7#.)#0#7(20,6(7#

7(4,),2,.)#?,2+#:6(036'#032,:&602(7#%.065#.4#52302(%'#07.<2,.)"#?+(3(8'#_6(03),)%#

52302(%,(5#03(#5<(:,4,:#0:2,.)5#20>()#8'#2+(#6(03)(3#2.#10>(#6(03),)%#(05,(3"#4052(3"#

1.3(#()U.'086("#1.3(#5(64X7,3(:2(7"#1.3(#(44(:2,@(#0)7#1.3(#230)54(3086(#2.#)(?#

34

5,2&02,.)5a#O<=#DP=#!)#+(3#@,(?"#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#:.&67#+0@(#0)#044(:2,@(#<&3<.5("#

5&:+#05#10>,)%#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#1.3(#()U.'086(=#J::.37,)%#2.#c(,)52(,)"#/&510)"#

0)7#9,(3>,)%#OFGGGP"#2+(#10),<&602,.)#.4#(1.2,.)5#:0)#065.#8(#:.)5,7(3(7#0#

52302(%'#,4#,2#,5#2.#_40:,6,202(#2+(#0:Y&,5,2,.)"#&)7(3520)7,)%"#.3#602(3#230)54(3#.4#)(?#

>).?6(7%(#0)7#5>,665a#O<=#SFSP=#c,2+#0#<5':+.6.%,:06#<(35<(:2,@("#-3.?)#OCKK\P#73(?#

.&3#022()2,.)#2.#2+(#6(03)(3[5#,),2,02,@(#?,2+#+,5#7(4,),2,.)#05#_52302(%,(5#03(#5<(:,4,:#

1(2+.75#.4#0<<3.0:+,)%#0#<3.86(1#.3#205>"#1.7(5#.4#.<(302,.)5#4.3#0:+,(@,)%#0#

<032,:&603#()7"#.3#<60))(7#7(5,%)5#4.3#:.)23.66,)%#0)7#10),<&602,)%#:(320,)#

,)4.3102,.)a#O<=#CCHP=#*+,5#:.)5:,.&5)(55#(6(1()2#.4#2+(#6(03)(35#,)#07.<2,)%#

52302(%,(5#:.)2,)&(7#2.#8(#&)7(35:.3(7#8'#I.+()#OFGG]P#,)#+,5#602(3#?.3>=#I.+()#

055(32(7#2+02#0)#0:2,.)#?,2+#0#%.06k,)2()2,.)#0)7#3(602(7#2.#0#6(03),)%#5,2&02,.)#:0)#

.)6'#8(#:.)5:,.&5=##

;032,:&6036'#,)#2+(#03(0#.4#5(:.)7#.3#4.3(,%)#60)%&0%(#2(0:+,)%#0)7#6(03),)%"#@03,.&5#

7(4,),2,.)5#.4#TTR5#:0)#8(#4.&)7=#J#5&1103'#.4#2'<,:06#7(4,),2,.)5#.4#6(03),)%#

52302(%,(5#,)#2+(#4,(67#.4#5(:.)7#.3#4.3(,%)#60)%&0%(#0:Y&,5,2,.)#03(#<3(5()2(7#,)#2+(#

4.66.?,)%#*086(#F=F=##

Table 2.2: Definitions of language learning strategies

M#0),;_$%.;' /%4*&*0*,&6'9.&"#."%'3%.;&*&"'60;.0%"*%6'.;%'777''

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35

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2.2.2 Core features of LLSs

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36

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37

2.2.3 LLS conceptual framework of the study

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Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework of LLSs in the current study

2.2.4 Categorisation of LLSs

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38

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#

#

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39

Table 2.3: Different schemes of classification for language learning strategies

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40

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Figure 2.2: LLS classification scheme of the current study

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48

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50

J).2+(3#52&7'#8'#$0,10)#V3.(+6,:+"#R2(3)"#0)7#*.7(5:.#OCKSDP#065.#:.)23,8&2(7#2.#

2+(#4.3102,.)#.4#0)#0@0)2X%037(#2307,2,.)#.4#3(5(03:+#52&7,(5#08.&2#5&::(554&6#

60)%&0%(#6(03)(35=#R((>,)%#2.#,7()2,4'#2+(#:.11.)#4(02&3(5#055.:,02(7#?,2+#%..7#

60)%&0%(#6(03)(35"#$0,10)#0)7#+,5#:.66(0%&(5#3(:.11()7(7#5.1(#(55()2,06#

52302(%,(5#4.3#5&::(554&6#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%=#!2#,5#?.32+#).2,)%#2+02#$0,10)#(2#06=#

?(3(#2+(#4,352#3(5(03:+(35#2.#(1<,3,:066'#@06,702(#2+(#(44(:2,@()(55#.4#52302(%,(5#

O$018,03"#FGGK"#<=#HP=#*+(,3#3(:.11()7(7#52302(%,(5#,):6&7(7j####

! J:2,@(#,)@.6@(1()2#,)#6(03),)%#8'#,7()2,4',)%#0)7#7(2(31,),)%#2+(#6(03),)%#

()@,3.)1()2Z#

! J?03()(55#.4#60)%&0%(#05#0#5'52(1Z#

! J?03()(55#.4#60)%&0%(#05#0#1(0)5#.4#:.11&),:02,.)#0)7#,)2(30:2,.)Z#

! J::(<20):(#.4#2+(#044(:2,@(#7(10)75#.4#5(:.)7#60)%&0%(#0)7#:.<,)%#?,2+#

2+(1Z#0)7#

! NA2()5,.)#0)7#3(@,5,.)#.4#2+(#5(:.)7#60)%&0%(#5'52(1#8'#,)4(3():,)%#0)7#

1.),2.3,)%=##

M&8,)#602(3#:.6608.302(7#?,2+#*+.1<5.)#,)#CKDF#O*+.105#m#-0,)"#CKDFP#0)7#

7(@(6.<(7#0#1.3(#:.1<3(+()5,@(#6,52#.4#C\#:+030:2(3,52,:5#.4#2+(#%..7#60)%&0%(#

6(03)(35=#J::.37,)%#2.#M&8,)#0)7#*+.1<5.)#OCKDFP"#2+(#%..7#6(03)(35j##

! 4,)7#2+(,3#.?)#?0'"#20>,)%#:+03%(#.4#2+(,3#.?)#6(03),)%Z##

! .3%0),5(#,)4.3102,.)#08.&2#60)%&0%(Z##

! 03(#:3(02,@("#7(@(6.<,)%#0#_4((6a#4.3#60)%&0%(#8'#(A<(3,1()2,)%#?,2+#,25#

%301103#0)7#?.375Z##

! 10>(#2+(,3#.?)#.<<.32&),2,(5#4.3#<30:2,:(#,)#&5,)%#2+(#60)%&0%(#,)5,7(#0)7#

.&25,7(#2+(#:60553..1Z##

! 6(03)#2.#6,@(#?,2+#&):(320,)2'#8'#).2#%(22,)%#46&52(3(7##0)7#8'#:.)2,)&,)%#2.#

206>#.3#6,52()#?,2+.&2#&)7(3520)7,)%#(@(3'#?.37Z##

51

! &5(#1)(1.),:5#0)7#.2+(3#1(1.3'#52302(%,(5#2.#3(:066#?+02#+05#8(()#

6(03)(7Z##

! 10>(#(33.35#?.3>#4.3#2+(1#0)7#).2#0%0,)52#2+(1Z##

! &5(#6,)%&,52,:#>).?6(7%("#,):6&7,)%#>).?6(7%(#.4#2+(,3#4,352#60)%&0%("#,)#

6(03),)%#0#5(:.)7#60)%&0%(Z##

! &5(#:.)2(A2&06#:&(5#2.#+(6<#2+(1#,)#:.1<3(+()5,.)Z##

! 6(03)#2.#10>(#,)2(66,%()2#%&(55(5Z##

! 6(03)#:+&)>5#.4#60)%&0%(#05#?+.6(5#0)7#4.3106,h(7#3.&2,)(5#2.#+(6<#2+(1#

<(34.31#q8('.)7#2+(,3#:.1<(2():([Z##

! 6(03)#:(320,)#23,:>5#2+02#+(6<#2.#>((<#2+(#:.)@(3502,.)#%.,)%Z##

! 6(03)#:(320,)#<3.7&:2,.)#52302(%,(5#2.#4,66#,)#%0<5#,)#2+(,3#.?)#:.1<(2():(Z#

0)7#

! 6(03)#7,44(3()2#52'6(5#.4#5<((:+#0)7#?3,2,)%#0)7#6(03)#2.#@03'#2+(,3#60)%&0%(#

0::.37,)%#2.#2+(#4.3106,2'#.4#2+(#5,2&02,.)=##

*+(#4,)7,)%5#.4#<,.)((3,)%#3(5(03:+#3(%037,)%#2+(#,10%(#.4#5&::(554&6#60)%&0%(#

6(03)(35#?(3(#1&2&066'#,)7(<()7()2#068(,2#:.)@(3%,)%#,)#5.1(#<.,)25"#5&:+#05#2+(#

4.:&5#.)#1(0),)%"#<30:2,:("#0)7#:.11&),:02,.)"#2+(#022()2,.)#2.#044(:2,@(#(6(1()25#

0)7#5(64X1.),2.3,)%=#*+(5(#(036'#3(5(03:+#52&7,(5"#062+.&%+#3&7,1()203'#0)7#

5>(2:+'"#+0@(#5(2#2+(#5:()(#4.3#0)#(1(3%,)%#,)2(3(52#,)#+.?#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35#

2+(15(6@(5#%.#08.&2#6(03),)%#0)7#?+02#2(0:+(35#:0)#7.#2.#055,52#2+(1#7&3,)%#2+02#

<3.:(55=#/.?(@(3"#,)#6,)(#?,2+#M&8,)[5#OCKS]P#3(:.%),2,.)#.4#2+(#,)46&():(#.4#@03,.&5#

@03,086(5#O5&:+#05#203%(2#60)%&0%(#<3.4,:,():'"#0%("#5,2&02,.)"#:&62&306#7,44(3():(5#

0)7#6(03),)%#52'6(5P#.)#2+(#7(<6.'1()2#.4#TTR5"#$0,10)#(2#06=#OCKSDP#523(55(7#2+02#

2+(3(#?(3(#).#_<3(7(2(31,)(7#.@(3066#:+030:2(3,52,:5a#O<=#FF\P#4.3#2+(#%..7#

60)%&0%(#6(03)(3 8(:0&5(#@03,.&5#,)7,@,7&06#<02+?0'5#:.&67#6(07#2.#2+(#&62,102(#

%.06#.4#5&::(554&6#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%=#*+,5#(1<+05,5#.)#,)7,@,7&06#@03,02,.)#,)#TTR#&5(#

+05#8(:.1(#0#<3,):,<6(#4.3#1.52#3(5(03:+#(44.325#,)#2+(#4,(67=#i)#2+(#.)(#+0)7"#,2#

52

+,%+6,%+25#2+(#,55&(#.4#,)7,@,7&06#7,44(3():(5#0)7#<30,5(5#46(A,8,6,2'#,)#60)%&0%(#

6(03),)%#52302(%'#7(<6.'1()2=#i)#2+(#.2+(3#+0)7"#,2#<&25#0#3(523,:2,.)#.)#2+(#

%()(306,h02,.)5#2.#0)'#203%(2#<.<&602,.)#8('.)7#2+(#501<6(#.4#0)'#3(5(03:+#4,)7,)%5#

08.&2#2+(#%..7#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35=#

2.4 Learner variables and LLSs

2.4.1 An overview

J#:3,2,:06#3(@,(?#.4#:&33()2#?.3>#,)#2+,5#4,(67#,)7,:02(5#2+02#:.)2(1<.303'#

<30:2,2,.)(35#0)7#3(5(03:+(35#+0@(#5+.?)#6(55#,)2(3(52#,)#5((>,)%#0)#(A0:2#7(4,),2,.)#

.4#TTR5"#0#<(34(:2#:6055,4,:02,.)#5'52(1"#.3#0#6,52#.4#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#.4#5&::(554&6#

60)%&0%(#6(03)(35=#*+('#+0@(#4.:&5(7#2+(,3#022()2,.)#,)52(07#.)#2+(#1.3(#<30:2,:06#

,55&(5#.4#?+02#0:2&066'#044(:25#6(03)(35[#52302(%'#&5(#0)7#?+02#2(0:+(35#:0)#7.#2.#

+(6<#6(03)(35#.3:+(52302(#0@0,6086(#52302(%,(5#2+02#8(52#1((25#8.2+#205>#7(10)75#

0)7#2+(,3#.?)#6(03),)%#523()%2+5=#J::.37,)%#2.#M0+,1,"#M,0h,"#0)7#R0,4#OFGGDP"#.)(#.4#

2+(#1.52#43&,24&6#6,)(5#.4#,)Y&,3'#3(%037,)%#3(5(03:+#,)2.#TTR5#,5#3(<3(5()2(7#8'#

(1<,3,:06#,)@(52,%02,.)5#?+,:+#+0@(#5.&%+2#2.#,7()2,4'#2+(#@03,086(5#2+02#,1<0:2#2+(#

:+.,:(#0)7#&5(#.4#52302(%,:#7(@,:(5#(1<6.'(7#8'#6(03)(35=###

R,):(#2+(#,)2(3(52#,)#,)7,@,7&06#6(03)(3#7,44(3():(5#?05#>,)76(7#,)#2+(#03(0#.4#

5(:.)7k4.3(,%)#60)%&0%(#2(0:+,)%k6(03),)%"#3(5(03:+#,)#TTR5#+05#8(()#<3,103,6'#

7,3(:2(7#2.#2+(#3(602,.)5+,<#8(2?(()#6(03)(3#@03,086(5#0)7#TTR#&5(=#!2#,5#8(6,(@(7#

2+02#2+(#6(03)(3#83,)%5#2.#2+(#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#5,2&02,.)#0#?,7(#5<(:23&1#.4#

,)7,@,7&06#7,44(3():(5#Of&"#FGG]P#?+,:+#10'#,)46&():(#2+(#6(03),)%#<3.:(55"#

,):6&7,)%#2+(#07.<2,.)#0)7#10),<&602,.)#.4#TTR5=#*+,5#,5#(@,7():(7#8'#2+(#3(5(03:+#

(44.325#.@(3#2+(#'(035#.4#3(5(03:+(35#2.#(52086,5+#2+(#6,)>5#8(2?(()#2+(#0<<6,:02,.)#

.4#TTR5#0)7#0#?,7(#0330'#.4#,)7,@,7&06#6(03)(3#@03,086(5=#*+(#1.52#43(Y&()26'#

7.:&1()2(7#6(03)(3#40:2.35#,):6&7(#0%("#%()7(3"#:&62&3("#60)%&0%(#0<2,2&7("#

,)2(66,%():("#<3,.3#>).?6(7%("#1.2,@02,.)"#5(64X:.):(<2k,10%("#022,2&7("#6(03),)%#

8(6,(45"#<(35.)06,2'"#0)7#6(03),)%#52'6(=#*+(5(#6(03)(3X7(<()7()2#@03,086(5#+0@(#

8(()#3(<.32(7#2.#<60'#0#7(:,5,@(#3.6(#,)#2+(#?0'#0#6(03)(3#0<<3.0:+(5#0#6(03),)%#205>#

.3#<3.86(1=#!)#.2+(3#?.375"#52302(%,(5#03(#:.)5,7(3(7#6(03)(3X,),2,02(7#8(+0@,.&35#

2+02#03(#8&,62#.)#0)7#5+0<(7#8'#2+(5(#,)7,@,7&06#7,44(3():(5=#J62+.&%+#1,A(7#3(5&625#

53

43.1#3(5(03:+#+0@(#<3.7&:(7#0#5.1(?+02#,)+031.),.&5#<,:2&3(#.4#2+(#3(602,.)5+,<#

8(2?(()#@03,.&5#6(03)(3#@03,086(5#0)7#TTR#&5("#2+('#+0@(#:.)23,8&2(7#,)2(3(52,)%#

0)7#2+.&%+2X<3.@.>,)%#,)5,%+25#,)2.#2+(#4,(67"#+,%+6,%+2,)%#2+(#1.50,:#)02&3(#.4#

3(5(03:+#,)#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%"#?+,:+#,5#:+030:2(3,5(7#8'#7,@(35(#6(03),)%#:.)2(A25"#

@03,.&5#3(5(03:+#0<<3.0:+(5#0)7#6(03)(3#@03,02,.)=#V.3#0#5&1103'#.)#2+(#3(@,(?(7#

3(5(03:+#52&7,(5#2+02#+0@(#5.&%+2#2.#,)@(52,%02(#2+(#,)46&():(#.4#7,44(3()2#6(03)(3#

@03,086(5#.)#TTR#&5("#5((#J<<()7,A#D=##

J#:6.5(#(A01,)02,.)#.4#2+(#3(@,(?(7#3(5(03:+#52&7,(5#+05#3(@(06(7#5.1(#%()(306#

:+030:2(3,52,:5#.4#3(5(03:+#7.)(#03.&)7#TTR5#5.#403=#*+(#<032,:,<0)25#.4#2+(#3(@,(?(7#

3(5(03:+#+07#7,@(35(#80:>%3.&)75"#?+.#:0)#8(#%()(3066'#:6055,4,(7#,)2.#OCP#6(03)(35#

.4#0#4.3(,%)#60)%&0%(#.2+(3#2+0)#N)%6,5+"#OFP!N)%6,5+#05#0#5(:.)7#60)%&0%(#ONRTP#6(03)(35"#0)7#OHP!N)%6,5+#05#0#4.3(,%)#60)%&0%(#ONVTP#6(03)(35=#M(%037,)%#2+(#3(5(03:+#5(22,)%5"#10)'#.4#2+(5(#3(5(03:+#52&7,(5#.)#TTR5#+05#8(()#:.)7&:2(7#,)#N)%6,5+#

5<(0>,)%#:.&)23,(5#5&:+#05#2+(#B),2(7#R202(5#?,2+#6(03)(35#.4#4.3(,%)#60)%&0%(5#5&:+#

05#V3():+"#R<0),5+"#f(310)"#!206,0)"#M&55,0)"#;.6,5+"#E0<0)(5("#.3#R?(7,5+#O(=%=#

-,06'52.>"#CKDCZ#$0,10)"#(2#06="#CKSDZ#;.6,2h(3"#CKDHP#.3#?,2+#NRT#%3.&<5#.4#1,A(7#

)02,.)06,2,(5#O(=%=#N+310)#m#iA4.37"#CKKGZ#f3,44,2+5"#FGGH8Z#i[b066('"#(2#06="#CKD]Z#

iA4.37#m#N+310)"#CKK]Z#;.6,2h(3#m#b:f3.032'"#CKD]P=#i2+(3#52&7,(5#+0@(#8(()#

:033,(7#.&2#,)#).)XN)%6,5+#5<(0>,)%#:.&)23,(5#?,2+#NVT#6(03)(35"#,):6&7,)%j#

! b060'5,0#O(=%=#b0+"#CKKKZ#;()%#m#c()"#FGCF#PZ#

! I+,)0#OI+()"#FGCGZ#f0)"#/&1<+3('5"#m#/01<XT'.)5"#FGG\Z#M0."#FGGLZ#c()"#

CKK]Z#z0)%"#FGGDZ#z,)"#FGGDZ#z&#m#c0)%"#FGGKPZ#

! /.)%#d.)%#O(=%=#-3(1)(3"#CKKKZ#V0)"#CKKKZ#;(0:.:>#m#/."#FGGHPZ#

! d.3(0#O(=%=#T((#m#iA4.37"#FGGDZ#b0%)."#FGCGZ#i>"#FGGHZ#;03>"#CKKS"#FGCGZ#

z0)%"#FGCGPZ#

! R<0,)#O(=%=#-60):."#;,)."#m#M.73,%&(h"#FGCGZ#I035.)#m#T.)%+,1,"#FGGFPZ#

! *0,?0)#O(=%=#I+0)%"#T,&"#m#T(("#FGGSZ#T0,"#FGGKZ#R&#m#9&."#FGCFZ#R&"#FGG]Z#

*50)"#FGGDZ#z0)%"#CKKKPZ#

54

! R,)%0<.3(#O(=%=#c+032.)"#FGGGPZ#

! *+0,60)7#O(=%=#!)2030<305(32"#FGGGZ#;30>.)%:+02,"#FGGSPZ#

! !30)#O(=%=#f+080):+,#m#b(,70),"#FGCFZ#{03("#FGCGPZ#

! ;06(52,)(#O(=%=#d+06,6"#FGG]Z#R+10,5"#FGGHPZ##

! *&3>('#O(=%=#{,610h"#FGCGPZ#

! E0<0)#O(=%=#b.:+,h&>,"#CKKKZ#B5&>,"#FGGGPZ#0)7#

! W,(2)01#O(=%=#-&,#m#!)2030<305(32"#FGCFZ#I0."#FGGK8Z#9&.)%#m#$%&'()"#

FGGL0Z#*30)"#CKDDP=##

!)#077,2,.)#2.#2+(#10,)#4.:&5#.)#2+(#.@(3066#52302(%'#&5(#.4#2+(#<032,:,<0)25"#2+(#

3(@,(?(7#3(5(03:+#52&7,(5#065.#(A01,)(7#2.#?+02#(A2()2#@03,.&5#6(03)(3#@03,086(5#

,)46&():(7#2+(#3(<.32(7#TTR#&5(=#*+(#1.52#43(Y&()26'#3(5(03:+(7#6(03)(3#@03,086(5#

5.#403#03(j#

! %()7(3#O(=%=#-&,#m#!)2030<305(32"#FGCFZ#I0."#FGGK0Z#N+310)#m#iA4.37"#CKDDZ#

f3(()#m#iA4.37"#CKK]Z#*0%&:+,"#FGGFZ#*(3:0)6,.%6&"#FGG\8Z#c+032.)"#FGGGPZ##

! 0%(#O(=%=#;(0:.:>#m#/."#FGGHZ#;5062.&XE.':('"#FGGDPZ###

! <3.4,:,():'#O(=%=#f3,44,2+5"#FGGH0Z#T0)#m#iA4.37"#FGGHZ#ilb066('#m#I+01.2"#

CKKGZ#;03>"#CKKSZ#R.)%"#FGG]PZ#

! 5(64X302(7#<3.4,:,():'#O(=%=#f+080):+,#m#b(,70),"#FGCFZ#R&"#FGG]Z#c+032.)"#

FGGGPZ#

! 7,5:,<6,)("#4,(67#.4#52&7'"#.3#10U.3#O(=%=#93('(3#m#iA4.37"#CKKLZ#b.:+,h&>,"#

CKKKZ#i[b066('"#CKDSZ#iA4.37#m#$',>.5"#CKDKZ#;.6,2h(3#m#b:f3.032'"#CKD]Z#

;30>.)%:+02,"#FGGSZ#*50)"#FGGDPZ#

! 5:+..6#'(03#O(=%=#i>"#FGGHPZ##

55

! (2+),:,2'#.3#:&62&306#80:>%3.&)7#O(=%=#J8.&#-0>(3#N6X9,8"#FGG\Z#J)&%>0>&6"#

FGCCZ#-(7(66#m#iA4.37"#CKKLZ#/(55#m#Jh&10"#CKKCZ#T&"#FGGSZ#b0:03."#FGGGZ#

$()),%(3#CKKCZ#iA4.37"#CKKLPZ##

! 1.2,@02,.)#O(=%=#-,%%5"#CKD\Z#d0'60),"#CKKLZ#iA4.37#m#N+310)"#CKK]Z#iA4.37#

m#$',>.5"#CKDKZ#c+032.)"#FGGGZ#|&"#FGCCPZ#

! 8(6,(45#0)7#022,2&7(5#O(=%=#V0)"#CKKKZ#d,1"#FGGCZ#T,"#FGGFZ#b.>+203,"#FGGSZ#

iA4.37#m#N+310)"#CKK]Z#c()#m#E.+)5.)"#CKKSZ#z0)%"#CKKKPZ#

! 6(03),)%#52'6(5#O(=%=#iA4.37"#CKDKZ#iA4.37"#CKKG8Z#iA4.37"#FGGHZ#iA4.37#m#

N+310)"#CKK]PZ##

! <(35.)06,2'#2'<(#O(=%=#iA4.37#m#N+310)"#CKK]PZ#0)7#

! 0)A,(2'#O(=%=#b0:,)2'3(#m#$.(65"#CKKLZ#;0?60>"#FGCFP###

M(%037,)%#7020#:.66(:2,.)#1(2+.75"#0#@03,(2'#.4#1(2+.75#+0@(#8(()#(1<6.'(7#2.#

,)@(52,%02(#TTR#&5(#,)#3(602,.)#2.#6(03)(3#@03,086(5=#*+(5(#1(2+.75#,):6&7(#5(64X

3(<.32#Y&(52,.))0,3("#,)2(3@,(?"#.85(3@02,.)"#7,03,(5"#0)7#2+,)>X06.&7#<3.2.:.65=#!2#,5#

,1<.320)2#2.#).2(#2+02#5(64X3(<.32(7#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#03(#2+(#1.52#43(Y&()26'#&5(7#

2..6#2.#:.66(:2#7020=##

! 5(64X3(<.32#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#O(=%=#-,06'52.>"#CKDCZ#-3(1)(3"#CKKKZ#N+310)#m#

iA4.37"#CKDDZ#f3,44,2+5"#FGGH8Z#iA4.37"#CKKG0Z#iA4.37#m#$',>.5"#CKDKZ#

;(0:.:>#m#/."#FGGHZ#;.6,2h(3"#CKDHPZ#

! ,)2(3@,(?5#O(=%=#f0)"#(2#06="#FGG\Z#$0,10)"#(2#06="#CKSDZ#i[b066('"#(2#06="#CKD]Z#

;.6,2h(3#m#b:f3.032'"#CKD]PZ##

! .85(3@02,.)5##O(=%=#T()%>0)0?02,"#FGG\Z#$0,10)"#(2#06="#CKSDPZ#0)7##

! 7,03,(5#O(=%=#I035.)#m#T.)%+,1,"#FGGFZ#/0680:+"#FGGGP=##

J5#0#?+.6("#2+(#@052#6,2(302&3(#.)#TTR5#,7()2,4,(5#0#@03,(2'#.4#,)7,@,7&06#6(03)(3#

40:2.35#8(6,(@(7#2.#:.33(602(#?,2+#6(03)(35[#&5(#.4#TTR5#(,2+(3#,)#7,44(3()2#6(03),)%#

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56

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2.4.2 Gender

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57

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58

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59

2.4.3 Proficiency/ Achievement

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60

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61

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*0,?0)#0)7#4.&)7#2+02#<3.4,:,():'#6(@(6#+05#0#5,%),4,:0)2#(44(:2#.)#52302(%'#:+.,:(#

0)7#&5(=#*+(#1.3(#<3.4,:,()2#6(03)(35#&5(7#1.3(#52302(%,(5#(5<(:,066'#1(20X

:.%),2,@(#0)7#:.%),2,@(#52302(%,(5=#

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2.4.4 Academic majors/ Fields of study

c+,6(#0#%3(02#)&18(3#.4#3(5(03:+#52&7,(5#:0)#8(#4.&)7#.)#%()7(3#0)7#<3.4,:,():'#,)#

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6(03)(3#@03,086(=##

62

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63

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2.4.5 Nationality/ Ethnicity/ Culture

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64

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65

52&7'#(52086,5+(7#0#4,31#4.&)702,.)#4.3#1(1.3'#52302(%'#&5(#01.)%#6(03)(35#,)#W,(2#

$01#8(:0&5(#2+(#4,)7,)%5#3(@(06(7#2+02#1(1.3,502,.)#?05#:.)5,7(3(7#_<032#0)7#

<03:(6#.4#52&7()25l#6(03),)%#+08,25a=#9&.)%#0)7#$%&'()#4&32+(3#5&%%(52(7#2+02#

2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25#5+.&67#6..>#4.3#2+(#8(52#?0'5#2.#&5(#1(1.3,502,.)#05#0#

52302(%'#2.#+(6<#,1<3.@(#2+(#(44(:2,@()(55#.4#52&7()25#6(03),)%#N)%6,5+#05#0#5(:.)7#

60)%&0%(=#*+(,3#3(5&625#:.)5.6,702(7#2+(#4.31(3#4,)7,)%5#.4#;.6,2h(3#(2#06#0)7#

i[b066('#.)#J5,0)#6(03)(35=#-'#:.)23052"#2+(#,)2(3@,(?#4,)7,)%5#.4#2+(#3(5(03:+#8'#

-.(3510##OFGGGP#01.)%#2+(#!)7.)(5,0)#6(03)(35#3(@(06(7#2+02#2+(5(#52&7()25#7,7)[2#

&5(#3.2(X6(03),)%"#:60,1,)%#2+02#1(1.3,502,.)#?05#).2#&5(4&6#2.#2+(1#0)7#2+('#

<60:(7#0#+,%+(3#@06&(#.)#&)7(3520)7,)%#)(?#?.375#2+0)#1(1.3,h,)%#?.375=#

;(3+0<5"#2+(#2,1(#+05#:.1(#4.3#&5#066#2.#3(0773(55#2+(#:.11.)#).2,.)#.4#_J5,0)#

6(03)(35=a#

!)5,%+25#43.1#2+(#6,2(302&3(#3(%037,)%#2+(#3(602,.)5+,<#8(2?(()#(2+),:,2'k:&62&3(#

0)7#52302(%'#&5(#5&%%(52#2+02#(2+),:,2'#10'#+0@(#0)#,1<0:2#.)#5+0<,)%#2+(#:+.,:(#.4#

52302(%,(5#01.)%#6(03)(35"#(5<(:,066'#2+3.&%+#2+(#:&62&306#52(3(.2'<(5#2+02#03(#

<3(5&<<.5(7#2.#:+030:2(3,5(#(0:+#:&62&3(=#*+(#:&33()2#52&7'#5.&%+2#2.#077#4&32+(3#

&)7(3520)7,)%#2.#2+(#6,2(302&3(#,)#3(602,.)#2.#2+(#,)46&():(#.4#2+,5#@03,086(#8'#<60:,)%#

2+(#7,5:&55,.)#.)#2+(#<3(4(33(7#52302(%'#<022(3)5#.4#W,(2)01(5(#2(32,03'#NVT#

6(03)(35#,)#3(602,.)#2.#2+(,3#6.)%X6052,)%#:&62&306#@06&(5#0)7#8(6,(45=#*+(#3(5(03:+(3#

?05#,)2(3(52(7#,)#(A01,),)%#?+(2+(3#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#,)#2+(#:&33()2#

:.)2(A2#?(3(#(2+),:k:&62&3(X805(7#.3#).2=##

2.4.6 Beliefs/attitudes

J::.37,)%#2.#M,:+0375.)#OCKKLP"#8(6,(45#03(#_<5':+.6.%,:066'#+(67#&)7(3520)7,)%5"#

<3(1,5(5"#.3#<3.<.5,2,.)5#08.&2#2+(#?.367#2+02#03(#4(62#2.#8(#23&(a#O<=#CGHP"#0)7#

6(03)(35#03(#(A<(:2(7#2.#0:2#1.526'#&<.)#2+(,3#8(6,(45=#J5#_<3(7,5<.5,2,.)5#2.#

0:2,.)5a#OM.>(0:+"#CKLD"#<=#CCHP"#8(6,(45#,)#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#03(#?,7(6'#8(6,(@(7#2.#

+0@(#0#7(2(31,),)%#,1<0:2#.)#+.?#6(03)(35#0<<3.0:+#6(03),)%#0)7#?+02#52302(%,(5#

2+('#10'#(1<6.'#2.#0:+,(@(#2+(,3#7(5,3(7#6(03),)%#%.065=#M,6('#OCKKLP#5202(7#2+02#

8(6,(45#08.&2#0#60)%&0%(#0)7#+.?#,2#,5#6(03)(7#1,%+2#5+0<(#.3#044(:2#6(03)(35[#

022,2&7(5"#1.2,@02,.)#.3#8(+0@,.&3#,)#2+(#<3.:(55#.4#6(03),)%#2+02#60)%&0%(=#c()#

66

0)7#E.+)5.)#OCKKSP#4.&)7#2+02#8(6,(4#@03,086(5#?(3(#@(3'#,)46&()2,06#0)7#:.)5,52()2#

.)#52302(%,(5#@03,086(5"#0)7#5&%%(52(7#6(03)(35[#<3(:.):(,@(7#>).?6(7%(#08.&2#

6(03),)%#0#60)%&0%(#8(#20>()#,)2.#:.)5,7(302,.)#8'#<30:2,2,.)(35#0)7#3(5(03:+(35#

06,>(=##

-05(7#.)#+(3#3(5(03:+#52&7'#01.)%#52&7()25#0)7#,)523&:2.35#02#2+(#B),@(35,2'#.4#

*(A05#02#J&52,)"#/.3?,2h#OCKDDP#7(@(6.<(7#0)7#<3.1.2(7#0#H\X5202(1()2#

Y&(52,.))0,3(#2.#055(55#6(03)(35[#8(6,(45#08.&2#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#>).?)#05#-(6,(45#

J8.&2#T0)%&0%(#T(03),)%#!)@()2.3'#O-JTT!P=#/(3#,)523&1()2#+05#8(()#(1<6.'(7#8'#

10)'#5&85(Y&()2#3(5(03:+(35#?.367?,7("#?+.#5+03(#2+(#501(#,)2(3(52#,)#

,)@(52,%02,)%#2+(#,1<.320):(#.4#8(6,(45#,)#5+0<,)%#6(03)(35[#8(+0@,.&35=#V.3#(A01<6("#

,)Y&,3,(5#,)2.#6(03),)%#8(6,(45#+0@(#8(()#:.)7&:2(7#01.)%#d.3(0)#NVT#6(03)(35#

O;03>"#CKK]P"#!30),0)#NVT#6(03)(35#OJ8(7,),0"#M0+,1,8"#m#{03(X((:"#FGCCP"#6(03)(35#.4#

J308,:#0)7#R?0+,6,#Od&)2h"#CKKLP"#6(03)(35#.4#M&55,0)#O$,>,2,)0#m#V&3&.>0"#FGGLZ#

*&1<.5>'"#CKKCP"#6(03)(35#.4#V3():+#Od(3)"#CKK]P"#6(03)(35#.4#R<0),5+#O-0:.)#m#

V,))(10))"#CKKGP"#.3#6(03)(35#.4#E0<0)(5(#OV&U,?030"#FGCFZ#b.3,"#CKKKP=#!)5,%+25#

43.1#2+(5(#52&7,(5#.)#6(03)(35[#8(6,(45#+0@(#3(@(06(7#2+(#,1<.320)2#4(02&3(5#.4#

8(6,(45#08.&2#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%"#)01(6'#:.)2(A2&06#0)7#:&62&306#5<(:,4,:,2'=##

J::.37,)%6'"#6(03)(35#43.1#7,44(3()2#:&62&3(5#0)7#7,44(3()2#6(03),)%#:.)2(A25#10'#

+0@(#7,44(3()2#2+.&%+25#0)7#.<,),.)5#08.&2#?+02#:.)52,2&2(5#2+(#8(52#0<<3.0:+(5#

2.#6(03),)%#0#)(?#60)%&0%(=#*+(5(#6(03)(35[#8(6,(45#08.&2#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#2+()#

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c,2+#0)#,)2(3(52#,)#(A<6.3,)%#2+(#,)46&():(#.4#2+,5#044(:2,@(#@03,086(#.)#2+(#60)%&0%(#

6(03),)%#<3.:(55"#0#)&18(3#.4#52&7,(5#+0@(#4.&)7#0#5,%),4,:0)2#:.33(602,.)#8(2?(()#

8(6,(45#08.&2#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#0)7#2+(#&5(#.4#TTR5=#J::.37,)%#2.#iA4.37#OCKKG0P"#

60)%&0%(#6(03)(35#?+.#8(6,(@(7#2(0:+(35#2.#8(#2+(#0&2+.3,202,@(#5.&3:(#.4#

>).?6(7%(#?(3(#1.3(#<3.)(#2.#0@.,7#5(64X7,3(:2(7#52302(%,(5#)(:(5503'#2.#0:+,(@(#

60)%&0%(#<3.4,:,():'=#!)#0)#(1<,3,:06#52&7'#.4#F\F#5(:.)7X'(03#N)%6,5+#10U.35#43.1#

4,@(#2(32,03'#,)52,2&2,.)5#,)#I+,)0"#c()#0)7#E.+)5.)#OCKKSP#(52086,5+(7#2+02#8(6,(45#

60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#?(3(#6,>(6'#2.#8(#3(602(7#2.#8(6,(45=#V.3#(A01<6("#2+('#

4.&)7#2+02#52&7()25[#8(6,(45#3(%037,)%#2+(#&5(#.4#2+(,3#1.2+(3#2.)%&(#:.33(602(7#

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67

5&%%(52(7#2+02#523.)%#8(6,(45#,)#2+(#(44(:2,@()(55#.4#TTR5#03(#6,>(6'#2.#8(#0)#

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2+02#6(03)(35[#5(64X(44,:0:'#8(6,(45#08.&2#6(03),)%#N)%6,5+#7,7#,)46&():(#2+(,3#&5(#.4#

4&):2,.)06#<30:2,:(#52302(%,(5=#;032,:&6036'"#6(03)(35[#8(6,(45#08.&2#2+(#@06&(#0)7#

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-05(7#.)#2+(5(#4,)7,)%5"#z0)%#<3.<.5(7#0#:':6,:06#3(602,.)5+,<#8(2?(()#8(6,(45#,)#

60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#0)7#52302(%'#&5(#,)#+(3#52&7'=#!)#2+(#501(#'(03"#V0)#OCKKKP#

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4,352#'(03#52&7()25#,)#/.)%#d.)%#0)7#+(3#4,)7,)%5#3(@(06(7#0#:.)5,52()2#3(602,.)5+,<#

8(2?(()#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#8(6,(45#0)7#52302(%,(5=##

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:.)2,)&(7#2.#02230:2#2+(#022()2,.)#43.1#3(5(03:+(35#7&(#2.#2+(,3#<.2()2,06#,1<0:2#.)#

2+(#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#<3.:(55=#f0)#OFGG\P#7,5:.@(3(7#2+02#52&7()25#?+.#(A+,8,2(7#

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60)%&0%(#6(03),)%"#.3#?+.#7,5<60'(7#523.)%#,),2,02,@(#,)#6(03),)%"#?(3(#1.3(#6,>(6'#2.#

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,),2,02,@(#0)7#5(64X7,3(:2(7)(55#?(3(#:.)5,52()2#?,2+#2+.5(#8'#iA4.37#0)7#$',>.5#

OCKDKP#?+.#3(<.32(7#2+02#1.2,@02,.)#?05#055.:,02(#?,2+#(44(:2,@(#52302(%'#&5("#8'#

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OFGGGP#?+.#4.&)7#2+02#1.2,@02,.)#+07#0#5,%),4,:0)2#(44(:2#.)#2+(#&5(#.4#60)%&0%(#

6(03),)%#52302(%,(5=#

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01.)%#1.).6,)%&06#d.3(0)#0)7#8,6,)%&06#d.3(0)XI+,)(5(#&),@(35,2'#52&7()25#&5,)%#

2+(#R!TT#O7(@(6.<(7#8'#iA4.37"#CKKGP#0)7#-JTT!#-,6,)%&065#O7(@(6.<(7#8'#/.3?,2h"#

CKDS"#CKDDP=#*+('#<.,)2(7#.&2#2+02#6(03)(35#?+.#+07#523.)%(3#8(6,(45#08.&2#6(03),)%#

68

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52&7()25#6(03),)%#;(35,0)#O0#6(55#:.11.)6'#20&%+2#60)%&0%(P#,)#2+3((#5(22,)%5#,)#2+(#

B),2(7#R202(5=#J%0,)"#+,5#4,)7,)%5#5+.?(7#2+02#2+(#523.)%(3#2+(#8(6,(45#08.&2#

6(03),)%#?(3("#2+(#+,%+(3#2+(#&5(#.4#52302(%,(5#?05=#T,>(?,5("#z&#OFGGSP#5&3@('(7#

6(03),)%#8(6,(45#0)7#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#&5(7#8'#2+,37X'(03#:.66(%(#52&7()25#,)#I+,)0#

0)7#4.&)7#5,%),4,:0)2#:.33(602,.)5#8(2?(()#8(6,(45#0)7#52302(%'#&5(#01.)%#2+(5(#

52&7()25=##

V,)7,)%5#43.1#2+(#3(@,(?(7#52&7,(5#+0@(#5&%%(52(7#2+02#6(03)(3#8(6,(45#08.&2#

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01.)%#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#2(32,03'#6(03)(35=#

2.5 Learning environment and LLSs

J::.37,)%#2.#5.:,.X:&62&306#2+(.3'"#5.:,06#,)2(30:2,.)#0)7#:&62&306#,)52,2&2,.)5"#5&:+#

05#5:+..65#0)7#:60553..15"#<60'#0)#,1<.320)2#3.6(#,)#0)#,)7,@,7&06l5#:.%),2,@(#%3.?2+#

0)7#7(@(6.<1()2#O9.)02.#m#b0:I.31,:>"#CKK\P=#V3.1#2+,5#5.:,.X:&62&306#

<(35<(:2,@("#2+(#6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2#0)7#:.)2(A25#03(#,)46&()2,06#&<.)#,)7,@,7&065l#

52302(%,:#.3,()202,.)5#2.#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%=#!)#.2+(3#?.375"#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#

52302(%,(5#03(#%()(302(7#43.1#2+(#<3,103'#5.:,06#<30:2,:(#.4#2+(#:60553..1#0)7#

5:+..6#:&62&3(#O9.)02.#m#b0:I.31,:>"#CKK\P=##

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2.#<60'#,)#TTR#&5(=#*+(,3#4,)7,)%5#03(#,)#6,)(#?,2+#2+.5(#8'#T0)2.44#0)7#J<<(6#OCKK\P=#

9.)02.#0)7#b:I.31,:>#OCKK\P#065.#+,%+6,%+2(7#2+(#,1<.320):(#.4#5.:,06#,)2(30:2,.)"#

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5:+..6"#2+('#?(3(#10,)6'#,)2(3(52(7#,)#<055,)%#2+(#(A01,)02,.)#0)7#(1<6.'(7#

69

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6(03),)%#52302(%'#,)@.6@(5#OCP#+N+,*"*&&(,+%&%"##.4#2+(#52302(%,(5#&5(7#8'#52&7()25"#

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:+0):(5#4.3#A,+@.%@*#?,2+#)(?#52302(%,(5"#O\P#*M+$5+.%/"#.4#2+(#52302(%,(5#&5(7"#0)7#

O]P(.,+"&0*,#.4##52302(%,(5#2.#)(?#205>5=#*+(5(#230,),)%#52(<5#03(#,)#06,%)1()2#?,2+#

2+(#:&33()2#60)%&0%(#2(0:+,)%#1.7(65#,)#2+(#?0'#2+02#2+('#23(02#52302(%,(5#05#

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52302(%'#,)523&:2,.)#01.)%#3(5(03:+(35#,)#2+(#4,(67#+0@(#4.31(7#0#@(3'#&5(4&6#

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08.&2#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#()+0):(1()2#2+3.&%+#52302(%'#,)523&:2,.)=##

J77,)%#2.#2+(#2307,2,.)#.4#+(6<,)%#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35#,1<3.@(#2+(,3#6(03),)%#2+3.&%+#

52302(%'#:.0:+,)%"#90>&)#OFGGLP#,7()2,4,(7#4.&3#4&)701()206#:+030:2(3,52,:5#.4#

,)523&:2,.)#.)#TTR5=#*+(5(#<3.<.5(7#:+030:2(3,52,:5#?(3(#(A<60,)(7#2.%(2+(3#?,2+#

2+(,3#302,.)06(5"#)01(6'j#OCP#T(03),)%#52302(%'#,)523&:2,.)#5+.&67#8(#,)7,@,7&06,h(7Z#

OFP#T(03),)%#52302(%'#,)523&:2,.)#5+.&67#8(#205>X5<(:,4,:Z#OHP#T(03),)%#52302(%'#

,)523&:2,.)#5+.&67#8(#:.)2(A2X5<(:,4,:Z#0)7#O\P#T(03),)%#52302(%'#,)523&:2,.)#5+.&67#

8(#5&520,)(7=#-05,:066'"#2+(#4(02&3(5#.4#52302(%'#,)523&:2,.)#05#5&%%(52(7#8'#90>&)#

0%3((#@(3'#?(66#?,2+#<3(@,.&5#3(5(03:+(35=#/.?(@(3"#90>&)#+07#0#307,:06#,):6&5,.)#

.4#,)7,@,7&06,h02,.)#,)#2+(#230,),)%#<3.:(55"#+,%+6,%+2,)%#2+(#)((7#4.3#022()2,.)#2.#

,)7,@,7&06#6(03)(35[#%.065"#6(03),)%#52'6(5"#<(35.)06#<3(4(3():(5#0)7#,)7,@,7&06#

044(:2,@(#,55&(5=##

M(%037,)%#2+(#60)%&0%(#:+.,:(#,)#52302(%'#230,),)%"#2+(3(#03(#.<2,.)5#.4#TC"#TF#.3#

8.2+#7(<()7,)%#.)#2+(#230,),)%#7(5,%)"#0)7#1.52#,1<.320)26'#2+(#6(03)(35[#

<3.4,:,():'#.4#2+(#203%(2#60)%&0%(=#J#:.18,)02,.)#.4#2+(#)02,@(#0)7#203%(2#60)%&0%(5#

+05#8(()#(1<6.'(7#,)#5.1(#52&7,(5=#V.3#(A01<6("#,)#0#52&7'#.4#52302(%'#,)523&:2,.)#

8'#5(:.)703'#V3():+#0)7#f(310)#2(0:+(35#,)#T.)7.)"#5.1(#.4#2+(#102(3,065#,)#

<60)),)%#0)7#5(64X(@06&02,.)#?(3(#,)#N)%6,5+"#?+,6(#:+(:>6,525"#7(5:3,<2,.)5#.4#

75

52302(%,(5"#0)7#52302(%'#0:2,@,2,(5#?(3(#?3,22()#,)#2+(#5,1<6,4,(7#@(35,.)#.4#V3():+#.3#

f(310)#Of3()4(66#0)7#/033,5"#CKKKP=#!)#0#52&7'#.4#E0<0)(5(#NVT#:.66(%(#52&7()25"#

Y&(52,.))0,3(5"#U.&3)06#<3.1<25"#0)7#5(64X(@06&02,.)#:+(:>#6,525#?(3(#?3,22()#,)#

5,1<6,4,(7#N)%6,5+"#0)7#0:2&06#52302(%'#,)523&:2,.)#0)7#3(@,(?#?05#:.)7&:2(7#,)#

N)%6,5+Z#+.?(@(3"#52&7()25#:.&67#:+..5(#2.#3(5<.)7#,)#E0<0)(5(#?+(3(#)(:(5503'#

Oih(>,"#FGGGP=#-.2+#TC#0)7#TF#?05#065.#&5(7#,)#0).2+(3#52&7'#,)#2+(#B),2(7#R202(5#.4#

6,2(30:'#7(@(6.<1()2#,)#5(:.)703'#/,5<0),:#N)%6,5+#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35#?,2+#6,1,2(7#

(7&:02,.)06#80:>%3.&)7#0)7#)02,@(#60)%&0%(#6,2(30:'#OI+01.2#m#d(026('"#FGGHP=##

/.?(@(3"#?+02#3(10,)5#7(802086(#,5#?+(2+(3#52302(%,(5#230,),)%#5+.&67#8(#

,)2(%302(7#,)2.#2+(#60)%&0%(#:&33,:&6&1#.3#20&%+2#5(<0302(6'=#J7@.:02(5#.4#(,2+(3#

5,7(#+0@(#2+(,3#.?)#U&52,4,:02,.)5#4.3#2+(#<3.1.2,.)#.4#(0:+#0<<3.0:+=#i)#2+(#.)(#

+0)7"#2+.5(#?+.#5&<<.32#,)2(%302(7#,)523&:2,.)#+.67#2+02#,2#:3(02(5#.<<.32&),2,(5#

4.3#6(03)(35#2.#<30:2,:(#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#?,2+#0&2+()2,:#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#205>5#

OI+01.2#m#il#b066('"#CKK\Z#I.+()"#CKKDZ#f3()4(66#m#/033,5"#CKKKZ#$&)0)"#CKKSZ#

iA4.37#m#T(0@(3"#CKKLP=#i)#2+(#.2+(3#+0)7"#.2+(35#03%&(#2+02#5(<0302(#230,),)%#.)#

52302(%,(5#?.&67#066.?#6(03)(35#1.3(#:+0):(5#2.#230)54(3#2.#.2+(3#205>5#Of&"#CKKLP#

0)7#,2#10'#20>(#1&:+#1.3(#2,1(#0)7#:.52#2.#<3(<03(#066#2(0:+(35#2.#2(0:+#52302(%,(5#

OW0):("#CKKKP=#N,2+(3#:+.,:(#5((15#2.#+0@(#,25#.?)#<3.5#0)7#:.)5"#0)7#2+(#8(52#

.<2,.)#7(<()75#@(3'#1&:+#.)#2+(#:.)2(A2&06#40:2.35#.4#2+(#:&33()2#:&33,:&6&1"#

3(5.&3:(5"#071,),52302,.)"#0)7#,)52,2&2,.)06#2307,2,.)5=##

!2#,5#?.32+#).2,)%#2+02#).#<&86,5+(7#7.:&1()25#:0)#8(#4.&)7#3(%037,)%#60)%&0%(#

52302(%'#,)523&:2,.)#,)#2+(#NVT#2(0:+,)%k6(03),)%#:.)2(A2#,)#W,(2)01=#*+,5#60:>#.4#

5:,()2,4,:#(@,7():(#+05#+,%+6,%+2(7#2+(#)((7#4.3#3(5(03:+#805(7#0:2,@,2,(5#,)2.#

52302(%'#,)523&:2,.)#?,2+#,25#<.2()2,06#8()(4,25#2.#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35=#V.3#2+,5#3(05.)"#

2+,5#,55&(#+05#8(()#,):6&7(7#,)#2+(#:&33()2#52&7'#?,2+#0#@,(?#2.#4,)7,)%#.&2#2+(#

:&33()2#<30:2,:(5#,)#52302(%'#230,),)%#,4#0)'"#2+(#)((75#.4#2+(#520>(+.67(35#0)7#2+(#

8(52#0<<3.0:+#.4#52302(%'#230,),)%#,)#2+(#:&33()2#NVT#2(32,03'#2(0:+,)%k6(03),)%#

:.)2(A2"#(5<(:,066'#43.1#2+(#<(35<(:2,@(#.4#2+(#2(0:+,)%#52044#0)7#2+(#52&7()25"#?+.#

?,66#8(#7,3(:26'#,)@.6@(7#,)#0)'#4&2&3(#52302(%'#230,),)%=##V,)7,)%5#43.1#2+(#:&33()2#

52&7'#?(3(#(A<(:2(7#2.#:052#1.3(#6,%+2#.)#2+(#<.55,8,6,2'#0)7#<.2()2,06#.4#52302(%'#

,)523&:2,.)#01.)%#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#2(32,03'#6(03)(35=##

76

2.7 Gaps in the field

J62+.&%+#,2#+05#8(()#03.&)7#H]#'(035#5,):(#2+(#4,352#3(5(03:+#(44.32#,)#TTR#?05#

:033,(7#.&2"#_TTR#3(5(03:+#,5#52,66#Y&,2(#0)#,1102&3(#4,(67a#Of3()4(66#m#N36(3"#FGGS"#<=#

FDP=#i)(#<.55,86(#(A<60)02,.)#4.3#2+,5#05#5&%%(52(7#8'#f3()4(66#0)7#N36(3#,5#2+(#

(A2()5,@(#5:.<(#.4#2+(#TTR#03(0"#?+,:+#,)@.6@(5#).2#.)6'#2+(#6(03)(3[5#6(03),)%#

<3.:(55"#8&2#065.#2+(#3(602,.)5+,<#8(2?(()#2+(,3#6(03),)%#?,2+#2(0:+,)%#0)7#.2+(3#

6(03)(3k6(03),)%#@03,086(5=#c,2+#2+,5#().31.&5#05<,302,.)"#3(5(03:+(35#,)#2+(#4,(67#

03(#40:(7#?,2+#+&%(#:+066()%(5"#0)7#2+,5#4,(67#5((15#2.#8(#523&%%6,)%#2.#_7(4,)(#,25#

<0301(2(35=a#Of3()4(66#m#N36(3"#FGGS"#<=#FDP#

*+(#:.1<3(+()5,@(#3(@,(?#.4#6,2(302&3(#,)#2+(#4,(67#+05#3(@(06(7#2+02#2+(3(#,5#0#)((7#

4.3#1.3(#&<702(7#2..65#2.#1(05&3(#2+(#30)%(#0)7#<022(3)5#.4#TTR#&5(#.4#60)%&0%(#

6(03)(35=#N5<(:,066'#,)#2+,5#0%(#.4#2(:+).6.%,:066'#055,52(7#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%"#)(?#

2(0:+,)%#0)7#6(03),)%#1.7(5#03(#:.)520)26'#:3(02(7"#?+,:+#3(Y&,3(#6(03)(35#2.#

070<2#2+(15(6@(5#,)#2(315#.4#6(03),)%#0<<3.0:+(5#0)7#52302(%,(5=#9,520):(#6(03),)%"#

86()7(7#6(03),)%"#.)6,)(#6(03),)%#.3#(X6(03),)%#+0@(#.<()(7#&<#)(?#6(03),)%#

.<<.32&),2,(5#0)7#()@,3.)1()25"#?+,:+#03(#2.2066'#7,44(3()2#43.1#2+(#2307,2,.)06#

6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2=#*(0:+,)%#0)7#6(03),)%#03(#).#6.)%(3#8.&)7#8'#2,1(#0)7#

<60:(=#T(03),)%#3(5.&3:(5#03(#1&:+#1.3(#0::(55,86(#2+0)>5#2.#2+(#!)2(3)(2#0)7#2+(#

2(0:+,)%#52044#03(#1.3(#0<<3.0:+086(#2..=#!)#2+,5#6(03),)%#:.)2(A2"#2+(#1.7(3)#

60)%&0%(#6(03)(3#:.)520)26'#(A<(3,1()2#?,2+#)(?#52302(%,(5#,)#2+(#)(?#6(03),)%#

()@,3.)1()2#0)7#2+(5(#)(?6'#07.<2(7#52302(%,(5#)((7#2.#8(#3(46(:2(7#,)#TTR#

1(05&3(1()25=##

J).2+(3#%0<#,)#2+(#4,(67#?+,:+#)((75#2.#8(#0773(55(7#,5#2+02#2+(#3(602,.)5+,<#

8(2?(()#6(03)(3#@03,086(5#0)7#TTR#&5(#+05#).2#8(()#4,316'#(52086,5+(7=#*+(3(#03(#

:05(5#?+()#52&7,(5#?,2+#2+(#501(#,)2(3(525#+0@(#:3(02(7#:.)46,:2,)%#3(5&625"#?+,:+#

10'#8(#:.)4&5,)%#2.#3(5(03:+(35#0)7#<30:2,2,.)(35#06,>(=#-(5,7(5"#TTR#&5(#+05#).2#

8(()#2+.3.&%+6'#(A<6.3(7#,)#3(602,.)#2.#2+(#6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2=#V&32+(3#3(5(03:+#

5+.&67#8(#7,3(:2(7#2.#2+(#,)@(52,%02,.)#.4#+.?#@03,.&5#6(03)(3#0)7#6(03),)%#@03,086(5#

,)46&():(#2+(#07.<2,.)#05#?(66#05#2+(#(44(:2,@()(55#.4#TTR5=##

77

M(%037,)%#3(5(03:+#1(2+.7.6.%'#,)#2+(#4,(67#.4#TTR5"#2+(3(#+0@(#8(()#)&1(3.&5#

52&7,(5#&5,)%#(,2+(3#Y&0)2,202,@(#.3#Y&06,202,@(#0<<3.0:+(5=#/.?(@(3"#2+(3(#03(#).2#

10)'#52&7,(5#2+02#:.18,)(#8.2+#0<<3.0:+(5#2.#10A,1,h(#3(5(03:+#.&2:.1(5=#R,):(#

TTR5#03(#@(3'#:.1<6(A#?,2+#10)'#,)2(3X3(602(7#,55&(5"#,2#,5#+,%+6'#07@,5086(#2+02#

1.3(#1,A(7#1(2+.75#0<<3.0:+(5#8(#&5(7#,)#(A<6.3,)%#TTR#01.)%#60)%&0%(#

52&7()25=##

2.8 Framework of variables in the study

-05(7#.)#2+(#08.@(#1()2,.)(7#6,2(302&3(#3(@,(?5#0)7#2+(#,7()2,4,(7#3(5(03:+#)((75"#

0#4301(?.3>#.4#6(03)(3#0)7#6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2#@03,086(5#?05#(52086,5+(7#4.3#2+,5#

52&7'=#-(5,7(5#2+(#6(03)(3#@03,086(5#2+02#+0@(#8(()#?,7(6'#(A01,)(7#,)#.2+(3#

3(5(03:+#:.)2(A25"#5&:+#05#%()7(3"#5(64X302(7#<3.4,:,():'"#0:07(1,:#10U.3"#0)7#

6(03),)%#8(6,(45"#2+(3(#?05#0)#077,2,.)#.4#5"%M*,&%.4(4*+,(#,/5A#2.#2+(#6,52#.4#

<.2()2,06#,)46&():,)%#40:2.35#.)#TTR#&5(#,)#2+(#:&33()2#52&7'=#!2#?05#0)2,:,<02(7#8'#

2+(#3(5(03:+(3#2+02#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<#1,%+2#+0@(#0)#,1<0:2#.)#6(03)(35[#:+.,:(#

.4#TTR5#8(:0&5(#.4#2+(#7,44(3()2#08,6,2'"#5>,665"#0)7#)((75#:6.5(6'#0220:+(7#2.#2+(#

7,52,):2#6(03),)%#:&33,:&60#0)7#3(Y&,3(1()25#4.3#(0:+#'(03#%3.&<5#.4#52&7()25=#V,%&3(#

F=H#8(6.?#.44(35#0#@,5&06#<3(5()202,.)#.4#2+(#@03,086(#4301(?.3>=##

#

Figure 2.3: Framework of learner and learning environment variables in the study

T0)%&0%(#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5##

T(03)(3#@03,086(5#

} f()7(3##} R(64X302(7#<3.~:,():'#

} B),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5#

} J:07(1,:#10U.35#} T(03),)%#8(6,(45#

T(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2#@03,086(5##

} T(03),)%#40:,6,�(5##} T(03),)%#.<<.32&),�(5#

} *(0:+(3X52&7()2#3(60�.)5+,<#

78

2.9 Conclusion

*+,5#:+0<2(3#+05#<3.@,7(7#0#:.1<3(+()5,@(#3(@,(?#.4#3(5(03:+#,)#2+(#4,(67#?+,:+#+05#

8(()#:.1<,6(7#0)7#.3%0),5(7#2+(102,:066'=#*+(#10,)#3(5(03:+#03(05#+0@(#8(()#

,7()2,4,(7"#,):6&7,)%#2+(#:.):(<2&06,502,.)#0)7#:6055,4,:02,.)#.4#TTRZ#2+(#7(5:3,<2,.)#

.4#5&::(554&6#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35Z#TTR#,)523&:2,.)Z#0)7#2+(#,)46&():(#.4#6(03)(3#

@03,086(5#0)7#6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2#.)#TTR#&5(=#b0U.3#3(5(03:+#52&7,(5#5&33.&)7,)%#

2+(5(#2+(1(5#+0@(#8(()#3(<.32(7#0)7#7,5:&55(7#2+.3.&%+6'#,)#2+,5#:+0<2(3"#?+,:+#

+05#%,@()#0#5.6,7#2+(.3(2,:06#0)7#5:,()2,4,:#80:>%3.&)7#4.3#2+(#52&7'=#f0<5#,)#2+(#

4,(67#+0@(#065.#8(()#,7()2,4,(7#2.#3(,)4.3:(#,25#5,%),4,:0):(#0)7#<&3<.5(4&6)(55=#*+(#

)(A2#:+0<2(3#?,66#.44(3#0)#.@(3@,(?#.)#2+(#1(2+.7.6.%'#(1<6.'(7#,)#2+(#52&7'=

79

3 Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction

*+(#<&3<.5(#.4#2+,5#:+0<2(3#,5#2.#7(5:3,8(#2+(#52&7'[5#3(5(03:+#7(5,%)#05#?(66#05#,25#

&)7(36',)%#1(2+.7.6.%,:06#<3,):,<6(5#0)7#<3(1,5(5=#!2#302,.)06,h(5#066#2+(#<3.:(55(5#

0)7#1(2+.75#20>()#8'#2+(#3(5(03:+(3#2.#0:+,(@(#2+(#0,15#.4#2+(#52&7'=#V,3526'"#2+(#

:+0<2(3#(608.302(5#.)#2+(#302,.)06(#4.3#2+(#&5(#.4#0#1,A(7#1(2+.75#0<<3.0:+"#

?+,:+#,):6&7(5#8.2+#Y&06,202,@(#0)7#Y&0)2,202,@(#1(2+.7.6.%'=#!2#2+()#7(5:3,8(5#2+(#

52&7'#<.<&602,.)"#501<6(#5(6(:2,.)"#7020#:.66(:2,.)#,)523&1()25#0)7#7020#:.66(:2,.)#

<3.:(7&3(#4.3#8.2+#Y&0)2,202,@(#0)7#Y&06,202,@(#520%(5=#!2#065.#.&26,)(5#2+(#52&7'[5#

0)06'2,:06#<60)#0)7#5202,52,:06#1(2+.75#4.3#7020#0)06'5,5=#V,)066'"#,2#5((>5#2.#(52086,5+#

2+(#6(%,2,10:'#.4#2+(#52&7'#8'#0773(55,)%#2+(#(@06&02,@(#:3,2(3,0#5&:+#05#@06,7,2'#0)7#

3(6,08,6,2'=#J5#0#?+.6("#2+,5#:+0<2(3#3(46(:25#2+(#3(5(03:+#.3,()202,.)#0)7#.44(35#2+(#

U&52,4,:02,.)#4.3#2+(#:+.5()#0<<3.0:+(5#0)7#1(2+.75#,)#:.)7&:2,)%#2+(#52&7'=##

3.2 Study design

i)#4.31&602,)%#2+(#3(5(03:+#7(5,%)#4.3#2+,5#52&7'"#:03(4&6#:.)5,7(302,.)#?05#%,@()#

2.#2+(#4,@(#10U.3#3(5(03:+#<&3<.5(5#032,:&602(7#8'#E.+)5.)#0)7#I+3,52()5()#OFGG\P=#

! NA<6.302,.)j#&5,)%#<3,103,6'#,)7&:2,@(#1(2+.75#2.#(A<6.3(#0#:.):(<2"#

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+'<.2+(5(5#.3#%()(306,502,.)5Z##

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80

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3.2.1 Quantitative versus qualitative approaches

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3.2.2 Mixed methods approach

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82

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3.2.3 Research design of the current study

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84

#

3.3 Data collection

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Figure 3.1: The study’s research design'

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Table 3.1: Data collection processes

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#

3.3.1 Quantitative data collection

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3.3.1.1 Instrument: Questionnaires

3.3.1.1.1 Selection of the instrument

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3.3.1.1.2 The English Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire (ELLSQ)

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#

Figure 3.2: Structure of the English Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire

(ELLSQ)

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3.3.1.2.1 Defining the population

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3.3.1.2.2 Specifying the sampling methods

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3.3.1.2.3 Opportunity/convenience sampling

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:.11.)#2'<(#.4#).)X<3.808,6,2'#501<6,)%#O9()5:.18("#FGCGZ#c(02+,)%2.)"#

I&)),)%+01"#m#;,22()%(3"#FGCGP=#*+(#.<<.32&),2'#.3#:.)@(),():(#501<6,)%#,)#2+,5#

52&7'#?05#5(6(:2(7#.)#2+(#805,5#.4#2+(#0@0,608,6,2'#.4#&),@(35,2'#52044#0)7#52&7()25#02#

2+(#&),@(35,2'"#?,2+#?+.1#2+(#3(5(03:+(3#:.&67#(05,6'#0<<3.0:+=###

J#<3,@02(#&),@(35,2'#,)#/.#I+,#b,)+#:,2'"#W,(2#$01#?05#:+.5()#05#0#:.)@(),():(#5,2(#

4.3#2+,5#52&7'=#N52086,5+(7#,)#2+(#CKKG5"#2+,5#&),@(35,2'#,5#0#7')01,:#&),@(35,2'#0)7#,5#

%3.?,)%#@(3'#4052#,)#5,h(#05#?(66#05#<.<&603,2'=#J2#2+,5#&),@(35,2'"#0#8,6,)%&06#5'52(1#

.4#W,(2)01(5(#0)7#N)%6,5+#,5#&5(7#05#2+(#10,)#60)%&0%(5#4.3#,)523&:2,.)#0)7#

:.11&),:02,.)#01.)%#52044#0)7#52&7()25=#*+(3(4.3("#+(6<,)%#52&7()25#6(03)#8(22(3#

0)7#0:+,(@(#+,%+(3#<3.4,:,():'#,)#N)%6,5+#8(:.1(5#(55()2,06#0)7#0#2.<#<3,.3,2'#02#2+,5#

&),@(35,2'=#*+(#1,55,.)#0)7#:.11,21()2#.4#2+(#&),@(35,2'#03(#2.#(Y&,<#52&7()25#

?,2+#<3.<(3#>).?6(7%(#0)7#6,4(X6.)%#6(03),)%#5>,665#5.#2+02#2+('#03(#4&66'#<3(<03(7#

4.3#0#4&2&3(#.4#:+0)%(#0)7#:+066()%(5=#*+02#,5#2+(#3(05.)#?+'#%3(02#(44.325#+0@(#

8(()#<&2#,)2.#<3(<03,)%#52&7()25#4.3#5(64X7,3(:2(7#6(03),)%#.3#0&2.).1'=#-(,)%#0#

<.<&603#&),@(35,2'#,)#/.#I+,#b,)+#:,2'"#2+(#8,%%(52#:,2'#.4#W,(2#$01"#2+(#&),@(35,2'#

02230:25#2+.&50)75#.4#52&7()25#43.1#7,44(3()2#<0325#.4#2+(#:.&)23'#0)7#2+&5#?05#

2+.&%+2#2.#:.)52,2&2(#0#501<6(#40,36'#3(<3(5()202,@(#.4#2+(#603%(3#<.<&602,.)#.4#

W,(2)01(5(#2(32,03'#52&7()25=##

3.3.1.2.4 Determining the sample size

9(2(31,),)%#2+(#501<6(#5,h(#,5#0)#,1<.320)2#52(<#,)#2+(#7(5,%)#.4#0#52&7'"#?+(3(8'#

2+(#)&18(3#.4#3(5(03:+#5&8U(:25#.3#<032,:,<0)25#,5#:+.5()#2.#,):6&7(#,)#0#5202,52,:06#

91

501<6(=#*+(#501<6(#5,h(#,5#:.)5,7(3(7#0#:3&:,06#40:2.3#43.1#?+,:+#:(320,)#,)4(3():(5#

:0)#8(#107(#08.&2#0#<.<&602,.)=#J#501<6(#5,h(#?+,:+#,5#2..#51066#10'#<3.7&:(#

,):.):6&5,@(#3(5&625#0)7#:.)@(35(6'#0#501<6(#5,h(#?+,:+#,5#2..#603%(#10'#?052(#

&))(:(5503'#3(5.&3:(5=#c,2+#0#@,(?#2.#0:+,(@,)%#5&44,:,()2#5202,52,:06#<.?(3#4.3#2+,5#

52&7'"#,),2,06#:06:&602,.)#.4#2+(#501<6(#?05#:.)7&:2(7#0)7#,2#?05#7(2(31,)(7#2+02#

?,2+#0#<.<&602,.)#.4#0<<3.A,102(6'#SFL"FCK"#0#501<6(#5,h(#.4#HD\#?05#3(Y&,3(7#02#

2+(#:.)4,7():(#6(@(6#.4#K]Å=##

!)#<30:2,:("#7&3,)%#2+(#Y&0)2,202,@(#7020#:.66(:2,.)#<3.:(55"#]L\#@06,7#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#

?(3(#:.66(:2(7#0)7#2+,5#501<6(#.4#]L\#OÇ#HD\P#,)#2+(#Y&0)2,202,@(#520%(#?05#

:.)5,7(3(7#5202,52,:066'#07(Y&02(#2.#,7()2,4'#<022(3)5#.4#60)%&0%(#52302(%,(5#&5(7#8'#

52&7()25#0)7#5&8520)2,06#().&%+#2.#:0<2&3(#5,%),4,:0)2#055.:,02,.)#8(2?(()#

@03,086(5=##

3.3.1.3 Data collection techniques and procedure !),2,06#:.)20:2#?05#107(#?,2+#2+(#W,:(#;3(5,7()2#.4#2+(#:+.5()#&),@(35,2'#2.#.820,)#

+,5#<(31,55,.)#2.#:.)7&:2#2+(#52&7'#<3,.3#2.#5&3@('#071,),52302,.)=#J)#,)4.3102,.)#

5+((2#?+,:+#:.)20,)(7#,)4.3102,.)#08.&2#2+(#3(5(03:+"#5&:+#05#2+(#3(5(03:+#

80:>%3.&)7"#3(5(03:+#0,15#0)7#3(5(03:+#<3.:(7&3(#?05#5()2#2.#2+(#W,:(#;3(5,7()2=#

B<.)#+,5#0<<3.@06"#/(075#.4#V0:&62'k9(<0321()2#0)7#2(0:+,)%#52044#?(3(#065.#

:.)20:2(7#4.3#2+(,3#055,520):(#?,2+#2+(#071,),52(3,)%#.4#2+(#5&3@('#Y&(52,.))0,3(5=#

*+(#071,),52(3,)%#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#?05#&)7(320>()#2+(3(042(3"#20>,)%#,)2.#

:.)5,7(302,.)#2+(#&),@(35,2'#'(036'#5:+(7&6(#.4#2+(#203%(2#5&3@('#3(5<.)7()25=#*+(#

52&7()25#0:3.55#7,5:,<6,)(5#?(3(#,)4.31(7#08.&2#2+,5#52&7'#2+3.&%+#,)@,202,.)#

(10,65=#*+(#2(0:+,)%#52044#065.#+(6<(7#10>(#2+(#52&7'#>).?)#2.#52&7()25#8'#

5<3(07,)%#,)4.3102,.)#08.&2#2+(#52&7'#,)#2+(,3#3(%&603#:6055(5=#;0<(3#:.<,(5#.4#2+(#

Y&(52,.))0,3("#,)4.3102,.)#5+((25"#0)7#<3(X<0,7#()@(6.<(5#?,2+#3(2&3)#0773(55(5#

?(3(#<3.@,7(7#02#2+(#3(:(<2,.)#7(5>#.4#(0:+#40:&62'k7(<0321()2#0)7#2+(#

,)4.3102,.)#7(5>#02#2+(#6,8303'=#*+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#?(3(#0@0,6086(#,)#8.2+#N)%6,5+#

0)7#W,(2)01(5(#@(35,.)5#4.3#2+(,3#:+.,:(=#*+(#<032,:,<0)25#:.&67#:+..5(#2.#3(2&3)#

2+(#:.1<6(2(7#Y&(52,.))0,3(#,)2.#2+(#0@0,6086(#5&3@('#73.<#8.A#.3#<60:(#,2#,)2.#2+(#

<3(X0773(55(7#()@(6.<(#0)7#<.52#,2#2.#2+(#3(5(03:+(3=##

92

J#2.206#.4#DGG#:.<,(5#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#?(3(#107(#0@0,6086(#4.3#<,:>X&<#0)7#]SC#

:.1<6(2(7#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#?(3(#3(2&3)(7"#?+,:+#,)7,:02(7#0#3(5<.)5(#302(#.4#SC=\#

<(3#:()2=#i&2#.4#]SC#3(2&3)(7#Y&(52,.))0,3(5"#5(@()#,)@06,7#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#?(3(#

602(3#(A:6&7(7#0)7#]L\#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#?(3(#&5(7#4.3#2+(#7020#0)06'5,5#.4#2+(#52&7'=##

3.3.1.4 The sample characteristics J5#0#3(5&62#.4#2+(#.<<.32&),2'k:.)@(),():(#501<6,)%#,)#2+(#3(5(03:+#7(5,%)"#]L\#

Y&(52,.))0,3(#3(5<.)7()25#,)#2+,5#52&7'#?(3(#52&7',)%#,)#@03,.&5#

40:&62,(5k7(<0321()25#02#2+(#&),@(35,2'#0)7#?+.#?(3(#20>,)%#N)%6,5+#05#0#4.3(,%)#

60)%&0%(#:.&35(5#?,2+#@03',)%#6.075=#J#5&1103'#.4#2+(,3#%()(306#:+030:2(3,52,:5#,5#

<3.@,7(7#,)#*086(#H=F=##

Table 3.2: Characteristics of respondents

J62+.&%+#2+(#5&3@('#,)@.6@(7#8.2+#4(106(#0)7#106(#3(5<.)7()25"#2+(#4.31(3#

.&2)&18(3(7#2+(#6022(3=#*+(#<3.<.32,.)#.4#4(106(#3(5<.)7()25#?05#08.&2#2?.#

2,1(5#603%(3#2+0)#2+(#<3.<.32,.)#.4#106(#3(5<.)7()25=#*+(#,)@.6@(1()2#.4#8.2+#

106(#0)7#4(106(#<032,:,<0)25#,)#2+,5#3(5(03:+#<3.U(:2#066.?(7#4.3#2+(#%()(302,.)#.4#

7020#2+02#?(3(#).)X%()7(3#8,05(7#01.)%#2+(#203%(2(7#<.<&602,.)=#c,2+#3(5<(:2#2.#

2+(,3#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5"#03.&)7#+064#.4#2+(#52&7()2#<032,:,<0)25#?(3(#,)#2+(,3#

4,352#'(03=#R(:.)7#'(03#52&7()25#0::.&)2(7#4.3#1.3(#2+0)#.)(#4.&32+#.4#2+(#

<032,:,<0)25#0)7#2+(#3(10,),)%#?(3(#(,2+(3#2+,37#'(03#.3#4.&32+#'(03#52&7()25=#!)#

2(315#.4#2+(,3#0:07(1,:#10U.35"#2+(#5&3@('#3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#:6055,4,(7#,)2.#F#10,)#

5).;.E0%;*60*E6_.00;*2#0%6' !#T2%;',4';%6P,&@%&06'&_!'

V%;E%&0."%''\d]'

b%&@%;# ' 'X F.3%# =NC_LNH' DK7='X :%T.3%# DCD_LNH' NC7C'

`%.;'";,#P# ' 'X :*;60'$%.;# AGO_LNA' HC7L'X Z%E,&@'$%.;# =LG_LNA' AG7O'X ()*;@'$%.;# =KC_LNA' =C7H'X :,#;0)'$%.;# =O_LNA' D7A'

F.^,;'# ' 'X Q&"3*6)# AGA_LNK' HO7N'X !,&WQ&"3*6)# AOO_LNK' L=7H'

93

:02(%.3,(5#.4#N)%6,5+#0)7#$.)XN)%6,5+#10U.35=#J::.37,)%6'"#2+(#N)%6,5+#10U.3#

3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#20>,)%#0)'#.4#2+(#2+3((#<3.%3015#.4#-&5,)(55#N)%6,5+"#

*30)5602,.)k!)2(3<3(202,.)#.3#N)%6,5+#*(0:+,)%#,)#8.2+#HX'(03#0)7#\X'(03#:.&35(5=#

*+(#).)XN)%6,5+#10U.3#3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#20>,)%#(,2+(3#HX'(03#.3#\X'(03#:.&35(5#,)#

/.5<,206,2'#10)0%(1()2"#i44,:(#071,),52302,.)"#-&5,)(55#071,),52302,.)"#b03>(2,)%"#

V.3(,%)#2307("#J::.&)2,)%"#-0)>,)%#0)7#V,)0):("#I.1<&2(3#)(2?.3>,)%"#0)7#

!)4.3102,.)#*(:+).6.%'=#*+(#2?.X:02(%.3'#:6055,4,:02,.)#5+.?(7#2+02#2+(#

Y&(52,.))0,3(#5&3@('#3(:(,@(7#0#3(602,@(6'#8060):(7#<032,:,<02,.)#8'#52&7()25#.4#

).)XN)%6,5+#0)7#N)%6,5+#10U.35=##

3.3.2 Qualitative data collection

3.3.2.1 Instrument: Semi-structure interviews

3.3.2.1.1 Selection of the instrument

c+,6(#5((>,)%#2.#.820,)#0)#.@(3@,(?#.4#TTR#&5(#01.)%#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#2(32,03'#

52&7()25"#,2#?05#?(66#>).?)#2+02#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35#03(#:+030:2(3,5(7#8'#,)7,@,7&06#

7,44(3():(5=#f,@()#2+,5"#2+(#0)06'5,5#.4#0%%3(%02(7#7020#:0)#+0376'#3(46(:2#2+(5(#

,)7,@,7&06#@03,02,.)5#0)7#:.)2307,:2,.)5"#?+,:+#:0)#:033'#10)'#,)2(3(52,)%#,)5,%+25#

,)2.#2+(#,55&(5#&)7(3#52&7'=##J::.37,)%#2.#R(,710)#OCKKDP"#,)2(3@,(?5#066.?#4.3#

3(5(03:+(35#2.#,)@(52,%02(#2+(#:.)2(A2#.4#<(.<6([5#8(+0@,.&35#0)7#<3.@,7(#0)#

.<<.32&),2'#2.#&)7(3520)7#2+(#1(0),)%#.4#2+02#8(+0@,.&3=#!)#2+,5#52&7'"#5(1,X

523&:2&3(7#,)2(3@,(?5#?(3(#:.):&33()26'#&5(7#05#0#Y&06,202,@(#,)523&1()2#.4#2+(#

52&7'#2.#0,7#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#,)#7,5:.@(3,)%#3,:+(3#0)7#7((<(3#,)4.3102,.)#3(602,)%#2.#

TTR#&5(#01.)%#W,(2)01(5(#2(32,03'#52&7()25=#!)2(3@,(?#7020#?(3(#(A<(:2(7#2.#077#

Y&06,202,@(#7,1()5,.)5#2.#2+(#Y&0)2,202,@(#7020#0)7#(A(1<6,4'#.3#:.)2(A2&06,5(#2+(#

7(<(35.)06,5(7#5202,52,:5=#*+(#302,.)06(#8(+,)7#2+(#&5(#.4#5(1,X523&:2&3(7#.2+(3#

2+0)#523&:2&3(7#.3#&)523&:2&3(7#,)2(3@,(?5#?05#2+02#2+('#066.?(7#4.3#+,%+(3#

46(A,8,6,2'#,)#0<<3.0:+,)%#2+(#<3.86(1#0)7#:3(02(7#.<<.32&),2,(5#4.3#)(?#,55&(5#2.#

03,5(#06.)%#2+(#?0'#OT.7,:."#(2#06="#FGCGZ#b()2(3"#N66,.2"#/&61("#T(?,)"#m#T.?7()"#

FGCCP=##

!)#2+,5#52&7'"#Y&06,202,@(#7020#43.1#2+(#5(1,X523&:2&3(7#,)2(3@,(?5#?(3(#&5(7#2.#

,66&52302(#+.?#2+(#.@(3066#<,:2&3(#(1(3%,)%#43.1#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#?05#,):,7()2066'#

94

3(602(7#2.#.3#7,@(32(7#43.1#,)7,@,7&06#52&7()25=#!55&(5#<(320,),)%#2.#2+(,3#@,(?5#0)7#

022,2&7(5#2.?0375#TTR5#,)#%()(306"#05#?(66#05#2+(#0::.11.702,.)#.4#2+(,3#TTR#&5(#,)#

2+(#:&33()2#(7&:02,.)06#5(22,)%#?(3(#(A<6.3(7=##

3.3.2.1.2 The semi-structured interviews

*?.#,)2(3@,(?#%&,7(5#?(3(#<3(<03(7#5(<0302(6'#4.3#52&7()2#<032,:,<0)25#0)7#52044#

<032,:,<0)25#805(7#.)#0#3(@,(?#.4#3(6(@0)2#6,2(302&3(=#-05,:066'"#2+(#,)2(3@,(?#

Y&(52,.)5#4.3#52&7()25#?(3(#7(5,%)(7#2.#4.:&5#.)#2+(,3#%()(306#022,2&7(5#2.?0375#

TTR5"#2+(,3#.?)#6,@(7#(A<(3,():(5#.4#TTR5#0)7#2+(,3#@,(?5#.)#2+(#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#

()@,3.)1()2#2+02#0::.11.702(5#TTR5=#R,1,6036'"#2+(#,)2(3@,(?#Y&(52,.)5#4.3#NVT#

52044#?(3(#523&:2&3(7#03.&)7#2+(,3#%()(306#022,2&7(5#0)7#6,@(7#(A<(3,():(5#.4#TTR#

,)523&:2,.)#05#?(66#05#2+(,3#@,(?5#.)#2+(#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2#02#0#2(32,03'#

6(@(6=#*+(#,)2(3@,(?#Y&(52,.)5#4.3#52&7()25#0)7#52044#?(3(#1(0)2#2.#:.33(5<.)7#?,2+#

(0:+#.2+(3#,)#.37(3#2.#066.?#4.3#:3.55#:.1<03,5.)#0)7#0)06'5,5#.4#7020=#i<()#()7(7#

Y&(52,.)5#8(%,)),)%#?,2+#S'+.O([/NO(.3([+M*(4/5(*M*,#?(3(#10,)6'#&5(7#2.#<3.8(#

4.3#1(0),)%X3,:+#3(5<.)5(5=#J)#.@(3@,(?#.4#2+(#,)2(3@,(?#Y&(52,.)5#4.3#52&7()25#

0)7#52044#:0)#8(#4.&)7#,)#J<<()7,A#F=##

*+(#,)2(3@,(?#Y&(52,.)5#0)7#,)4.3102,.)#5+((25#?(3(#065.#<3(2(52(7#01.)%#4.&3#

<032,:,<0)25#?+.#8(6.)%(7#2.#2+(#203%(2#<.<&602,.)#.4#2+(#52&7'=#*+(#<032,:,<0)25#

?(3(#05>(7#08.&2#2+(#0<<3.<3,02()(55#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.)5"#2+(#(05(#.4#&)7(3520)7,)%#

.4#2+(#Y&(52,.)5#0)7#:.14.32#6(@(6#?,2+#Y&(52,.)5=#!4#5.1(#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.)5#?(3(#

:.)5,7(3(7#05#8(,)%#2..#<(35.)06#.3#5()5,2,@("#2+(#<032,:,<0)25#?(3(#05>(7#08.&2#

+.?#2+(5(#Y&(52,.)5#:.&67#8(#:+0)%(7#2.#0#1.3(#5&,2086(#4.3102=#;3(2(52,)%#.4#2+(#

,)2(3@,(?5#).2#.)6'#+(6<(7#2+(#3(5(03:+(3#7(2(31,)(#2+(#6()%2+#.4#,)2(3@,(?5#8&2#

065.#%()(302(#0)7#3(4,)(#Y&(52,.)5#?+,:+#?(3(#:3,2,:06#2.#2+(#5+0<,)%#.4#0#

Y&06,202,@(#52&7'=#

3.3.2.2 Sampling ;&3<.5(4&6#501<6,)%#?05#&5(7#2.#3(:3&,2#2+(#<032,:,<0)25#4.3#2+(#Y&06,202,@(#<+05(#.4#

2+,5#52&7'=#;&3<.5(4&6#501<6,)%#,5#0#Y&06,202,@(#501<6,)%#52302(%'"#?+(3(8'#

,)4.3102,.)X3,:+#:05(5#03(#5(6(:2(7#O;022.)"#FGGFP"#0)7#2+(3(4.3("#2+('#:.&67#

3(<3(5()2#2+(#8(52#2.#_&)7(3520)7#2+(#:()2306#<+().1().)a#OI3(5?(66"#FGCC"#<=#

95

FGLP=#J::.37,)%#2.#;022.)#OFGGFP"#_52&7',)%#,)4.3102,.)X3,:+#:05(5#',(675#,)5,%+25#

0)7#,)X7(<2+#&)7(3520)7,)%#302+(3#2+0)#(1<,3,:06#%()(306,h02,.)5a#O<=#FHGP=#J5#

5&%%(52(7#8'#,25#)01("#2+(#<&3<.5(#.4#2+(#501<6,)%#<3.:(55#3(46(:25#2+(#7(5,3(7#

Y&06,2,(5#.4#2+(#:+.5()#501<6(#?+,:+#03(#1.52#3(6(@0)2#2.#2+(#2.<,:#.4#2+(#

,)@(52,%02,.)#O9()5:.18("#FGCG"#<=#CSP=##

*+(#501<6(#:.)5,52(7#.4#2()#NVT#2(0:+,)%#52044#0)7#2()#NVT#52&7()25#02#2+(#203%(2#

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3.3.2.3 Data collection techniques and procedures

3.3.2.3.1 Recruitment of participants

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3.4 Data management and analysis

3.4.1 Quantitative data management and analysis

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3.4.1.1 Data management

3.4.1.1.1 Data entry

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3.4.1.1.2 Data coding

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3.4.1.1.3 Data cleaning

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3.4.1.2 Data analysis

3.4.1.2.1 Determining the normality of distribution

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3.4.1.2.2 Statistical techniques

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3.4.2 Qualitative data management and analysis

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3.4.2.1.1 Transcribing of interview data

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3.4.2.1.2 Data coding

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101

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102

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3.5 Evaluative criteria of the study

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3.5.1 Validity and reliability

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3.5.1.1 Reliability

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103

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3.5.2 Trustworthiness and authenticity

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b.3(#5<(:,4,:066'"#7(<()708,6,2'#1(05&3(5#2+(#(A2()2#2.#?+,:+#2+(#3(5(03:+#4,)7,)%5#

:0)#8(#3(<3.7&:(7#.3#3(<6,:02(7#8'#.2+(3#3(5(03:+(35#O9()h,)#m#T,):.6)"#FGCCP=#*+(#

7(<()708,6,2'#.4#2+,5#52&7'#?05#0::.&)2(7#4.3#8'#2+(#:03(4&6#7.:&1()202,.)#.4#2+(#

<3.:(55(5#.4#7020#:.66(:2,.)"#1(18(3#:+(:>,)%#0<<3.0:+#,)#7020#230)5:3,<2,.)"#

,)2(3<3(202,.)"#0)7#7020#0)06'5,5=#*+(#0@0,608,6,2'#.4#2+(5(#7(20,6(7#0::.&)25#.4#2+(#

105

3(5(03:+#<3.:(55(5#()086(5#4&2&3(#3(5(03:+(35#2.#230:>#2+(#()2,3(#3(5(03:+#

<3.:(55(5#0)7#3(<6,:02(#2+(#52&7'=##

3.5.2.2 Authenticity

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T,):.6)"#FGCCP=#J&2+()2,:,2'#?05#0773(55(7#,)#2+,5#52&7'#2+3.&%+#2+(#:.):(<25#.4#

40,3)(55"#.)2.6.%,:06#0&2+()2,:,2'"#0)7#:0206'2,:#0&2+()2,:,2'=##

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2+(,3#&)7(36',)%#@06&(#523&:2&3(5#03(#5.6,:,2(7#0)7#+.).&3(7#?,2+,)#2+(#0)06'5,5#0)7#

,)2(3<3(202,.)#<3.:(55#O-.%70)#m#-,>6()"#FGGHP=#!)#2+(#Y&06,202,@(#7020#0)06'5,5#.4#

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?(3(#<3(5()2(7#0)7#032,:&602(7#0::&302(6'#0)7#40,36'=##

*+(#.)2.6.%,:06#0&2+()2,:,2'#:3,2(3,.)#,1<6,(5#2+(#(A2()2#2.#?+,:+#2+(#,)7,@,7&06[5#.3#

%3.&<[5#:.)5:,.&5#(A<(3,():(#.4#2+(#?.367#8(:01(#1.3(#,)4.31(7#.3#5.<+,52,:02(7#

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2+(#3(<(32.,3(#.4#0@0,6086(#TTR5#0)7#0)#08,6,2'#2.#10>(#0<<3.<3,02(#055(551()2#.4#

2+(,3#.?)#TTR#&50%(#.3#,)523&:2,.)=#

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0&2+()2,:,2'#.4#2+(#?+.6(#3(5(03:+#52&7'=#

106

3.6 Conclusion

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05#?(66#05#,25#&)7(36',)%#1(2+.7.6.%,:06#<3,):,<6(5#0)7#<3(1,5(5=#!2#+05#302,.)06,5(7#

066#2+(#<3.:(55(5"#1(2+.75#0)7#0:2,@,2,(5#20>()#8'#2+(#3(5(03:+(3#2.#0:+,(@(#2+(#

0,15#.4#2+(#52&7'=#J42(3#0#:6(03#0::.&)2#.4#2+(#302,.)06(#4.3#2+(#&5(#.4#0#1,A(7#

1(2+.75#0<<3.0:+"#?+,:+#,):6&7(5#8.2+#Y&06,202,@(#0)7#Y&0)2,202,@(#7020#:.66(:2,.)#

2(:+),Y&(5"#,2#+05#7(5:3,8(7#2+(#52&7'#<.<&602,.)"#501<6(#5(6(:2,.)"#3(5(03:+#

,)523&1()25#0)7#7020#:.66(:2,.)#<3.:(7&3(#4.3#8.2+#Y&0)2,202,@(#0)7#Y&06,202,@(#

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2+(#U&52,4,:02,.)#4.3#2+(#:+.5()#0<<3.0:+(5#0)7#1(2+.75#,)#:.)7&:2,)%#2+(#52&7'=#

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10,)#Y&0)2,202,@(#,)523&1()2#.4#2+(#52&7'"#?05#:.)523&:2(7#0)7#5((>#2.#(52086,5+#

2+(#6(%,2,10:'#.4#2+(#52&7'#8'#0773(55,)%#2+(#,55&(5#.4#@06,7,2'##0)7#3(6,08,6,2'#.4#2+,5#

3(5(03:+#1(05&3(1()2=##

107

4 Questionnaire Construction:

Reliability and Validity

4.1 Introduction

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,)#2+,5#1,A(7X1(2+.75#3(5(03:+#52&7'#.)#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#OTTR5P#01.)%#

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(@,7():(=#V,)066'"#<30:2,:06#,1<6,:02,.)5#4.3#4&2&3(#022(1<25#03(#<3.@,7(7#3(%037,)%#

2+(#:.)523&:2,.)#.4#3(6,086(#0)7#@06,7#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#,)#0#)(?#3(5(03:+#7,5:.&35(=#

4.2 Rationale for the English Language Learning Strategy

Questionnaire (ELLSQ)

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108

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109

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0)7#@06,7,2'#,)#2+(#203%(2(7#(7&:02,.)#7,5:.&35(=#

4.3 The four-stage construction of the ELLSQ

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.4#2+(#NTTR^=##

110

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Table 4.1: Summary of typical questionnaires on LLSs

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116

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%.065#0)7#60)%&0%(#1.706,2,(5k5>,665#?(3(#065.#5(6(:2(7#05#3(:.11()7(7#8'#2+(#

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%301103"#<3.)&):,02,.)P#0)7#5>,66X805(7#O5<(0>,)%"#6,52(),)%"#?3,2,)%#0)7#3(07,)%P=###

4.3.2.3 Description of the first draft of ELLSQ -05(7#.)#0#:.18,)02,.)#.4#3(4(3():(5"#,):6&7,)%#2+(#6,2(302&3(#3(@,(?"#:.)5&6202,.)#

?,2+#5&3@('#(A<(325#0)7#5&3@('#3(5.&3:(5"#0)7#7,5:&55,.)#?,2+#203%(2#6(03)(35"#0#

73042#Y&(52,.))0,3(#?05#:.)523&:2(7#?,2+#2+3((#10,)#<0325#OJ"#-#0)7#IP#OR((#

J<<()7,A#HP=#

U+,.(F(_(`/5,(!"#$%&'($*+,"%"#(&.,+.*#4#Q#:.)5,52(7#.4#\S#5202(1()25#08.&2#60)%&0%(#

6(03),)%#52302(%,(5=#*+(5(#\S#,2(15#?(3(#2+()#:6055,4,(7#,)2.#2+3((#%3.&<5#?,2+#0#

@,(?#2.#10>,)%#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#1.3(#<3.4(55,.)06"#523&:2&3(7#0)7#(05,(3#4.3#

3(5<.)7()25#2.#4.66.?=#*+(#2+3((#10,)#:02(%.3,(5#.4#52302(%,(5#,)#;032#J#?(3(j#

! M(%&602,)%#52302(%,(5#O52302(%,(5#4.3#3(%&602,)%#2+(#6(03),)%#<3.:(55PZ

! V.31X805(7# 52302(%,(5# O52302(%,(5# 4.3# 6(03),)%# 2+(# 6,)%&,52,:5# 4.315# .4# 2+(#

203%(2#60)%&0%(PZ#0)7

! R>,66X805(7# 52302(%,(5# O52302(%,(5# 4.3# &5,)%# 2+(# 203%(2# 60)%&0%(# ,)# 1(0),)%#

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iA4.37[5#5:+(1(#0)7#b0)0%(1()2#:02(%.3'#,)#c()[5#OCKKLP#5:+(1(=#V.31X805(7#

0)7#R>,66X805(7#:02(%.3,(5#102:+#3.&%+6'#?,2+#.2+(3#:02(%.3,(5#7(@(6.<(7#8'#

:.)2(1<.303'#3(5(03:+(35#5&:+#05#I.+()#0)7#I+,#OFGGFP#.3#;30>.)%:+02,#OFGGSP=#J2#

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117

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2(0:+,)%k6(03),)%#:&33,:&6&1=#J::.37,)%6'"#,*#5$+.%"#(&.,+.*#%*&#,):6&7(#2+.5(#4.3#

10),<&602,)%#7,@(35(#6(03),)%#102(3,065"#:3(02,)%#6(03),)%#.<<.32&),2,(5#0)7#

1.),2.3,)%#5(64X<(34.310):(#,)#2+(#203%(2#60)%&0%(=#7/,2ID+&*6(&.,+.*#%*&#3(4(3#2.#

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@.:08&603'"#%301103#0)7#<3.)&):,02,.)=#-K%$$ID+&*6(&.,+.*#%*&#03(#2+.5(#3(602(7#2.#

2+(#4.&3#10:3.#5>,665#.4#3(07,)%"#6,52(),)%"#5<(0>,)%#0)7#?3,2,)%#4.3#1(0),)%#

,)2(3<3(202,.)#0)7#1(0),)%#:.)523&:2,.)=##

*+(#\S#,2(15#.4#52302(%'#&5(#,)#;032#J#?(3(#1(05&3(7#.)#0#43(Y&():'#4,@(X<.,)2#

T,>(32#5:06("#,):6&7,)%#_C`$(@(3a"#_F`M03(6'a"#_H`R.1(2,1(5a"#_\`i42()a"#0)7#

_]`J6?0'5a=##

U+,.(L(_(`/5,(D*$%*0&(+"6(*WA*,%*"@*(%"(!"#$%&'($*+,"%"##Q#:.)20,)(7#CC#,2(15#.)#2+(#

N)%6,5+#60)%&0%(#8(6,(45#0)7#(A<(3,():(#.4#2+(#3(5<.)7()25#?+,:+#?(3(#:.)5,7(3(7#

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2+(#3.6(#.4#%301103#0)7#@.:08&603'#:.)2(A2&06,502,.)"#2+(#3.6(#.4#:&62&3("#2+(#3.6(#

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3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#05>(7#2.#,)7,:02(#2+(,3#6(@(6#.4#0%3((1()2#2.#CC#5202(1()25#.)#0#

4,@(X<.,)2#302,)%#5:06("#,):6&7,)%#_C`R23.)%6'#9,50%3((a"#_F`9,50%3((a"#_H`$.2#R&3(a"#

_\`J%3((a#0)7#_]`R23.)%6'#J%3((a=#

U+,.(B(_(FD/5.(4/5#X#,):6&7(7#]#,2(15#7(5,%)(7#2.#:.66(:2#<032,:,<0)25[#7(1.%30<+,:#

,)4.3102,.)"#5&:+#05#%()7(3"#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5"#0:07(1,:#10U.35"#5:.3(5#.)#

,)2(3)02,.)06#520)7037,5(7#2(525"#0)7#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#,)#2+(#4.&3#10:3.#

5>,665#.4#3(07,)%"#5<(0>,)%"#6,52(),)%#0)7#?3,2,)%=##

4.3.3 The refinement of the ELLSQ

J42(3#2+(#73042#Y&(52,.))0,3(#+07#8(()#:.)523&:2(7"#,2#?05#4&32+(3#3(4,)(7#805(7#.)#

2+(#3(@,(?#4((780:>#43.1#2?.#(A<(325#,)#2+(#4,(67=#J5#5&%%(52(7#8'#-.?6,)%#OFGGKP#

0)7#9,6610)#OFGGGP"#,2#,5#+,%+6'#3(:.11()7(7#4.3#(A<(325#.3#>).?6(7%(086(#<((35#2.#

118

3(@,(?#0)7#:.11()2#.)#0#Y&(52,.))0,3(=#*+(#10,)#0,1#.4#2+(#(A<(32#3(@,(?#02#2+,5#

520%(#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#:.)523&:2,.)#?05#2.#.820,)#0)#,)4.3106#.8U(:2,@(#

(@06&02,.)#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3([5#:.)2()2"#523&:2&3(#0)7#4.3102=#NA<(325#,)#2+(#4,(67#

?.&67#7(2(31,)(#?+(2+(3#2+(#<3.<.5(7#5:06(5#0)7#Y&(52,.)5#<3.@,7(7#5&44,:,()2#

:.@(30%(#.4#2+(#3(Y&,3(7#7.10,)#03(05Z#0)7#2+('#?.&67#5&%%(52#?0'5#.)#+.?#2.#

,1<3.@(#2+(#73042#Y&(52,.))0,3(=#*+3((#(A<(325#?(3(#,7()2,4,(7#05#+0@,)%#3(6(@0)2#

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2.#3(@,(?#2+(#73042#Y&(52,.))0,3(=#

c,2+#2+(,3#:.)5()2"#0#3(@,(?#<0:>0%(#?05#5()2#2.#2+(#(A<(325#8'#(10,6=#*+(#<0:>0%(#

,):6&7(7j#

! J#5&1103'#.4#2+(#302,.)06("#,)2()7(7#<&3<.5("#0)7#:.)523&:2,.)#<3.:(55(5#

.4#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(Z##

! I.):(<2&06#4301(?.3>"#:02(%.3,502,.)#5:+(1(5#0)7#,):6&5,.)k(A:6&5,.)#

:3,2(3,0#.4#2+(#52302(%,(5Z#0)7##

! J#73042#Y&(52,.))0,3(=#

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4.31022,)%#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3("#2+(#?.37,)%#.4#,)23.7&:2,.)#0)7#52302(%'#,2(15"#

0)7#:.)5,52():'#,)#52302(%'#5202(1()25=##

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:.1<3(+()5,86(#2.#2+(#203%(2#6(03)(35=##

! *+(#(A<(325#5&%%(52(7#2+02#2+(3(#)((7(7#2.#8(#.)(#.3#1.3(#.<()#Y&(52,.)5#

.)#52302(%'#&5(=#*+(#077,2,.)#.4#.<()X()7(7#,2(15"#?+(3(#6(03)(35#?(3(#

():.&30%(7#2.#5<(:,4'#.2+(3#52302(%,(5#0<032#43.1#2+.5(#:.@(3(7#,)#2+(#

Y&(52,.))0,3("#:.1<()502(7#4.3#2+(#<3(5:3,<2,@(#7(5,%)#.4#2+(#

Y&(52,.))0,3(5=#!)#077,2,.)"#2+(#.<()#()7(7#Y&(52,.)5#066.?(7#4.3#2+(#

119

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7&3,)%#2+(#7(@(6.<1()2#520%(=##

! I.):(3),)%#2+(#43(Y&():'#4,@(X<.,)2#T,>(32#5:06("#,2#?05#5&%%(52(7#8'#2+(#

(A<(325#2+02#_J6?0'5a#8(#:+0)%(7#2.#_J6?0'5#.3#061.52#06?0'5a#2.#066.?#4.3#

0<<3.A,102,.)#2.#_J6?0'5a=###

! *+(3(#?05#0#5&%%(52,.)#.)#2+(#3()&18(3,)%#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#,2(15=##

! *+(#(A<(325#05>(7#4.3#1.3(#:.)5,52():'#,)#(A<3(55,.)#.4#6(03),)%#%.065#O&5,)%#

3/#,)4,),2,@(#<+305(5P#?+,:+#&)7(3<,))(7#2+(#&5(#.4#52302(%'#%3.&<5=#V.3#

(A01<6(j##_H"(.*,2&(/0(!"#$%&'($*+,"%"#(,*&/5,@*&a#:.&67#8(#3(<+305(7#05#_3/(

+@@*&&(+"6(%".*#,+.*(6%M*,&*($*+,"%"#(,*&/5,@*&a=##

! I+0)%(5#2.#2+(#?.37,)%5#.4#5.1(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#,2(15#?(3(#<3.@,7(7=#V.3#

(A01<6("#_H(#/(./(!"#$%&'(@$+&&*&(%"(.'*(*M*"%"#a#?05#:+0)%(7#,)2.#_H(+..*"6(

*M*"%"#(!"#$%&'(@$+&&*&aZ#.3#_H($*+,"(D4('*+,.(.4A%@+$(05"@.%/"+$(A',+&*&(%"(

M+,%/5&(&%.5+.%/"&a#?05#:+0)%(7#,)2.#_H(2*2/,%&*(0%W*6(A',+&*&(/0(6%00*,*".(

05"@.%/"&a=##

J<<3.<3,02(#:+0)%(5#2.#2+(#73042#Y&(52,.))0,3(#?(3(#107(#805(7#.)#2+(#08.@(#

:.11()25#0)7#4((780:>#43.1#2+(#2?.#(A<(325"#0)7#0#3(4,)(7#@(35,.)#4.3#2+(#

Y&(52,.))0,3(#?05#.820,)(7#O5((#J<<()7,A#HP=##

4.3.4 The validation of the ELLSQ

*+(#4,)06#52(<#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#:.)523&:2,.)#,)@.6@(7#2+(#@06,702,.)#.4#,25#

3(6,08,6,2'#0)7#@06,7,2'=#J#4,(67#<3(X2(52#.3#0#<,6.2#5&3@('#?05#:033,(7#.&2#?,2+#2+(#

<032,:,<02,.)#.4#KS#52&7()25"#?+.#?(3(#<032#.4#2+(#203%(2#<.<&602,.)=#*+(#10,)#

<&3<.5(#.4#2+,5#<,6.2#2(52#?05#2.#()5&3(#2+(#?.3>08,6,2'#.4#2+(#,)523&1()2#<3,.3#2.#,25#

,1<6(1()202,.)=#*+(#<3.<.5(7#071,),52302,.)#<3.:(7&3(5#?05#2(52(7#2.#(52086,5+#

?+(2+(3#2+(#203%(2#&5(35#&)7(3520)7#2+(#Y&(52,.)5"#0)7#2.#,7()2,4'#0)'#.2+(3#,55&(5#

2+02#1,%+2#03,5("#4.3#(A01<6(#2+(#6()%2+#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#O9,6610)"#FGGGP=##

J#:+(:>6,52#4.3#<3(X2(52,)%#?05#7(@(6.<(7"#:.)20,),)%#Y&(52,.)5#08.&2#2+(#

071,),52302,.)"#:.)2()2#0)7#4.3102#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3("#5&:+#05#Y&(52,.))0,3(#

120

071,),52302,.)#1(2+.75"#0:2&06#:.1<6(2,.)#2,1("#2+(#6()%2+#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3("#

3(0708,6,2'#.4#2+(#<3,)2"#:.1<3(+()5,8,6,2'#.4#Y&(52,.)#,2(15"#60)%&0%(#:+.,:(#0)7#

:603,2'#.4#,)523&:2,.)=#J#6(22(3#.4#,)@,202,.)#?05#<3(<03(7#2.#,)4.31#<032,:,<0)25#

08.&2#2+(#<&3<.5(#0)7#2+(#.8U(:2,@(#.4#2+(#5&3@('=#*+(#<032,:,<0)25#?(3(#05>(7#2.#

4,66#,)#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#0)7#?(3(#065.#,)@,2(7#2.#3(5<.)7#2.#2+(#<3(X2(52,)%#

:+(:>6,52=#9(20,6(7#,)523&:2,.)5#.)#+.?#2.#:.1<6(2(#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#0)7#2+(#

:+(:>6,52#?(3(#<3.@,7(7#,)#2+(#6(22(3=#I.66(:2(7#7020#43.1#2+,5#<,6.2#?05#&5(7#4.3#

3(6,08,6,2'#0)7#@06,7,2'#055(551()2#.4#2+(#NTTR^=##

4.3.4.1 Reliability *+(#3(6,08,6,2'#.4#2+(#NTTR^#,2(15#?05#055(55(7#&5,)%#I3.)80:+[5#J6<+0#:.(44,:,()25"#

?+,:+#03(#:.)5,7(3(7#0#4&)701()206#0)7#520)7037#1(05&3(1()2#.4#3(6,08,6,2'#.4#

3(5(03:+#,)523&1()2#O;0660)2"#FGGS0P=#-'#7(4,),2,.)"#I3.)80:+[5#J6<+0#:.(44,:,()25#

(A01,)(#2+(#,)2(3)06#:.)5,52():''.4#5:06(7#,2(15#8'#(A01,),)%#2+(#0@(30%(#,)2(3X

,2(1#:.33(602,.)##OT("#R<():(3"#m#c+(60)"#FGGDP=#*+(#:06:&602,.)#.4#I3.)80:+[5#

J6<+0#:.(44,:,()25#<3.@,7(5#2+(#3(5(03:+(3#?,2+#,)4.3102,.)#.)#?+,:+#Y&(52,.))0,3(#

,2(15#03(#3(602(7#2.#(0:+#.2+(3#0)7#?+,:+#,2(15#5+.&67#8(#3(1.@(7#.3#:+0)%(7=#

J6<+0#:.(44,:,()2#@06&(5#@03'#8(2?(()#0#30)%(#.4#G=G#2.#C=G"#0)7#2+(#+,%+(3#2+(#5:.3(#

,5"#2+(#1.3(#3(6,086(#2+(#%()(302(7#5:06(#,5=#J::.37,)%#2.#$&))066'#0)7#-(3)52(,)#

OCKK\P"#066#I3.)80:+[5#J6<+0#:.(44,:,()2#@06&(5#08.@(#G=S'03(#:.)5,7(3(7#2.#8(#

0::(<2086(=##

i4#2+(#\S#,2(15#,)#2+(#NTTR^"#CH#,2(15#1(05&3(#M(%&602,)%#52302(%,(5"#C\#,2(15#

1(05&3(#V.31X805(7#52302(%,(5#0)7#FG#,2(15#1(05&3(#R>,66X805(7#52302(%,(5=#!)#2+(#

4.66.?,)%#5(:2,.)5"#2+(#3(6,08,6,2'#5:.3(5#4.3#,2(15#&5(7#2.#%()(302(#M(%&602,)%"#

V.31X805(7"#0)7#R>,66X805(7#52302(%,(5#03(#3(<.32(7=#

Table 4.2: Cronbach’s Alpha scores of the ELLSQ items

' 5;,&2.E)e6'M3P).' !',4'R0%T6'B%"#3.0*&"'Z0;.0%"*%6# =SLF# CH#:,;TW2.6%@'Z0;.0%"*%6'# =SKH# C\#Z[*33W2.6%@'Z0;.0%"*%6'# =KGG# FG#

121

4.3.4.1.1 Regulating strategy scale

*+(#<3(5()2#52&7'#.820,)(7#0#I3.)80:+[5#J6<+0#:.(44,:,()2#5:.3(#.4#G=SLF#4.3#2+(#CHX

,2(1#M(%&602,)%#52302(%'#5:06("#?+,:+#,)7,:02(7#2+02#2+(#,2(15#4.31(7#0#3(6,086(#

5:06(=#V&32+(3#(A01,)02,.)#.4#,)7,@,7&06#,2(15#,)7,:02(7#2+02#1.52#.4#2+(#CH#,2(15#

107(#0#3(05.)086(#:.)23,8&2,.)#2.#2+(#5:06(Z#+.?(@(3"#,2(1#$.=#C#O!#&5(#0:07(1,:#

<3,)2#102(3,065P#107(#0#1,),106#:.)23,8&2,.)#2.#2+(#5:06(#O5((#J<<()7,A#]#4.3#

4&32+(3#7(20,65P=##

4.3.4.1.2 Form-based Strategy scale

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(A01,)02,.)#.4#2+(#,2(15#,)7,:02(7#2+02#1.52#.4#2+(#,2(15#107(#3(05.)086(#

:.)23,8&2,.)5#2.#2+(#5:06(Z#+.?(@(3"#,2(1#$.=#C]#O!#3(?3,2(#?.375#10)'#2,1(5#2.#

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4.3#4&32+(3#7(20,65P=##

4.3.4.1.3 Skill-based Strategy scale

*+(#<3(5()2#52&7'#.820,)(7#0#I3.)80:+[5#J6<+0#:.(44,:,()2#5:.3(#.4#G=KG#4.3#2+(#FGX

,2(1#5>,66X805(7#52302(%'#5:06(=#*+,5#+,%+#5:.3(#,)7,:02(7#2+02#2+(#,2(15#4.31(7#0#

+,%+6'#3(6,086(#5:06(=#*+(#+,%+#6(@(6#.4#3(6,08,6,2'#+(3(#?05#<3.8086'#7&(#,)#<032#2.#2+(#

603%(#)&18(3#.4#,)7,:02.35=#J)#(A01,)02,.)#.4#2+(#,2(15#7(1.)52302(7#2+02#066#.4#

2+(#FG#,2(15#107(#3(05.)086(#:.)23,8&2,.)#2.#2+(#5:06(#O5((#J<<()7,A#]#4.3#4&32+(3#

7(20,65P=##

4.3.4.2 Validity J42(3#:.)7&:2,)%#I3.)80:+[5#J6<+0#3(6,08,6,2'#0)06'5(5"#2+(#,2(15#,)#2+(#

Y&(52,.))0,3(#?(3(#:+(:>(7#4.3#2+(,3#40:(#@06,7,2'#0)7#2(52(7#0%0,)52#2+(,3#:.)523&:2#

@06,7,2'#&5,)%#,2(1#0)06'5,5=##

4.3.4.2.1 Face validity

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?+(2+(3#2+(#,)523&1()2#.3#1(05&3(#6..>5#@06,7#2.#2+(#203%(2(7#&5(35#O-&3)5"#

FGGG8P=#!2#).31066'#,)@.6@(5#0#<(35.)06#U&7%1()2#.)#2+(#:.)2()2"#4.3102#0)7#

%()(306#&5(4&6)(55#.4#2+(#,)523&1()2=#!)#2+,5#52&7'"#2+(#4((780:>#0)7#:.11()25#.)#

122

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?05#3(@,5(7#0::.37,)%6'=#*+,5#<3.:(55#?05#&5(7#2.#()5&3(#2+(#40:(#@06,7,2'#.4#2+(#

NTTR^=##

*+(#KS#<032,:,<0)25#.4#2+(#<3(X2(52,)%#5&3@('#?(3(#7,@(35(#,)#2(315#.4#%()7(3"#

&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<"#10U.3"#0)7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'=#*+(#0@(30%(#6()%2+#.4#2,1(#4.3#

:.1<6(2,)%#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#?05#CF#1,)&2(5#O:.1<6(2,.)#2,1(5#30)%(7#43.1#K#2.#

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+0@(#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#,)#N)%6,5+#.)6'#8(:0&5(#,)#2+(,3#.<,),.)5"#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#

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+064#<3.@,7(7#5<(:,4,:#:.11()25#3(602(7#2.#2+(#:603,2'#.4#Y&(52,.)#?.37,)%"#0)7#2+(#

.@(3066#60'.&2#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(=#;.5,2,@(#:.11()25#?(3(#.820,)(7#3(%037,)%#2+(#

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2+(#<032,:,<0)25=#*+,5#?05#<3.8086'#2+0)>5#2.#2+(#40:2#2+02#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#+07#

8(()#<3(@,.&56'#7(@(6.<(7#43.1#2+(#,)<&2#.4#203%(2#&5(35#2+3.&%+#4.:&5#%3.&<5=#*+,5#

8.22.1X&<#0<<3.0:+#+07#066.?(7#4.3#2+(#4,62(3,)%#.4#018,%&.&5#0)7#:.)4&5,)%#

2(315#(@()#<3,.3#2.#2+(#<3(X2(52,)%=#!)#3(602,.)#2.#2+(#.@(3066#60'.&2"#2+(#

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123

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2+(#2(52#5:.3(#,)#2+(#%,@()#5<0:("#062+.&%+#2+('#,)7,:02(7#+0@,)%#2+(#2(52O5P=#V.3#2+,5#

3(05.)"#1.7,4,:02,.)#?05#107(#2.#+0@(#0#:6(03(3#,)523&:2,.)#,)#2+,5#Y&(52,.)j#

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+"6(&A*@%04(4/5,(&@/,*Y&Z(N'*,*(+AA$%@+D$*=a#

4.3.4.2.2 Construct validity

-'#7(4,),2,.)"#:.)523&:2#@06,7,2'#3(4(35#2.#?+(2+(3#2+(#.<(302,.)06#7(4,),2,.)#.4#0#

@03,086(#0:2&066'#3(46(:2#2+(#23&(#2+(.3(2,:06#1(0),)%#.4#0#:.):(<2#O-&3)5"#FGGG8P=#

;032,:&6036'"#:.)523&:2#@06,7,2'#5((>5#0%3((1()2#8(2?(()#0#2+(.3(2,:06#:.):(<2#0)7#

0#5<(:,4,:#1(05&3,)%#7(@,:(#.3#<3.:(7&3(#O-&3)5"#FGGG8P=#!)#0#3(5(03:+#,)523&1()2#

5&:+#05#0#Y&(52,.))0,3("#1&62,<6(X,2(1#5:06(5#03(#7(@(6.<(7#2.#055(55#.3#(A<60,)#2+(#

:+030:2(3,52,:5#.4#8(+0@,.&3#.3#0#<+().1().)#2+02#03(#).2#7,3(:26'#.85(3@086(=#!2(1#

0)06'5,5#?05#&5(7#2.#7(:,7(#?+,:+#,2(15#.4#2+(#3(5(03:+#,)523&1()2#2.#8(#,):6&7(7#

.3#(A:6&7(7#43.1#0#5:06(#Ob:J6<,)("#FGGFP=##

!)#<3,):,<6("#2+(#,2(1#0)06'5,5#<3.:(7&3(#5((>5#2.#5(6(:2#0#5(2#.4#,2(15#?+,:+#

<3.7&:(#0#5&11(7#5:.3(#2+02#,5#1.3(#523.)%6'#3(602(7#2.#2+(#:.)523&:2#.4#,)2(3(52#

2+0)#0)'#.2+(3#<.55,86(#5(2#.4#,2(15#O-03)037"#CKKKZ#b:J6<,)("#FGGFP=#!)#.2+(3#

?.375"#,2#,5#&5(7#2.#7(2(31,)(#,4#Y&(52,.)#,2(15#03(#055.:,02(7#?,2+#<032,:&603#

:.)523&:25=##

4.3.4.2.2.1 Statistical method

J::.37,)%#2.#R;RR#OCKKDP"#2+(#<3.:(7&3(#.4#,2(1#0)06'5,5#,5#&5(7#2.#0)06'5(#,2(15#.)#

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,2(1#0)06'5,5#,5#2+02#5:06(#5:.3(5#?,66#8(#:06:&602(7#8'#5&11,)%#,2(1#5:.3(5=#;3,.3#2.#

:.)7&:2,)%#0)#,2(1#0)06'5,5"#066#,2(15#)((7#2.#8(#230)54.31(7#2.#:06:&602(#0#2.206#

5:.3(=#J42(3#230)54.31,)%#,2(15#2.#:3(02(#0#1(0),)%4&6#2.206#5:.3(#4.3#0#5:06("#0#

:.33(602,.)#O.3#q:.33(:2(7#,2(1X2.206#:.33(602,.)5[#,)#R;RRP#?,66#8(#:.1<&2(7#

8(2?(()#(0:+#,2(1#.)#2+(#5:06(#0)7#2+(#2.206#5:.3("#(A:6&7,)%#2+(#,2(1#.4#,)2(3(52#

43.1#2+(#2.206#5:.3(=#!4#2+(#,2(15#3(<3(5()2#2+(#:.)523&:2#.4#,)2(3(52"#2+('#5+.&67#8(#

124

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:.33(602,.)5#?,66#8(#:+.5()#2.#8(#,):6&7(7#,)#2+(#5:06(5#?+(3(05#,2(15#?+,:+#+0@(#

)(%02,@(#.3#6.?#<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)5#?,66#8(#7(6(2(7#.3#3(@,5(7#.)#2+(#5:06(5#OR;RR"#

CKKDP=##

c+()#Y&(52,.)#,2(15#03(#7(5,%)(7#2.#055(55#1&62,<6(#:.)523&:25"#4,3526'"#2+(#

:.33(602,.)5#8(2?(()#,2(1#5:.3(5#0)7#:.33(:2(7#.4#2.206#5:.3(5#4.3#2+(#:.)523&:2#.4#

2+(#,2(15#03(#:06:&602(7=#R(:.)76'"#2+(#:.33(602,.)5#8(2?(()#,2(1#5:.3(5#0)7#2.206#

5:.3(5#055(55,)%#7,44(3()2#:.)523&:2#03(#:.1<&2(7=#J)#,2(1#5+.&67#8(#:.33(602(7#

1.3(#?,2+#,25#.?)#5:06(#2+0)#?,2+#5:06(5#055(55,)%#7,44(3()2#:.)523&:25=##

!)#5&1103'"#2+(#M(6,08,6,2'#<3.:(7&3(#:0)#8(#&5(7#2.#7(2(31,)(#2+(#:.33(602,.)#.4#

0)#,2(1#?,2+#,25#.?)#:.33(:2(7#2.206#5:06("#8&2#2+(#-,@03,02(#I.33(602,.)#<3.:(7&3(#

5+.&67#8(#&5(7#2.#7(2(31,)(#2+(#:.33(602,.)#8(2?(()#,2(1#5:.3(5#0)7#2.206#5:.3(5#

4.3#.2+(3#5:06(5=#$(@(32+(6(55"#?+()#10>,)%#0#7(:,5,.)#08.&2#>((<,)%#.3#.1,2#,2(15"#

2+(#:.)2()2#.4#2+(#,2(15#1&52#8(#20>()#,)2.#:.)5,7(302,.)"#).2#U&52#2+(#10%),2&7(5#

.4#2+(#:.33(602,.)#:.(44,:,()25#Of3(()#m#R06>,)7"#FGCCP=##

4.3.4.2.2.2 Item Analysis procedure

!)#2+,5#<0<(3"#0)#,2(1#0)06'5,5#?05#:.)7&:2(7#2.#(@06&02(#?+(2+(3#.3#).2#CH#

Y&(52,.)#,2(15#8(2?(()#C#0)7#CH#03(#055.:,02(7#?,2+#.)(#5:06(#OM(%&602,)%#

R2302(%,(5P"#C\#Y&(52,.)#,2(15#8(2?(()#C\#0)7#FS#03(#055.:,02(7#?,2+#0#5(:.)7#

5:06(#OV.31X805(7#R2302(%,(5P"#0)7#FG#Y&(52,.)#,2(15#8(2?(()#FD#0)7#\S#03(#

055.:,02(7#?,2+#0#2+,37#5:06(#OR>,66X805(7#R2302(%,(5P=#*+(#0)06'5,5#?05#:.)7&:2(7#,)#

2+(#4.66.?,)%#52(<5j#

! Z0%P'=j#I06:&602,)%#I.33(:2(7#!2(1X*.206#I.33(602,.)5#4.3#,2(15#%"(-@+$*(<(I(

J*#5$+.%"#(-.,+.*#%*&#O*086(#\=HP"#2+(#,2(15#,)#-@+$*(8(I(7/,2ID+&*6(

-.,+.*#%*&#O*086(#\=\P"#2+(#,2(15#,)#-@+$*(:(I(-K%$$ID+&*6(&.,+.*#%*&#O*086(#\=]P##

! Z0%P'Aj#I.)7&:2,)%#-,@03,02(#I.33(602,.)5#8(2?(()j#

! R:06(#C#OM(%&602,)%#R2302(%,(5P#,2(15#0)7#2+(#5&1#.4#R:06(#F#OV.31X

805(7#R2302(%,(5PZ#

125

! R:06(#C#OM(%&602,)%#R2302(%,(5P#,2(15#0)7#2+(#5&1#.4#R:06(#H#OR>,66X

805(7#R2302(%,(5P#O*086(#\=LP=#

! Z0%P'Dj#M(<(02#52(<#F#4.3#R:06(#F#OV.31X805(7#R2302(%,(5P#,2(15#?,2+#2+(#5&1#

.4#R:06(#C#OM(%&602,)%#R2302(%,(5P#0)7#R:06(#H#OR>,66X805(7#R2302(%,(5P#O*086(#

\=SP=#

! Z0%P'Hj#M(<(02#52(<#F#4.3#R:06(#H#OR>,66X805(7#R2302(%,(5P#,2(15#?,2+#2+(#5&1#

.4#R:06(#C#OM(%&602,)%#R2302(%,(5P#0)7#R:06(#F#OV.31X805(7#R2302(%,(5P#O*086(#

\=DP=#

! Z0%P'Lj#;(34.31,)%#,2(1#0)06'5,5#.)#3(@,5(7#5:06(5#&)2,6#0#502,540:2.3'#5(2#.4#

,2(15#3(10,)5#O*086(#\=KP=#

Table 4.3: Corrected Item-Total Correlations for items in Scale 1-Regulating Strategies

ZE.3%'=1'B%"#3.0*&"'60;.0%"*%6'' R0%TW(,0.3'5,;;%3.0*,&6'

=7'R'#6%'.E.@%T*E'P;*&0'T.0%;*.36'\0%<02,,[6f';%4%;%&E%'2,,[6f'3%66,&'&,0%6]7# =CGD#A7'R'#6%'&,&W.E.@%T*E'P;*&0'T.0%;*.36'\&%?6P.P%;6f'^,#;&.36f'&,8%36f'60,;*%6]7# =\GL#

D7'R'#6%'0;.@*0*,&.3'2;,.@E.60'T.0%;*.36'\6),?6_T,8*%6',&'(Jf';.@*,'P;,";.T6]7'# =HS]#

H7'R'#6%';%E,;@%@'T.0%;*.36'\.#@*,_8*@%,'0.P%6f'5/6]7'# =H]D#L7'R'#6%',&3*&%_E,TP#0%;W2.6%@'T.0%;*.36'\%W2,,[6_^,#;&.36f'6,40?.;%f'?%2E.606]7'#

=HSC#

N7'R'#6%'T,&,3*&"#.3'\Q&"3*6)WQ&"3*6)]'@*E0*,&.;*%67# =HC\#G7'R'.00%&@'%8%&06'?)%;%'Q&"3*6)'*6'#6%@'\E3#26f'6%T*&.;6f'?,;[6),P6f'%0E7]7# =\\L#O7'R'.00%&@'%8%&*&"'Q&"3*6)'E3.66%67'# =FKC#C7'R'E,TT#&*E.0%'?*0)'4,;%*"&%;6'\%*0)%;'4.E%W0,W4.E%',;'2$'%T.*3_8,*E%T.*3]7# =\KK#=K7'R'^,*&',&3*&%'4,;#T\6]'*&'Q&"3*6)7'# =H\S#==7'R'T.*&0.*&'.'23,"_:.E%W2,,[_?%2P."%'*&'Q&"3*6)7# =HDK#=A7'R'6%0'6P%E*4*E'",.36'4,;'*TP;,8*&"'T$'Q&"3*6)7# =]FH#=D7'R'T,&*0,;'T$'P;,";%66'*&'Q&"3*6)7# =]SK#

#

Table 4.4: Corrected Item-Total Correlations for items in Scale 2-Form-based

Strategies

ZE.3%'A1':,;TW2.6%@'60;.0%"*%6' R0%TW(,0.3'5,;;%3.0*,&6'

=H7'R';%E,;@'?,;@6'*&'";,#P6',;'P);.6%6'\;.0)%;'0).&'*&@*8*@#.3'?,;@6]7'# =\CS#=L7'R';%?;*0%'?,;@6'T.&$'0*T%6'0,';%T%T2%;'0)%*;'6P%33*&"67# =CK]#=N7'R'2;%.['&%?'?,;@6'*&0,'P.;06'0).0'R'[&,?7''# =HLL#

126

=G7'R'"#%66'T%.&*&"6',4'?,;@6'4;,T'E,&0%<067'# =\FK#=O7'R'T.[%'6%&0%&E%6'0).0'E,&0.*&'&%?'?,;@67'# =\SK#=C7'R'3%.;&'?,;@6'2$'0,P*E67'# =F\]#AK7'R'T%T,;*6%'";.TT.;';#3%6'.&@'60;#E0#;%67''# =]HH#A=7'R'@,'";.TT.;'%<%;E*6%67'# =HK\#AA7'R'T.[%'T$',?&'6%&0%&E%6'#6*&"'&%?'60;#E0#;%67''# =\KG#AD7'R'.&.3$6%'0)%'";.TT.0*E.3'60;#E0#;%6',4'@*44%;%&0'0%<067# =HDD#AH7'R';%.@'P),&%0*E'0;.&6E;*P0*,&6',4'?,;@6'*&'0)%'@*E0*,&.;$'\%7"7f'0).0'_gh0_]7# =H]F#AL7'R'#6%'Q3%E0;,&*E'@*E0*,&.;*%6',;'V;,&#&E*.0*,&'Z,40?.;%'4,;'T,@%3'P;,&#&E*.0*,&',4'?,;@6_P);.6%67#

=\FK#

AN7'R'P;.E0*E%'#&4.T*3*.;'6,#&@6'2$'6.$*&"'0)%T'.".*&'.&@'.".*&7'# =]GK#AG7'R';%P%.0'.40%;'&.0*8%'6P%.[%;6'\,&';%E,;@*&"6',;'*&'T,8*%6]7'# =]G]#

Table 4.5: Corrected Item-Total Correlations for items in Scale 3-Skill-based Strategies

ZE.3%'D1'Z[*33W2.6%@'60;.0%"*%6'' R0%TW(,0.3'5,;;%3.0*,&6'

AO7'R';%.@',8%;'0)%'0%<0'S#*E[3$'4,;'T.*&'*@%.6'2%4,;%';%.@*&"'E.;%4#33$7# =]DC#AC7'R'*@%&0*4$'0)%',;".&*6.0*,&',4'0)%'0%<0'\E,TP.;%WE,&0;.60f'E.#6%W%44%E0f'%0E7]7'#

=]CF#

DK7'R'6[*P'#&*TP,;0.&0'?,;@6'\6#E)'.6'i0)%UfU'.&@Uf'%0E7]7'# =]HL#D=7'R'T.[%'P;%@*E0*,&6'.2,#0'?).0'?*33'E,T%'&%<07# =\\C#DA7'R'T.[%'6#TT.;*%6'.2,#0'0)%'0%<0'\*&'T$'T*&@',;'*&'0)%'0%<0'T.;"*&]7# =]LD#DD7'R';%;%.@'P.;0',4'0)%'0%<0'0,'#&@%;60.&@'2%00%;7'# =LFC#DH7'R'P.$'.00%&0*,&'0,'&,&W8%;2.3'E#%6'\"%60#;%f'";.P)*E6f'60;%66f'P.#6%f'%0E7]7'# =\DC#DL7'R'3*60%&'4,;'[%$'?,;@6',;'*@%.67# =]LL#DN7'R'0.[%'&,0%6',4'[%$'?,;@6',;'*@%.6'\@#;*&"'3%E0#;%6_P;%6%&0.0*,&6_0%606]7'# =LFS#DG7'R'.6['0)%'6P%.[%;'0,'E3.;*4$_;%P%.0'0,'#&@%;60.&@'2%00%;'*&'.'E,&8%;6.0*,&7'# =]GF#DO7'R'T%T,;*6%'?).0'0,'6.$'*&'8.;*,#6'6*0#.0*,&6'\;%S#%60f'.P,3,"$f'E,TP3.*&0j]7''#

=]DL#

DC7'R'P;.E0*E%'6P%.[*&"'0,'T$6%347# =]CS#HK7'R'%<P3.*&',;'"*8%'%<.TP3%6'*4'R'@,&U0'[&,?'0)%'%<.E0'?,;@67'# =LFC#H=7'R'#6%'6$&,&$T6',;'6*TP3%;'?,;@6'*4'R'@,&U0'[&,?'0)%'%<.E0'?,;@67# =]CG#HA7'R'#6%'2,@$'3.&"#."%'0,')%3P'%<P;%66'?).0'R'?.&0'0,'6.$7# =HKF#HD7'R'3,,['4,;'4,;T.3'?.$6'0,'%<P;%66'*@%.6'\%6P7'*&'%66.$6f';%P,;06]7'# =LHL#HH7'R'T.[%'.&',#03*&%',4'T.*&'P,*&06'2%4,;%'?;*0*&"7# =\KC#HL7'R'@;.40'T$'?;*0*&"7'# =]LD#HN7'R';%8*6%'T$'?;*0*&"'0,'*TP;,8%'0)%'3.&"#."%'.&@'E,&0%&07# =]HL#HG7'R'.6[',0)%;6'0,'E,TT%&0',&'T$'?;*0*&"7# =FSK#

127

Table 4.6: Bivariate Correlations between items in Scale 1 and the sum of Scales 2, 3

ZE.3%'=1'B%"#3.0*&"'60;.0%"*%6' ZE.3%'=' ZE.3%'A' ZE.3%'D'

=7'R'#6%'.E.@%T*E'P;*&0'T.0%;*.36'\0%<02,,[6f';%4%;%&E%'2,,[6f'3%66,&'&,0%6]7'#

=CGD# =CSD# =HCH#

A7'R'#6%'&,&W.E.@%T*E'P;*&0'T.0%;*.36'\&%?6P.P%;6f'^,#;&.36f'&,8%36f'60,;*%6]7#

=\GL# =HF\# =CKF#

D7'R'#6%'0;.@*0*,&.3'2;,.@E.60'T.0%;*.36'\6),?6_T,8*%6',&'(Jf';.@*,'P;,";.T6]7#

=HS]# =CH]# =CK\#

H7'R'#6%';%E,;@%@'T.0%;*.36'\.#@*,_8*@%,'0.P%6f'5/6]'7# =H]D# =FKL# =FL]#L7'R'#6%',&3*&%_E,TP#0%;W2.6%@'T.0%;*.36'\%W2,,[6_^,#;&.36f'6,40?.;%f'?%2E.606]7'#

=HSC# =F\L# =HG\#

N7'R'#6%'T,&,3*&"#.3'\Q&"3*6)WQ&"3*6)]'@*E0*,&.;*%67# =HC\# =FLF# =FD]#G7'R'.00%&@'%8%&06'?)%;%'Q&"3*6)'*6'#6%@'\E3#26f'6%T*&.;6f'?,;[6),P6f'%0E7]7#

=\\L# =CSF# =FHC#

O7'R'.00%&@'%8%&*&"'Q&"3*6)'E3.66%67'# =FKC# =FCL# =C]]#C7'R'E,TT#&*E.0%'?*0)'4,;%*"&%;6'\%*0)%;'4.E%W0,W4.E%',;'2$'%T.*3_8,*E%T.*3]7#

=\KK# =HFF# =H]S#

=K7'R'^,*&',&3*&%'4,;#T\6]'*&'Q&"3*6)7'# =H\S# =FDD# =FKF#==7'R'T.*&0.*&'.'23,"_:.E%W2,,[_?%2P."%'*&'Q&"3*6)7# =HDK# =HLF# =HCF#=A7'R'6%0'6P%E*4*E'",.36'4,;'*TP;,8*&"'T$'Q&"3*6)7# =]FH# =\]\# =\DC#=D7'R'T,&*0,;'T$'P;,";%66'*&'Q&"3*6)7# =]SK# =]]D# =]C]#

Table 4.7: Bivariate Correlations between items in Scale 2 and the sum of Scales 1, 3

ZE.3%'A1':,;TW2.6%@'60;.0%"*%6' ZE.3%'=' ZE.3%'A' ZE.3%'D'=H7'R';%E,;@'?,;@6'*&'";,#P6',;'P);.6%6'\;.0)%;'0).&'*&@*8*@#.3'?,;@6]7'#

=\FH# =\CS# =HS\#

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gh0_']7'#

=FDH# =H]F# =FSH#

AL7'R'#6%'Q3%E0;,&*E'@*E0*,&.;*%6',;'V;,&#&E*.0*,&'Z,40?.;%'4,;'T,@%3'P;,&#&E*.0*,&',4'?,;@6_P);.6%6#

=HHC# =\FK# =\CC#

AN7'R'P;.E0*E%'#&4.T*3*.;'6,#&@6'2$'6.$*&"'0)%T'.".*&'.&@'.".*&7'#

=FFS# =]GK# =\LC#

AG7'R';%P%.0'.40%;'&.0*8%'6P%.[%;6'\,&';%E,;@*&"6',;'*&'T,8*%6]7'#

=FDD# =]G]# =\DH#

128

Table 4.8: Bivariate Correlations between items in Scale 3 and the sum of Scales 1, 2

ZE.3%'D1'Z[*33W2.6%@'60;.0%"*%6'' ZE.3%'=' ZE.3%'A' ZE.3%'D'AO7'R';%.@',8%;'0)%'0%<0'S#*E[3$'4,;'T.*&'*@%.6'2%4,;%';%.@*&"'E.;%4#33$7#

=HFK# =\]K# =]DC#

AC7'R'*@%&0*4$'0)%',;".&*6.0*,&',4'0)%'0%<0'\E,TP.;%WE,&0;.60f'E.#6%W%44%E0f'%0E7]7'#

=\GG# =\HD# =]CF#

DK7'R'6[*P'#&*TP,;0.&0'?,;@6'\6#E)'.6'i0)%UfU'.&@Uf'%0E7]7'# =H]F# =\]D# =]HL#D=7'R'T.[%'P;%@*E0*,&6'.2,#0'?).0'?*33'E,T%'&%<07'# =\SS# =H]F# =\\C#DA7'R'T.[%'6#TT.;*%6'.2,#0'0)%'0%<0'\*&'T$'T*&@',;'*&'0)%'0%<0'T.;"*&]7#

=\HH# =\F]# =]LD#

DD7'R';%;%.@'P.;0',4'0)%'0%<0'0,'#&@%;60.&@'2%00%;7'# =F\L# =\\S# =LFC#DH7'R'P.$'.00%&0*,&'0,'&,&W8%;2.3'E#%6'\"%60#;%f'";.P)*E6f'60;%66f'P.#6%f'%0E7]7#

=\\]# =HKC# =\DC#

DL7'R'3*60%&'4,;'[%$'?,;@6',;'*@%.67# =HG\# =HSG# =]LL#DN7'R'0.[%'&,0%6',4'[%$'?,;@6',;'*@%.6'\@#;*&"'3%E0#;%6_P;%6%&0.0*,&6_0%606]7'#

=H\F# =\\F# =LFS#

DG7'R'.6['0)%'6P%.[%;'0,'E3.;*4$_;%P%.0'0,'#&@%;60.&@'2%00%;'*&'.'E,&8%;6.0*,&7'#

=F]L# =HKG# =]GF#

DO7'R'T%T,;*6%'?).0'0,'6.$'*&'8.;*,#6'6*0#.0*,&6'\;%S#%60f'.P,3,"$f'E,TP3.*&0j]7''#

=HD\# =\]\# =]DL#

DC7'R'P;.E0*6%'6P%.[*&"'0,'T$6%347# =H]C# =\DL# =]CS#HK7'R'%<P3.*&',;'"*8%'%<.TP3%6'*4'R'@,&U0'[&,?'0)%'%<.E0'?,;@67'#

=\FL# =]\\# =LFC#

H=7'R'#6%'6$&,&$T6',;'6*TP3%;'?,;@6'*4'R'@,&U0'[&,?'0)%'%<.E0'?,;@67#

=H]G# =HDF# =]CG#

HA7'R'#6%'2,@$'3.&"#."%'0,')%3P'%<P;%66'?).0'R'?.&0'0,'6.$7# =HFC# =FKC# =HKF#HD7'R'3,,['4,;'4,;T.3'?.$6'0,'%<P;%66'*@%.6'\%6P7'*&'%66.$6f';%P,;06]7'#

=HSF# =\\\# =LHL#

HH7'R'T.[%'.&',#03*&%',4'T.*&'P,*&06'2%4,;%'?;*0*&"7# =HGS# =H]H# =\KC#HL7'R'@;.40'T$'?;*0*&"7'# =CKK# =HLH# =]LD#HN7'R';%8*6%'T$'?;*0*&"'0,'*TP;,8%'0)%'3.&"#."%'.&@'E,&0%&07'# =FCL# =HKC# =]HL#HG7'R'.6[',0)%;6'0,'E,TT%&0',&'T$'?;*0*&"7# =FLH# =HFC# =FSK#

#

J5#0#?+.6("#2+(#,2(1#0)06'5,5#?05#:.)7&:2(7#.)#\S#Y&(52,.)#,2(15#?+,:+#+07#8(()#

7(@(6.<(7#2.#055(55#M(%&602,)%"#V.31X805(7"#0)7#R>,66X805(7#R2302(%,(5=#N0:+#,2(1#

?05#:.33(602(7#?,2+#,25#.?)#5:06(#0)7#2+()#?,2+#.2+(3#52302(%'#5:06(5=#*+(#-,@03,02(#

I.33(602,.)5#3(5&625#,)7,:02(7#2+02#D#,2(15#?(3(#1.3(#:.33(602(7#?,2+#0).2+(3#5:06(#

2+0)#2+(,3#.?)#5:06("#,):6&7,)%#,2(15#C"#C\"#CS"#CD"#CK"#FH"#HC"#0)7#\S=#J#4&32+(3#

(A01,)02,.)#.4#2+(#:.)2()2#.4#2+(#D#,2(15#?05#7.)(#8(:0&5(#,2(1#0)06'5,5#,5#

).31066'#5&%%(52(7#2.#8(#&5(7#?,2+#7,5:3(2,.)#0)7#2+(#,2(15#2.#8(#,):6&7(7#,)#0#

5:06(#5+.&67#).2#.)6'#8(#805(7#.)#2+(#:.33(602,.)#8(2?(()#,2(1#5:.3(5#0)7#2.206#

129

5:.3(5"#8&2#065.#.)#+.?#2+('#302,.)066'#0)7#2+(.3(2,:066'#3(602(#2.#2+(#:.)523&:25#

Ob:J6<,)("#FGGFP=#!2#?05#7(:,7(7#2+02#,2(1#CS#OH(#5*&&(2*+"%"#&(/0(N/,6&(0,/2(

@/".*W.&P#,)#R:06(#F#OV.31X805(7#R2302(%,(5P#?05#1.3(#3(6(@0)2#2.#3(07,)%#5>,665#,)#

R:06(#H#OR>,66X805(7#R2302(%,(5P#?+,6(#066#.4#2+(#3(10,),)%#,2(15#?(3(#302,.)066'#0)7#

2+(102,:066'#4,22(7#?,2+#2+(,3#.?)#5:06(5=#V.3#2+,5#3(05.)"#,2(1#CS#OH(#5*&&(2*+"%"#&(

/0(N/,6&(0,/2(@/".*W.&P#?05#1.@(7#43.1#R:06(#F#2.#R:06(#H=##

*+(#:.)523&:2#@06,7,2'#.4#2+(#3(@,5(7#5:06(5#?05#055(55(7#0%0,)#&5,)%#M(6,08,6,2'#

I.(44,:,()25#0)7#-,@03,02(#I.33(602,.)5=#*+(#3(5&625#,)#2+(#8(6.?#*086(#\=K#,)7,:02(7#

2+02#\G#.&2#.4#\S#,2(15#?(3(#5202,52,:066'#1.3(#:.33(602(7#?,2+#2+(,3#.?)#5:06(#2+0)#

?,2+#0).2+(3#5:06("#0)7#2+(#3(10,),)%#S#,2(15#?(3(#3(20,)(7#,)#2+(,3#.?)#5:06(#

(,2+(3#8(:0&5(#.4#2+(,3#+,%+(3#2+(102,:#:.33(602,.)#?,2+#2+(,3#.?)#5:06(#.3#2+(#

1,),106#7,44(3():(5#,)#2+(#8,@03,02(#:.33(602,.)#5:.3(5=##

Table 4.9: Bivariate Correlations between items in the revised Scales 1, 2 and 3

ZE.3%'=1'B%"#3.0*&"'60;.0%"*%6'' ZE.3%'=' ZE.3%'A' ZE.3%'D'

=7'R'#6%'.E.@%T*E'P;*&0'T.0%;*.36'\0%<02,,[6f';%4%;%&E%'2,,[6f'3%66,&'&,0%6]7'#

=CGD# =C]D# =HC]#

A7'R'#6%'&,&W.E.@%T*E'P;*&0'T.0%;*.36'\&%?6P.P%;6f'^,#;&.36f'&,8%36f'60,;*%6]7#

=\GL# =HG]# =FCH#

D7'R'#6%'0;.@*0*,&.3'2;,.@E.60'T.0%;*.36'\6),?6_T,8*%6',&'(Jf';.@*,'P;,";.T6]7'#

=HS]# =CHG# =CK\#

H7'R'#6%';%E,;@%@'T.0%;*.36'\.#@*,_8*@%,'0.P%6f'5/6]7'# =H]D# =FSL# =FS\#L7'R'#6%',&3*&%_E,TP#0%;W2.6%@'T.0%;*.36'\%W2,,[6_^,#;&.36f'6,40?.;%f'?%2E.6067]'#

=HSC# =FHD# =HCD#

N7'R'#6%'T,&,3*&"#.3'\Q&"3*6)WQ&"3*6)]'@*E0*,&.;*%67# =HC\# =F]D# =FKF#G7'R'.00%&@'%8%&06'?)%;%'Q&"3*6)'*6'#6%@'\E3#26f'6%T*&.;6f'?,;[6),P6f'%0E7]7#

=\\L# =CSF# =FFF#

O7'R'.00%&@'%8%&*&"'Q&"3*6)'E3.66%67'# =FKC# =FG]# =CL]#C7'R'E,TT#&*E.0%'?*0)'4,;%*"&%;6'\%*0)%;'4.E%W0,W4.E%',;'2$'%T.*3_8,*E%T.*3]7#

=\KK# =HC]# =H]D#

=K7'R'^,*&',&3*&%'4,;#T\6]'*&'Q&"3*6)7'# =H\S# =FDS# =FKG#==7'R'T.*&0.*&'.'23,"_:.E%W2,,[_?%2P."%'*&'Q&"3*6)7# =HDK# =H\D# =HFF#=A7'R'6%0'6P%E*4*E'",.36'4,;'*TP;,8*&"'T$'Q&"3*6)7# =]FH# =\CF# =\KL#=D7'R'T,&*0,;'T$'P;,";%66'*&'Q&"3*6)7# =]SK# =]]C# =]CK#

ZE.3%'A1':,;TW2.6%@'60;.0%"*%6'' # # #=H7'R';%E,;@'?,;@6'*&'";,#P6',;'P);.6%6'\;.0)%;'0).&'*&@*8*@#.3'?,;@6]'#

=\CH# =\GL# =HL]#

=L7'R';%?;*0%'?,;@6'T.&$'0*T%6'0,';%T%T2%;''0)%*;'6P%33*&"6# =G\L# =CKD# =CC\#=N7'R'2;%.['&%?'?,;@6'*&0,'P.;06'0).0'R'[&,?''# =FLD# =H]F# =FLG#=G7'R'T.[%'6%&0%&E%6'0).0'E,&0.*&'&%?'?,;@6'# =\HK# =\LC# =]FF#

130

=O7'R'3%.;&'?,;@6'2$'0,P*E6'# =\HL# =FLG# =H]S#=C7'R'T%T,;*6%'";.TT.;';#3%6'.&@'60;#E0#;%6''# =FCS# =]FC# =HLL#AK7'R'@,'";.TT.;'%<%;E*6%6'# =CDG# =\GD# =HGS#A=7'R'T.[%'T$',?&'6%&0%&E%6'#6*&"'&%?'60;#E0#;%6''# =HCL# =\K]# =HD]#AA7'R'.&.3$6%'0)%'";.TT.0*E.3'60;#E0#;%6',4'@*44%;%&0'0%<06# =F]C# =HDK# =\CG#AD7'R';%.@'P),&%0*E'0;.&6E;*P0*,&6',4'?,;@6'*&'0)%'@*E0*,&.;$'\%7"7'0).0'_gh0_']'#

=FDH# =H\S# =FSK#

AH7'R'#6%'Q3%E0;,&*E'@*E0*,&.;*%6',;'V;,&#&E*.0*,&'Z,40?.;%'4,;'T,@%3'P;,&#&E*.0*,&',4'?,;@6_P);.6%67#

=HHC# =\\H# =\GD#

AL7'R'P;.E0*E%'#&4.T*3*.;'6,#&@6'2$'6.$*&"'0)%T'.".*&'.&@'.".*&7'#

=FFS# =\D\# =\SK#

AN7'R';%P%.0'.40%;'&.0*8%'6P%.[%;6'\,&';%E,;@*&"6',;'*&'T,8*%6]7'# =FDD# =\DC# =\DS#

ZE.3%'D1'Z[*33W2.6%@'60;.0%"*%6' ' ' 'AG7'R';%.@',8%;'0)%'0%<0'S#*E[3$'4,;'T.*&'*@%.6'2%4,;%';%.@*&"'E.;%4#33$7#

=HFK# =\HL# =]KH#

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131

4.3.5 The ELLSQ – Final version

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Figure 4.1: Final structure of the English Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire

(ELLSQ)

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132

4.4 Conclusion

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ONTTR^P"#?+,:+#?05#(1<6.'(7#,)#2+,5#52&7'#.)#TTR5#01.)%#W,(2)01(5(#2(32,03'#

6(03)(35=##!2#+05#.&26,)(7#2+(#)((7#4.3#2+(#:.)523&:2,.)#.4#2+(#NTTR^"#0)7#7(5:3,8(7#

2+(#@03,.&5#52(<5#.4#,25#7(@(6.<1()2#,)#7(20,65"#,):6&7,)%#2+(#3(@,(?#.4#3(6(@0)2#

6,2(302&3("#:.)5&6202,.)#?,2+#5&3@('#(A<(325#0)7#3(5.&3:(5"#0)7#4.:&5#%3.&<#

7,5:&55,.)5#?,2+#203%(2#6(03)(35=#!2#+05#5&85(Y&()26'#0773(55(7#2+(#3(4,)(1()2#.4#

2+(#NTTR^#2+3.&%+#2+(#<3.:(55(5#.4#:.)7&:2,)%#,)4.3106#(A<(32#3(@,(?5#0)7#,25#

@06,702,.)#2+3.&%+#4,(67#<3(X2(525=#*+(#3(6,08,6,2'#0)7#@06,7,2'#.4#2+(#NTTR^#+0@(#065.#

8(()#:6(036'#032,:&602(7#?,2+#5202,52,:06#(@,7():(=#*+,5#:+0<2(3#<60'5#0)#,1<.320)2#

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<3.@,7(#0#7(20,6(7#3(<.32#.)#2+(#4,)7,)%5#0)7#0)06'5,5#.4#Y&0)2,202,@(#7020=###

133

5 Quantitative Data Analysis

5.1 Introduction

*+,5#:+0<2(3#<3(5()25#2+(#0)06'5,5#.4#2+(#Y&0)2,202,@(#7020#?+,:+#?05#%02+(3(7#43.1#

2+(#<032,:,<0)25[#3(5<.)5(5#2.#2+(#N)%6,5+#T0)%&0%(#T(03),)%#R2302(%'#^&(52,.))0,3(#

ONTTR^P=#!2#0773(55(5j#

! M(5(03:+#.8U(:2,@(#Cj#*.#,7()2,4'#2+(#2'<(5"#43(Y&():'#0)7#<022(3)5#.4#TTR#

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6(03)(3#@03,086(5#5&:+#05#%()7(3"#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5"#0:07(1,:#10U.35"#

5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'"#0)7#8(6,(45#08.&2#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%=##

*+,5#:+0<2(3#8(%,)5#?,2+#0#7,5:&55,.)#.4#5&3@('#071,),52302,.)#0)7#2+()#7(5:3,8(5#

2+(#%()(306#:+030:2(3,52,:5#.4#2+(#5&3@('#3(5<.)7()25#5&:+#05#%()7(3"#&),@(35,2'#

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8(6,(45=#!2#2+()#3(<.325#2+(,3#3(5<.)5(5#2.#(0:+#52302(%'#,2(1#?,2+,)#2+(#2+3((#10,)#

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5&:+#05#d3&5>06Xc066,5#2(525"#b0))Xc+,2)('#B#2(525#0)7#R<(0310)[5#M0)>#i37(3#

I.33(602,.)#O3+.P#2(525#2.#(A01,)(#2+(#3(602,.)5+,<5#8(2?(()#2+(#3(5<.)7()25[#

3(<.32(7#52302(%,(5#0)7#2+(,3#7(1.%30<+,:#0)7#0:07(1,:#80:>%3.&)75=#

5.2 Survey administration

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?,2+#2+(#&),@(35,2'#'(036'#5:+(7&6(#.4#2+(#203%(2#5&3@('#3(5<.)7()25=#*+(#52&7()25#

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2(0:+,)%#52044#065.#+(6<(7#10>(#2+(#52&7'#>).?)#2.#52&7()25#8'#5<3(07,)%#

,)4.3102,.)#08.&2#2+(#52&7'#,)#2+(,3#3(%&603#:6055(5=#;0<(3#:.<,(5#.4#2+(#

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134

?(3(#<3.@,7(7#02#2+(#3(:(<2,.)#7(5>#.4#(0:+#40:&62'k7(<0321()2#0)7#2+(#

,)4.3102,.)#7(5>#02#2+(#6,8303'=#*+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#?(3(#0@0,6086(#,)#8.2+#N)%6,5+#

0)7#W,(2)01(5(#@(35,.)5#4.3#2+(,3#:+.,:(=#*+(#<032,:,<0)25#:.&67#:+..5(#2.#3(2&3)#

2+(#:.1<6(2(7#Y&(52,.))0,3(#,)2.#2+(#0@0,6086(#5&3@('#73.<#8.A#.3#<60:(#,2#,)2.#2+(#

<3(X0773(55(7#()@(6.<(#0)7#<.52#,2#2.#2+(#3(5(03:+(3=##

J#2.206#.4#DGG#:.<,(5#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#?(3(#107(#0@0,6086(#4.3#<,:>X&<#0)7#]SC#

:.1<6(2(7#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#?(3(#3(2&3)(7"#?+,:+#,)7,:02(7#0#3(5<.)5(#302(#.4#SC=\#

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5.3 The survey respondents

J)#,)X7(<2+#0)06'5,5#,5#%,@()#,)#2+,5#<032#?,2+#3(%0375#2.#2+(#:+030:2(3,52,:5#.4#2+(#

5&3@('#3(5<.)7()25=#c,2+#0#@,(?#2.#,)@(52,%02,)%#<.55,86(#3(602,.)5+,<5#8(2?(()#TTR#

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&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5"#0:07(1,:#10U.35"#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#,)#2+(#4.&3#

10:3.#5>,665#0)7#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#8(6,(45#0)7#8(+0@,.&35=#*+(5(#@03,086(5#+0@(#

8(()#,)7,:02(7#8'#2+(#6,2(302&3(#2.#+0@(#0)#,)46&():(#.)#2+(#TTR#&5(#0)7#2+(#

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,)2(3(52,)%#,)5,%+25#,)2.#2+(#3(5(03:+(7#,55&(5=#J#)&18(3#.4#803#:+0325#0)7#2086(5#

?(3(#&5(7#2.#<3(5()2#2+(#4,)7,)%5#05#4.66.?5=##

5.3.1 Gender

#

Figure 5.1: Numbers of survey respondents by gender

HG=C#

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135

J5#:0)#8(#5(()#43.1#V,%&3(#]=C"#2+(#4(106(#3(5<.)7()25#2.#2+(#5&3@('#Y&(52,.))0,3(#

,)#2+,5#52&7'#.&2)&18(3(7#2+(,3#106(#:.&)2(3<0325=#R<(:,4,:066'"#2+(#<3.<.32,.)#.4#

4(106(#3(5<.)7()25#OLK=KÅP#?05#08.&2#2?.#2,1(5#603%(3#2+0)#2+(#<3.<.32,.)#.4#

106(#3(5<.)7()25#OHG=CÅP=#!2#,5#8(6,(@(7#2+02#2+(#,)@.6@(1()2#.4#8.2+#106(#0)7#

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?(3(#).)X%()7(3#8,05(7#01.)%#2+(#203%(2(7#<.<&602,.)=##

5.3.2 University year groups

### #

Figure 5.2: Numbers of survey respondents by university year groups

V,%&3(#]=F#5+.?5#2+02#03.&)7#+064#O\K=]ÅP#.4#2+(#52&7()2#<032,:,<0)25#?(3(#,)#2+(,3#

4,352#'(03=#R(:.)7#'(03#52&7()25#0::.&)2(7#4.3#1.3(#2+0)#.)(#4.&32+#.4#2+(#

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(036'#'(035#2+0)#2+.5(#,)#2+(,3#5(),.3#'(035=##

5.3.3 Academic majors/disciplines

!2#,5#,1<.320)2#2.#1()2,.)#2+02#062+.&%+#2+(#<032,:,<0)25#.4#2+,5#52&7'#:01(#43.1#CF#

7,44(3()2#7,5:,<6,)(5Z#2+(,3#3(5<.)5(5#?(3(#:6055,4,(7#,)2.#2?.#10,)#:02(%.3,(5#7&3,)%#

2+(#7020#0)06'5,5#<3.:(55#805(7#.)#2+(#,)2(3:.))(:2,.)5#,)#2+(#)02&3(#.4#2+(#

0:07(1,:#7,5:,<6,)(5=#*+(#2086(5#0)7#4,%&3(5#8(6.?#5&1103,5(#2+(#%3.&<,)%5#.4#

2+.5(#7,5:,<6,)(5=##

\K=]#

FS=K#

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H=F#

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CG=G#

FG=G#

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LG=G#

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0."%6'\d]'

136

Table 5.1: Classification of academic majors

Q&"3*6)'T.^,;' !,&WQ&"3*6)'T.^,;'! -&5,)(55#N)%6,5+#! !)2(3<3(202,.)k*30)5602,.)#! *(0:+,)%#N)%6,5+#2.#z.&)%#

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Figure 5.3: Percentage of survey participants by major

J5#5+.?)#,)#V,%&3(#]=H"#.)#0#2?.X:02(%.3'#:6055,4,:02,.)"#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#5&3@('#

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O]C=\ÅP#0)7#N)%6,5+#10U.3#O\D=LÅP=###

5.3.4 Test-based English proficiency

J1.)%#2+(#]L\#5&3@('#3(5<.)7()25"#KS#3(<.32(7#+0@,)%#20>()#0)#,)2(3)02,.)066'#

520)7037,5(7#N)%6,5+#2(52"#5&:+#05#*iNVT#O*(52#.4#N)%6,5+#05#0#V.3(,%)#T0)%&0%(P"#

*iNTV#,-*#O!)2(3)(2X805(7#*(52#.4#N)%6,5+#05#0#V.3(,%)#T0)%&0%(P"#!NT*R#

O!)2(3)02,.)06#N)%6,5+#T0)%&0%(#*(52,)%#R'52(1P#.3#*iN!I#O*(52#.4#N)%6,5+#4.3#

!)2(3)02,.)06#I.11&),:02,.)P=#*+(#7(20,65#.4#2+(,3#2(52#3(5&625#03(#<3(5()2(7#805(7#

.)#2+(#070<2(7#(Y&,@06():'#2086(#05#4.66.?5=##

]C=\#

\D=L#

\S=G#

\S=]#

\D=G#

\D=]#

\K=G#

\K=]#

]G=G#

]G=]#

]C=G#

]C=]#

]F=G#

$.)#N)%6,5+#10U.3# N)%6,5+#10U.3#

V%;E%&

0."%6'\d]'

137

Table 5.2: Adapted equivalency table between TOEFL, TOEFL iBT, IELTS and TOEIC

scores

V;,4*E*%&E$'3%8%3' (>Q:9' (>Q:9'*+(' RQ9(Z' (>QR5'J%;$'",,@# ]KG#X#LSS# KL#X#CFG# S=]#X#K=G# SD]#X#KKG#b,,@# ]CH#X#]DS# L]#X#K]# ]=]#X#S=G# LG]#X#SDG#:.*;# \HS#X#]CG# \C#X#L\# \=G#X#]=G# \G]#X#LGG#F,@%60# H\S#X#\HH# CK#X#\G# F=G#X#H=H# F]]#X#\GG#9*T*0%@'# G#X#H\H# G#X#CD# G#X#C=]# G#X#F]G##

J#4,@(X6(@(6#<3.4,:,():'#5:06(#.4#W(3'#%..7"#f..7"#V0,3"#b.7(52#0)7#T,1,2(7#?05#

07.<2(7#2.#0:+,(@(#0#5&1103'#.4#3(602,@(#(Y&,@06():(#43.1#4.&3#7,44(3()2#2(52#

5:.3(5=#*086(#]=H#0)7#V,%&3(#]=]#<3(5()2#2+(#)&18(35#.4#5&3@('#3(5<.)7()25#8'#2(52X

805(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'=##

Table 5.3: Numbers of survey respondents by test-based English proficiency

V;,4*E*%&E$'3%8%3' (>Q:9'\&_d]'

(>Q:9'*+('\&_d]'

RQ9(Z'\&_d]'

(>QR5'\&_d]'

>8%;.33'\&_d]'

J%;$'",,@# GkG# FkCD=F# CkK=C# DkSF=S# CCkCC=H#

b,,@# GkG# LkCC=C# C]kFS=D# HHkLC=C# ]\k]]=S#:.*;# GkG# FkL=S# SkFH=H# FCkSG# HGkHG=K#F,@%60# GkG# GkG# GkG# FkCGG# FkF=C#9*T*0%@'# GkG# GkG# GkG# GkG# GkG#(,0.3'# GkG# CGkCGG# FHkCGG# L\kCGG# KSkCGG#

Figure 5.4: Respondents’ proficiency levels based on scores of international

standardised tests

CC=H#

]]=S#

HG=K#

F=C# =G#=G#

CG=G#

FG=G#

HG=G#

\G=G#

]G=G#

LG=G#

W(3'#%..7# f..7# V0,3# b.7(52# T,1,2(7##

V%;E%&

0."%6'\d]'

138

!2#,5#).2086(#43.1#*086(#]=H#0)7#V,%&3(#]=\#2+02#1.3(#2+0)#+064#.4#2+(#<032,:,<0)25#

O]K=HÅP#?(3(#:6055,4,(7#05#_f..7a#6(03)(35#.4#N)%6,5+#.)#2+(#,)2(3)02,.)066'#

520)7037,5(7#2(525=#*+(5(#_f..7a#6(03)(35#0::.&)2(7#4.3#2+(#603%(52#<(3:()20%(#.4#

2+(#<032,:,<0)25=#J).2+(3#CH=CÅ#?(3(#_W(3'#%..7a#0)7#03.&)7#.)(#2+,37#OHF=KÅP#

?(3(#_V0,3a#6(03)(35#.4#N)%6,5+=#i)6'#2?.#52&7()25#OF=CÅP#4(66#,)2.#2+(#_b.7(52a#

6(@(6=##

5.3.5 Self-rated English proficiency

R(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#?05#:.)5,7(3(7#05#0)#,1<.320)2#6(03)(3#@03,086(#,)#

2+,5#52&7'=#R&3@('#3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#05>(7#2.#302(#2+(,3#4.&3#10:3.#5>,665#.4#3(07,)%"#

6,52(),)%"#5<(0>,)%#0)7#?3,2,)%#.)#0#4.&3X6(@(6#<3.4,:,():'#5:06(#.4#W(3'#%..7"#f..7"#

V0,3#0)7#T,1,2(7=#*+,5#4.&3X6(@(6#5:06(#?05#:+.5()#2.#102:+#2+(#:&33()2#N)%6,5+#

<3.4,:,():'#6(@(6#8(,)%#07.<2(7#,)#2+(#3(%&603#:&33,:&6&1#,)#W,(2)01#02#@03,.&5#

(7&:02,.)06#6(@(65=#*+(#401,6,03,2'#?,2+#2+,5#055(551()2#5:06(#?05#8(6,(@(7#2.#

<3.7&:(#1.3(#0::&302(#U&7%(1()2#.4#2+(,3#<3.4,:,():'#01.)%#2+(#52&7()2#

3(5<.)7()25=##

Table 5.4: Self-rated proficiency in four macro skills

V;,4*E*%&E$'3%8%3' B%.@*&"' 9*60%&*&"' ZP%.[*&"' X;*0*&"'# )# Å# )# Å# )# Å# )# Å#J%;$'",,@# C\# F=L# CL# F=K# FK# ]=H# K# C=L#b,,@'# CLK# HG=D# CFD# FH=H# CL]# HG=C# CC]# FG=K#:.*;# HGL# ]]=S# F\L# \\=D# FLD# \D=D# FDS# ]F=H#9*T*0%@# LG# CG=K# C]K# FK=G# DS# C]=D# CHD# F]=C#(,0.3# ]\K# CGG=G# ]\K# CGG=G# ]\K# CGG=G# ]\K# CGG=G##

*086(#]=\#5+.?5#2+02#03.&)7#+064#.4#2+(#5&3@('#3(5<.)7()25#302(7#2+(15(6@(5#05#V0,3#

6(03)(35#.4#N)%6,5+#0:3.55#2+(#4.&3#10:3.#5>,665=#R<(:,4,:066'"#_V0,3a#6(@(6#?05#:+.5()#

8'#]]=SÅ#.4#2+(#3(5<.)7()25#,)#3(07,)%#5>,66"#\\=DÅ#,)#6,52(),)%#5>,66"#\D=DÅ#,)#

5<(0>,)%#5>,66"#0)7#]F=HÅ#,)#?3,2,)%#5>,66=#_V0,3a#6(@(6#0::.&)2(7#4.3#2+(#+,%+(52#

<(3:()20%(5#.4#5&3@('#3(5<.)7()25#,)#066#4.&3#10:3.#5>,665=##

J).2+(3#,1<.320)2#4,)7,)%#3(%037,)%#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#?05#2+02#2+(#

3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#6(052#:.)4,7()2#?,2+#6,52(),)%#0)7#?3,2,)%#5>,665"#?,2+#FKÅ#0)7#

139

F]=CÅ#3(5<(:2,@(6'#,)7,:02,)%#_T,1,2(7a=#i)#2+(#:.)2303'"#FKÅ#.4#2+(#3(5<.)7()25#

302(7#2+(,3#5<(0>,)%#5>,665#05#_W(3'#%..7a"#:.)52,2&2,)%#2+(#+,%+(52#<(3:()20%(=##

5.3.6 Beliefs and behaviours in English learning

-(6,(45#0)7#8(+0@,.&35#,)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#03(#8(6,(@(7#2.#<60'#0)#,1<.320)2#3.6(#,)#

5+0<,)%#2+(#52302(%,(5#&5(7#8'#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35=#!)#2+(#:&33()2#52&7'"#0#83,(4#

,)Y&,3'#?05#107(#,)2.#2+(#8(6,(45#.4#,)7,@,7&06#52&7()25#?+,:+#?(3(#:.)5,7(3(7#

:6.5(6'#3(602(7#2.#2+(,3#TTR#:+.,:(#0)7#07.<2,.)"#,):6&7,)%#5(64X302(7#1.2,@02,.)"#2+(#

3.6(#.4#5(64X7,5:,<6,)("#2+(#3.6(#.4#07@0):(7#2(:+).6.%'"#2+(#3.6(#.4#%301103#0)7#

@.:08&603'#:.)2(A2&06,502,.)"#2+(#3.6(#.4#:&62&3("#0)7#022,2&7(#2.?0375#1,520>(5#,)#

6(03),)%=#*+(,3#8(+0@,.&35#,)#3(602,.)#2.#2+(,3#3(6,0):(#.)#2(0:+(35#.3#<((35#?(3(#

065.#(A01,)(7=#*+(#5&3@('#3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#05>(7#2.#,)7,:02(#2+(,3#6(@(6#.4#

0%3((1()2#2.#CC#5202(1()25#O\K#Q#]KP#.)#0#4,@(X<.,)2#302,)%#5:06("#,):6&7,)%#

_C`R23.)%6'#9,50%3((a#OR9P"#_F`9,50%3((a#O9P"#_H`$.2#R&3(a#O$P"#_\`J%3((a#OJP#0)7#

_]`R23.)%6'#J%3((a#OR9P=#*086(#]=]#8(6.?#.&26,)(5#2+(#4,)7,)%5#.)#2+(#8(6,(45#0)7#

8(+0@,.&35#.4#2+(#5&3@('#3(5<.)7()25=#

Table 5.5: Respondents’ beliefs and behaviours in English learning

+%3*%4'60.0%T%&06' ' Z/' /' !' M' ZM' (,0.3' F%'HC7'R'.T'T,0*8.0%@'0,'3%.;&'Q&"3*6)7'#

)# CK# HC# ]G# FK\# CLL# ]LG# \#Å# H=\# ]=]# D=K# ]F=]# FK=L# CGG#

LK7'Z%34W@*6E*P3*&%'*6'*TP,;0.&0'*&'3%.;&*&"'Q&"3*6)7#

)# CG# ]L# ]]# F\K# CKG# ]LG# \#Å# C=D# CG=G# K=D# \\=]# HH=K# CGG#

L=7'9%.;&*&"'3.&"#."%'*&E3#@%6'3%.;&*&"'E#30#;%7'#

)# CH# \\# FS# F]C# FFL# ]LC# \#Å# F=H# S=D# \=D# \\=S# \G=H# CGG#

LA7'5,TP#0%;6'.&@'0)%'R&0%;&%0')%3P'T%'3%.;&'Q&"3*6)'2%00%;7'#

)# CH# F\# FH# CS\# HFS# ]LC# ]#Å# F=H# \=H# \=C# HC=G# ]D=H# CGG#

LD7'J,E.2#3.;$'T#60'2%'3%.;&%@'*&'E,&0%<07'#

)# CD# H]# \C# F\S# FFG# ]LC# \#Å# H=F# L=F# S=H# \\=G# HK=F# CGG#

LH7'b;.TT.;'*6'0)%'4,#&@.0*,&',4'Q&"3*6)7'#

)# L# L]# HS# FLS# CDL# ]LC# \#Å# C=C# CC=L# L=L# \S=L# HH=F# CGG#

LL7'()%'4,#;'T.E;,'6[*336'.;%'2%60'@%8%3,P%@'0);,#")'P;.E0*E%7'#

)# FG# FG# FF# C]]# H\\# ]LC# \#Å# H=L# H=L# H=K# FS=L# LC=H# CGG#

LN7'R0'*6'#6%4#3'0,';%.@'.'?*@%';.&"%',4'0%<0'0$P%67'#

)# CG# \]# \H# FDC# CDF# ]LC# \#Å# C=D# D=G# S=S# ]G=C# HF=\# CGG#

LG7'R0'*6'&,;T.3'0,'T.[%'T*60.[%6_%;;,;6'*&'Q&"3*6)7'#

)# CH# ]L# FH# FSL# CKH# ]LC# \#Å# F=H# CG=G# \=C# \K=F# H\=\# CGG#

LO7'R';%3$',&'T$'0%.E)%;'4,;'"#*@.&E%_'6#PP,;0'*&'3%.;&*&"'

)# CL# KC# L\# FDF# CGD# ]LC# \#Å# F=K# CL=F# CC=\# ]G=H# CK=H# CGG#

140

+%3*%4'60.0%T%&06' ' Z/' /' !' M' ZM' (,0.3' F%'Q&"3*6)7'#LC7'R'%&^,$'3%.;&*&"'?*0)'T$'4;*%&@6'*&'P.*;6',;'";,#P67'#

)# CL# LF# \L# FLC# CSL# ]LC# \#Å# F=K# CC=C# D=F# \L=]# HC=\# CGG#

#

J5#,)7,:02(7#,)#*086(#]=]"#2+(#4,)7,)%5#3(@(06(7#0#+,%+#0%3((1()2#.4#2+(#3(5<.)7()25#

?,2+#2+(#CC#5202(1()25#.)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#8(6,(45#0)7#8(+0@,.&35"#?,2+#0#1(7,0)#.4#

\#O_J%3((aP#:3.55#CG#5202(1()25#0)7#2+(#+,%+(52#1(7,0)#.4#]#O_R23.)%6'#0%3((aP#.)#C#

5202(1()2#O!2(1#]FP=#!2#?05#:6(03#2+02#2+(#52&7()25#+0@(#07.<2(7#2+(,3#.?)#5(2#.4#

8(6,(45"#?+,:+#?(3(#3(602,@(6'#&)0),1.&5=###

$.2086'"#2+(3(#?05#0#+,%+#6(@(6#.4#5(64X<(3:(,@(7#1.2,@02,.)#01.)%#2+(#501<6(7#

52&7()25=#J3.&)7#DF=CÅ#0%3((7#0)7#523.)%6'#0%3((7#2+02#2+('#?(3(#1.2,@02(7#2.#

6(03)#N)%6,5+#O!2(1#\KP=#!2#?05#065.#?.32+#(1<+05,5,)%#2+02#03.&)7#+064#.4#2+(#5&3@('#

3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#).)XN)%6,5+#10U.3#52&7()25"#?+.5(#230,),)%#4.:&5#?05#).2#.)#

N)%6,5+=#D=KÅ#?(3(#).2#5&3(#0)7#D=KÅ#7,7#).2#2+,)>#2+02#2+('#?(3(#1.2,@02(7=#

J62+.&%+#2+(#<(3:()20%(#.4#2+(5(#&)5&3(#.3#&)1.2,@02(7#52&7()25#?05#).2#@(3'#

+,%+"#,2#,5#)(:(5503'#2.#6..>#,)2.#?0'5#2.#()+0):(#2+(,3#6(03),)%#1.2,@02,.)"#?+,:+#

?,66#8(#2+(#73,@,)%#4.3:(#4.3#52302(%'#7(@(6.<1()2=##

J).2+(3#,1<.320)2#4,)7,)%#?05#2+(#0%3((1()2#0)7#523.)%#0%3((1()2#01.)%#

0<<3.A,102(6'#KGÅ#.4#2+(#3(5<.)7()25#?,2+#2+(#5202(1()2#_I.1<&2(35#0)7#2+(#

!)2(3)(2#+(6<#1(#6(03)#N)%6,5+#8(22(3a#O!2(1#]FP=#*+(#3(5<.)5(5#2.#2+,5#5202(1()2#

0:+,(@(7#2+(#+,%+(52#1(7,0)#0%3((1()2#5:.3(#.4#]#O_R23.)%6'#0%3((aP"#?+,:+#

103>(7#2+(#52&7()25[#523.)%#8(6,(4#,)#2+(#3.6(#.4#:.1<&2(35#0)7#2+(#!)2(3)(2#,)#

6(03),)%#N)%6,5+=###

5.4 Frequency of LLS use

*+(#4,)7,)%5#,)#2+,5#<032#<3.@,7(#,)2(3(52,)%#,)5,%+25#,)2.#2+(#43(Y&():'#0)7#<022(3)#

.4#TTR#01.)%#2+(#52&7()25#&)7(3#52&7'=#J5#1()2,.)(7#<3(@,.&56'#,)#2+(#

1(2+.7.6.%'#:+0<2(3"#5,1<6(#7(5:3,<2,@(#5202,52,:5"#,):6&7,)%#43(Y&():'#:.&)25"#

<(3:()20%(5#0)7#1(7,0)5"#?(3(#(1<6.'(7#,)#2+(#<3.:(55#.4#7020#0)06'5,5#.4#2+(#

52&7()25[#TTR#&5(=#*+(#43(Y&():'#.4#52302(%'#&5(#?05#1(05&3(7#,)#2+(#NTTR^#.)#0#

141

4,@(X<.,)2#T,>(32#302,)%#5:06("#30)%,)%#43.1#_C`$(@(3a#O$P"#_F`M03(6'a#OMP"#

_H`R.1(2,1(5a#ORP"#_\`i42()a#OiP"#0)7#2.#_]`J6?0'5#.3#J61.52#06?0'5a#OJP=#

J#2.<X7.?)#0<<3.0:+#+05#8(()#07.<2(7#,)#<3(5()2,)%#2+(#3(5&625#.4#2+(#7020#

0)06'5,5#,)#2+,5#<032=#J::.37,)%6'"#2+(#43(Y&():'#.4#52&7()25[#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#

52302(%'#&5(#,5#,),2,066'#(A<6.3(7"#4.66.?(7#8'#2+(#43(Y&():'#.4#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%'#

&5(#?,2+,)#(0:+#10,)#%3.&<=##

5.4.1 Frequency of overall and group strategy use

*+(#.@(3066#1(7,0)#43(Y&():'#5:.3(5#0:3.55#\S#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#0)7#2+(#2+3((#

10,)#52302(%'#%3.&<5"#,):6&7,)%#M(%&602,)%"#V.31X805(7#0)7#R>,66X805(7#52302(%,(5"#

05#3(<.32(7#8'#2+(#]L\#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#2(32,03'#52&7()25#03(#,66&52302(7#,)#*086(#]=L#

8(6.?=##

Table 5.6: Frequency of overall strategy use and group strategy use

Z0;.0%"$'E.0%",;$' F%@*.&'\F%]'>8%;.33'# H#B%"#3.0*&"'Z0;.0%"*%6# H#:,;TW2.6%@'Z0;.0%"*%6'# H#Z[*33W2.6%@'Z0;.0%"*%6'# H#!'k'LNH#

*+(#1(7,0)#43(Y&():'#5:.3(#.4#H#O_R.1(2,1(5aP#0:3.55#066#52302(%,(5#0)7#(0:+#

52302(%'#%3.&<#,)7,:02(7#2+02#05#0#?+.6(#2+(#52&7()25#,)#2+(#52&7'#3(<.32(7#0#

1.7(302(#43(Y&():'#&5(#.4#TTR5=#!)#.2+(3#?.375"#2+(#501<6(7#52&7()25#?(3(#

3(<.32(7#2.#8(#1(7,&1#&5(35#.4#52302(%,(5#,)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#43.1#0#+.6,52,:#@,(?=#

V&32+(3#0)06'5,5#,)2.#,)7,@,7&06#43(Y&():'#(0:+#6(03),)%#52302(%'#,)#2+(#4.66.?,)%#

5(:2,.)#?.&67#,7()2,4'#2+(#_+,%+#&5(a#52302(%,(5#0)7#_6.?#&5(a#52302(%,(5"#0)7#2+&5#

3(@(06#2+(#1.52#0)7#6(052#43(Y&()26'#&5(7#52302(%,(5#01.)%#2+(#501<6(7#52&7()25=##

5.4.2 Frequency of individual strategy use

*+,5#5(:2,.)#<3(5()25#0#83(0>7.?)#.4#2+(#3(<.32(7#43(Y&():'#.4#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%'#

&5(#?,2+,)#(0:+#10,)#52302(%'#%3.&<=#*+(#4,)7,)%5#03(#7,5<60'(7#,)#2(315#.4#1(7,0)5#

Ob(P"#<(3:()20%(5#OÅP"#0)7#:.&)25#O)P=##

142

5.4.2.1 Regulating strategies M(%&602,)%#52302(%,(5"#2+(#4,352#10,)#%3.&<#.4#52302(%,(5#,)#2+(#5&3@('"#:.)5,52(7#.4#

CH#52302(%,(5#&5(7#8'#52&7()25#2.#+0@(#0#%()(306#3(%&602,.)#.4#2+(,3#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%=#

R2302(%,(5#C#2.#L#?(3(#1(0)2#4.3#52&7()25#2.#0::(55#0)7#,)2(%302(#7,@(35(#6(03),)%#

3(5.&3:(5#.4#7,44(3()2#5.&3:(5#0)7#)02&3(=#R2302(%,(5#S#2.#CC#?(3(#&5(7#8'#52&7()25#

,)#2+(#:3(02,.)#.4#0<<3.<3,02(#.<<.32&),2,(5#2.#6(03)"#<30:2,5(#0)7#&5(#2+(#203%(2#

60)%&0%(=#R2302(%,(5#CF#0)7#CH#?(3(#0,1(7#02#2+(#%()(306#1.),2.3,)%#.4#N)%6,5+#

6(03),)%#2+3.&%+#%.06X5(22,)%#0)7#5(64X055(551()2=#*086(#]=S#8(6.?#%,@(5#0#7(20,6(7#

0::.&)2#.4#2+(#,)7,@,7&06#43(Y&():'#&5(#.4#2+(#CH#52302(%,(5#,)#2+,5#%3.&<=##

Table 5.7: Frequency of individual strategy use in the Regulating group

Z0;.0%"$'' ' !' B' Z' >' M' (,0.3' F%'(,'.EE%66'.&@'*&0%";.0%'@*8%;6%'Q&"3*6)'3%.;&*&"';%6,#;E%6f''=7'R'#6%'.E.@%T*E'P;*&0'T.0%;*.36'\0%<0'2,,[6f';%4%;%&E%'2,,[6f',;'3%66,&'&,0%6'*&'Q&"3*6)]7#

)# CK# LC# C\C# FG\# CHK# ]L\# \##Å# H=\# CG=D# F]=G# HL=F# F\=L# CGG#

A7'R'#6%'&,&W.E.@%T*E'P;*&0'T.0%;*.36'\&%?6P.P%;6f'^,#;&.36f'&,8%36',;'60,;*%6'*&'Q&"3*6)]7#

)# H\# CLF# F\G# CGC# FS# ]L\# H##Å# L=G# FD=S# \F=L# CS=K# \=D# CGG#

D7'R'#6%'0;.@*0*,&.3'2;,.@E.60'T.0%;*.36'\(J'6),?6_T,8*%6',;';.@*,'P;,";.T6'*&'Q&"3*6)]7#

)# CH# LS# CLG# FG\# CFG# ]L\# \#Å# F=H# CC=K# FD=\# HL=F# FC=H# CGG#

H7'R'#6%';%E,;@%@'T.0%;*.36'\Q&"3*6)'T#6*E_;%E,;@*&"6'4;,T'0.P%6_5/6]7#

)# FD# C]G# FGG# C\\# \F# ]L\# H#Å# ]=G# FL=L# H]=]# F]=]# S=\# CGG#

L7'R'#6%',&3*&%_E,TP#0%;W2.6%@'T.0%;*.36'\%W2,,[6f'%W^,#;&.36f'6,40?.;%f',;'?%2E.606'*&'Q&"3*6)]7#

)# FK# CGL# C]S# CLC# CCC# ]L\# H##Å# ]=C# CD=D# FS=D# FD=]# CK=S# CGG#

N7'R'#6%'T,&,3*&"#.3'\Q&"3*6)WQ&"3*6)]'@*E0*,&.;*%67#

)# HF# CCG# CLF# C\D# CCG# ]LF# H##Å# ]=S# CK=L# FD=D# FL=H# CK=L# CGG#

(,'E;%.0%'Q&"3*6)'3%.;&*&"',PP,;0#&*0*%6f'G7'R'.00%&@'%8%&06'?)%;%'Q&"3*6)'*6'#6%@'\E3#26f'6%T*&.;6f',;'?,;[6),P6]7#

)# CC]# FGF# CSH# ]F# FF# ]L\# F##Å# FG=\# H]=D# HG=S# K=F# H=K# CGG#

O7'R'.00%&@'%8%&*&"'Q&"3*6)'E3.66%67#

)# DC# CFC# C]F# CHK# SC# ]L\# H##Å# C\=\# FC=]# FS=G# F\=L# CF=L# CGG#

C7'R'E,TT#&*E.0%'?*0)'4,;%*"&%;6'\4.E%W0,W4.E%',;'2$'%T.*3_'8,*E%T.*3]7#

)# \K# C\F# FCC# CC]# \S# ]L\# H##Å# D=S# F]=F# HS=\# FG=\# D=H# CGG#

=K7'R'^,*&',&3*&%'4,;#T\6]'*&'Q&"3*6)7#

)# CSG# CSG# CHC# LH# HG# ]L\# F##Å# HG=C# HG=C# FH=F# CC=F# ]=H# CGG#

==7'R'T.*&0.*&'.'23,"_:.E%W2,,[_?%2P."%'*&'Q&"3*6)7#

)# DK# KK# CGK# CFF# C\\# ]LH# H##Å# C]=D# CS=L# CK=\# FC=S# F]=L# CGG#

143

Z0;.0%"$'' ' !' B' Z' >' M' (,0.3' F%'(,'T,&*0,;'T$'3%.;&*&"',4'Q&"3*6)f'=A7'R'6%0'6P%E*4*E'",.36'4,;'*TP;,8*&"'T$'Q&"3*6)7#

)# CS# KF# CKF# CLD# K]# ]L\# H##Å# H=G# CL=H# H\=G# FK=D# CL=D# CGG#

=D7'R'T,&*0,;'T$'P;,";%66'*&'Q&"3*6)7#

)# HL# CGH# FCG# C]C# LF# ]LF# H##Å# L=\# CD=H# HS=\# FL=K# CC=G# CGG#

J5#5(()#,)#2+(#2086("#2+(#,)7,@,7&06#1(7,0)#5:.3(5#5+.?(7#2+02#K#.&2#.4#CH#52302(%,(5#

,)#2+(#M(%&602,)%#%3.&<#4(66#?,2+,)#2+(#43(Y&():'#6(@(6#.4#1(7,&1#&5(#Ob(7,0)#`#HP=#

R<(:,4,:066'"#2+(#3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#1.7(302(#&5(35#.4#2+(#4.66.?,)%#52302(%,(5j##

! R2302(%'#F#O!#&5(#).)X0:07(1,:#<3,)2#102(3,065#5&:+#05#)(?5<0<(35"#U.&3)065"#

).@(65#.3#52.3,(5#,)#N)%6,5+P"##

! R2302(%'#\#O!#&5(#3(:.37(7#102(3,065#5&:+#05#N)%6,5+#1&5,:#.3#3(:.37,)%5#43.1#

20<(5kI95P"##

! R2302(%'#]#O!#&5(#.)6,)(k:.1<&2(3X805(7#102(3,065#5&:+#05#(X8..>5"#(X

U.&3)065"#5.42?03("#.3#?(8:0525#,)#N)%6,5+P"##

! R2302(%'#L#O!#&5(#N)%6,5+XN)%6,5+#7,:2,.)03,(5P"##

! R2302(%'#D#O!#022()7#(@(),)%#N)%6,5+#:6055(5P"#R2302(%'#K#O!#:.11&),:02(#?,2+#

4.3(,%)(35P"##

! R2302(%'#CC#O!#10,)20,)#0#86.%kV0:(X8..>k?(8<0%(#,)#N)%6,5+P"#R2302(%'#CF#O!#

5(2#5<(:,4,:#%.065#4.3#,1<3.@,)%#1'#N)%6,5+P"#0)7##

! R2302(%'#CH#O!#1.),2.3#1'#<3.%3(55#,)#N)%6,5+P=##

*+,5#4,)7,)%#5&%%(52(7#2+02#2+(#501<6(7#52&7()25#&5(7#0#?,7(#30)%(#.4#52302(%,(5#,)#

0#1.7(302(#10))(3#2.#3(%&602(#2+(,3#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%=#J#4(?#52302(%,(5"#+.?(@(3"#

?(3(#3(<.32(7#2.#8(#(1<6.'(7#?,2+#0#43(Y&():'#6(@(6#.4#+,%+#.3#6.?#&5(=#$.2086'"#

2+(#+,%+(52#1(7,0)#43(Y&():'#5:.3(#.4#\#O_i42()aP#?(3(#4.&)7#?,2+#F#52302(%,(5#,)#

2+,5#%3.&<#,)#3(602,.)#2.#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#3(5.&3:(5"#,):6&7,)%#R2302(%'#C#O!#&5(#

0:07(1,:#<3,)2#102(3,065#5&:+#05#2(A2#8..>5"#3(4(3():(#8..>5"#.3#6(55.)#).2(5#,)#

N)%6,5+P#0)7#R2302(%'#H#O!#&5(#2307,2,.)06#83.07:052#102(3,065#5&:+#05#*W#

5+.?5k1.@,(5#.3#307,.#<3.%3015#,)#N)%6,5+P=#J#:6.5(3#6..>#02#2+(#3(5&625#,)#2(315#.4#

144

<(3:()20%(5#0)7#:.&)25#7(1.)52302(7#2+02#2+(#10U.3,2'#.4#LG=DÅ#0)7#]S=]Å#.4#2+(#

3(5(03:+(7#52&7()25#3(<.32(7#&5,)%#2+(5(#2?.#6(03),)%#3(5.&3:(5#3(5<(:2,@(6'#.)#0)#

.42()#.3#06?0'5k061.52#06?0'5#805,5=#J:07(1,:#0)7#2307,2,.)06#102(3,065#5&:+#05#

2(A2#8..>5"#3(4(3():(#8..>5"#.3#*W#<3.%3015#,)#N)%6,5+#?(3(#3(<.32(7#2.#+0@(#0#+,%+#

<.<&603,2'#01.)%#2+(#501<6(7#52&7()25=#i)#2+(#:.)2303'"#2+(#6.?(52#1(7,0)#

43(Y&():'#5:.3(#.4#F#O_M03(6'aP#?(3(#4.&)7#?,2+#F#52302(%,(5#3(%037,)%#6(03),)%#

.<<.32&),2,(5=#*+(5(#2?.#6.?#&5(7#52302(%,(5#?(3(#R2302(%'#S#O!#022()7#(@()25#

?+(3(#N)%6,5+#,5#&5(7P#0)7#R2302(%'#CG##O!#U.,)#.)6,)(#4.3&1O5P#,)#N)%6,5+P"#?+,:+#

?(3(#3(5<(:2,@(6'#3(<.32(7#2.#8(#)(@(3#.3#303(6'#(1<6.'(7#8'#2+(#10U.3,2'#.4#]L=FÅ#

0)7#LG=FÅ#.4#2+(#52&7,(7#52&7()25=##

5.4.2.2 Form-based strategies !)#2+(#5(:.)7#10,)#%3.&<#.4#V.31X805(7#52302(%,(5"#2+(3(#?(3(#CH#52302(%,(5#?+,:+#

:.&67#8(#(1<6.'(7#2.#4.:&5#.)#2+(#7,3(:2#6(03),)%#2+(#2+3((#4&)701()206#

:.1<.)()25#.4#2+(#60)%&0%(#5'52(1"#)01(6'#@.:08&603'#OR2302(%,(5#C\#2.#CDP"#

%301103#OR2302(%,(5#CK#2.#FFP#0)7#<3.)&):,02,.)#OR2302(%,(5#FH#2.#FLP=#*+(#7(20,6(7#

3(5&625#03(#<3(5()2(7#,)#*086(#]=D#8(6.?=##

Table 5.8: Frequency of individual strategy use in the Form-based group

Z0;.0%"$'' ' !' B' Z' >' M' (,0.3' F%'(,'3%.;&'Q&"3*6)'8,E.2#3.;$f''=H7'R'3%.;&'P);.6%6',;'";,#P6',4'?,;@6'\;.0)%;'0).&'*&@*8*@#.3'?,;@6]7#

)# \\# CG]# FHG# CHL# \K# ]L\# H#Å# S=D# CD=L# \G=D# F\=C# D=S# CGG#

=L7'R';%?;*0%'?,;@6'T.&$'0*T%6'0,';%T%T2%;'0)%*;'6P%33*&"67#

)# HL# CCD# CLL# C]\# KG# ]L\# H#Å# L=\# FG=K# FK=\# FS=H# CL=G# CGG#

=N7'R'2;%.['&%?'?,;@6'*&0,'P.;06'0).0'R'[&,?7'#

)# LG# C\H# FCC# CFG# HG# ]L\# H#Å# CG=L# F]=\# HS=\# FC=H# ]=H# CGG#

=G7'R'T.[%'6%&0%&E%6'0).0'E,&0.*&'&%?'?,;@67#

)# HS# CFD# FFH# CF]# ]C# ]L\# H#Å# L=L# FF=S# HK=]# FF=F# K=G# CGG#

=O7'R'3%.;&'?,;@6'2$'0,P*E6'\%7"7'#6*&"'?,;@'?%26]7'#

)# L\# CHL# C]\# C]K# ]C# ]L\# H#Å# CC=H# F\=C# FS=H# FD=F# K=G# CGG#

(,'3%.;&'Q&"3*6)'";.TT.;f''=C7'R'T%T,;*6%'";.TT.;';#3%6'.&@'60;#E0#;%67#

)# CF# \]# CF\# CKK# CD\# ]L\# \#Å# F=C# D=G# FF=G# H]=H# HF=L# CGG#

AK7'R'@,'";.TT.;'%<%;E*6%67# )# K# ]F# C]C# FCH# CHK# ]L\# \#Å# C=L# K=F# FL=D# HS=D# F\=L# CGG#

A=7'R'T.[%'T$',?&'6%&0%&E%6'#6*&"'&%?'60;#E0#;%67#

)# H]# CCD# FGK# C\S# ]]# ]L\# H#Å# L=F# FG=K# HS=C# FL=C# K=D# CGG#

145

Z0;.0%"$'' ' !' B' Z' >' M' (,0.3' F%'AA7'R'.&.3$6%'0)%'";.TT.0*E.3'60;#E0#;%6',4'@*44%;%&0'0%<067#

)# \C# CHH# FGK# CH\# \S# ]L\# H#Å# S=H# FH=L# HS=C# FH=D# D=H# CGG#

(,'3%.;&'Q&"3*6)'P;,&#&E*.0*,&f''AD7'R';%.@'P),&%0*E'0;.&6E;*P0*,&6',4'?,;@6'\%7"7f'0).0'_gh0_]'*&'0)%'@*E0*,&.;$7#

)# HC# DL# C\D# C]L# C\H# ]L\# \#Å# ]=]# C]=F# FL=F# FS=S# F]=\# CGG#

AH7'R'#6%'QW@*E0*,&.;*%6',;'V;,&#&E*.0*,&'Z,40?.;%'4,;'T,@%3'P;,&#&E*.0*,&7#

)# \L# DL# C]D# C]D# CCL# ]L\# H#Å# D=F# C]=F# FD=G# FD=G# FG=L# CGG#

AL7'R'P;.E0*E%'#&4.T*3*.;'6,#&@6'2$'6.$*&"'0)%T'.".*&'.&@'.".*&7#

)# CL# SL# CD]# CDS# CGG# ]L\# \#Å# F=D# CH=]# HF=D# HH=F# CS=S# CGG#

AN7'R';%P%.0'.40%;'&.0*8%'6P%.[%;6'\4;,T';%E,;@*&"6',;'T,8*%6]7#

)# CF# ]]# CHD# FCF# C\L# ]LH# \#Å# F=C# K=S# F\=]# HS=S# FL=G# CGG#

#

*+(#3(5&625#3(602(7#2.#2+(#,)7,@,7&06#1(7,0)#5:.3(5#.4#2+(#V.31X805(7#52302(%,(5#

,)7,:02(7#2+02#2+('#?(3(#066#07.<2(7#?,2+#0#43(Y&():'#6(@(6#.4#1(7,&1#Ob(7,0)#`#HP#

.3#+,%+#&5(#Ob(7,0)#`#\P=#*+,5#4,)7,)%#?05#+,%+6'#,)7,:02,@(#.4#2+(#&2,6,502,.)#.4#0#

4.31X805(7#0<<3.0:+#,)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#01.)%#2+(#52&7()25#&)7(3#52&7'=#

R<(:,4,:066'"#2+(#3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#3(<.32(7#2.#8(#1.7(302(#&5(35#.4#066#.4#2+(#

52302(%,(5#3(602(7#2.#@.:08&603'#6(03),)%"#,):6&7,)%j#

! R2302(%'#C\#O!#6(03)#<+305(5#.3#%3.&<5#.4#?.375#302+(3#2+0)#,)7,@,7&06#

?.375P"#

! R2302(%'#C]#O!#3(?3,2(#?.375#10)'#2,1(5#2.#3(1(18(3#2+(,3#5<(66,)%5P"##

! R2302(%'#CL#O!#83(0>#)(?#?.375#,)2.#<0325#2+02#!#>).?P"##

! R2302(%'#CS#O!#10>(#5()2():(5#2+02#:.)20,)#)(?#?.375P"#0)7##

! R2302(%'#CD#O!#6(03)#?.375#8'#2.<,:5P=##

R.1(#.2+(3#52302(%,(5#3(602(7#2.#6(03),)%#%301103#0)7#<3.)&):,02,.)"#?+,:+#065.#

4(66#,)2.#2+(#1(7,&1#43(Y&():'#30)%("#,):6&7(7j##

! R2302(%'#FC#O!#10>(#1'#.?)#5()2():(5#&5,)%#)(?#523&:2&3(5P"##

! R2302(%'#FF#O!#0)06'5(#2+(#%301102,:06#523&:2&3(5#.4#7,44(3()2#2(A25P"#0)7##

146

! R2302(%'#F\#O!#&5(#NX7,:2,.)03,(5#.3#;3.)&):,02,.)#R.42?03(#4.3#1.7(6#

<3.)&):,02,.)P=##

!2#?05#,1<.320)2#2.#).2(#2+02#]#.&2#.4#2+(#CH#52302(%,(5#4(66#,)2.#2+(#43(Y&():'#6(@(6#

.4#+,%+#&5(#Ob(7,0)#`#\P=#R<(:,4,:066'"#2?.#+,%+6'#&5(7#52302(%,(5#?(3(#3(602(7#2.#

%301103"#:.@(3,)%#R2302(%'#CK#O!#1(1.3,5(#%301103#3&6(5#0)7#523&:2&3(5P"#0)7#

R2302(%'#FG#O!#7.#%301103#(A(3:,5(5P=#*+(#.2+(3#2+3((#+,%+#&5(#52302(%,(5"#,):6&7,)%#

R2302(%,(5#FH"#F]#0)7#FL"#?(3(#,)#3(602,.)#2.#2+(#6(03),)%#0)7#<30:2,:,)%#.4#

<3.)&):,02,.)=#J)#(A01,)02,.)#.4#2+(#<(3:()20%(5#0)7#:.&)25#3(@(06(7#2+02#2+(5(#

+,%+#&5(#52302(%,(5#?(3(#3(<.32(7#2.#8(#.42()#.3#06?0'5k061.52#06?0'5#(1<6.'(7#8'#

0#30)%(#.4#]G=KÅ#2.#LS=KÅ#.4#2+(#3(5<.)7()25=##

5.4.2.3 Skill-based strategies J#2.206#.4#FC#52302(%,(5#?(3(#:.@(3(7#,)#2+(#2+,37#10,)#%3.&<#.4#R>,66X805(7#52302(%,(5=#

*+(5(#52302(%,(5#?(3(#5&87,@,7(7#,)2.#4.&3#5&8%3.&<5#,)#2(315#.4#2+(#4.&3#10U.3#5>,665#

.4#3(07,)%#OR2302(%,(5#FS#2.#HHP"#6,52(),)%#OR2302(%,(5#H\#2.#HSP"#5<(0>,)%#OR2302(%,(5#HD#

2.#\FP#0)7#?3,2,)%#OR2302(%,(5#\H#2.#\SP=#*086(#]=K#8(6.?#7,5<60'5#2+(#3(<.32(7#

43(Y&():'#&5(#.4#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5#?,2+,)#2+,5#R>,66X805(7#%3.&<=##

Table 5.9: Frequency of individual strategy use in the Skill-based group

Z0;.0%"$'' ' !' B' Z' >' M' (,0.3' F%':,;'2%00%;'E,TP;%)%&6*,&'*&';%.@*&"f''AG7'R';%.@',8%;'0)%'0%<0'S#*E[3$'4,;'T.*&'*@%.6'2%4,;%';%.@*&"'E.;%4#33$7#

)# C\# ]K# CLL# CKL# CFK# ]L\# \#Å# F=]# CG=]# FK=\# H\=D# FF=

K#CGG#

AO7'R'*@%&0*4$'0)%',;".&*6.0*,&',4'0)%'0%<0'\E,TP.;%WE,&0;.60f'E.#6%W%44%E0f'%0E7]7#

)# F\# CG]# F]D# CHD# HD# ]LH# H#Å# \=H# CD=S# \]=D# F\=]# L=S# CGG#

AC7'R'6[*P'#&*TP,;0.&0'?,;@6'\6#E)'.6'i0)%Uf'e.ef'e.&@Uf'%0E7]7#

)# FD# CC]# CDK# CLL# LL# ]L\# H#Å# ]=G# FG=\# HH=]# FK=\# CC=

S#CGG#

DK7'R'"#%66'0)%'T%.&*&"6',4'&%?'?,;@6'4;,T'E,&0%<067#

)# CL# LF# CDS# FCG# DD# ]LH# \#Å# F=D# CC=G# HH=F# HS=H# C]=

L#CGG#

D=7'R'T.[%'P;%@*E0*,&6'.2,#0'?).0'?*33'E,T%'&%<07#

)# F]# CGF# FGH# CSD# ]L# ]L\# H#Å# \=\# CD=C# HL=G# HC=L# K=K# CGG#

DA7'R'T.[%'6#TT.;*%6'.2,#0'0)%'0%<0'\*&'T$'T*&@',;'*&'0)%'0%<0'T.;"*&]7#

)# \C# CCF# FGC# CLH# \L# ]LH# H#Å# S=H# CK=K# H]=S# FK=G# D=F# CGG#

DD7'R';%;%.@'P.;06',4'0)%'0%<0'0,' )# C\# ]L# CLS# FGG# CFL# ]LH# \#

147

Z0;.0%"$'' ' !' B' Z' >' M' (,0.3' F%'#&@%;60.&@'2%00%;7'# Å# F=]# K=K# FK=S# H]=]# FF=

\#CGG#

:,;'2%00%;'E,TP;%)%&6*,&'*&'3*60%&*&"f''DH7'R'P.$'.00%&0*,&'0,'&,&W8%;2.3'E#%6'\"%60#;%f'";.P)*E6f'60;%66f'P.#6%f'%0E7]7#

)# FH# S]# FC]# CSS# S\# ]L\# H#Å# \=C# CH=H# HD=C# HC=\# CH=

C#CGG#

DL7'R'3*60%&'4,;'[%$'?,;@6',;'*@%.67# )# D# HK# CFS# FHL# C]\# ]L\# \#Å# C=\# L=K# FF=]# \C=D# FS=

H#CGG#

DN7'R'0.[%'&,0%6',4'[%$'?,;@6',;'*@%.6'\%6P7'@#;*&"'3%E0#;%6f'P;%6%&0.0*,&6f',;'0%606]7#

)# FG# ]H# CSL# FGL# CGK# ]L\# \#Å# H=]# K=\# HC=F# HL=]# CK=

H#CGG#

DG7'R'.6['0)%'6P%.[%;'0,'E3.;*4$_;%P%.0'0,'#&@%;60.&@'2%00%;'*&'.'E,&8%;6.0*,&7'#

)# C]# D]# CKF# CDF# DK# ]LH# H#Å# F=S# C]=C# H\=C# HF=H# C]=

D#CGG#

(,'2%00%;'%<P;%66'T$6%34'*&'6P%.[*&"f''DO7'R'T%T,;*6%'4*<%@'P);.6%6',4'@*44%;%&0'4#&E0*,&6'\%7"7f'T.[*&"'.';%S#%60f',;'E,TP3.*&0]7#

)# FG# ]F# FGD# CK\# KG# ]L\# \#Å# H=]# K=F# HL=K# H\=\# CL=

G#CGG#

DC7'R';%)%.;6%'6P%.[*&"'0,'T$6%347# )# CS# SF# C]F# CKF# CHC# ]L\# \#Å# H=G# CF=D# FS=G# H\=G# FH=

F#CGG#

HK7'R'%<P3.*&',;'"*8%'%<.TP3%6'*4'R'@,&U0'[&,?'0)%'%<.E0'?,;@67'#

)# F\# S]# CDD# FGF# S]# ]L\# H#Å# \=H# CH=H# HH=H# H]=D# CH=

H#CGG#

H=7'R'#6%'6$&,&$T6',;'6*TP3%;'?,;@6'*4'R'@,&U0'[&,?'0)%'%<.E0'?,;@67#

)# CF# L\# CSC# FFG# KS# ]L\# \#Å# F=C# CC=H# HG=H# HK=G# CS=

F#CGG#

HA7'R'#6%'2,@$'3.&"#."%'0,')%3P'%<P;%66'?).0'R'?.&0'0,'6.$7#

)# CK# LS# C\S# CKG# C\G# ]LH# \#Å# H=\# CC=K# FL=C# HH=S# F\=

K#CGG#

(,'2%00%;'%<P;%66'T$6%34'*&'?;*0*&"f''HD7'R'3,,['4,;'4,;T.3'?.$6'0,'%<P;%66'*@%.6'\%6P7'*&'%66.$6f',;';%P,;06]7#

)# CK# SG# CD]# CK]# K]# ]L\# \#Å# H=\# CF=\# HF=D# H\=L# CL=

D#CGG#

HH7'R'T.[%'.&',#03*&%',4'T.*&'P,*&06'2%4,;%'?;*0*&"7#

)# FK# DH# FGG# CDF# LK# ]LH# H#Å# ]=F# C\=S# H]=]# HF=H# CF=

H#CGG#

HL7'R'@;.40'T$'?;*0*&"7'# )# F]# CGL# CDG# CSL# SS# ]L\# H#Å# \=\# CD=D# HC=K# HC=F# CH=

S#CGG#

HN7'R';%8*6%'T$'?;*0*&"'0,'*TP;,8%'0)%'3.&"#."%_E,&0%&07#

)# CL# ]S# FHC# CKS# LH# ]L\# H#Å# F=D# CG=C# \C=G# H\=K# CC=

F#CGG#

HG7'R'.6[',0)%;6'0,'E,TT%&0',&'T$'?;*0*&"7#

)# FC# KG# CDH# CSD# KF# ]L\# H#

# Å# H=S# CL=G# HF=\# HC=L# CL=H#

CGG# #

#

148

J5#,)7,:02(7#,)#*086(#]=K"#2+(#,)7,@,7&06#1(7,0)#5:.3(5#.4#2+(#R>,66X805(7#52302(%,(5#

4(66#?,2+,)#2+(#43(Y&():'#6(@(6#.4#1(7,&1#Ob(7,0)#`#HP#0)7#+,%+#&5(#Ob(7,0)#`#\P=#!2#

?05#?.32+#).2,)%#2+02#2+(3(#?(3(#CG#+,%+6'#&5(7#52302(%,(5#Ob(7,0)#`#\"#_i42()aP"#

?+,:+#:.)52,2&2(7#)(036'#+064#O\S=LÅP#.4#2+(#52302(%,(5#,)#2+,5#R>,66X805(7#%3.&<=#

c,2+#2+,5#3(5&62"#2+(#R>,66X805(7#%3.&<#+07#2+(#+,%+(52#<(3:()20%(#.4#+,%+#&5(#

52302(%,(5#:.1<03(7#2.#2+(#2?.#.2+(3#10,)#%3.&<5#.4#M(%&602,)%#52302(%,(5#OC]=\ÅP#

0)7#V.31X805(7#52302(%,(5#OHD=]ÅP=#*+,5#4,)7,)%#5&%%(52(7#2+02"#,)#077,2,.)#2.#2+(#

3(<.32(7#4.31X805(7#0<<3.0:+#2.#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%"#2+(#52&7()25#,)#2+(#52&7'#065.#

:.):&33()26'#07.<2(7#0#5>,66X805(7#0<<3.0:+#2.#()+0):(#2+(,3#:.1<3(+()5,.)#,)#2+(#

3(:(<2,@(#520%(#0)7#1(0),)%X:3(02,.)#,)#2+(#<3.7&:2,@(#520%(=#!1<.320)26'"#2+(#

52302(%,(5#3(602(7#2.#5<(0>,)%#5>,66#,1<3.@(1()2#?(3(#2+(#1.52#+,%+6'#&5(7#8'#2+(#

501<6(7#52&7()25"#?+()#\#.&2#.4#]#0:+,(@(7#0#43(Y&():'#6(@(6#.4#+,%+#&5(#Ob(7,0)#`#

\P=#*+(5(#+,%+#&5(#5<(0>,)%X3(602(7#52302(%,(5#,):6&7(7j##

! R2302(%'#HD#O!#1(1.3,5(#4,A(7#<+305(5#.4#7,44(3()2#4&):2,.)5P"#

! R2302(%'#HK#O!#3(+(035(#5<(0>,)%#2.#1'5(64P"##

! R2302(%'#\C#O!#&5(#5').)'15#.3#5,1<6(3#?.375#,4#!#7.)[2#>).?#2+(#(A0:2#

?.375P"#0)7#

! R2302(%'#\F#O!#&5(#8.7'#60)%&0%(#2.#+(6<#(A<3(55#?+02#!#?0)2#2.#50'P=###

-'#:.)23052"#.)6'#.)(#52302(%'#3(602(7#2.#?3,2,)%#5>,66#?05#3(<.32(7#2.#8(#+,%+6'#&5(7#

8'#2+(#52&7()25"#?+,:+#?05#R2302(%'#\H#O!#6..>#4.3#4.3106#?0'5#2.#(A<3(55#,7(05"#(5<=#

,)#(550'5"#.3#3(<.325P=#!)#%()(306"#2+(#<(3:()20%(5#0)7#:.&)25#.4#2+(#+,%+#&5(#

52302(%,(5#7(1.)52302(7#2+02#2+('#?(3(#3(<.32(76'#.42()#.3#06?0'5k061.52#06?0'5#

07.<2(7#8'#0#30)%(#.4#]G=\Å#2.#LK=CÅ#.4#2+(#3(5<.)7()25=##

5.5 Associations between LLS use and learner variables

J5#7(20,6(7#,)#2+(#1(2+.7.6.%'#:+0<2(3"#7&(#2.#2+(#).)X).3106#7,523,8&2,.)#.4#2+(#

:.66(:2(7#7020"#,)4(3()2,06#).)X<0301(23,:#2(525#?(3(#&5(7#2.#,7()2,4'#<.55,86(#

:.33(602,.)5#8(2?(()#2+(#3(<.32(7#TTR#&5(#0)7#6(03)(3#@03,086(5=#R<(:,4,:066'"#b0))X

c+,2)('#2(525#?(3(#&5(7#2.#7(2(31,)(#2+(#5202,52,:06#5,%),4,:0):(#8(2?(()#2?.#

149

%3.&<5#,)#3(602,.)#2.#%()7(3#.3#0:07(1,:#10U.3=#d3&5>066#c066,5#2(525#?(3(#&5(7#2.#

,7()2,4'#0)'#5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#7,44(3():(5#,)#52302(%'#&5(#8(2?(()#52&7()25#.4#

7,44(3()2#'(03#%3.&<5#O,=(="#1.3(#2+0)#2?.#%3.&<5P=#c+(3(#5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#

7,44(3():(5#?(3(#4.&)7"#;.52X+.:#2(525#5&:+#05#b0))Xc+,2)('#2(525#?(3(#:.)7&:2(7#

2.#:.)4,31#5,%),4,:0)2#7,44(3():(5#,)#52302(%'#&5(#01.)%#5<(:,4,:#52&7()2#'(03#

%3.&<5=##R<(0310)[5#M0)>#i37(3#I.33(602,.)#O3+.P#2(525#?(3(#(1<6.'(7#2.#

7(2(31,)(#0)'#3(602,.)5+,<#8(2?(()#52302(%'#&5(#0)7#5(64X302(7#<3.4,:,():'#.3#

6(03),)%#8(6,(45=#*+(#5202,52,:06#5,%),4,:0):(#6(@(6#?05#5(2#02#A(\e#G=G]#4.3#066#.4#2+(5(#

2(525=##

W03,02,.)5#,)#2+(#43(Y&():'#.4#52&7()25[#3(<.32(7#52302(%'#&5(#0::.37,)%#2.#(0:+#

6(03)(3#@03,086("#,):6&7,)%#%()7(3"#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<"#0:07(1,:#10U.3"#5(64X302(7#

N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#0)7#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#8(6,(45"#03(#<3(5()2(7#,)#2+,5#<032#0)7#0%0,)"#

0#2.<X7.?)#0<<3.0:+#+05#8(()#(1<6.'(7"#%.,)%#43.1#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#52302(%'#

&5(#2.#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%'#&5(=##

*+(#.@(3066#3(5&625#43.1#2+(5(#:.33(602,.)06#0)06'5(5#7(1.)52302(7#2+02#2+(#

43(Y&():'#.4#TTR#&5(#01.)%#2+(#5&3@('(7#52&7()25"#,):6&7,)%#.@(3066"#%3.&<#0)7#

,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5"#@03,(7#5,%),4,:0)26'#0::.37,)%#2.#2+(,3#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<"#

0:07(1,:#10U.3"#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'"#0)7#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#8(6,(45=#!)#.2+(3#

?.375"#2+(5(#4.&3#6(03)(3#@03,086(5#?(3(#4.&)7#2.#8(#055.:,02(7#?,2+#2+(#52&7()25[#

TTR#&5(=#f()7(3"#+.?(@(3"#?05#4.&)7#2.#:.33(602(#?,2+#2+(#&5(#.4#5.1(#,)7,@,7&06#

52302(%,(5#.)6'=##

5.5.1 Gender and LLSs

b0))Xc+,2)('#2(525#?(3(#<(34.31(7#2.#,7()2,4'#0)'#5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#

@03,02,.)5#,)#52302(%'#&5(#8(2?(()#52&7()25#.4#7,44(3()2#%()7(3#O106(#0)7#4(106(P=#

*086(#]=CG#8(6.?#<3(5()25#2+(#7(20,6(7#3(5&625#.)#b0))Xc+,2)('#2(525#3(%037,)%#

.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#52302(%'#&5("#,):6&7,)%#M(%&602,)%"#V.31X805(7#0)7#R>,66X805(7#

52302(%,(5=##

#

#

150

Table 5.10: Mann-Whitney tests on overall and group strategy use by gender

Z0;.0%"$'E.0%",;$' b%&@%;' !' F%.&';.&['

Y' PW8.3#%'

B%"#3.0*&"'60;.0%"*%6# b06(## CLK# FDL=GD# HF\H\=]# =LLC#Ç#=G]#

V(106(# HKH# FSK=]H#

:,;T'2.6%@'60;.0%"*%6# b06(## CLK# FL]=LK# HG]HS=G# =CHG##Ç#=G]#

V(106(# HKH# FDD=HG#

Z[*33'2.6%@'60;.0%"*%6# b06(## CLK# FL]=]F# HG]GS=]# =CFL#Ç#=G]#

V(106(# HKH# FDD=HS#

>8%;.33'60;.0%"*%6# b06(## CLK# FLD=FF# HGKL]=G# =FG\#Ç#=G]#

V(106(# HKH# FDS=FC#

#

J5#,)7,:02(7#,)#*086(#]=CG"#2+(#@03,02,.)5#,)#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#52302(%'#&5(#8(2?(()#

52&7()25#.4#7,44(3()2#%()7(3#O106(#0)7#4(106(P#?(3(#4.&)7#2.#8(#,)5,%),4,:0)2#?,2+#<#

@06&(5#+,%+(3#2+0)#G=G]=#*+,5#4,)7,)%#5&%%(52(7#2+02#05#0#?+.6(#2+(#501<6(7#106(#

0)7#4(106(#52&7()25#7,7#).2#7,44(3#43.1#(0:+#.2+(3#,)#2+(,3#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#

52302(%'#&5(#0)7#2+02#%()7(3#?05#).2#3(602(7#2.#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#52302(%'#&5(=#J)'#

7,44(3():(5#05#.85(3@(7#,)#2+(#1(0)#30)>5#8(2?(()#2+(#2?.#%()7(3#%3.&<5#?(3(#

<3.8086'#7&(#2.#:+0):(=#V&32+(3#0)06'5(5#.)#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%'#&5(#8'#%()7(3"#

+.?(@(3"#5+.?(7#2+02#106(#0)7#4(106(#52&7()25#7,44(3(7#5,%),4,:0)26'#,)#2+(#&5(#.4#

:(320,)#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5=#*086(#]=CC#8(6.?#7,5<60'5#2+(#3(5&625#.4#b0))Xc+,)('#

2(525#.)#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5#?,2+#5,%),4,:0)2#<X@06&(5#8'#%()7(3=##

Table 5.11: Mann-Whitney tests on individual strategy use by gender

Z0;.0%"$'' b%&@%;' !' F%.&';.&['

F%@*.&' Y' PW8.3#%'

N7'R'#6%'T,&,3*&"#.3'\Q&"3*6)WQ&"3*6)]'@*E0*,&.;*%67#

b06(## CLK# F]H=]D# H# FD\DK=]# =GGD#e#=G]#

V(106(## HKH# FKF=C\# \#

=K7'R'^,*&',&3*&%'4,;#T\6]'*&'Q&"3*6)7'#

b06(## CLK# HCK=\]# F# FLSK]=G# =GGG#e#=G]#

V(106(## HKH# FL]=CD# F#=L7'R';%?;*0%'?,;@6'T.&$'0*T%6'0,';%T%T2%;'0)%*;'6P%33*&"67#

b06(## CLK# F]F=HG# H# FDFSH=]# =GG\#e#=G]#

V(106(## HKH# FK\=GL# H#

=C7'R'T%T,;*6%'";.TT.;';#3%6'.&@'60;#E0#;%67#

b06(## CLK# F]F=GC# \# FDFF\=]# =GGH#e#=G]#

V(106(## HKH# FK\=CD# \#

A=7'R'T.[%'T$',?&'6%&0%&E%6'#6*&"'&%?'60;#E0#;%67#

b06(## CLK# HG]=LD# H# FKCFF=G# =GCL#e#=G]#

V(106(## HKH# FSC=CG# H#

AA7'R'.&.3$6%'0)%'";.TT.0*E.3' b06(## CLK# HGL=GF# H# FKGL]=G# =GC\#e#=G]#

151

Z0;.0%"$'' b%&@%;' !' F%.&';.&['

F%@*.&' Y' PW8.3#%'

60;#E0#;%6',4'@*44%;%&0'0%<067# V(106(## HKH# FSG=KL# H#

AD7'R';%.@'P),&%0*E'0;.&6E;*P0*,&6',4'?,;@6'*&'0)%'@*E0*,&.;$7#

b06(## CLK# F\F=GK# H# FL]\D=]# =GGG#e#=G]#

V(106(## HKH# FKD=\]# \#

DN7'R'0.[%'&,0%6',4'[%$'?,;@6',;'*@%.67'#

b06(## CLK# F]]=\C# \# FDDGG=G# =GGK#e#=G]#

V(106(## HKH# FKF=SF# \#

DO7'R'T%T,;*6%'4*<%@'P);.6%6',4'@*44%;%&0'4#&E0*,&6'\%7"7';%S#%60]7'#

b06(## CLK# F]S=DG# H# FKFGF=]# =GCS#e#=G]#

V(106(## HKH# FKC=LK# \#

*+(#7020#0)06'5,5#.)#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5#8'#%()7(3#,)7,:02(7#2+02#2+(3(#?(3(#

5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#@03,02,.)5#,)#2+(#&5(#.4#),)(#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5#01.)%#2+(#

106(#0)7#4(106(#3(5<.)7()25"#?+(3(8'#2+(#<X@06&(5#?(3(#51066(3#2+0)#G=G]=#

R<(:,4,:066'"#5,%),4,:0)2#7,44(3():(5#8(2?(()#2+(#%()7(3#%3.&<5#?(3(#4.&)7#,)#K#

52302(%,(5"#,):6&7,)%j#

! R2302(%'#L#O!#&5(#N)%6,5+XN)%6,5+#7,:2,.)03,(5PZ##

! R2302(%'#CG#O!#U.,)#.)6,)(#4.3&1O5P#,)#N)%6,5+P"##

! R2302(%'#C]#O!#3(?3,2(#?.375#10)'#2,1(5#2.#3(1(18(3#2+(,3#5<(66,)%5P"#

! R2302(%'#CK#O!#1(1.3,5(#%301103#3&6(5#0)7#523&:2&3(5P"#

! R2302(%'#FC#O!#10>(#1'#.?)#5()2():(5#&5,)%#)(?#523&:2&3(5P"#

! R2302(%'#FF#O!#0)06'5(#2+(#%301102,:06#523&:2&3(5#.4#7,44(3()2#2(A25P"#

! R2302(%'#FH#O!#3(07#<+.)(2,:#230)5:3,<2,.)5#.4#?.375#,)#2+(#7,:2,.)03'P"#

! R2302(%'#HL#O!#20>(#).2(5#.4#>('#?.375#.3#,7(05PZ#0)7#

! R2302(%'#HD#O!#1(1.3,5(#4,A(7#<+305(5#.4#7,44(3()2#4&):2,.)5P=##

J)#(A01,)02,.)#.4#2+(#1(0)#30)>5#5&%%(52(7#2+02#2+(#106(#3(5<.)7()25#5202,52,:066'#

+07#0#1.3(#43(Y&()2#&5(#.4#2+3((#52302(%,(5#2+0)#2+(,3#4(106(#:.&)2(3<0325"#

,):6&7,)%#U.,),)%#.)6,)(#4.3&1O5P#,)#N)%6,5+#OB#`#FLSK]"#<#`#=GGG#e#=G]PZ#10>,)%#2+(,3#

.?)#5()2():(5#&5,)%#)(?#523&:2&3(5#OB`#FKCFF"#<`G=GCL#e#=G]PZ#0)7#0)06'5,)%#2+(#

%301102,:06#523&:2&3(5#.4#7,44(3()2#2(A25#OB`FKGL]Z#<`G=GC\e#=G]P=##

152

i)#2+(#.2+(3#+0)7"#2+(#4(106(#3(5<.)7()25#3(<.32(7#0#1.3(#43(Y&()26'#&5(#.4#5,A#

52302(%,(5#2+0)#2+(,3#106(#:.&)2(3<0325"#:.@(3,)%#&5,)%#N)%6,5+XN)%6,5+#7,:2,.)03,(5#

OB#`#FD\DK=]GZ#<#`#=GGD#e#=G]PZ#3(?3,2,)%#?.375#10)'#2,1(5#2.#3(1(18(3#2+(,3#

5<(66,)%5#OB#`#FDFSH=]GZ#<#`#=GG\#e#=G]PZ#1(1.3,5,)%#%301103#3&6(5#0)7#523&:2&3(5#

OB#`#FDFF\=]G#0)7##<#`#=GGH#e#=G]PZ#3(07,)%#<+.)(2,:#230)5:3,<2,.)5#.4#?.375#,)#2+(#

7,:2,.)03'#OB#`#FL]\D=]G#0)7##<#`#=GGG#e#=G]PZ#20>,)%#).2(5#.4#>('#?.375#.3#,7(05#OB#`#

FDDGG=GG#0)7##<#`#=GGK#e#=G]PZ#0)7#1(1.3,5,)%#4,A(7#<+305(5#.4#7,44(3()2#4&):2,.)5#

OB#`#FKFGF=]G#0)7##<#`#=GCS#e#=G]P=##

*+(5(#1(0)#30)>#3(5&625#?(3(#065.#5&<<.32(7#8'#2+(#1(7,0)#3(5&625"#?+(3(8'#2+(#

4(106(#3(5<.)7()25#3(<.32(7#0#+,%+(3#43(Y&():'#6(@(6#Ob(7,0)#`#\P#2+0)#2+02#.4#2+(#

106(#3(5<.)7()25#Ob(7,0)#`#HP#,)#2+(#2+3((#52302(%,(5#.4#L"#FH#0)7#HD=#*+(5(#

5,%),4,:0)2#@03,02,.)5#?(3(#,)7,:02,@(#.4#2+(#:.33(602,.)#8(2?(()#%()7(3#0)7#2+(#&5(#

.4#5.1(#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5"#?+(3(8'#2+(#106(#3(5<.)7()25#2()7(7#2.#(1<6.'#

52302(%,(5#.4#0)#0:2,@("#:3(02,@(#.3#0)06'2,:06#)02&3(#O05#,66&52302(7#8'#R2302(%,(5#CG"#

FC#0)7#FFP#1.3(#43(Y&()26'#2+0)#2+(,3#4(106(#:.&)2(3<0325=#I.)@(35(6'"#2+(#4(106(#

3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#6,>(6'#2.#(1<6.'#52302(%,(5#.4#0#3(<(2,2,@(#.3#1(1.3,502,.)06#

)02&3(#O05#,66&52302(7#8'#R2302(%,(5#C]"#CK"#FH"#L#0)7#HDP#1.3(#43(Y&()26'#2+0)#2+(,3#

106(#:.&)2(3<0325=##

5.5.2 University year groups and LLSs

*+(#5&3@('#3(5<.)7()25#:01(#43.1#4.&3#7,44(3()2#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5"#,):6&7,)%#

4,352#'(03"#5(:.)7#'(03"#2+,37#'(03#0)7#4.&32+#'(03=#!2#?05#,1<.320)2#2.#).2(#2+02#

2+,37#0)7#4.&32+#'(03#%3.&<5#?(3(#:.18,)(7#,)#2+(#7020#0)06'5,5#2.#4.31#2+(#)(?#

2+,37k4.&32+#'(03#%3.&<#7&(#2.#2+(,3#:6.5()(55#,)#:+030:2(3,52,:5#0)7#2+(,3#.3,%,)06#

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52302(%,(5=##

#

#

#

153

Table 5.12: Kruskal Wallis tests on overall and group strategy use by university year

group

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154

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%3.&<#52302(%'#&5(#8'#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<=#

Table 5.13: Post-hoc Mann-Whitney tests on overall and group strategy use by

university year group

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`%.;'";,#P6# F%.&';.&[' Y' PW8.3#%'

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155

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52302(%'#&5(#8'#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<=#

Table 5.14: Kruskal Wallis tests on individual strategy use by university year group

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,)@(52,%02(#?+,:+#5<(:,4,:#%3.&<5#?(3(#5,%),4,:0)26'#7,44(3()2#43.1#.)(#0).2+(3#

O3(4(3#2.#J<<()7,A#L#4.3#2+(#3(5&625#.4#b0))Xc+,)('#2(525#.)#2+(#&5(#.4#,)7,@,7&06#

52302(%,(5#8'#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5P=#

*+(#.@(3066#3(5&625#.820,)(7#43.1#2+(#b0))Xc+,)('#2(525#7(1.)52302(7#2+02#2+(#

3(5<.)7()25#.4#2+(#2+3((#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5#3(<.32(7#5,%),4,:0)26'#7,44(3()2#&5(#

158

.4#10)'#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5#43.1#.)(#0).2+(3=#*+(#1.52#.&2520)7,)%#4,)7,)%#?05#

2+(#5,%),4,:0)2#@03,02,.)5#,)#52302(%'#&5(#8(2?(()#2+(#4,352#'(03#3(5<.)7()25#0)7#2+(#

2+,37k4.&32+#'(03#3(5<.)7()25"#?+,:+#?(3(#4.&)7#,)#FG#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5#

O,):6&7,)%#F"#\"#L"#S"#D"#CC"#CF"#CL"#CD"#FH"#F]"#FL"#H]"#HK"#\G"#\C"#\H"#\\"#\]"#0)7#\LP=#

$.2086'"#0)#(A01,)02,.)#.4#2+(#1(0)#30)>#@06&(5#,)7,:02(7#2+02#2+(#4,352#'(03#

3(5<.)7()25#3(<.32(7#0#6(55#43(Y&()2#&5(#.4#CS#.&2#.4#2+(5(#FG#52302(%,(5#O,):6&7,)%#

F"#\"#L"#S"##CC"#CF"#FH"#F]"#FL"#H]"#HK"#\G"#\C"#\H"#\\"#\]"#0)7#\LP#2+0)#2+(,3#

2+,37k4.&32+#'(03#:.&)2(3<0325"#?+,:+#?(3(#10,)6'#3(602(7#2.#10>,)%#&5(#.4#@03,.&5#

6(03),)%#3(5.&3:(5"#:3(02,)%#6(03),)%#.<<.32&),2,(5#.&25,7(#.4#2+(#:60553..1"#0)7#

()+0):,)%#<(34.310):(#,)#8.2+#.306#0)7#?3,22()#:.11&),:02,.)5=#i)#2+(#:.)2303'"#

2+(#4,352#'(03#3(5<.)7()25#3(<.32(7#0#1.3(#43(Y&()2#&5(#.4#.)6'#H#.&2#.4#2+(5(#FG#

52302(%,(5#O,):6&7,)%#D"#CL#0)7#CDP#2+0)#2+(,3#5(),.3#2+,37k4.&32+#'(03#:.&)2(3<0325"#

?+,:+#?(3(#3(602(7#2.#022()7,)%#(@(),)%#:6055(5"#0)7#@.:08&603'#6(03),)%=##

*+(#4,352#'(03#3(5<.)7()25#065.#7,44(3(7#5,%),4,:0)26'#43.1#2+(#5(:.)7#'(03#

3(5<.)7()25#,)#2+(,3#&5(#.4#CF#52302(%,(5#O,):6&7,)%#F"#\"#]"#L"#S"#CC"#CF"#FH"#FK"#HK"#

\H"#0)7#\\P=##J)#(A01,)02,.)#.4#2+(#1(0)#30)>#@06&(5#,)7,:02(7#2+02#2+(#4,352#'(03#

3(5<.)7()25#3(<.32(7#0#6(55#43(Y&()2#&5(#.4#066#.4#2+(5(#CF#52302(%,(5#2+0)#2+(,3#

5(:.)7#'(03#:.&)2(3<0325=##

R,%),4,:0)2#@03,02,.)5#?(3(#065.#4.&)7#8(2?(()#2+(#5(:.)7#'(03#3(5<.)7()25#0)7#

2+,37k4.&32+#'(03#3(5<.)7()25#,)#2+(#&5(#.4#CG#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5#O,):6&7,)%#]"#D"#

CF"#CL"#CD"#FD"#H]"#\G"#\C"#0)7#\\P=#b(0)#30)>#@06&(5#43.1#2+(#0)06'5,5#5+.?(7#2+02#

2+(#5(:.)7#'(03#3(5<.)7()25#3(<.32(7#0#1.3(#43(Y&()2#&5(#.4#]#.&2#2+(5(#CG#

52302(%,(5#2+0)#2+(,3#2+,37k4.&32+#'(03#:.&)2(3<0325#O,):6&7,)%#]"#D"#CL"#CD"#0)7#FDP=##

i)#2+(#.2+(3#+0)7"#2+(#5(:.)7#'(03#3(5<.)7()25#3(<.32(7#0#6(55#43(Y&()2#&5(#.4#]#

.&2#2+(5(#CG#52302(%,(5#2+0)#2+(,3#2+,37k4.&32+#'(03#:.&)2(3<0325#O,):6&7,)%#F"#H]"#

\G"#\C"#0)7#\\P=##

5.5.3 Academic majors and LLSs

*+(#0:07(1,:#10U.35#.4#2+(#3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#:6055,4,(7#,)2.#2?.#10,)#:02(%.3,(5"#

)01(6'#).)XN)%6,5+#10U.3#0)7#N)%6,5+#10U.3=#b0))Xc+,2)('#2(525#?(3(#<(34.31(7#

2.#,7()2,4'#0)'#5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#@03,02,.)5#,)#52302(%'#&5(#8(2?(()#2+(#

159

3(5<.)7()25#.4#2+(5(#2?.#).)XN)%6,5+#0)7#N)%6,5+#10U.35=#*086(#]=C]#8(6.?#

<3(5()25#2+(#7(20,6(7#3(5&625#.)#2+(#2(525#3(%037,)%#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#52302(%'#&5(=##

Table 5.15: Mann-Whitney tests on overall and group strategy use by academic major

Z0;.0%"$'E.0%",;$'' ME.@%T*E'T.^,;' !' F%.&';.&[' Y' PW8.3#%'

B%"#3.0*&"'60;.0%"*%6'# $.)XN)%6,5+# FDD# FLH=\C# H\F\S=]# =GCG#e##=G]#

N)%6,5+# FSF# FKD=]K#

:,;T'2.6%@'60;.0%"*%6'# $.)XN)%6,5+# FDD# FLG=C]# HHHGS=G# =GGF#e#=G]#

N)%6,5+# FSF# HGF=G]#

Z[*33'2.6%@'60;.0%"*%6'# $.)XN)%6,5+# FDD# F\H=]S# FD]HF=]# =GGG#e#=G]#

N)%6,5+# FSF# HCK=LG#

>8%;.33'60;.0%"*%6'# $.)XN)%6,5+# FDD# F\D=S\# HGGFF=]# =GGG#e##=G]#

N)%6,5+# FSF# HC\=CF#

#

J5#,)7,:02(7#,)#*086(#]=C]"#2+(#@03,02,.)5#,)#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#52302(%'#&5(#8(2?(()#

2+(#3(5<.)7()25#.4#).)XN)%6,5+#0)7#N)%6,5+#10U.35#?(3(#4.&)7#2.#8(#5202,52,:066'#

5,%),4,:0)2#?,2+#<#@06&(5#`e#=G]=#

*+(#4,)7,)%5#5&%%(52(7#2+02#05#0#?+.6(#2+(#501<6(7#).)XN)%6,5+#0)7#N)%6,5+#

52&7()25#7,44(3#5,%),4,:0)26'#43.1#(0:+#.2+(3#,)#2+(,3#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#52302(%'#&5(#

0)7#2+02#2+(#@03,086(#.4#0:07(1,:#10U.3#?05#055.:,02(7#?,2+#2+(#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#

52302(%'#&5(=#J#:.1<03,5.)#.4#2+(#1(0)#30)>#@06&(5#5&%%(52(7#2+02#N)%6,5+#10U.3#

3(5<.)7()25#3(<.32(7#0#1.3(#43(Y&()2#&5(#.4#2+(#.@(3066#52302(%,(5#05#?(66#05#2+(#

52302(%,(5#?,2+,)#2+(#2+3((#10,)#%3.&<5#.4#M(%&602,)%#Ob(0)#30)>#`#FKD=]KP"#V.31X

805(7#Ob(0)#30)>#`#HGF=G]P#0)7#R>,66X805(7#Ob(0)#30)>#`#HCK=LGP#52302(%,(5#2+0)#

).)XN)%6,5+#10U.3#3(5<.)7()25=###

V&32+(3#0)06'5(5#.)#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%'#&5(#8'#0:07(1,:#10U.3#?.&67#<3.@,7(#0#

1.3(#7(20,6(7#<,:2&3(#.4#2+(#5<(:,4,:#52302(%,(5#2+02#?(3(#&5(7#7,44(3()26'#,)#0#

5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#10))(3#8'#2+(#).)XN)%6,5+#0)7#).)XN)%6,5+#10U.3#%3.&<5=#

*086(#]=CL#8(6.?#<3(5()25#2+(#b0))Xc+,)('#2(52#3(5&625#?,2+#5,%),4,:0)2#<X@06&(5#

.)#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%'#&5(#8'#0:07(1,:#10U.3=#

160

Table 5.16: Mann-Whiney tests on individual strategy use by academic major

Z0;.0%"$'' F.^,;' !' F%.&';.&['

F%' Y' PW8.3#%'

=7'R'#6%'.E.@%T*E'P;*&0'T.0%;*.36'\0%<02,,[6f';%4%;%&E%'2,,[6f',;'3%66,&'&,0%6'*&'Q&"3*6)]7#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# FLH=SH# \# H\HHD=G##

G=GGD#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# FKD=FL# \#

A7'R'#6%'&,&W.E.@%T*E'P;*&0'T.0%;*.36'\&%?6P.P%;6f'^,#;&.36f'&,8%36f',;'60,;*%6'*&'Q&"3*6)]7#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# FLH=F\# H# H\CKL=G##

G=GGL#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# FKD=SD# H#

L7'R'#6%',&3*&%_E,TP#0%;W2.6%@'T.0%;*.36'\%W2,,[6_^,#;&.36f'6,40?.;%f'?%2E.606'*&'Q&"3*6)]7#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F]S=KL# H# HFLSL=G##

G=GGG#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HG\=HS# \#

N7'R'#6%'T,&,3*&"#.3'\Q&"3*6)WQ&"3*6)]'@*E0*,&.;*%67#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F]]=C\# H# HCDKS=]# G=GGG#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HG]=HG# \#

G7'R'.00%&@'%8%&06'?)%;%'Q&"3*6)'*6'#6%@'\E3#26f'6%T*&.;6f',;'?,;[6),P6]7#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# FLS=]]# F# H]\HK=]# G=G\F#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# FK\=FC# F#

O7'R'.00%&@'%8%&*&"'Q&"3*6)'E3.66%67# $.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# HC\=GG# H# FK]FG=G# G=GGG#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# F\]=GH# H#

==7'R'T.*&0.*&'.'23,"_:.E%W2,,[_?%2P."%'*&'Q&"3*6)7'#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# FL\=G]# H# H\\FK=G# G=GC\#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# FKL=KL# \#

=C7'R'T%T,;*6%'";.TT.;';#3%6'.&@'60;#E0#;%67'#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F]K=]]# \# HHCH]=G# G=GGC#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HGF=LD# \#

AD7'R';%.@'P),&%0*E'0;.&6E;*P0*,&6',4'?,;@6'\%7"7f'0).0'_gh0_]'*&'0)%'@*E0*,&.;$7#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F]H=GD# H# HCFSG=G# G=GGG#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HGK=]\# \#

AL7'R'P;.E0*E%'#&4.T*3*.;'6,#&@6'2$'6.$*&"'0)%T'.".*&'.&@'.".*&7#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F]]=\H# H# HCK\K=G# G=GGG#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HGS=G\# \#

AN7'R';%P%.0'.40%;'&.0*8%'6P%.[%;6'\4;,T';%E,;@*&"6',;'T,8*%6]7#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# FL]=]D# \# H\DSC=]# G=GCK#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# FKL=HG# \#

AG7'R';%.@',8%;'0)%'0%<0'S#*E[3$'4,;'T.*&'*@%.6'2%4,;%';%.@*&"'E.;%4#33$7#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F]H=\K# \# HCHKG=]# G=GGG#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HGK=GK# \#

AC7'R'6[*P'#&*TP,;0.&0'?,;@6'\6#E)'.6'i0)%Uf'e.ef'e.&@Uf'%0E7]7#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# FLS=LG# H# H]\]H=G# G=G\\#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# FK\=CL# H#

DK7'R'"#%66'0)%'T%.&*&"6',4'&%?'?,;@6'4;,T'E,&0%<067#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# FLL=]L# H# H]CS\=G# G=GH\#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# FK\=CD# \#

DD7'R';%;%.@'P.;0',4'0)%'0%<0'0,'#&@%;60.&@'2%00%;7#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F]S=]C# \# HF]\L=G# G=GGGe#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HG\=D]# \#

DH7'R'P.$'.00%&0*,&'0,'&,&W8%;2.3'E#%6'\"%60#;%f'";.P)*E6f'60;%66f'P.#6%f'%0E7]7#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F]\=DC# H# HCSLK=]# G=GGG#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HGS=SG# \#

DL7'R'3*60%&'4,;'[%$'?,;@6',;'*@%.67# $.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F]K=FC# \# HHGHL=]# G=GGC#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HGH=G\# \#

DO7'R'T%T,;*6%'4*<%@'P);.6%6',4'@*44%;%&0'4#&E0*,&6'\%7"7'?).0'0,'6.$'*&'T.[*&"'.';%S#%60f'.&'.P,3,"$',;'

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F]D=FS# H# HFSLS=G# G=GGG#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HG\=GH# \#

161

Z0;.0%"$'' F.^,;' !' F%.&';.&['

F%' Y' PW8.3#%'

.'E,TP3.*&0]7#DC7'R';%)%.;6%'6P%.[*&"'0,'T$6%347# $.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F\]=HK# H# FKG]]=]# G=GGG#

e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HCS=LD# \#

HK7'R'%<P3.*&',;'"*8%'%<.TP3%6'*4'R'@,&U0'[&,?'0)%'%<.E0'?,;@67'#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F]K=HK# H# HHGDD=G# G=GGC#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HGF=D]# \#

H=7'R'#6%'6$&,&$T6',;'6*TP3%;'?,;@6'*4'R'@,&U0'[&,?'0)%'%<.E0'?,;@67#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F]]=L\# H# HFGGK=]# G=GGG#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HGL=DF# \#

HA7'R'#6%'2,@$'3.&"#."%'0,')%3P'%<P;%66'?).0'R'?.&0'0,'6.$7#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# FLL=F]# \# H]GLH=G# G=GHC#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# FK\=LF# \#

HD7'R'3,,['4,;'4,;T.3'?.$6'0,'%<P;%66'*@%.6'\%6P7'*&'%66.$6f';%P,;06]7#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F\K=CK# H# HGC]C=]# G=GGG#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HCH=L]# \#

HH7'R'T.[%'.&',#03*&%',4'T.*&'P,*&06'2%4,;%'?;*0*&"7'#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F\S=FF# H# FKLF\=]# G=GGG#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HC\=]K# \#

HL7'R'@;.40'T$'?;*0*&"7# $.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F]C=GH# H# HGLDF=G# G=GGG#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HCC=SG# \#

HN7'R';%8*6%'T$'?;*0*&"'0,'*TP;,8%'0)%'3.&"#."%_E,&0%&07#

$.)XN)%6,5+## FDD# F]L=GS# H# HFCHC=]# G=GGG#e#=G]#N)%6,5+### FSF# HGL=HS# \#

*+(#3(5&625#.4#2+(#b0))Xc+,)('#2(525#.)#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5#8'#0:07(1,:#10U.3#

,)7,:02(7#2+02#2+(3(#?(3(#5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#@03,02,.)5#,)#2+(#&5(#.4#FL#

,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5#01.)%#2+(#).)XN)%6,5+#0)7#N)%6,5+#3(5<.)7()25"#?+(3(8'#2+(#

<X@06&(5#?(3(#51066(3#2+0)#=G]"#,):6&7,)%#52302(%,(5#C"#F"#]"#L"#S"#D"#CC"#CK"#FH"#F]"#FL"#

FS"#FK"#HG"#H\"#H]"#HD"#HK"#\G"#\C"#\F"#\H"#\\"#\]"#0)7#\L=##

J)#(A01,)02,.)#.4#2+(#1(0)#30)>5#5&%%(52(7#2+02#01.)%#2+(5(#FL#52302(%,(5#?,2+#

5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#7,44(3():(5"#N)%6,5+#10U.3#3(5<.)7()25#+07#0#+,%+(3#1(0)#

30)>#,)#F]#52302(%,(5"#?+,:+#,)7,:02(7#0#2()7():'#01.)%#N)%6,5+#10U.3#3(5<.)7()25#

2.#&5(#2+.5(#52302(%,(5#1.3(#43(Y&()26'#2+0)#2+(,3#).)XN)%6,5+#:.&)2(3<0325=#*+(#

.)6'#52302(%'"#2+02#N)%6,5+#10U.3#3(5<.)7()25#3(<.32(7#&5,)%#6(55#43(Y&()26'#2+0)#

2+(,3#).)XN)%6,5+#10U.3#:.&)2(3<0325"#?05#R2302(%'#D#O!#022()7#(@(),)%#N)%6,5+#

:6055(5P=##

*+(5(#1(0)#30)>#3(5&625#?(3(#065.#5&<<.32(7#8'#2+(#1(7,0)#3(5&625"#?+(3(8'#2+(#

N)%6,5+#10U.3#3(5<.)7()25#+07#0#+,%+(3#1(7,0)#.4#&5(#2+0)#$.)XN)%6,5+#10U.3#

52&7()25"#?,2+#b(7,0)#`#\#.<<.5(7#2.#b(7,0)#`#H#,)#C]#52302(%,(5#O]"#L"#CC"#FH"#F]"#

162

HG"#H\"#HD"#HK"#\G"#\C"#\H"#\\"#\]"#0)7#\]P=#*+(5(#C]#52302(%,(5#?(3(#10,)6'#3(602(7#2.#

?3,2,)%#5>,665"#5<(0>,)%#5>,665"#3(07,)%#5>,665"#7,:2,.)03'#5>,665"#0)7#2(:+).6.%'X805(7#

52302(%,(5=##

5.5.4 Self-rated English proficiency and LLSs

*+(#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#.4#2+(#5&3@('(7#52&7()25#?05#(A01,)(7#,)#2(315#.4#2+(#4.&3#

10:3.#5>,665#.4#3(07,)%"#6,52(),)%"#5<(0>,)%#0)7#?3,2,)%=#*+(#3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#05>(7#

2.#302(#2+(,3#.?)#<3.4,:,():'#,)#2+(5(#4.&3#5>,665#.)#0#4.&3X6(@(6#<3.4,:,():'#5:06("#

,):6&7,)%#_C#`#T,1,2(7a"#_F#`#V0,3a"#_H#`#f..7a#0)7#_\#`#W(3'#%..7a=#R<(0310)[5#

M0)>#i37(3#I.33(602,.)#O3+.P#2(525#?(3(#(1<6.'(7#2.#7(2(31,)(#?+(2+(3#2+(3(#?05#

0)'#5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#3(602,.)5+,<#8(2?(()#52302(%'#&5(#0)7#2+(#3(5<.)7()25[#

5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'=#*086(#]=CD#8(6.?#<3(5()25#2+(#7(20,6(7#3(5&625#.4#2+,5#

:.33(602,.)06#0)06'5,5#3(%037,)%#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#52302(%'#&5(=##

Table 5.17: Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation tests on overall and group strategy

use by self-rated English proficiency

Z0;.0%"$'E.0%",;$' ZP%.;T.&U6';),'

B%.@*&"' 9*60%&*&"' ZP%.[*&"' X;*0*&"'

B%"#3.0*&"'#60;.0%"*%6'

I.33(602,.)##I.(44,:,()2#

=F]HÉÉ# =F\SÉÉ# =HGHÉÉ# =C]GÉÉ#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GGG#

:,;TW2.6%@'60;.0%"*%6'

I.33(602,.)##I.(44,:,()2#

=CSLÉÉ# =C\LÉÉ# =CLLÉÉ# =CDGÉÉ#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGG# G=GGC# G=GGG# G=GGG#Z[*33W2.6%@'60;.0%"*%6'

I.33(602,.)##I.(44,:,()2#

=FSCÉÉ# =FSCÉÉ# =FKKÉÉ# =C]FÉÉ#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GGG#>8%;.33'#60;.0%"*%6'

I.33(602,.)##I.(44,:,()2#

=FSGÉÉ# =FLCÉÉ# =FKDÉÉ# =CD]ÉÉ#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GGG#$#`# ]\K# ]\K# ]\K# ]\K#

ÉÉ=#I.33(602,.)#,5#5,%),4,:0)2#02#2+(#G=GC#6(@(6#OFX20,6(7P=#É=#I.33(602,.)#,5#5,%),4,:0)2#02#2+(#G=G]#6(@(6#OFX20,6(7P=# *+(#3(5&625#,)#*086(#]=CS#,)7,:02(7#2+02#2+(3(#?05#0#5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#<.5,2,@(#

:.33(602,.)#8(2?(()#.@(3066#52302(%'#&5(#0)7#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#,)#066#4.&3#

10U.3#5>,665#.4#3(07,)%#O3#`#G=FSG"#<#`#=GGG#e#=GC"#3F#`#G=GSFKP"#6,52(),)%#O3#`#G=FLC"#<#

`#=GGG#e#=GC"#3F#`#G=GLDCP"#5<(0>,)%#O3#`#G=FKD"#<#`#=GGG#e#=GC"#3F#`#G=GDDDP"#0)7#

?3,2,)%#O3#`#G=CD]"#<#`#=GGG#e#=GC"#3F#`#G=GH\FP=#*+(5(#<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)5#5&%%(52(7#

163

2+02#2+(#1.3(#<3.4,:,()2#2+(#3(5<.)7()25#3(<.32(7#2.#8(#,)#4.&3#10:3.#5>,665"#2+(#

1.3(#43(Y&()2#2+('#3(<.32(7#2+(,3#.@(3066#52302(%'#&5(#2.#8(=#!)#.2+(3#?.375"#+,%+(3#

<3.4,:,()2#3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#6,>(6'#2.#07.<2#.@(3066#52302(%,(5#1.3(#43(Y&()26'#2+0)#

2+(,3#6(55#<3.4,:,()2#:.&)2(3<0325=##

-05(7#.)#I.+()[5#OCKDDP#,)2(3<3(202,.)#3&6("#2+(#523()%2+#.4#:.33(602,.)#8(2?(()#

.@(3066#52302(%'#&5(#0)7#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#,)#066#4.&3#10U.3#5>,665#?05#

51066#OG=CG#e#3#e#G=FKP=#*.#%(2#0)#,7(0#.4#+.?#1&:+#@03,0):(#2+(#2?.#@03,086(5#

5+03(7"#2+(#3#@06&(#?05#5Y&03(7#O3FP#0)7#:.)@(32(7#2.#_<(3:()20%(#.4#@03,0):(a#

O;0660)2"#FGG]"#<=#CFSP=#J::.37,)%6'"#2+(#<(3:()20%(5#.4#@03,0):(#8(2?(()#.@(3066#

52302(%'#&5(#0)7#5(64X302(7#<3.4,:,():'#?(3(#S=FKÅ#,)#3(07,)%"#L=DCÅ#,)#6,52(),)%"#

D=DDÅ#,)#5<(0>,)%#0)7#H=\FÅ#,)#?3,2,)%=#*+02#,5"#2+(#6(@(6#.4#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#.4#

2+(#3(5<.)7()25#,)#2+(#4.&3#5>,665#.4#3(07,)%"#6,52(),)%"#5<(0>,)%#0)7#?3,2,)%#+(6<(7#

2.#(A<60,)(7#S=FKÅ"#L=DCÅ"#D=DDÅ"#0)7#H=\FÅ#3(5<(:2,@(6'#.4#2+(#@03,0):(#,)#2+(,3#

3(<.32(7#.@(3066#52302(%'#&5(=##

R,1,6036'"#5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)5#?(3(#4.&)7#8(2?(()#52302(%'#

&5(#?,2+,)#2+(#2+3((#10,)#%3.&<5#.4#52302(%,(5#O,):6&7,)%#M(%&602,)%"#V.31X805(7#

0)7#R>,66X805(7P#0)7#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#,)#066#4.&3#10U.3#5>,665=#*+(5(#

<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)5#5&%%(52(7#2+02#2+(#1.3(#<3.4,:,()2#2+(#3(5<.)7()25#3(<.32(7#

2.#8(#,)#4.&3#10U.3#5>,665"#2+(#1.3(#43(Y&()2#2+('#3(<.32(7#2+(,3#&5(#.4#2+(#2+3((#

10,)#52302(%'#%3.&<5#2.#8(=#!)#.2+(3#?.375"#1.3(#<3.4,:,()2#3(5<.)7()25#?(3(#6,>(6'#

2.#07.<2#2+(#2+3((#52302(%'#%3.&<5#1.3(#43(Y&()26'#2+0)#2+(,3#6(55#<3.4,:,()2#

:.&)2(3<0325=#!1<.320)26'"#2+(#523()%2+#.4#:.33(602,.)5#8(2?(()#%3.&<#52302(%'#&5(#

0)7#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#,)#066#4.&3#10U.3#5>,665#?05#51066#OG=CG#e#3#e#G=FKP"#

(A:(<2#2+(#:.33(602,.)#8(2?(()#M(%&602,)%#52302(%'#&5(#0)7#5(64X302(7#5<(0>,)%#

<3.4,:,():'"#?+,:+#4(66#8(2?(()#2+(#30)%(#.4#1(7,&1#:.33(602,.)#O3#`#G=HGH"#<#`#GGG#

e=G]"#3F#`#G=GKDCP=#c,2+#2+(#+,%+(52#:.33(602,.)#523()%2+#.4#066"#2+(#:.33(602,.)#

:.(44,:,()2#.4#2+(#M(%&602,)%#52302(%'#&5(#0)7#5(64X302(7#5<(0>,)%#<3.4,:,():'#

0::.&)2(7#4.3#K=DCÅ#.4#2+(#@03,02,.)=##

V&32+(3#0)06'5(5#.)#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%'#&5(#8'#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#?.&67#

<3.@,7(#0#7(20,6(7#<,:2&3(#.4#2+(#5<(:,4,:#52302(%,(5#2+02#?(3(#&5(7#7,44(3()26'#,)#0#

164

5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#10))(3#8'#2+(#5(64X302(7#<3.4,:,():'#%3.&<5=#*+(#2+3((#2086(5#

8(6.?#<3(5()2#2+(#R<(0310)[5#M0)>#i37(3#I.33(602,.)#2(52#3(5&625#.)#,)7,@,7&06#

52302(%'#&5(#?,2+,)#(0:+#10,)#52302(%'#%3.&<#8'#5(64X302(7#<3.4,:,():'=#

Table 5.18: Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation test on individual strategy use within

Regulating group by self-rated English proficiency

B%"#3.0*&"'Z0;.0%"*%6' ZP%.;T.&U6';),'

B%.@*&"' 9*60%&*&"' ZP%.[*&"' X;*0*&"'

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I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=GKHÉ# G=GH\# =GDKÉ# G=GHC#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GFK# G=\F\# G=GHS# G=\SH#A7'R'#6%'&,&W.E.@%T*E'P;*&0'T.0%;*.36'\&%?6P.P%;6f'^,#;&.36f'&,8%36f',;'60,;*%6'*&'Q&"3*6)]7#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=CLCÉÉ# =CL\ÉÉ# =CH\ÉÉ# G=GSC#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GGF# G=GKL#D7'R'#6%'0;.@*0*,&.3'2;,.@E.60'T.0%;*.36'\(J'6),?6_T,8*%6',;';.@*,'P;,";.T6'*&'Q&"3*6)]7#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=CHHÉÉ# =FDFÉÉ# =FHLÉÉ# G=GS]#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGF# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GSK#H7'R'#6%';%E,;@%@'T.0%;*.36'\Q&"3*6)'T#6*E_;%E,;@*&"6'4;,T'0.P%6',;'5/6]7#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=GK]É# =GKHÉ# G=GSF# G=G]]#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GFL# G=GHG# G=GKF# G=CKK#L7'R'#6%',&3*&%_E,TP#0%;W2.6%@'T.0%;*.36'\%W2,,[6_^,#;&.36f'6,40?.;%f'?%2E.606'*&'Q&"3*6)]7#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=CGSÉ# =C\KÉÉ# =CGSÉ# G=GF\#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GCF# G=GGG# G=GCF# G=]LK#N7'R'#6%'T,&,3*&"#.3'\Q&"3*6)WQ&"3*6)]'@*E0*,&.;*%67#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=C\DÉÉ# G=GS]# =CHCÉÉ# =C]KÉÉ#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGC# G=GSK# G=GGF# G=GGG#G7'R'.00%&@'%8%&06'?)%;%'Q&"3*6)'*6'#6%@'\E3#26f'6%T*&.;6f',;'?,;[6),P6]7#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=CFHÉÉ# =CCGÉ# =CSGÉÉ# G=G\\#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GG\# G=GCG# G=GGG# G=FKK#O7'R'.00%&@'%8%&*&"'Q&"3*6)'E3.66%67'#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

G=GG\# G=GFG# XG=GHL# G=GCL#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=KFS# G=LHK# G=\G\# G=SGD#C7'R'E,TT#&*E.0%'?*0)'4,;%*"&%;6'\4.E%W0,W4.E%',;'2$'%T.*3_8,*E%T.*3]7#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=C\SÉÉ# =CL]ÉÉ# =HGCÉÉ# G=GFL#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGC# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=]HK#=K7'R'^,*&',&3*&%'4,;#T\6]'*&'Q&"3*6)7'#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=CLHÉÉ# =GDSÉ# =CCSÉÉ# =GKSÉ#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGG# G=G\C# G=GGL# G=GF\#==7'R'T.*&0.*&'.'23,"_:.E%W2,,[_?%2P."%'*&'Q&"3*6)7#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=CSSÉÉ# =CLGÉÉ# =FGFÉÉ# =CH]ÉÉ#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GGF#=A7'R'6%0'6P%E*4*E'",.36'4,;'*TP;,8*&"'T$'Q&"3*6)7#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=CLFÉÉ# =CFFÉÉ# =CSSÉÉ# =CGFÉ#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGG# G=GG\# G=GGG# G=GCS#=D7'R'T,&*0,;'T$'P;,";%66'*&'Q&"3*6)7#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=CCDÉÉ# =C]\ÉÉ# =FCSÉÉ# =CH]ÉÉ#

165

B%"#3.0*&"'Z0;.0%"*%6' ZP%.;T.&U6';),'

B%.@*&"' 9*60%&*&"' ZP%.[*&"' X;*0*&"'

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGL# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GGF#' $#`## ]\K# ]\K# ]\K# ]\K#ÉÉ=#I.33(602,.)#,5#5,%),4,:0)2#02#2+(#G=GC#6(@(6#OFX20,6(7P=#É=#I.33(602,.)#,5#5,%),4,:0)2#02#2+(#G=G]#6(@(6#OFX20,6(7P=##

J5#,)7,:02(7#,)#*086(#]=CD"#2+(3(#?05#0#5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)#

8(2?(()#5(64X302(7#3(07,)%#<3.4,:,():'#0)7#CF#O.&2#.4#CHP#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5#,)#2+(#

M(%&602,)%#%3.&<=#$.#3(602,.)5+,<#?05#4.&)7#8(2?(()#5(64X302(7#3(07,)%#<3.4,:,():'#

0)7#R2302(%'#D#O!#022()7#(@(),)%#N)%6,5+#:6055(5P=#

R,1,6036'"#5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)5#?(3(#4.&)7#8(2?(()#5(64X302(7#

6,52(),)%#<3.4,:,():'#0)7#CG#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5Z#8(2?(()#5(64X302(7#5<(0>,)%#

<3.4,:,():'#0)7#CC#52302(%,(5Z#0)7#8(2?(()#5(64X302(7#?3,2,)%#<3.4,:,():'#0)7#4,@(#

52302(%,(5#,)#2+(#M(%&602,)%#%3.&<=#*+(5(#<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)5#5&%%(52(7#2+02#2+(#

3(5<.)7()25#?+.#3(<.32(7#2.#8(#1.3(#<3.4,:,()2#,)#2+(#3(07,)%"#6,52(),)%#0)7#

5<(0>,)%#5>,665#2()7(7#2.#&5(#3(%&602,)%#52302(%,(5#1.3(#43(Y&()26'#2+0)#2+(,3#6(55#

<3.4,:,()2#:.&)2(3<0325=##

!2#,5#,1<.320)2#2.#).2(#2+02#2+(#523()%2+#.4#:.33(602,.)5#8(2?(()#2+(#&5(#.4#

52302(%,(5#?,2+,)#M(%&602,)%#%3.&<#0)7#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#,)#4.&3#10:3.#

5>,665#?05#51066#OG=CG#e#3#e#G=FKP"#(A:(<2#2+(#:.33(602,.)#8(2?(()#R2302(%'#K#O!#

:.11&),:02(#?,2+#4.3(,%)(35#(,2+(3#40:(X2.X40:(#.3#8'#(10,6k@.,:(10,6P#0)7#5(64X

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G=HGC"#<#`#=GGG#e=G]"#3F#`#G=GKGLP=#c,2+#2+(#+,%+(52#:.33(602,.)#523()%2+#.4#066"#2+(#

:.33(602,.)#:.(44,:,()2#.4#2+(#&5(#.4#R2302(%'#K#0)7#5(64X302(7#5<(0>,)%#<3.4,:,():'#

0::.&)2(7#4.3#K=GLÅ#.4#2+(#@03,02,.)=#!2#:.&67#8(#,)2(3<3(2(7#2+02#2+(#3(5<.)7()25#

?+.#3(<.32(7#2.#8(#1.3(#<3.4,:,()2#,)#5<(0>,)%#5>,665#2()7(7#2.#:.11&),:02(#?,2+#

4.3(,%)(35#1.3(#43(Y&()26'#2+0)#2+(,3#6(55#<3.4,:,()2#:.&)2(3<0325=##

*086(#]=CK#8(6.?#<3(5()25#2+(#R<(0310)[5#M0)>#i37(3#I.33(602,.)#2(52#3(5&625#.)#

,)7,@,7&06#52302(%'#&5(#?,2+,)#V.31X805(7#%3.&<#8'#5(64X302(7#<3.4,:,():'=#

166

Table 5.19: Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation tests on individual strategy use within

Form-based group by self-rated English proficiency

:,;TW2.6%@'Z0;.0%"*%6' ZP%.;T.&U6';),'

B%.@*&"' 9*60%&*&"' ZP%.[*&"' X;*0*&"'

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I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

G=G]S# G=GLD# G=GC\# G=GLD#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=CDH# G=CCG# G=S\S# G=CCC#=L7'R';%?;*0%'?,;@6'T.&$'0*T%6'0,';%T%T2%;'0)%*;'6P%33*&"67#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

XG=GC# XG=GH]# XG=GF]# XG=GF#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=DGK# G=\CF# G=]]S# G=L\\#=N7'R'2;%.['&%?'?,;@6'*&0,'P.;06'0).0'R'[&,?7'#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

G=GD# G=G]]# =CFSÉÉ# XG=GGF#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GL# G=CK]# G=GGH# G=KS#=G7'R'T.[%'6%&0%&E%6'0).0'E,&0.*&'&%?'?,;@67#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=CGHÉ# =C]FÉÉ# =CFSÉÉ# G=GSL#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GCL# G=GGG# G=GGH# G=GS]#=O7'R'3%.;&'?,;@6'2$'0,P*E6'\%7"7f'#6*&"'?,;@'?%26]7#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

G=GH\# G=GFF# G=GHD# G=GSS#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=\FC# G=LGH# G=HSF# G=GSH#=C7'R'T%T,;*6%'";.TT.;';#3%6'.&@'60;#E0#;%67#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=CH]ÉÉ# G=G]\# =GKSÉ# =CLSÉÉ#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGC# G=FG]# G=GFH# G=GGG#AK7'R'@,'";.TT.;'%<%;E*6%67# I.33(602,.)#

I.(44,:,()2#=CG\É# G=GGC# G=GLL# =C]]ÉÉ#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GC]# G=KKG# G=CFH# G=GGG#A=7'R'T.[%'T$',?&'6%&0%&E%6'#6*&"'&%?'60;#E0#;%67#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=CHDÉÉ# =CGHÉ# =CHLÉÉ# =CLHÉÉ#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGC# G=GCL# G=GGC# G=GGG#AA7'R'.&.3$6%'0)%'";.TT.0*E.3'60;#E0#;%6',4'@*44%;%&0'0%<067#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=C\\ÉÉ# =CG\É# =CHKÉÉ# =CDGÉÉ#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGC# G=GC\# G=GGC# G=GGG#AD7'R';%.@'P),&%0*E'0;.&6E;*P0*,&6',4'?,;@6'\%7"7f'0).0'_gh0_]'*&'0)%'@*E0*,&.;$7'#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=C\GÉÉ# =CC]ÉÉ# G=GF# G=GSS#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGC# G=GGS# G=L\C# G=GSH#AH7'R'#6%'QW@*E0*,&.;*%6',;'V;,&#&E*.0*,&'Z,40?.;%'4,;'T,@%3'P;,&#&E*.0*,&',4'?,;@6_P);.6%67#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

G=GS\# XG=GGK# XG=GFF# G=GLL#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GD]# G=D\F# G=LG\# G=CFH#

AL7'R'P;.E0*6%'#&4.T*3*.;'6,#&@6'2$'6.$*&"'0)%T'.".*&'.&@'.".*&7#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=C]GÉÉ# =CDKÉÉ# =FGSÉÉ# =CCHÉÉ#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GGD#AN7'R';%P%.0'.40%;'&.0*8%'6P%.[%;6'\4;,T';%E,;@*&"6',;'T,8*%6]7#

I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

=CF\ÉÉ# =FFSÉÉ# =FHFÉÉ# G=GCS#

R,%=#OFX20,6(7P# G=GG\# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=LDL#' $#`# ]\K# ]\K# ]\K# ]\K#ÉÉ=#I.33(602,.)#,5#5,%),4,:0)2#02#2+(#G=GC#6(@(6#OFX20,6(7P=#É=#I.33(602,.)#,5#5,%),4,:0)2#02#2+(#G=G]#6(@(6#OFX20,6(7P=#

167

*086(#]=FG#5+.?5#2+02#2+(3(#?05#0#5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)#

8(2?(()#5(64X302(7#3(07,)%#<3.4,:,():'#0)7#D#O.&2#.4#CHP#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5#

O,):6&7,)%#CS"#CK"#FG"#CF"#FF"#FH#F]#07#FLP#,)#2+(#4.31X805(7#%3.&<=#R,1,6036'"#

5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)5#?(3(#4.&)7#8(2?(()#5(64X302(7#6,52(),)%#

<3.4,:,():'#0)7#5,A#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5#O,):6&7,)%#CS"#FC"#FF"#F]#0)7#FLPZ#8(2?(()#

5(64X302(7#5<(0>,)%#<3.4,:,():'#0)7#5(@()#52302(%,(5#O,):6&7,)%#CL"#CS"#CK"#FC"#FF"#F]#

0)7#FLPZ#0)7#8(2?(()#5(64X302(7#?3,2,)%#<3.4,:,():'#0)7#]#52302(%,(5#O,):6&7,)%#CK"#

FG"#FC"#FF#0)7#F]P=#*+(5(#<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)5#5&%%(52(7#2+02#2+(#3(5<.)7()25#?+.#

3(<.32(7#2.#8(#1.3(#<3.4,:,()2#,)#4.&3#10:3.#5>,665#2()7(7#2.#&5(#5.1(#4.31X805(7#

52302(%,(5#1.3(#43(Y&()26'#2+0)#2+(,3#6(55#<3.4,:,()2#:.&)2(3<0325=#$.2086'"#066#.4#2+(#

3X@06&(5#?(3(#51066(3#2+0)#G=FK"#?+,:+#5&%%(52(7#0#51066#:.33(602,.)#8(2?(()#2+(1=##

*+(#R<(0310)[5#M0)>#i37(3#I.33(602,.)#2(52#3(5&625#.)#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%'#&5(#

?,2+,)#R>,66X805(7#%3.&<#8'#5(64X302(7#<3.4,:,():'#03(#<3(5()2(7#,)#*086(#]=FG#8(6.?=##

Table 5.20: Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation tests on individual strategy use within

Skill-based group by self-rated English proficiency

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I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

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I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

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168

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G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GGG# G=GCC#

DH7'R'P.$'.00%&0*,&'0,'&,&W8%;2.3'E#%6'\"%60#;%f'";.P)*E6f'60;%66f'P.#6%f'%0E7]'#

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R,%=#OFX20,6(7P#

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I.33(602,.)#I.(44,:,()2#

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169

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J5#,)7,:02(7#,)#*086(#]=FG"#2+(3(#?05#0#5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)#

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170

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:.&)2(3<0325=##

5.5.5 English learning beliefs and LLSs

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3(%037,)%#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#52302(%'#&5(=#

Table 5.21: Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation tests on overall and group strategy

use by English learning beliefs

'

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`#G=FGD"#<#`#=GGG#e#=GC"#3F#`#G=G\HFP"#0)7#5>,66X805(7#52302(%,(5#O3#`#G=FDS"#<#`#=GGG#

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172

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FS"#FD"#FK"#HG"#HC"#HF"#HH"#H\"#H]"#HL"#HS"#HD"#HK"#\G"#\C"#\F"#\H"#\\"#\]"#0)7#

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173

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!)#%()(306"#2+(#7070#5+.?(7#2+02#2+(#3(5<.)7()25#?,2+#+,%+(3#5(64X<(3:(,@(7#

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3(602(7#2.#2+(#10,)2()0):(#.4#0#86.%kV0:(X8..>k?(8<0%(#,)#N)%6,5+#O52302(%'#CCPZ#

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174

5.6 Summary of key findings

*+(#3(<.32(7#43(Y&():'#.4#52302(%'#&5(#8'#]L\#W,(2)01(5(#2(32,03'#52&7()25#,)#2+(#

<3(5()2#,)@(52,%02,.)#<3.@,7(7#0)#.@(3066#<,:2&3(#.4#TTR#&5("#?+,:+#:0)#8(#

5&1103,5(7#,)#2+(#4.66.?,)%#+,%+6,%+25#.4#4,)7,)%5j##

! *+(#1(7,0)#43(Y&():'#5:.3(#.4#H#O_R.1(2,1(5aP#0:3.55#066#52302(%,(5#0)7#

(0:+#52302(%'#%3.&<#,)7,:02(7#2+02#2+(#52&7()25#,)#2+(#52&7'#?(3(#1(7,&1#

&5(35#.4#52302(%,(5#,)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#43.1#0#+.6,52,:#@,(?Z##

! J)#(A01,)02,.)#.4#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%'#&5(#3(@(06(7#2+02#?,2+,)#2+(#3(%&602,)%#

%3.&<"#2+(#1(7,0)#43(Y&():'#5:.3(#.4#\#O_i42()aP#?(3(#4.&)7#?,2+#2+(#&5(#

.4#2307,2,.)06#<3,)2#0)7#83.07:052#3(5.&3:(5#OR2302(%,(5#C#0)7#HP=#i)#2+(#

:.)2303'"#2+(#1(7,0)#43(Y&():'#5:.3(#.4#F#O_M03(6'aP#?(3(#4.&)7#?,2+#2+(#

:3(02,.)#.4#.&2X.4X:6055#6(03),)%#.<<.32&),2,(5#OR2302(%,(5#S##0)7#CGPZ##

! c,2+,)#2+(#4.31X805(7#%3.&<"#4,@(#.&2#.4#2+(#CH#52302(%,(5#4(66#,)2.#2+(#

43(Y&():'#6(@(6#.4#+,%+#&5(#Ob(7,0)#`#\"#_i42()aP"#?,2+#2?.#52302(%,(5#

3(602(7#2.#%301103#OR2302(%,(5#CK#0)7#FGP#0)7#2+(#.2+(3#2+3((#3(602(7#2.#2+(#

6(03),)%#0)7#<30:2,:,)%#.4#<3.)&):,02,.)#OR2302(%,(5#FH"#F]#0)7#FLPZ##

! c,2+,)#2+(#5>,66X805(7#%3.&<"#2+(3(#?(3(#CG#+,%+6'#&5(7#52302(%,(5#Ob(7,0)#`#

\"#_i42()aP"#4.&3#.4#?+,:+#:6&52(3(7#03.&)7#5<(0>,)%#52302(%,(5Z##

! *+(#.@(3066#3(5&625#43.1#2+(#:.33(602,.)06#0)06'5(5#7(1.)52302(7#2+02#2+(#

43(Y&():'#.4#52&7()25[#&5(#.4#TTR"#,):6&7,)%#.@(3066"#%3.&<#0)7#,)7,@,7&06#

52302(%,(5"#@03,(7#5,%),4,:0)26'#0::.37,)%#2.#2+(,3#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<"#

0:07(1,:#10U.3"#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'"#0)7#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#8(6,(45=#

!)#.2+(3#?.375"#2+(5(#4.&3#6(03)(3#@03,086(5#?(3(#4.&)7#2.#8(#055.:,02(7#

?,2+#2+(#52&7()25[#TTR#&5(=#f()7(3"#+.?(@(3"#?05#4.&)7#2.#:.33(602(#?,2+#

2+(#&5(#.4#5.1(#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5#.)6'=##

5.7 Conclusion

*+,5#:+0<2(3#+05#<3(5()2(7#2+(#0)06'5,5#.4#2+(#Y&0)2,202,@(#7020#.820,)(7#43.1#2+(#

Y&(52,.))0,3(#5&3@('#,)#2+(#52&7'=#*+(#%()(306#:+030:2(3,52,:5#.4#2+(#<032,:,<0)25#

175

+0@(#8(()#3(<.32(7#5&:+#05#%()7(3"#'(03#%3.&<5"#0:07(1,:#10U.35k7,5:,<6,)(5"#5(64X

302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'"#0)7#8(6,(45k8(+0@,.&35#,)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%=#*+(#3(5<.)5(5#

.4#2+(#5&3@('(7#52&7()25#2.#(0:+#Y&(52,.)#,2(1#?,2+,)#2+(#2+3((#10,)#%3.&<5#.4#

TTR5"#,):6&7,)%#M(%&602,)%"#V.31X805(7"#0)7#R>,66X805(7#52302(%,(5"#+0@(#8(()#

<3(5()2(7#2+3.&%+#1(7,0)"#43(Y&():'#0)7#<(3:()20%(=#I.33(602,.)5#8(2?(()#2+(#

3(5<.)7()25[#3(<.32(7#52302(%,(5#?,2+#2+(,3#7(1.%30<+,:#0)7#0:07(1,:#@03,086(5#

+0@(#8(()#(A01,)(7#2+3.&%+#2+(#&5(#.4#2+(#d3&5>06Xc066,5#2(525"#b0))Xc+,2)('#B#

2(525#0)7#R<(0310)[5#M0)>#i37(3#I.33(602,.)#O3+.P#2(525=#*+(#)(A2#:+0<2(3#?,66#

<3(5()2#2+(#Y&06,202,@(#0)06'5,5#0)7#4,)7,)%5"#?+,:+#?(3(#.820,)(7#43.1#2+(#5(1,X

523&:2&3(7#,)2(3@,(?5#?,2+#2+(#2(0:+(3#0)7#52&7()2#<032,:,<0)25=##

176

6 Qualitative Data Analysis

6.1 Introduction

*+,5#:+0<2(3#7(20,65#2+(#0)06'5,5#0)7#4,)7,)%5#.4#2+(#Y&06,202,@(#7020"#?+,:+#?05#

%02+(3(7#43.1#2+(#5(1,X523&:2&3(7#,)2(3@,(?5#?,2+#2(0:+(3#0)7#52&7()2#

<032,:,<0)25=#!2#:.)23,8&2(5#2.#:.)2(A2&06,5(#2+(#0)06'2,:06#4,)7,)%5#.4#2+(#

Y&0)2,202,@(#7020=#I.1<03(7#2.#2+(#)&1(3,:06#10),4(5202,.)5#,)#2+(#<3(@,.&5#

:+0<2(3"#2+(#4,)7,)%5#,)#2+,5#<032#03(#.4#0#2(A2&06#0)7#,)2(3<3(202,@(#)02&3(#?,2+#

(1(3%,)%#2+(1(5"#:02(%.3,(5#0)7#,55&(5=#!),2,066'"#2+,5#:+0<2(3#<3(5()25#2+(#0)06'5,5#

<3.:(7&3(#.4#2+(#Y&06,202,@(#7020=#!2#2+()#5<(:,4,(5#2+(#:+030:2(3,52,:5#.4#2+(#

,)2(3@,(?#<032,:,<0)25=#B<.)#0773(55,)%#3(5(03:+#.8U(:2,@(5#H#O./(*WA$/,*(.'*(

A*,@*A.%/"&O(+..%.56*&(+"6(*WA*,%*"@*&(/0(.*+@'*,&(+"6(&.56*".&(@/"@*,"%"#())-&P#

0)7#\#O./(*W+2%"*(.'*(@5,,*".(.*,.%+,4(!7)(*65@+.%/"(@/".*W.(.'+.(+@@/22/6+.*&(

))-&P#.4#2+(#52&7'"#2+,5#:+0<2(3#<3(5()25#2+(#<(3:(<2,.)5"#022,2&7(5#0)7#(A<(3,():(5#

.4#2+(#2(0:+(3#0)7#52&7()2#<032,:,<0)25#:.):(3),)%#TTR5=#!2#5&85(Y&()26'#7(5:3,8(5#

2+(#6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2"#,):6&7,)%#6(03),)%#40:,6,2,(5"#6(03),)%#.<<.32&),2,(5"#0)7#

2+(#3(602,.)5+,<#8(2?(()#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25=#*+(#3,:+#Y&06,202,@(#7020#43.1#2+(#

,)2(3@,(?5"#0)06'5(7#2+3.&%+#2+(#2+3((#<3.%3(55,@(#52(<5#.4#.<()#:.7,)%"#0A,06#

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(A230:25#43.1#2+(,3#,)2(3@,(?#230)5:3,<2,.)5=#

6.2 Data analysis

*+(#Y&06,202,@(#7020#:.66(:2(7#43.1#2+(#,)2(3@,(?5#?05#.3%0),5(7#0)7#0)06'5(7#?,2+#

2+(#055,520):(#.4#0#5.42?03(#<0:>0%(#4.3#Y&06,202,@(#3(5(03:+#:066(7#^RM#$W,@.K=#

*+,5#<3.%301#?05#.3,%,)066'#7(@(6.<(7#05#0#Y&06,202,@(#5.42?03(#<0:>0%(#4.3#2(A2#

0)06'5,5#OM,:+0375"#FGGFP"#0)7#>).?)#,)#(036,(3#@(35,.)5#05#$B9É!R*#O$.)X)&1(3,:06#

B)523&:2&3(7#9020É#!)7(A,)%#R(03:+,)%#*+(.3,5,)%P=#*+(#1.52#3(:()2#&<%307(7#

@(35,.)"#$W,@.#K"#,5#0#<3.%301#2+02#:0)#8(#&5(7#4.3#.3%0),5,)%#0)7#0)06'5,)%#

&)523&:2&3(7#,)4.3102,.)#0)7#?05#:+.5()#,)#2+,5#52&7'#2.#()+0):(#:.)5,52():'"#

3,%.3"#0)7#1(2+.75#&)0@0,6086(#8'#10)&06#:.7,4,:02,.)=#

177

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7020=#9(5:3,<2,@(#:.7,)%#,5#2+(#<3.:(55#.4#7(4,),)%#,)4.3102,.)#08.&2#2+(#52&7,(7#

:05(5#OM,:+0375"#FGGKP=#J::.37,)%6'"#2+(#52&7()2#<032,:,<0)25#?(3(#:.7(7#.)#2+(#

805,5#.4#2+(,3#7(1.%30<+,:#,)4.3102,.)#5&:+#05#%()7(3#ObkVP"#'(03#%3.&<#OzC"#zF"#

zHP"#.3#0:07(1,:#10U.3#ON#4.3#N)%6,5+#10U.3#0)7#$N#4.3#$.)XN)%6,5+#10U.3P=#V.3#

(A01<6("#0#4(106(#52&7()2#<032,:,<0)2#?+.#?05#0#4,352#'(03#N)%6,5+#10U.3#?.&67#8(#

<3(5()2(7#05#_R2&7()2CXVXzCXNa=##R,1,6036'"#,)4.3102,.)#08.&2#%()7(3#OVkbP#0)7#2+(#

.37(3#,)#?+,:+#2+('#?(3(#,)2(3@,(?#?05#&5(7#2.#:.7(#2+(#7020#.4#2(0:+(3#

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_*(0:+(3CXba=##

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<(34.310):(#.4#2+(102,:#0)06'5,5#.4#2+(#:.)2()2=#*+(#2+3((#52(<5#,):6&7(7#.<()#

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178

Figure 6.1: Thematic structure of qualitative findings

6.3 The interview participants

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179

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%()7(3"#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5"#10U.35#0)7#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'=##

Table 6.1: Characteristics of student interview participants

#

6.4 Perceptions and attitudes

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180

6.4.1 The role of LLSs

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182

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6.4.2 Formal training on LLSs

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183

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N/5$6( %"%.%+.*O( D5.( 24( .*+@'*,&( ,+,*$4( .*+@'( 5&( +D/5.( &.,+.*#%*&( %"( +(

&4&.*2+.%@(+"6(&.,5@.5,*6(N+49( H(#5*&&(24(.*+@'*,&( .'%"K( .'+.(N*(+$$(K"/N(

N'+.(./(6/(N%.'(/5,($*+,"%"#9(Y-.56*".(8I7I`8I!Z((

I.11()2,)%#.)#?+(2+(3#.3#).2#2+(3(#5+.&67#8(#0#1.3(#4.3106#230,),)%#:.&35(#.)#

N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#02#2+(#B),@(35,2'"#2+(#2(0:+(3#<032,:,<0)25#(A<3(55(7#2+(,3#

.@(3066#07@.:0:'#4.3#(A<6,:,2#230,),)%#.)#TTR5=#930?,)%#.)#2+(,3#523.)%#8(6,(4#,)#2+(#

5,%),4,:0)2#3.6(#.4#TTR5"#5.1(#2(0:+(35#+,%+6'#3(:.11()7(7#2+02#TTR5#8(#,)23.7&:(7#

2.#2+(#:&33,:&6&1=#i)(#2(0:+(3#5202(7j#

H.E&( +D&/$5.*$4( "*@*&&+,4( ./( %"@/,A/,+.*( !"#$%&'( $*+,"%"#( &.,+.*#%*&( %"./( .'*(

@5,,%@5$52(./(2+W%2%j*(&.56*".&E($*+,"%"#(*00%@%*"@49(O*(0:+(3#FXVP(

i2+(35#5&%%(52(7#1.3(#,)4.3106#?0'5#.4#,)23.7&:,)%#TTR5#,)2.#2+(#:&33,:&6&1#?+,6(#

@.,:,)%#2+(,3#5&<<.32#4.3#2+(#(A<6,:,2)(55#0)7#5'52(1,h02,.)#.4#TTR#230,),)%=#I.):(3)5#

08.&2#2+(#(A230#.@(36.07#).31066'#0220:+(7#2.#2+(#,)23.7&:2,.)#.4#0#)(?#:.&35(#

5((1(7#2.#)(%02,@(6'#044(:2#2+(#?,66,)%)(55#.4#2(0:+(35#2.#()7.35(#0#4.3106#:.&35(#

.)#TTR=#*+,5#+(5,202,.)#,5#(@,7()2#,)#2+(#4.66.?,)%#:.11()2j###

184

H.( 6/*&"E.( '+M*( ./( D*( +( @/5,&*9( H0( %.( %&( +( @/5,&*O( .'*"( .'*,*( &'/5$6( D*(

+&&*&&2*".O(#,+6*&O(+..*"6+"@*(@'*@KO(*.@9(3'*,*(N/5$6(D*(.//(25@'(&.,*&&(

/"(&.56*".&(+"6(.*+@'*,&9( H.(@/5$6(D*(@+,,%*6(/5.(+&(+(.+$K(./(&.56*".&9(P"*(

&.,+.*#4(+.(+(.%2*9(Y3*+@'*,(dI7Z((

!2#?05#4.&)7#2+02#2+(3(#?05#0#+,%+#6(@(6#.4#0::.37#8(2?(()#2+(#2(0:+(3#0)7#52&7()2#

<032,:,<0)25#:.):(3),)%#2+(#230,),)%#.)#TTR5=#R2&7()2#\"#4.3#(A01<6("#5+.?(7#+(3#

?,66,)%)(55#2.#022()7#5&:+#230,),)%=##

S*$$O(%0(.'*,*(%&(+"4(.,+%"%"#(A,/#,+2(+M+%$+D$*(+.(24(5"%M*,&%.4O(HE$$(6*0%"%.*$4(

+..*"6(D*@+5&*(HE6($/M*(./(*WA$/,*("*N($*+,"%"#(&.,+.*#%*&O(+"6(H(.'%"K(%.(N%$$(

D*"*0%.(2*(%"(&/2*(N+4&9(H(.'%"K(+("*N($*+,"%"#(&.,+.*#4(2+4(@,*+.*(+(K%"6(

/0(@5,%/&%.4(+"6(&/(+(,*"*N*6(%".*,*&.(%"(!"#$%&'($*+,"%"#9(H.E&(D/,%"#(./($*+,"(

.'*(&+2*(N+4(+$$(.'*(.%2*9(3'+.(@/5$6(D*(+(#//6(@'+"@*(0/,(2*(./(2**.(N%.'(

/.'*,( &.56*".&( N'/( +,*( K**"( /"( %2A,/M%"#( !"#$%&'9( -/O( N*( '+M*( 2/,*( ./(

*W@'+"#*(+"6(A,+@.%@*(5&%"#(!"#$%&'9(Y-.56*".(;I7I`<I!Z((

R,1,603#2.#2+(#@,(?#.4#2+(#2(0:+(35"#10)'#52&7()25#(A<3(55(7#2+(,3#5&<<.32#4.3#

5'52(102,:#230,),)%#.)#TTR5"#8&2#5+.?(7#2+(,3#:.):(3)#.@(3#2+(#8&37()#.4#(A01#

<0<(35=#R<(:,4,:066'"#062+.&%+#2+(#)((7#2.#(A<6.3(#0)7#(A<(3,1()2#?,2+#@03,.&5#?0'5#

.4#6(03),)%#N)%6,5+#<3.1<2(7#2+(,3#07@.:0:'#4.3#TTR#230,),)%"#2+(#4(03#.4#(A230#?.3>#

0)7#523(55#055.:,02(7#?,2+#2(525#0)7#(A015#7(2(33(7#2+(1#43.1#?(6:.1,)%#,2#05#0#

4.3106#:.&35(=#*+(#4.66.?,)%#:.11()25#(A(1<6,4'#2+,5#<.,)2=##

H( D*$%*M*( .'+.( %.E&( "*@*&&+,4( 0/,( 5&( &.56*".&( ./( $*+,"(+"6( K"/N(2/,*(+D/5.(

&.,+.*#%*&9( H( V5&.( 6/"E.( $%K*( .'*( %6*+( /0(2+K%"#( %.( +( @/2A5$&/,4( @/5,&*(N%.'(

.*&.&(+"6(2+,K&(+"6(.'*($%K*9(Y-.56*".(<IRI`<I!Z((

H( ,*+$$4( '/A*( .'+.( .'*,*( %&( &/2*( .,+%"%"#( A,/#,+2( /,( N/,K&'/A( +.( /5,(

5"%M*,&%.4O( N'*,*( &.56*".&( +,*( .,+%"*6( +D/5.( $*+,"%"#( &.,+.*#%*&( %"( +(

&4&.*2+.%@(N+49(H(.'%"K(H(+"6(24(0,%*"6&("**6(+(&/$%6(K"/N$*6#*(+D/5.('/N(

./( $*+,"( +( $+"#5+#*( +"6( D+&*6( /"( .'%&( 0/5"6+.%/"O( *+@'( /0( 5&( @+"( .,4(

*WA*,%2*".%"#(/,(@/2D%"%"#(.'*2(0/,(+(D*..*,(/5.@/2*9(F.(.'*(2/2*".O(H(+2(

@/"0%6*".(N%.'( &A*+K%"#(+"6( $%&.*"%"#O(D5.(24(N,%.%"#( &K%$$( %&( M*,4( $%2%.*69( H(

185

'/A*( H( @+"( '+M*( +( A$+@*( ./( #/( ./( +"6( @/"&5$.( .*+@'*,&( /,( .'/&*(N'/( '+M*(

2/,*( *WA*,%*"@*( %"( $*+,"%"#( !"#$%&'O( *&A*@%+$$4( .'/&*( N'/( +,*( #//6( +.(

N,%.%"#9( F( &.,+.*#4( A,/#,+2(N/5$6( D*( +( #,*+.( %6*+O( /0( @/5,&*( %0( %.( %&( "/.( +(

@/5,&*(N%.'(.*&.&(+"6(#,+6*&9(Y-.56*".(=I7I`;I!Z(

HE6( $/M*( ./('+M*( &.,+.*#4( %"&.,5@.%/"(/,#+"%&*6( %"( .'*( 0/,2(/0(N/,K&'/A&(/,(

&*2%"+,&( N'*,*( N*( +,*( A,/M%6*6( N%.'( K"/N$*6#*( +D/5.( &.,+.*#%*&( +"6(

@'+"@*&( ./(A,+@.%@*( .'*29(F@.5+$$4O(N*('+M*(2+"4(@/"@*,"&(+D/5.( $*+,"%"#(

&.,+.*#%*&(D5.(N*(6/"E.(K"/N(N'/(./(.+$K(./9(HE$$(&5,*$4(+..*"6(.'*&*(.,+%"%"#(

N/,K&'/A&(/"(&.,+.*#%*&(%0(.'*4(+,*(+M+%$+D$*(+.(/5,(5"%M*,&%.49(Y-.56*".(dI7I

`<IQZ((

R.1(#52&7()25#(@()#5&%%(52(7#?0'5#2.#7(5,%)#4&2&3(#230,),)%#<3.%3015#.)#TTR5=#!)#

2+(,3#@,(?"#,2#?.&67#8(#(44(:2,@(#2.#523&:2&3(#2+(#<3.%301#.)#2+(#805,5#.4#<3.4,:,():'#

6(@(6=#J5#52&7()2#H#5+03(7#0)#.<,),.)#43.1#+(3#(A<(3,():(#05#0#5(),.3#52&7()2#

8(6.?=##

H0( H( @/5$6( ,+%&*( /"*( /A%"%/"( +D/5.( .'%&( A,/#,+2O( H( '+M*( &**"( &.56*".&( /0(

6%00*,*".( $*M*$&( +"6( *WA*,%*"@*&( +..*"6%"#( .'*( &+2*( &*2%"+,( +"6( *"6( 5A(

D*%"#(D/,*6(65*(./(.'*%,(6%00*,*".( $*M*$&O( %".*,*&.&(+"6(@/"@*,"&9(S'4(6/"E.(

N*( 6*&%#"( 6%00*,*".( &.,+.*#%*&( .,+%"%"#( A,/#,+2&( 0/,( &.56*".&( /0( 6%00*,*".(

$*+,"%"#(+D%$%.%*&k(Y-.56*".(:I7I`:I!Z((

i2+(3#52&7()25#(1<+05,5(7#2+02#2+(#%.065#.4#2+(5(#230,),)%#<3.%3015#5+.&67#,):6&7(#

).2#.)6'#0)#0?03()(55#30,5,)%#.4#0@0,6086(#52302(%,(5"#8&2#065.#0#@03,(2'#.4#

.<<.32&),2,(5#4.3#<30:2,:("#3(46(:2,.)#0)7#3(4.31#.4#52302(%,(5=#*+,5#<.,)2#,5#:6(036'#

7(1.)52302(7#,)#2+(#:.11()2#.4#0#106(#52&7()2=##

H(.'%"K(/"@*(N*(#*.(.'*('+"#(/0(.'*(,%#'.($*+,"%"#(&.,+.*#%*&O(N*("**6(./(5&*(

.'*2( 0,*C5*".$4O( @/"&%&.*".$4( +"6( &4&.*2+.%@+$$49( T"/N%"#( .'*( &.,+.*#%*&( %&(

"/.(*"/5#'^(N*("**6(./(+AA$4(.'*2(/"(+(0,*C5*".(D+&%&(+"6(%"(+"(*00*@.%M*(

N+49(Y-.56*".(<IRI`<I!Z((

186

J5#0#?+.6("#2+(#Y&06,202,@(#7020#43.1#2+(#,)2(3@,(?5#?,2+#8.2+#2(0:+(3#0)7#52&7()2#

<032,:,<0)25#+,%+6,%+2(7#0#?,7(5<3(07#07@.:0:'#4.3#2+(#,)23.7&:2,.)#.4#TTR#230,),)%#

2.#2+(#:&33,:&6&1=#!)#2+(#@,(?#.4#2+(5(#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25"#0#5'52(1,:#0)7#

6.%,:066'#523&:2&3(7#<3.%301#.)#TTR#?05#)(:(5503'#0)7#8()(4,:,06#8(:0&5(#52&7()25#

?.&67#+0@(#0::(55#2.#5&<(3@,5(7#<30:2,:(#0)7#&50%(#.4#TTR5=#$(@(32+(6(55"#2+('#

3(:.11()7(7#2+02#2+(#230,),)%#<3.%301#8(#.<2,.)06#0)7#43((#43.1#2(525#.3#(A015=##

6.4.3 Responsibility for LLSs

*+(#0)06'5,5#.4#2+(#,)2(3@,(?#7020#?,2+#2+(#52&7()2#<032,:,<0)25#065.#3(@(06(7#2+(,3#

2+.&%+25#08.&2#?+.#2.#20>(#2+(#10,)#3(5<.)5,8,6,2'#,)#TTR#7(@(6.<1()2=#b.52#.4#2+(#

,)2(3@,(?(7#52&7()25#3(<.32(7#2+02#2+('#2+(15(6@(5#?.&67#20>(#3(5<.)5,8,6,2'#,)#

7(@(6.<,)%#0)7#10)0%,)%#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#0)7#?(3(#>(()#2.#8(#,)7(<()7()2#

6(03)(35=#c+,6(#0:>).?6(7%,)%#2+(#3.6(#.4#2(0:+(35#,)#055,52,)%#?,2+#2+(#,)23.7&:2,.)#

0)7#:3(02,.)#.4#.<<.32&),2,(5#4.3#<30:2,:(#,)#TTR5"#1.52#52&7()25#,)#2+,5#52&7'#:6(036'#

7,5<60'(7#2+(,3#,),2,02,@(#0)7#,)7(<()7():(#,)#TTR#&5(=#*+(#52&7()25[#?,66,)%)(55#2.#

20>(#3(5<.)5,8,6,2'#4.3#TTR5#,5#7(1.)52302(7#8(6.?#?,2+#(A230:25#43.1#2+(#

,)2(3@,(?5=##

S*(+,*("/N(+.(.'*(.*,.%+,4($*M*$O(&/(N*("**6(./(D*(%"6*A*"6*".($*+,"*,&(+"6(

*WA$/,*(6%00*,*".($*+,"%"#(&.,+.*#%*&(D4(/5,&*$M*&9(H(6/("/.(2*+"(./(6*"4(.'*(

,/$*(/0( .*+@'*,&( .'/5#'9(P5,( .*+@'*,&(+,*( .'*,*( ./(#5%6*(5&(N'*"(N*("**6(

'*$AO(D5.(N*(&.56*".&(6/("/.(,*$4(./.+$$4(/"(.*+@'*,&9(Y-.56*".(;I7I`<I!Z((

H(&/2*.%2*&(.5,"(./(24(.*+@'*,&(0/,('*$A(+"6(+6M%@*O(D5.(2/&.(/0(.'*(.%2*(H(

.,4(./(0%#5,*(/5.(N'+.(./(6/(D4(24&*$0999(H(+2(C5%.*(%"6*A*"6*".(%"(@'//&%"#(

+AA,/A,%+.*($*+,"%"#(&.,+.*#%*&9(Y-.56*".(dI7I`<IQZ(

-.56*".&("**6(./(&**K(+"6(*WA*,%2*".(N%.'(6%00*,*".($+"#5+#*(&.,+.*#%*&(D4(

.'*2&*$M*&O( D5.( .*+@'*,&( @+"( &5AA/,.( .'*2( D4( #%M%"#( &/2*( #5%6+"@*9(

Y-.56*".(8I7I`8I!Z((

R.1(#52&7()25"#+.?(@(3"#7,7#).2#5+.?#2+(#501(#6(@(6#.4#:.)4,7():(#,)#2+(,3#.?)#

08,6,2'#2.#&5(#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#,)#0)#(44(:2,@(#?0'=#*+(5(#52&7()25#?.&67#(A<(:2#

2+(,3#2(0:+(35#2.#20>(#2+(#10,)#3(5<.)5,8,6,2'#,)#,)523&:2,)%#0)7#7(@(6.<,)%#TTR5#4.3#

187

2+(1=#*+(#805,:#U&52,4,:02,.)#4.3#2+(,3#(A<(:202,.)#?05#805(7#.)#2+(#8(6,(4#2+02#2+(#

TTR#0?03()(55#30,5,)%#0)7#,)523&:2,.)#43.1#2(0:+(35#?.&67#8&,67#0#4&)701()206#

4.&)702,.)#0)7#<3(5()2#2+(#8(52#.3,()202,.)#4.3#52&7()25#,)#2+(,3#TTR#&5(=##

H( .'%"K( .*+@'*,&( "**6( ./( .+K*( +"( +@.%M*( ,/$*( %"( .*+@'%"#( &.56*".&( +D/5.(

6%00*,*".(&.,+.*#%*&(+"6('/N(./($*+,"(*00*@.%M*$49(3'*4('+M*(2/,*(*WA*,%*"@*(

%"(!"#$%&'( $*+,"%"#(+"6( .'*4('+M*( &**"(2+"4( &.56*".&O(D/.'( &5@@*&&05$(+"6(

5"&5@@*&&05$O(&/(.'*4(2+4('+M*(+(D*..*,(%6*+(N'+.(D*&.(./(6/9((3'*%,(#5%6+"@*(

N%$$( '*$A( &.56*".&( ./( #*.( .'*( ,%#'.( 6%,*@.%/"( +"6( &/( .'*4( @+"( &+M*( .%2*( %"(

$*+,"%"#(!"#$%&'9(Y-.56*".(>IRI`8IQZ((

H.( N/5$6( D*( #,*+.( %0( .*+@'*,&( @+"( &'+,*( N%.'( 5&( +D/5.( +$$( /0( .'*( +M+%$+D$*(

&.,+.*#%*&O(/,(N'+.(&.,+.*#%*&( ./(5&*( %"(N'%@'(&%.5+.%/"999( .'*4('+M*(+( $/.(/0(

*WA*,%*"@*(%"(!"#$%&'($*+,"%"#9(l5%6+"@*(0,/2(.*+@'*,&(N/5$6('*$A(5&(&A**6(

5A( .'*( A,/@*&&( +"6(N*( +,*(2/,*( @/"0%6*".(N%.'( +( D+&%@( K"/N$*6#*( /"( .'*(

%&&5*9(Y-.56*".(:I7I`:I!Z(

!)#5&1103'"#2+(#%()(306#8(6,(4#01.)%#2+(#,)2(3@,(?(7#52&7()25#?05#2+02#52&7()25#

2+(15(6@(5#?(3(#10,)6'#0::.&)2086(#4.3#2+(#7(@(6.<1()2#0)7#10),<&602,.)#.4#

N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5=#/.?(@(3"#2+(#%&,70):(#0)7#055,520):(#43.1#2(0:+(35#,)#

(A<0)7,)%#2+(,3#52302(%'#3(<(32.,3(#0)7#(A<6.3,)%#1.3(#(44(:2,@(#52302(%,(5#?(3(#

:.)5,7(3(7#2.#8(#:.)23,8&2,@(=####

6.5 Experiences concerning LLSs

*+,5#5(:2,.)#<3(5()25#2+(#4,)7,)%5#.)#2+(#(A<(3,():(5#.4#8.2+#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25#

,)#3(602,.)#2.#2+(#07.<2,.)#.4#TTR5#,)#2+(#:&33()2#:.)2(A2=#*+(#2+3((#10,)#2+(1(5#

?(3(#(44(:2,@(k,)(44(:2,@(#52302(%,(5"#8033,(35#2.#TTR#7(@(6.<1()2"#0)7#5+03(7#

:+030:2(3,52,:5#.4#TTR#&50%(=##

6.5.1 Recommended and non-recommended strategies

9&3,)%#2+(#,)2(3@,(?5"#2+(#2(0:+(3#0)7#52&7()2#<032,:,<0)25#5+03(7#2+(,3#

(A<(3,():(5#,)#TTR#&5(#0)7#2+(,3#52.3,(5#3(@(06(7#5<(:,4,:#52302(%,(5#?+,:+#?(3(#

(,2+(3#3(:.11()7(7#.3#).)X3(:.11()7(7#,)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%=#i)#2+(#<032#.4#2+(#

2(0:+(35"#2+(,3#U&7%1()2#08.&2#2+(#(44(:2,@()(55#.4#:(320,)#52302(%,(5#?05#8&,62#

188

&<.)#2+(,3#.?)#(A<(3,():(5#05#0#5&::(554&6#60)%&0%(#6(03)(3#0)7#2+(,3#.85(3@02,.)5#

.)#2+(#<(34.310):(#.4#2+(,3#52&7()25=#*+(#52302(%,(5#?+,:+#?(3(#:.)5,7(3(7#2.#8(#

(55()2,06#?(3(#83.076'#055.:,02(7#?,2+#6(03),)%#5>,665"#5&:+#05#3(07,)%"#5<(0>,)%"#

6,52(),)%#.3#?3,2,)%"#0)7#2+('#5(3@(7#05#0)#,1<.320)2#%&,70):(#4.3#2+(#2(0:+(35#,)#

5+0<,)%#2+(,3#0<<3.0:+(5#,)#(@(3'70'#N)%6,5+#2(0:+,)%=#*+(#4.66.?,)%#:.11()25#

5<(:,4'#2+(#52302(%,(5#?+,:+#?(3(#+,%+6'#3(:.11()7(7#8'#2+(#2(0:+(35#,)#2+(#52&7'=##

H"( 24( ,*+6%"#( @$+&&*&O( &*2+".%@( 2+AA%"#O( 5&%"#( ,*$+.*6( N/,6&( /,( A%@.5,*&(

+"6( N/,6&O( #*..%"#( .'*( %6*+( C5%@K$4( $%K*( &K%22%"#( /,( &@+""%"#O( #5*&&%"#(

%".*$$%#%D$4O(+"+$4&%"#O(&522+,%&%"#(+,*(*&A*@%+$$4(*2A'+&%&*69(Y3*+@'*,(8I7Z((

H( +2( 5&5+$$4( %"( @'+,#*( /0( N,%.%"#( &K%$$&( +"6( .'*( &.,+.*#%*&( H( .'%"K( &.56*".&(

"**6( %"( N,%.%"#( +,*( ,*@/,6%"#( !"#$%&'( A',+&*&O( 5&%"#( !"#$%&'I!"#$%&'(

6%@.%/"+,%*&O( K**A%"#( +( 6%+,4( /,( +( D$/#( %"( !"#$%&'O( +"6(N,%.%"#( +( "*N( A%*@*(

D+&*6( /"( +( &.,5@.5,*6( 2/6*$9( 3'+.( %&O( ./( 5&*( N'+.( .'*4( '+M*( $*+,".( ./(

A,/65@*(+("*N(A,/65@.9(Y3*+@'*,(dI7Z(

J*#+,6%"#( &A*+K%"#( &K%$$&O( H( #5*&&( &.56*".&( "**6( @*,.+%"( &.,+.*#%*&( &5@'( +&(

%2%.+.%"#(+(A+,.%@5$+,( &A*+K*,( %"( .*,2&(/0(A,/"5"@%+.%/"O( %"./"+.%/"O( &.,*&&O(

#*&.5,*O( *4*( @/".+@.O( *.@9( F( #//6( &.,+.*#4( %&( ./( %2+#%"*( &A*@%0%@( &%.5+.%/"&(

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189

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190

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6.5.2 Barriers to LLS development

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,)7,:02(7#8'#*(0:+(3#FXV"#_?+,6(#3(07,)%"#1'#52&7()25#&5&066'#+0@(#23.&86(#%(22,)%#

2+(#,7(0#Y&,:>6'#7&(#2.#2+(,3#+08,2#.4#&)7(3520)7,)%#(@(3'#?.37a=#!)#.2+(3#:05(5"#2+(#

:+066()%(5#:01(#43.1#2+(#60:>#.4#,)@(521()2#,)#2(315#.4#2,1(#0)7#(44.32#,)2.#2+(#

07.<2,.)#.4#:(320,)#52302(%,(5=#J5#*(0:+(3#KXV#.85(3@(7"#_10)'#.4#1'#52&7()25#7.#

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194

6.5.3 Shared characteristics of strategy use

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&5(#.4#2(:+).6.%'X055,52(7#52302(%,(5#,)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%=###

6.6 The learning environment

*+(#6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2#+05#?,7(6'#8(()#8(6,(@(7#2.#+0@(#0#%3(02#,1<0:2#.)#2+(#

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_*W.,*2*$4(64"+2%@a#OR2&7()2#]XVXz\XNP=##

6.6.1 Learning facilities

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198

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!"#$%&'(0/,(@/225"%@+.%/"(+2/"#(.'*2&*$M*&9(?5,%"#(.'*&*(.,%A&O(,/$*(A$+4&(

+"6(2+"4(/.'*,( $+"#5+#*( 0/@5&*6(#+2*&( /,( +@.%M%.%*&( @+"( D*( /,#+"%&*6( ./(

*"#+#*(&.56*".&(%"(*W@'+"#*&(/0("+.5,+$(!"#$%&'=#O-.56*".(dI7I`<IQZ((

*+(#,)2(3@,(?(7#2(0:+(35#(A<3(55(7#5,1,603#:.):(3)5#0)7#(A<(:202,.)5#:.):(3),)%#

2+(#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#.<<.32&),2,(5#4.3#52&7()25=#b.52#.4#2+(1#2+.&%+2#2+02#,2#?05#

2,1(#2.#20>(#0:2,.)#,)#:3(02,)%#1.3(#40@.&3086(#.<<.32&),2,(5#4.3#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%=##

H.( %&( "*@*&&+,4( ./( 6%M*,&%04( +"6( %"@,*+&*( .'*( 0,*C5*"@4( /0( *W.,+@5,,%@5$+,(

+@.%M%.%*&999( L*&%6*&O( &.56*".&( &'/5$6( '+M*( 2/,*( *WA/&5,*( ./( !"#$%&'O( 0/,(

*W+2A$*O( .'*,*( &'/5$6( D*(2/,*( C5+$%0%*6( "+.%M*( !"#$%&'( .*+@'*,&( +"6(2/,*(

*W@'+"#*(A,/#,+2&(0/,(&.56*".&9(Y3*+@'*,(8I7Z((

3*+@'*,&( 2+4( "**6( ./( A$+"( .'*( $*&&/"( %"( +( N+4( .'+.( %.( #%M*&( &.56*".&( +(

@'+"@*( ./( 5&*( 6%00*,*".( $*+,"%"#( &.,+.*#%*&9( ?%M*,&%.4( %"( $*+,"%"#( +@.%M%.%*&(

2*+"&(.'+.(N*(.+K*(%"./(+@@/5".($*+,"*,(6%00*,*"@*&(%"(!"#$%&'($*+,"%"#(+"6(

.'5&( N*( @+"( D*..*,( +@@/22/6+.*( .'*%,( M+,%*6( +AA,/+@'*&( +"6( &.,+.*#%*&(

Y3*+@'*,(:IRZ(

P"(.'*(A+,.(/0(.'*(m"%M*,&%.4O(H(.'%"K(.'*(m"%M*,&%.4("**6(./(2+K*(%.(A/&&%D$*(

0/,(&.56*".&(./(+@@*&&(!"#$%&'( %"(2+"4(N+4&O(&5@'(+&(D4(@,*+.%"#(+"(!"#$%&'(

&A*+K%"#( *"M%,/"2*".( N%.'%"( .'*( 5"%M*,&%.4( /,( '%,%"#( 2/,*( "+.%M*( !"#$%&'(

.*+@'*,&(/,(&.+009(Y3*+@'*,(nI7Z((

J5#0#?+.6("#2+(#1.52#:.11.)6'#+(67#8(6,(4#?05#2+02#1.3(#.<<.32&),2,(5#4.3#N)%6,5+#

6(03),)%#.&25,7(#.4#2+(#:60553..1#5+.&67#8(#:3(02(7#4.3#52&7()25#2.#()+0):(#2+(,3#

N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#,)#%()(306"#0)7#2+(,3#(A<(3,1()2,)%#?,2+#TTR5#,)#<032,:&603=##

6.6.3 Teacher-student relationship

!)#2+(#@,(?#.4#2+(#52&7()25#,)#2+(#52&7'"#2+(#3(602,.)5+,<#8(2?(()#2(0:+(35#0)7#

52&7()25#02#2+(#&),@(35,2'#?05#@(3'#<.5,2,@(=##J61.52#066#.4#2+(#52&7()25#%0@(#

40@.&3086(#:.11()25#.)#2+,5#3(602,.)5+,<=#;032,:&6036'"#2+('#5+.?(7#2+(,3#

205

0<<3(:,02,.)#4.3#2+(#43,()76,)(55"#7(7,:02,.)#0)7#?,66,)%)(55#2.#.44(3#+(6<#43.1#2+(#

NVT#52044=#R.1(#.4#2+(#3(103>5#8(6.?#:6(036'#,66&52302(#2+,5#<.,)2=##

3/(D*('/"*&.O(.'%&(5"%M*,&%.4(/00*,&(.'*(D*&.(*"M%,/"2*".(0/,($*+,"%"#(!"#$%&'(

.'+.( H( '+M*( *M*,( K"/N"9( !&A*@%+$$4O( .'*( ,*$+.%/"&'%A( D*.N**"( .*+@'*,&( +"6(

&.56*".&( %&( M*,4( @$/&*( +"6( 0,%*"6$4O( N'%@'( 2+K*&( 2*( 0**$( @/20/,.+D$*9(

Y-.56*".(dI7I`<IQZ((

R/&.(/0(24( .*+@'*,&(+.( 5"%M*,&%.4( +,*( M*,4( 0,%*"6$4(N%.'( &.56*".&(+"6( .'*4(

+,*(,*+64(./(+"&N*,(+"4(C5*&.%/"&(.'+.(N*('+M*9(H(0**$(M*,4(,*$+W*6(./(&.564(

N%.'(.'*2(+"6(.'*,*(%&("/(.*"&%/"(/,(0,5&.,+.%/"(+.(+$$9(Y-.56*".(=I7I`;I!Z((

H(.'%"K(.'*(*"M%,/"2*".(/0(!"#$%&'($*+,"%"#(+.(24(5"%M*,&%.4(@+"(D*(@/2A+,*6(

./( .'+.(/0(+"( %".*,"+.%/"+$(5"%M*,&%.49( 3'*,*( %&( +$2/&.("/(6%&.+"@*(D*.N**"(

.*+@'*,&( +"6( &.56*".&9( 3*+@'*,&( +,*( &/( 0,%*"6$4999( 3'%&( %&( +( M*,4( &5AA/,.%M*(

*"M%,/"2*".( N'%@'( +$$/N&( 0/,( 2/,*( *W@'+"#*&( D*.N**"( .*+@'*,&( +"6(

&.56*".&9(H(.'%"K(.'%&(%&(N'+.(2+K*&(%.(6%00*,*".(0,/2(/.'*,(5"%M*,&%.%*&(+,/5"6(

.'*(@%.49(Y-.56*".(:I7I`:I!Z((

H(+2('+AA4(N%.'(.'*($*+,"%"#(*"M%,/"2*".('*,*999(3'*(.*+@'*,&('*,*(+,*("%@*(

+"6(0,%*"6$49(-/2*(/0(.'*2(+,*(N%$$%"#(./(&A*"6(.%2*(*WA$+%"%"#(.'%"#&(./(2*(

.',/5#'(*2+%$&(+"6(H(0**$($%K*(H(+2(N*$$(.+K*"(@+,*(/09(Y-.56*".(;I7I`<I!Z((

*+,5#<.5,2,@(#3(602,.)5+,<#8(2?(()#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25#?05#@(3'#:.)7&:,@(#2.#

N)%6,5+#6(03),)%"#:.)23,8&2,)%#2.#2+(#:.)523&:2,.)#.4#0)#.@(3066#<.5,2,@(#6(03),)%#

()@,3.)1()2#02#2+(#&),@(35,2'=#(

6.7 Conclusion

*+(#Y&06,202,@(#<032#.4#2+,5#:+0<2(3#+05#7(20,6(7#2+(#4,)7,)%5#43.1#2+(#,)2(3@,(?5#

?,2+#2(0:+(3#0)7#52&7()2#<032,:,<0)25=#!2#+05#<3(5()2(7#2+(#2+(1(5"#:02(%.3,(5#0)7#

,55&(5#(1(3%(7#43.1#2+(#Y&06,202,@(#7020#,)#0#2(A2&06#)02&3(#302+(3#2+0)#)&1(3,:06#

10),4(5202,.)5=#*+(#2(0:+(35[#0)7#52&7()25[#<(3:(<2,.)5#.4#0)7#022,2&7(5#2.?0375#

TTR5#+0@(#8(()#:6(036'#<3(5()2(7#0)7#:.1<03(7=#*+(,3#7(5:3,<2,.)#.4#2+(#6(03),)%#

()@,3.)1()2"#,):6&7,)%#6(03),)%#40:,6,2,(5"#6(03),)%#.<<.32&),2,(5"#0)7#2+(#

206

3(602,.)5+,<#8(2?(()#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25"#+05#8(()#(A01,)(7#?,2+#2+(#5&<<.32#

.4#7,3(:2#(A230:25#43.1#2+(,3#,)2(3@,(?#230)5:3,<2,.)5=#*+(#4.66.?,)%#:+0<2(3#?,66#

.44(3#0)#,)X7(<2+#7,5:&55,.)#.)#2+(#Y&0)2,202,@(#0)7#Y&06,202,@(#4,)7,)%5#.4#2+(#52&7'#

8'#5')2+(5,h,)%#2+(#3(5(03:+#7020"#0)7#7,5:&55,)%#2+(#4,)7,)%5#,)#3(602,.)#2.#(0:+#

3(5(03:+#Y&(52,.)5#0)7#2.#2+(#.@(3066#3(5(03:+#0,1=#

207

7 Discussion

7.1 Introduction

!)#6,%+2#.4#2+(#Y&0)2,202,@(#0)7#Y&06,202,@(#4,)7,)%5#.4#2+(#52&7'"#2+,5#:+0<2(3#4.:&5(5#

.)#(A01,),)%#2.#?+,:+#(A2()2#2+(#3(5(03:+#0,15#0)7#.8U(:2,@(5#+0@(#8(()#

0773(55(7#0)7#0:+,(@(7=#-05(7#.)#2+(#3(5&625#.4#2+(#7020#0)06'5,5#<3(5()2(7#,)#2+(#

<3(@,.&5#:+0<2(35"#2+,5#:+0<2(3#7,5:&55(5#?+(2+(3#2+(#3(5(03:+#Y&(52,.)5#+0@(#8(()#

?(66#022()7(7=#*+(#1.52#,1<.320)2#4,)7,)%5#03(#3(@,5,2(7"#0)7#(A<60)02,.)5#03(#

<3.@,7(7#?+(3(#0<<6,:086(=#*+(5(#4,)7,)%5#03(#2+()#:.1<03(7#?,2+#2+.5(#.4#

<3(@,.&5#3(5(03:+#<3.U(:25#0)7#2+(.3,(5#3(@,(?(7#,)#3(6(@0)2#6,2(302&3(=#R.1(#.4#2+(#

4,)7,)%5#523.)%6'#5&<<.32#8'#2+(#6,2(302&3(#?+,6(#.2+(35#0<<(03#2.#:+066()%(#2+.5(#

3(<.32(7#8'#.2+(3#3(5(03:+(35=#*+(#,1<6,:02,.)5#.4#2+(#4,)7,)%5#03(#<3(5()2(7#02#2+(#

()7#.4#2+,5#:+0<2(3=###

J5#5202(7#02#2+(#8(%,)),)%#.4#2+(#3(5(03:+#U.&3)('"#2+(#52&7'#5.&%+2#2.#,)@(52,%02(#

2+(#<.2()2,06#.4#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#52&7()25#4.3#0&2.).1'#0)7#,)7(<()7():(#,)#

60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#02#2+(#2(32,03'#6(@(6=#!2#?05#10,)6'#0,1(7#02#(A01,),)%#2+(#&5(#.4#

TTR5#01.)%#NVT#2(32,03'#52&7()25#,)#W,(2)01"#0)7#(A<6.3,)%#2+(#<(3:(<2,.)5"#

022,2&7(5#0)7#(A<(3,():(5#.4#NVT#2(32,03'#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25#,)#3(602,.)#2.#TTR#,)#

2+(#:&33()2#:.)2(A2=#*+(5(#0,15#?(3(#.<(302,.)06,h(7#,)2.#4,@(#%&,7,)%#.8U(:2,@(5"#

(0:+#?,2+#5(@(306#:.)23,8&2,)%#3(5(03:+#Y&(52,.)5=#*+(#4,)7,)%5#:.):(3),)%#(0:+#.4#

2+(#.8U(:2,@(5#03(#7,5:&55(7#,)#2+(#4.66.?,)%#5(:2,.)5#?,2+#5<(:,06#3(4(3():(#2.#,)#0#

?,7(3#3(5(03:+#:.)2(A2#0)7#,1<6,:02,.)5=##

7.2 Achievement of research objective 1

>2^%E0*8%'=j#3/(%6*".%04(.'*(.4A*&O(0,*C5*"@4O(+"6(A+..*,"&(/0())-(5&*(+2/"#(

1%*."+2*&*(!7)(.*,.%+,4(&.56*".&9#

*+(#4,)7,)%5#2.#2+(5(#3(5(03:+#Y&(52,.)5#6(7#2.#8(22(3#&)7(3520)7,)%#08.&2#2+(#

0<<3.0:+(5#2.#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#2+02#2+(#52&7()25#?(3(#20>,)%#2.#,1<3.@(#2+(,3#

N)%6,5+#<(34.310):(=#*+,5#&)7(3520)7,)%#4&)701()2066'#:.)23,8&2(7#2.#2+(#

208

(52086,5+1()2#.4#2+(#)(:(5503'#4.&)702,.)#4.3#1.3(#0<<3.<3,02(#2(0:+,)%#0)7#

230,),)%#0<<3.0:+(5=###

7.2.1 General frequency of strategy use

*.#066.?#4.3#0#:.)@(),()2#5')2+(5,5#.4#2+(#4,)7,)%5#02#2+,5#7,5:&55,.)#520%("#2+(#

43(Y&():'#.4#52302(%'#&5(#8'#2+(#52&7()25#?05#:02(%.3,5(7#05#_6.?#&5(a#O1(7,0)#

43(Y&():'#5:.3(#`#C#.3#FP"#_1(7,&1#&5(a#O1(7,0)#43(Y&():'#5:.3(#`#HP"#0)7#_+,%+#

&5(a#O1(7,0)#43(Y&():'#5:.3(#`#\#.3#]P=###

*+(#1.52#%()(306#4,)7,)%#08.&2#TTR#&5(#01.)%#2+(#NVT#2(32,03'#52&7()25#,)#2+(#52&7'#

?05#2+(#1(7,0)#43(Y&():'#5:.3(#.4#H#O_R.1(2,1(5aP#,)#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#52302(%'#

&5(=#*+,5#3(5&62#,)7,:02(7#2+02#2+(#52&7()25#,)#2+(#52&7'#07.<2(7#0#1.7(302(#

43(Y&():'#.4#TTR#&5(#.3#2+('#?(3(#1(7,&1#&5(35#.4#52302(%,(5#,)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%=#J#

:6.5(3#(A01,)02,.)#.4#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%'#&5(#3(@(06(7#2+02#2+(#52&7()25#.)#0@(30%(#

&5(7#F#52302(%,(5#.)#0#_303(6'a#805,5"#FD#52302(%,(5#.)#0#_5.1(2,1(5a#805,5"#0)7#CS#

52302(%,(5#.)#0)#_.42()a#805,5=#J<<03()26'"#_.42()a#.3#+,%+#&5(#52302(%,(5#

.&2)&18(3(7#_303(6'a#.3#6.?#&5(#52302(%,(5#8'#0#%3(02#(A2()2#OCS#05#.<<.5(7#2.#FP=#

*+,5#,5#2+(#(@,7():(#2.#:.)4,31#2+02#2+(#52&7()25#,)#2+(#52&7'#?(3(#0?03(#.4#0)7#

2()7(7#2.#&5(#0#@03,(2'#.4#52302(%,(5#Y&,2(#3(%&6036'#,)#2+(,3#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#

<3.:(55=#!2#,5#<.5,2,@(#,)#2+(#5()5(#2+02#2+(#52&7()25#5((1(7#2.#+0@(#7(@(6.<(7#0)#

0::(<2086(#6(@(6#.4#52302(%,:#0)7#,)7(<()7()2#6(03),)%#?,2+#2+(#0?03()(55#0)7#

.3:+(52302,.)#.4#7,@(35(#52302(%,(5#,)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%=#!2#,5#(5<(:,066'#():.&30%,)%#

?+()#2+(#52&7()25#?(3(#02#2+(#2(32,03'#6(@(6"#?+,:+#3(Y&,3(5#5(64X3(%&602,.)#0)7#

0&2.).1'#,)#6(03),)%#05#2+(#>('5#2.#0:07(1,:#5&::(55=#J62+.&%+#7,44(3()2#,)#5:.<(#

0)7#0<<3.0:+(5"#2+(#4,)7,)%5#03(#:.)5,52()2#?,2+#2+.5(#.4#.2+(3#3(5(03:+#<3.U(:25#

.)#2+(#&5(#.4#TTR5#8'#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#52&7()25=#B5,)%#2+(#R2302(%'#!)@()2.3'#4.3#

T0)%&0%(#T(03),)%#OR!TTP#7(@(6.<(7#8'#iA4.37#OCKKG0P#05#2+(#10,)#7020#:.66(:2,.)#

,)523&1()2=#J1.)%#0#%3.&<#.4##NVT#2(32,03'#52&7()25#,)#/0).,"#I0.#OFGGK0P#4.&)7#

2+02#2+(#52&7()25#?(3(#1(7,&1#52302(%'#&5(35#?,2+#2+(#.@(3066#1(0)#43(Y&():'#

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+,%+#5:+..6#6(03)(35"#/()).#OFGCFP#3(@(06(7#2+02#2+('#?(3(#1(7,&1#2.#+,%+#

43(Y&():'#TTR#&5(35#.@(3066=#*+(#5,1,603,2'#,)#4,)7,)%5#0:3.55#52&7,(5"#068(,2#6,1,2(7#,)#

209

)&18(3"#+0@(#<3.@,7(7#5.1(#(@,7():(#4.3#2+(#<3.4,6(#.4#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#52&7()25#05#

1(7,&1#52302(%'#&5(35=#/.?(@(3"#4&32+(3#3(5(03:+#,5#)((7(7#,)#2+(#4&2&3(#2.#

<3.@,7(#1.3(#3.8&52#(@,7():(#4.3#2+,5#:.)4,3102,.)=##

7.2.2 Emerging patterns of LLS use

*+(#0)06'5,5#.4#2+(#4,)7,)%5#.)#2+(#7,44(3()2#43(Y&():,(5#.4#&5(#%0@(#3,5(#2.#2+(#

,7()2,4,:02,.)#.4#2+(#1.52#0)7#6(052#43(Y&()26'#&5(7#52302(%,(5#.4#2+(#52&7()25=#*+(#

5')2+(5,5#.4#2+(5(#4,)7,)%5#065.#6(7#2.#2+(#(1(3%():(#.4#2+(#:.11.)#23()75#0)7#

<022(3)5#,)#52302(%'#&5(#01.)%#2+(#203%(2#52&7()25=##

$.2086'"#2+(#6(052#43(Y&()26'#&5(7#52302(%,(5#Ob(7,0)#43(Y&():'#5:.3(#`#FP#?(3(#

R2302(%'#S#0)7#R2302(%'#CG"#8.2+#.4#?+,:+#8(6.)%#2+(#10,)#%3.&<#.4#M(%&602,)%#

52302(%,(5"#&)7(3#2+(#5&8%3.&<#.4#52302(%,(5#2.#:3(02(#6(03),)%#0)7#&50%(#

.<<.32&),2,(5=#R<(:,4,:066'"#2+(#52&7()2#3(<.32(7#022()7,)%#(@()25#?+(3(#N)%6,5+#,5#

&5(7#5&:+#05#:6&85"#5(1,)035"#.3#?.3>5+.<5#OR2302(%'#SP#0)7#U.,),)%#.)6,)(#4.3&15#,)#

N)%6,5+#OR2302(%'#CGP#.)#0#303(6'#805,5=#*+(#(A<60)02,.)5#4.3#2+(#6.?#&5(#.4#2+(5(#2?.#

52302(%,(5#:.&67#<0326'#8(#4.&)7#,)#2+(#Y&06,202,@(#7020#?+()#2+(#52&7()25#0)7#

2(0:+(35#<.,)2(7#2.#2+(#60:>#.4#.<<.32&),2,(5#4.3#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#0)7#&50%(#.&2#.4#

2+(#:60553..1=#*+(#1.)2+6'#N)%6,5+#:6&8#:&33()26'#+(67#02#2+(#&),@(35,2'#:0)).2#

07(Y&02(6'#502,54'#2+(#)((75#.4#2+(#NVT#52&7()25=#!)#077,2,.)"#5(1,)035#.3#

?.3>5+.<5#0@0,6086(#2.#52&7()25#03(#<3(7.1,)0)26'#:.)7&:2(7#,)#W,(2)01(5(#2.#

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,)#.)6,)(#N)%6,5+#4.3&15"#2+(#!)2(3)(2X805(7#52302(%'#?05#3(<.32(7#2.#8(#@(3'#

(44(:2,@(#8'#2?.#52&7()25#,)#2+(#,)2(3@,(?5"#(5<(:,066'#?+()#2+(#4.3&1#7,5:&55,.)5#

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%()(306=#!2#,5#5&%%(52(7#2+02#4&32+(3#3(5(03:+#8(#107(#,)2.#2+(#3(05.)5#8(+,)7#,25#

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<.2()2,06#52302(%'=###

i)#2+(#.2+(3#+0)7"#CS#52302(%,(5#?(3(#,7()2,4,(7#05#2+(#1.52#43(Y&()26'#&5(7#

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210

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0)7k.3#1(1.3,502,.)06#52302(%,(5#01.)%#W,(2)01(5(#52&7()25=#;032,:&6036'"#2+(#

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&)7(3520)7,)%P#0)7#1(1.3,502,.)#,)#.37(3#2.#0:+,(@(#&)7(3520)7,)%#Od(18(3"#

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055.:,02(7#?,2+#3(07,)%#5>,665#OR2302(%,(5#FS"#HG"#0)7#HHP"#0)7#T,52(),)%#5>,665#

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0)7#\FP##+07#0#:.1<()502.3'#)02&3(#?,2+#2+(#&5(#.4#062(3)02,@(#1(0)5#2.#(A<3(55#

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).2#+0@(#6(55#:3,2,:06#2+,)>,)%#2+0)#f(310)#52&7()25#7(5<,2(#2+(,3#<3(4(3():(#4.3#

3(<(2,2,.)#05#0#6(03),)%#52302(%'=#/()).#OFGCFP#065.#4.&)7#2+02#2+(#3(<.32(7#&5(#.4#

:(320,)#TTR#:02(%.3,(5#.4#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#52&7()25#:.)2307,:2(7#2+(#%()(306#

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,)46&():(#.4#6(03),)%#:&62&3("#@06&(5#0)7#8(6,(45#.)#2+(#<3(4(33(7#52302(%'#<022(3)5#

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213

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(2+),:,2'k:&62&3(#10'#+0@(#0)#,1<0:2#.)#5+0<,)%#2+(#:+.,:(#.4#52302(%,(5#01.)%#

52&7()25"#(5<(:,066'#2+3.&%+#2+(#43(Y&()2#&5(#.4#10)'#52302(%,(5#.4#0#3(<(2,2,@(#

0)7k.3#1(1.3,502,.)06#)02&3(=#/.?(@(3"#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#,)#2+(#:&33()2#

:.)2(A2#03(#).2#2.2066'#(2+),:k:&62&3(X.3,()2(7#8(:0&5(#2+(#52&7()25#+0@(#0#

2()7():'#2.#07.<2#52302(%,(5#.4#7,@(35(#)02&3(5#.3#4&):2,.)5"#5&:+#05#

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:.18,)02,.)#.4#2307,2,.)06#0)7#).)X2307,2,.)06#52302(%,(5#<0326'#3(46(:25#2+(#

46(A,8,6,2'#0)7#7')01,:,2'#.4#52&7()25#2.#2+(#:+0)%,)%#2(0:+,)%k6(03),)%#:.)2(A25=##

7.3 Achievement of research objective 2

>2^%E0*8%'Aj#3/(%"M*&.%#+.*(.'*(,*$+.%/"&'%A(D*.N**"())-(5&*(+"6($*+,"*,(M+,%+D$*&(

&5@'(+&(#*"6*,O(5"%M*,&%.4(4*+,(#,/5A&O(+@+6*2%@(2+V/,&O(&*$0I,+.*6(!"#$%&'(

A,/0%@%*"@4O(+"6(D*$%*0&(+D/5.(!"#$%&'($*+,"%"#9##

J5#0#?+.6("#2+(#7020#0)06'5,5#,)#2+,5#52&7'#,7()2,4,(7#0#5,%),4,:0)2#6,)>#8(2?(()#2+(#

43(Y&():'#.4#52&7()25[#TTR#&5(#O.@(3066"#%3.&<#.3#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5P"#0)7#2+(#

6(03)(3#@03,086(5#.4#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5"#0:07(1,:#10U.35"#5(64X302(7#N)%6,5+#

<3.4,:,():'"#0)7#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#8(6,(45=##

7.3.1 Gender and LLSs

!2#?05#4.&)7#2+02#05#0#?+.6(#2+(#501<6(7#106(#0)7#4(106(#52&7()25#7,7#).2#

5,%),4,:0)26'#7,44(3#43.1#(0:+#.2+(3#,)#2+(,3#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#52302(%'#&5(=#*+(#

4,)7,)%#5&%%(52(7#2+02#%()7(3#?05#).2#3(602(7#2.#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#52302(%'#&5(#

01.)%#2+(#203%(2#52&7()25=#J)'#7,44(3():(5#05#.85(3@(7#,)#2+(#1(0)#30)>5#8(2?(()#

2+(#2?.#%()7(3#%3.&<5#?(3(#<3.8086'#7&(#2.#:+0):(=#*+(#4,)7,)%#.4#2+,5#52&7'#

5&<<.325#2+(#3(5&625#.4#.2+(3#52&7,(5#:.):(3),)%#2+(#,)46&():(#.4#%()7(3#7,44(3():(5#

.)#.@(3066#TTR#&5("#8.2+#6.:066'#0)7#3(%,.)066'=#I0.#OFGGK0P"#4.3#(A01<6("#4.&)7#).#

5,%),4,:0)2#7,44(3():(5#,)#.@(3066#52302(%'#&5(#8(2?(()#W,(2)01(5(#%()7(3#%3.&<5=#

/()).#OFGCFP#065.#3(<.32(7#).#5,%),4,:0)2#7,44(3():(#8(2?(()#W,(2)01(5(#106(5#

0)7#4(106(5#,)#2(315#.4#+.?#43(Y&()26'#2+('#&5(#TTR5=#;032,:&6036'#0773(55,)%#

:.11&),:02,@(#52302(%,(5#,)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#01.)%#52&7()25#0:3.55#CC#&),@(35,2,(5#

,)#W,(2)01"#-&,#0)7#!)2030<305(32#OFGCFP#4.&)7#).#5,%),4,:0)2#@03,02,.)5#,)#2+(#

214

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4.&)7#6,226(#.3#).#3(602,.)5+,<#8(2?(()#%()7(3#0)7#TTR#:+.,:(#,)#.2+(3#NRTkNVT#

2(0:+,)%X6(03),)%#:.)2(A25#O907.&3#m#M.88,)5"#CKKLZ#f3,44,2+5"#FGGH0Z#;.6,2h(3"#

CKDHZ#z0)%"#FGCGP=##

V&32+(3#0)06'5(5#.)#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%'#&5(#8'#%()7(3"#+.?(@(3"#5+.?(7#2+02#106(#

0)7#4(106(#52&7()25#7,44(3(7#5,%),4,:0)26'#,)#2+(#&5(#.4#),)(#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5=#

*+(#(A01,)02,.)#.4#2+(#1(0)#30)>5#5&%%(52(7#2+02#2+(#106(#52&7()25#+07#0#1.3(#

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4(106(#:.&)2(3<0325#?+,6(#2+(#4(106(#52&7()25#3(<.32(7#0#1.3(#43(Y&()2#&5(#.4#5,A#

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$',>.5"#CKDKZ#iA4.37"#(2#06="#CKKHZ#{,11(310)#m#b032,)(hX;.)5"#CKKGP"#.3#106(#

52&7()25#O*(3:0)6,.%6&"#FGG\0Z#*30)"#CKDDZ#c+032.)"#FGGGP=###

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5((15#2.#520)7#,)#5+03<#:.)23052#?,2+#1.52#4,)7,)%5#,)#2+(#4,(67"#?+(3(8'#4(106(#

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4(106(#,)7,@,7&065#Oc(3)(3"#FGGKP#2+02#+05#0)#,)46&():(#.)#2+(#?0'#2+('#0<<3.0:+#

60)%&0%(#6(03),)%=#*+(#?,5+#2.#:.)4.31#2.#,1<6,:,2#520)7037#10'#+0@(#<3.1<2(7#

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215

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.4#8(,)%#4(106(#.3#106(#,)#0#:(320,)#:.11&),2'#2+02#,5#02#<60'#+(3(=#T,>(#0)'#2'<(#.4#

6(03),)%"#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#,5#805,:066'#0#5.:,06#<3.:(55#=#B)7(3#2+(#5.:,06X:&62&306#

:.)523&:2,@,52#@,(?"#,2#,5#044(:2(7#8'#2+(#5.:,06#:&62&306#7,:202,.)5#055.:,02(7#?,2+#

7,44(3()2#5(A(5=#*+02#(A<60,)5#2+(#1,A(7#4,)7,)%5#,)#3(602,.)#2.#%()7(3#,)#7,44(3()2#

3(5(03:+#:.)2(A25#0)7#2+02#,5#065.#2+(#3(05.)#?+'#2+(#5.:,.X:&62&3066'#.3,()2(7#

).2,.)#.4#%()7(3#,5#(1<6.'(7#0)7#(A01,)(7#,)#2+,5#52&7'"#302+(3#2+0)#5(A#,25(64=##

7.3.2 University year group and LLSs

9020#43.1#2+(#52&7'#5+.?(7#2+02#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5#?(3(#5,%),4,:0)26'#

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065.#4.&)7#01.)%#52&7()25#.4#7,44(3()2#'(03#%3.&<5#,)#2+(,3#&5(#.4#M(%&602,)%#

52302(%,(5#0)7#R>,66X805(7#52302(%,(5=#!2#,5#,1<.320)2#2.#(1<+05,5(#2+02#2+(#4,352#'(03#

52&7()25#?(3(#5,%),4,:0)26'#7,44(3()2#43.1#2+(,3#5(),.3#:.&)2(3<0325#.4#5(:.)7#0)7#

2+,37k4.&32+#'(03#,)#2+(,3#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#OM(%&602,)%#0)7#R>,66X805(7P#52302(%'#

&5(=#$.2086'"#2+(#1(0)#30)>#@06&(5#,)#52302(%'#&5(#.4#2+(#4,352#'(03#52&7()25#?(3(#

06?0'5#51066(3#2+0)#2+.5(#.4#2+(#5(:.)7#0)7#2+,37k4.&32+#'(03#52&7()25=#*+,5#4,)7,)%#

,)7,:02(5#2+02#4,352#'(03#52&7()25#03(#1.3(#6,>(6'#2.#07.<2#0#6(55#43(Y&()2#&5(#.4#

.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#52302(%'#&5(#2+0)#2+(,3#5(),.3#:.&)2(3<0325=##

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&5(#.4#10)'#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5#43.1#.)(#0).2+(3=#*+(#1.52#.&2520)7,)%#4,)7,)%#

?05#2+(#5,%),4,:0)2#@03,02,.)5#,)#52302(%'#&5(#8(2?(()#2+(#4,352#'(03#3(5<.)7()25#0)7#

2+(#2+,37k4.&32+#'(03#3(5<.)7()25"#?+,:+#?(3(#4.&)7#,)#FG#,)7,@,7&06#52302(%,(5=#

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216

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:60553..1X805(7#52302(%,(5#07.<2(7#5,):(#+,%+#5:+..6#0)7#2+,5#,5#(@,7()2#,)#2+(,3#

+,%+(3#43(Y&():'#&5(#.4#2+(#52302(%,(5#.4#022()7,)%#(@(),)%#N)%6,5+#:6055(5#0)7#

@.:08&603'#6(03),)%=#*+,5#,5#:.)5,52()2#?,2+#2+(#(1<,3,:06#3(5&625#43.1#0#

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6(052=##

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7.3.3 Academic majors and LLSs

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0)7#TTR#&5(#?,2+#).)XN)%6,5+#0)7#N)%6,5+#52&7()25#7,44(3,)%#5,%),4,:0)26'#43.1#(0:+#

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:(320,)#4&2&3(#:03((3#.3#4,(67#.4#5<(:,4,:02,.)#0)7#2+(#TTR#&5(#.4#6(03)(35=#iA4.37#0)7#

217

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()+0):(1()2#05#73,@()#8'#2+(#:&33,:&6&1=##

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0:3.55#(,%+2#7,5:,<6,)(5#Q#8&,67,)%"#8&5,)(55"#:.1<&2,)%"#()%,)((3,)%"#N)%6,5+"#102+"#

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218

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3(4.31,)%#0)7#230)54.31,)%#52302(%'#&5(#4.3#8(22(3#6(03),)%#.&2:.1(5=##

7.3.4 Self-rated English proficiency and LLSs

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<3.4,:,()2#52&7()25#2()7(7#2.#07.<2#.@(3066#52302(%,(5#1.3(#43(Y&()26'#2+0)#2+(#6(55#

<3.4,:,()2#52&7()25=#*+,5#4,)7,)%#43.1#2+(#52&7'#6()75#5&<<.32#2.#1.52#52&7,(5#,)#2+(#

6,2(302&3(#022(52,)%#2.#0#3(602,.)5+,<#8(2?(()#<3.4,:,():'#0)7#2+(#43(Y&():'#.4#TTR#

&5(#OJ)7(35.)"#FGG]Z#-3&()"#FGGCZ#I+01.2#m#N6X9,)03'"#CKKKZ#f3,44,2+5"#FGGH0Z#T((#

m#i+"#FGGCZ#b0:!)2'3("#CKK\Z#ilb066('#m#I+01.2"#CKKGZ#iA4.37#m#$',>.5"#CKDKZ#

;03>"#CKKSZ#;(0:.:>#m#/."#FGGHZ#R&"#FGG]Z#c+032.)"#FGGGP=##

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52302(%,(5"#.306#:.11&),:02,.)#52302(%,(5#0)7#52302(%,(5#.4#0)#0)06'2,:06#)02&3(#

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(1(3%,)%#<022(3)#.4#52302(%'#&5(#,5#2+02#1.3(#<3.4,:,()2#52&7()25#03(#&5&066'#1.3(#

3(07,6'#:0<086(#.4#&5,)%#2+(#203%(2#60)%&0%(#2.#:3(02(#1(0),)%#,)#8.2+#?3,22()#0)7#

.306#:.11&),:02,.)=#J77,2,.)066'"#2+('#03(#1.3(#6,)%&,52,:066'#:.1<(2()2#,)#

0)06'5,)%#0)7#10>,)%#5()5(#.4#2+(#203%(2#60)%&0%(=#!2#5((15#2+02#1.3(#<3.4,:,()2#

52&7()25#+0@(#%3.?)#.&2#.4#2+(#,),2,06#520%(#.4#,)2()5,@(#4.3106#6(03),)%#.4#2+(#

60)%&0%(#5'52(1#,)2.#2+(#520%(#.4#&5,)%#2+(#60)%&0%(#4.3#1(0),)%#,)2(3<3(202,.)#

0)7#1(0),)%#:3(02,.)=#R,1,603#3(5&625#+0@(#8(()#4.&)7#8'#.2+(3#3(5(03:+(35#,)#2+(#

4,(67=#-,06'52.>#OCKDCP"#4.3#(A01<6("#7,5:.@(3(7#2+02#4&):2,.)06#<30:2,:(#52302(%,(5 ?(3(#055.:,02(7#?,2+#<3.4,:,():'=#f3(()#0)7#iA4.37#OCKK]P#065.#4.&)7#2+02#&5,)%#

52302(%,(5#4.3#0:2,@("#)02&306,52,:#&5(#.4#N)%6,5+#?05#523.)%6'#3(602(7#2.#0#+,%+#6(@(6#.4#

<3.4,:,():'=#*+,5#4,)7,)%#+05#<30:2,:06#,1<6,:02,.)5#4.3#2+(#4&2&3(#230,),)%#.4#N)%6,5+#

219

6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#01.)%#52&7()25"#?+,:+#5+.&67#8(#7(5,%)(7#2.#0::.11.702(#

52&7()25[#7,44(3()2#6(@(65#.4#<3.4,:,():'=###

7.3.5 English learning beliefs and LLSs

*+(#7020#0)06'5,5#3(@(06(7#2+(#3(602,@(#:.)5()5&5#,)#2+(#52&7()25[#8(6,(45#,)#N)%6,5+#

6(03),)%=#!2#,5#,1<.320)2#2.#).2(#2+02#(,%+2#8(6,(45#5202(1()25#O,):6&7,)%#,2(15#]G#2.#

]S#,)#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(P#?(3(#7(5,%)(7#2.#3(46(:2#2+(#:&33()2#8(6,(45#,)#+.?#8(52#2.#

6(03)#N)%6,5+#,)#2+(#:.)2(1<.303'#2,1("#).2#.)6'#,)#2+(#W,(2)01(5(#5(22,)%5#8&2#065.#

,)#.2+(3#<0325#.4#2+(#?.367#?+(3(#N)%6,5+#,5#20&%+2#0)7#6(03)(7#05#0#5(:.)7#.3#

4.3(,%)#60)%&0%(=#J62+.&%+#8(6,(45#7.#).2#06?0'5#%3.?#,)2.#0:2,.)5"#,2#,5#+,%+6'#

:.)@,):(7#2+02#8(6,(45#:.&67#5(3@(#05#0#523.)%#73,@,)%#4.3:(#0)7#<.,)2#.4#7,3(:2,.)#4.3#

0:2,.)5#2.#8(#20>()=#f,@()#2+,5"#2+(#06,%)1()2#8(2?(()#2+(#10U.3,2'#.4#2+(#

3(5(03:+(7#52&7()25[#8(6,(45#0)7#2+(#%()(306#8(6,(45#,)#2+(#NRTkNVT#c.367#?05#

<.5,2,@(6'#,)7,:02,@(#.4#2+(#:+0):(#2+02#2+(#52&7()25#?.&67#8(#.)#2+(#3,%+2#230:>#,4#

2+('#:.&67#7.#?+02#2+('#8(6,(@(7#2.#8(#40:,6,202,@(#,)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%=##

J::.37,)%#2.#2+(#Y&0)2,202,@(#7020#0)06'5,5"#2+(3(#?05#0#5202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#

<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)#8(2?(()#.@(3066k%3.&<#52302(%'#&5(#0)7#2+(#5(64X<(3:(,@(7#

1.2,@02,.)#.4#2+(#52&7()25=#*+(5(#<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)5#5&%%(52(7#2+02#2+(#1.3(#

1.2,@02(7#52&7()25#?(3(#1.3(#6,>(6'#2.#07.<2#.@(3066#0)7#%3.&<#52302(%,(5#1.3(#

43(Y&()26'#2+0)#2+(#6(55#1.2,@02(7#52&7()25=#*+,5#3(5&62#,5#:.)5,52()2#?,2+#1&:+#.4#

2+(#6,2(302&3(=#V.3#(A01<6("#c+032.)#OFGGGP#4.&)7#2+02##1.2,@02,.)#+07#0#5,%),4,:0)2#

(44(:2#.)#2+(#&5(#.4#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5=#*+(#,1<.320):(#.4#1.2,@02,.)#,)#

60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#,5#044,31(7#8'#2+(#4,)7,)%#.4#2+,5#52&7'=#*+(3(4.3("#,2#,5#+,%+6'#

3(:.11()7(7#2+02#1.3(#022()2,.)#8(#%,@()#2.#3(5(03:+#05#?(66#05#<30%102,:#

:60553..1#<30:2,:(5#5&33.&)7,)%#2+(#()+0):(1()2#.4#1.2,@02,.)#2.#6(03)#01.)%#

NRTkNVT#52&7()25=##

R202,52,:066'#5,%),4,:0)2#<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)5#?(3(#065.#4.&)7#8(2?(()#.@(3066k%3.&<#

52302(%'#&5(#0)7#2+(#3(5<.)7()25[#8(6,(45#,)#2+(#3.6(#.4#5(64X7,5:,<6,)("#2+(#3.6(#.4#

07@0):(7#2(:+).6.%'#0)7#:&62&3("#2+(#3.6(#.4#%301103#0)7#@.:08&603'#

:.)2(A2&06,h02,.)"#0)7#2+(#3.6(#.4#<30:2,:(=#*+(5(#<.5,2,@(#:.33(602,.)5#5&%%(52(7#

2+02#2+(#1.3(#523.)%6'#2+(#3(5<.)7()25#8(6,(@(7#,)#2+(#,1<.320):(#.4#5(64X

220

7,5:,<6,)("#2(:+).6.%'"#:&62&3("#%301103"#@.:08&603'#:.)2(A2&06,h02,.)#0)7#<30:2,:(#

,)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%"#2+(#1.3(#43(Y&()26'#2+('#&5(7#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5=#

*+(5(#4,)7,)%5#<3.@,7(#(@,7():(#4.3#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#8(6,(45#05#0#<.2()2,06#

,)7,:02.3#4.3#TTR#07.<2,.)#01.)%#NRTkNVT#52&7()25#0)7#2+('#5&<<.32#2+(#4,)7,)%5#.4#

:.)2(1<.303'#52&7,(5#5&:+#05#2+.5(#8'#/.)%X$01#0)7#T(0@(66#OFGGLP"#b.>+203,#

OFGGSP"#z&#OFGGSP#0)7#f0)#OFGG\#P=#i)#2+(#805,5#.)#2+(5(#4,)7,)%5"#,2#,5#:.)5,7(3(7#

)(:(5503'#4.3#2(0:+(35#0)7#(7&:02.35#2.#:&62,@02(#<.5,2,@(#8(6,(45#08.&2#60)%&0%(#

6(03),)%#01.)%#NRTkNVT#52&7()25=##

7.4 Achievement of research objective 3

>2^%E0*8%'D1#3/(*WA$/,*(.'*(A*,@*A.%/"&O(+..%.56*&(+"6(*WA*,%*"@*&(/0(.*+@'*,&(+"6(

&.56*".&(@/"@*,"%"#())-9##

*+(#3,:+#Y&06,202,@(#7020#,)#2+,5#52&7'#<3.@,7(7#0#:6(03#&)7(3520)7,)%#.4#2+(#:.1<6(A#

1,A#.4#<(3:(<2,.)5"#022,2&7(5#0)7#(A<(3,():(5#,)#3(602,.)#2.#TTR5"#?+,:+#1,%+2#+0@(#

0)#,1<0:2#.)#2+(#70'X2.X70'#2(0:+,)%#0)7#6(03),)%#<30:2,:(5#.4#2+(#NVT#2(0:+(35#0)7#

52&7()25=#*+(#7020#0)06'5,5#0)7#,)2(3<3(202,.)#%0@(#3,5(#2.#2+(#(1(3%():(#.4#5,A#

:.3(#2+(1(5"#,):6&7,)%#2+(#3.6(#.4#TTR5"#4.3106#230,),)%#.)#TTR"#3(5<.)5,8,6,2'#4.3#

TTR5"#3(:.11()7(7k).)X3(:.11()7(7#TTR5"#8033,(35#2.#TTR#7(@(6.<1()2"#0)7#

5+03(7#:+030:2(3,52,:5#.4#52302(%'#&5(=##

7.4.1 The role of LLSs

J::.37,)%#2.#2+(#4,)7,)%5#.4#2+(#52&7'"#TTR5#?(3(#3(:.%),5(7#05#0#@(3'#5,%),4,:0)2#

:.)23,8&2.3#2.#2+(#6(03),)%#<3.:(55#8'#2+(#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25=#;032,:&6036'"#2+('#

+,%+6'#0:>).?6(7%(7#2+(#,1<.320):(#.4#TTR5#,)#60)%&0%(#0:+,(@(1()2"#?,2+#5<(:,06#

3(5<(:2#2.#2+(#()+0):(1()2#.4#2+(#(44(:2,@()(55#0)7#Y&06,2'#.4#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%=#!2#

,5#0#5&3<3,5,)%#4,)7,)%#%,@()#2+(#40:2#2+02#2+(3(#+05#8(()#0)#085():(#.4#TTR#230,),)%#

0)7#,)523&:2,.)#,)#2+(#:&33()2#60)%&0%(#:&33,:&6&1=#/.?(@(3"#2+,5#,5#065.#0)#

():.&30%,)%#4,)7,)%#8(:0&5(#2+(#<.5,2,@(#022,2&7(5#.4#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25#?,66#8(#

0#40@.&3086(#<3(3(Y&,5,2(#4.3#2+(#<3.1.2,.)#.4#TTR5#,)#2+(#(7&:02,.)06#5'52(1=#J5#

M,:+0375.)#OCKKLP#5202(7"#6(03)(35#03(#(A<(:2(7#2.#0:2#1.526'#&<.)#2+(,3#8(6,(45#0)7#

0::.37,)%#2.#M.>(0:+#OCKLDP"#8(6,(45#.3#022,2&7(5#03(#_<3(7,5<.5,2,.)5#2.#0:2,.)5a#O<=#

CCHP=#c+()#52&7()25#<60:(#0)#(1<+05,5#.)#2+(#3.6(#.4#TTR5"#2+('#03(#1.3(#6,>(6'#2.#

221

,)@(52#2,1(#0)7#(44.32#,)2.#2+(#(A<6.302,.)#.4#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#2.#()+0):(#

<(34.310):(=#*+,5#Y&06,202,@(#4,)7,)%#:.)23,8&2(5#2.#5&<<.32#2+(#Y&0)2,202,@(#4,)7,)%#

.4#2+(#52&7'"#?+,:+#7(<,:25#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#52&7()25#05#0:2,@(#&5(35#.4#52302(%,(5#.4#

7,@(35(#4&):2,.)5#4.3#@03,.&5#6(03),)%#%.065=##

!)#077,2,.)"#,2#?05#%()(3066'#8(6,(@(7#8'#2+(#52&7()25#0)7#2(0:+(35#2+02#(44(:2,@(#

52302(%,(5#06.)(#7,7#).2#%&030)2((#5&::(55#,)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%"#8&2#2+('#?(3(#.)(#.4#

2+(#7(:,5,@(#40:2.35#01.)%#.2+(35#5&:+#05#,)2(3(52"#7(2(31,)02,.)"#0)7#(44.32=#J%0,)"#

2+,5#0?03()(55#.4#5&::(55#,)#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#05#0#3(5&62#.4#:.1<.&)7(7#(6(1()25#,5#

0#<.5,2,@(#<(3:(<2,.)"#?+,:+#7(2(35#2+(#1'2+#.4#2+(#085.6&2(#<.?(3#.4#0)'#5,)%6(#

40:2.3#,)#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%=#!2#+05#10U.3#,1<6,:02,.)5#4.3#2+(#2(0:+,)%#<3.4(55,.)#,)#

2+02#2+(#<3.1.2,.)#.4#TTR5#)((7#2.#%.#+0)7#,)#+0)7#?,2+#.2+(3#,1<.320)2#205>5"#

5&:+#05#2+(#52,1&602,.)#.4#6(03),)%#,)2(3(525"#2+(#523()%2+(),)%#.4#6(03),)%#

7(2(31,)02,.)"#0)7#2+(#():.&30%(1()2#.4#6(03),)%#(44.325#.)#2+(#<032#.4#52&7()25=##

*+(5(#4,)7,)%5#077#)(?#>).?6(7%(#2.#2+(#3(5(03:+#03(0#?+,:+#+05#0#:.1<6(2(#%0<#

,)#(@,7():(#3(%037,)%#2+(#<(3:(<2,.)5#0)7#022,2&7(5#.4#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#2(0:+(35#0)7#

52&7()25#2.?0375#2+(#3.6(#.4#TTR5=#!4#2+,5#&),4.316'#@.,:(7#8(6,(4#,)#2+(#5,%),4,:0):(#

.4#TTR5#,5#2.#8(#4.&)7#,)#4&2&3(#3(5(03:+#52&7,(5"#,2#,5#0#@(3'#<.5,2,@(#+(3067#.4#0#

:.11,21()2#2.#2+(#()7.35(1()2#.4#TTR5#?+()#2+('#03(#.44,:,066'#,)23.7&:(7#2.#2+(#

:&33,:&6&1=#

7.4.2 Formal training on LLSs

I.)5,52()2#?,2+#2+(#523.)%6'#(A<3(55(7#8(6,(45#,)#2+(#,1<.320):(#.4#TTR5#,)#

0:+,(@(1()2#0)7#<(34.310):("#8.2+#2+(#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25#5+.?(7#2+(,3#

07@.:0:'#4.3#2+(#,)23.7&:2,.)#.4#TTR#230,),)%#2.#2+(#:&33,:&6&1=#!)#2+(#@,(?#.4#2+(5(#

2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25"#0#5'52(1,:066'#0)7#6.%,:066'#523&:2&3(7#<3.%301#.)#TTR#?05#

)(:(5503'#0)7#8()(4,:,06#8(:0&5(#52&7()25#?.&67#+0@(#0::(55#2.#5&<(3@,5(7#<30:2,:(#

0)7#&50%(#.4#TTR5=#J3%&086'"#2+(#7,44(3():(#,)#(44(:2,@()(55#,)#2(315#.4#2+(#52302(%'#

07.<2,.)#0)7#2+(#,)2(%302,.)#.4#:.1<6(A#5(25#.4#52302(%,(5#,5#:6(036'#3(602(7#2.#2+(#

7(%3((#2.#?+,:+#7(6,8(302(#<30:2,:(#,5#40:,6,202(7#.@(3#(A2()7(7#<(3,.75#.4#2,1(=#

c+02#(1(3%(7#43.1#2+(#7020#?05#2+(#3(06,502,.)#2+02#5&520,),)%#0)7#7(@(6.<,)%#2+(#

:.1<3(+()5,@(#>).?6(7%(#805(#0)7#5>,665#,)#52302(%'#&5(#3(Y&,3(7#:.)2,)&,)%#

222

5&<<.32(7#<30:2,:(#2.%(2+(3#?,2+#.<<.32&),2'#4.3#(44(:2,@(#3(46(:2,.)#.)#0:2,.)=#*+,5#

,5#5&<<.32(7#8'#.2+(3#3(5(03:+(35#5&:+#05#ilb066('#0)7#I+01.2#OCKKGP"#f3()4(66#0)7#

/033,5#OCKKKP"#I.+()#OCKKDP"#?+.#<3.<.5(7#@03,.&5#52302(%'#230,),)%#1.7(65#.)#2+(#

<3,):,<6(#805,5#.4#5:044.67(7#<30:2,:(=##

*+(#10,)#,1<6,:02,.)#.4#2+,5#4,)7,)%#,5#4.3#TTR#230,),)%#2.#8(#6.%,:066'#5'52(102,h(7#2.#

3(<60:(#2+(#5:022(3(7#0)7#,1<3.1<2&#2(0:+,)%#.4#TTR5#02#2+(#2,1(#.4#2+,5#52&7'#05#

,)7,:02(7#8'#2+(#2(0:+(3#0)7#52&7()2#,)2(3@,(?((5=#*.#102(3,06,5(#2+,5#05<,302,.)"#

(44.325#5+.&67#8(#7,3(:2(7#2.#2+(#:.)523&:2,.)#.4#0#230,),)%#<3.%301#?+,:+#

0::.11.702(5#2+(#)((75#0)7#(A<(:202,.)5#.4#2+(#203%(2#52&7()25#0)7#

5,1&620)(.&56'#4,25#,)#?,2+#2+(#:&33()2#:&33,:&6&1#,)#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%=#*+(#

&)7(3520)7,)%5#.4#2+(#:&33()2#TTR#&5(#.4#52&7()25#0)7#2+(,3#3(602(7#022,2&7(5"#5&:+#

05#2+.5(#<3.@,7(7#8'#2+,5#52&7'"#?,66#60'#0#5.6,7#4.&)702,.)#4.3#0#?.3>086(#230,),)%#

<3.%301#.)#TTR5=#*+(5(#&)7(3520)7,)%5#+0@(#6(7#2.#0#3(06,502,.)#.4#2+(#)((7#4.3#

60)%&0%(#2(0:+(35#0)7#(7&:02.35#2.#:.6608.302(#.)#2+(#8&,67,)%#0)7#,1<6(1()202,.)#

.4#3(5(03:+X,)4.31(7#TTR#<3.%3015=#!2#,5#?.32+#).2,)%"#+.?(@(3"#2+02#5&:+#230,),)%#

<3.%3015#.)#TTR5#5+.&67#8(#107(#.<2,.)06#0)7#43((#43.1#(A015#,)#2+(#,),2,06#520%(#

0)7#2+(,3#(44(:2,@()(55#8(#1.),2.3(7#.@(32,1(=#-(4.3(#(@,7():(#.)#2+(#<.5,2,@(#

(44(:25#.4#TTR#230,),)%#<3.%3015#03(#(52086,5+(7"#2+(,3#:.1<&65.3'#,)2(%302,.)#10'#

:3(02(#&)?0)2(7#.&2:.1(5=##

7.4.3 Responsibility for LLSs

J).2+(3#<.5,2,@(#4,)7,)%#.4#2+,5#52&7'#,5#2+02#2+(#52&7()25#?(3(#3(07'#2.#20>(#2+(#

10,)#3(5<.)5,8,6,2'#4.3#2+(#7(@(6.<1()2#0)7#.3:+(52302,.)#.4#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#

52302(%,(5=#J62+.&%+#2+('#@06&(7#2+(#%&,70):(#0)7#055,520):(#43.1#2(0:+(35#,)#

(A<0)7,)%#2+(,3#52302(%'#3(<(32.,3(#0)7#(A<6.3,)%#1.3(#(44(:2,@(#52302(%,(5"#2+(#

52&7()25#%()(3066'#4(62#2+02#,2#?05#2+(,3#.?)#.86,%02,.)#2.#.<2,1,h(#2+(,3#6(03),)%#

52302(%,(5#4.3#()+0):(7#60)%&0%(#<3.4,:,():'=#*+,5#<.5,2,@(#3(@(602,.)#5((15#2.#

7,5<60'#2+(#?,66,)%)(55#.4#52&7()25#02#2+(#2(32,03'#6(@(6#2.#3(%&602(#2+(,3#60)%&0%(#

6(03),)%#8'#2+(15(6@(5"#?+,:+#,5#0#%..7#,)7,:02,.)#.4#0&2.).1.&5#6(03),)%=#*+,5#

4,)7,)%#.4#2+(#52&7'#5((15#2.#:.)2307,:2#<3(@,.&5#4,)7,)%5#08.&2#W,(2)01(5(#

60)%&0%(#6(03)(35#?+.#03(#43(Y&()26'#:+030:2(3,5(7#8'#2+(,3#+(0@'#7(<()7():(#.)#

223

2(0:+(35=#;+01#OFGGGP"#4.3#(A01<6("#4.&)7#2+02#2+(#:.):(<2#.4#6(03)(3#0&2.).1'#.3#

6(03)(3#,)7(<()7():(#5((15#2.#8(#)(?#2.#W,(2)01(5(#52&7()25=#!)#0)#,)@(52,%02,.)#

,)2.#2+(#N)%6,5+#<(34.310):(#.4#W,(2)01(5(#&),@(35,2'#%307&02(5#8'#*3,)+##OFGG]P"#,2#

?05#4.&)7#_2+02#2+('#60:>#6(03)(3#0&2.).1'a#O<=#FGP=#R,1,6036'"#90)%#OFGGDP#

.85(3@(7#2+02#NVT#52&7()25#02#5.1(#W,(2)01(5(#&),@(35,2,(5#3(<.32(7#0#60:>#.4#

.?)(35+,<#,)#2+(#6(03),)%#<3.:(55"#0)7#0#<3.7&:2#302+(3#2+0)#0#<3.:(55#.3,()202,.)#=#

b.3(#3(:()26'"#$%&'()#OFGCCP#:01(#2.#2+(#:.):6&5,.)#2+02#2+(#:.):(<2#.4#6(03)(3#

0&2.).1'#,5#52,66#06,()#2.#8.2+#2+(#52&7()25#0)7#2+(#2(0:+(35#062+.&%+#2+(#52&7()2#

(A<3(55(7#2+(,3#?,5+#2.#:+0)%(#2+(,3#:&33()2#6(03),)%#5,2&02,.)=##

c+,6(#520)7,)%#,)#:.)23052#2.#1&:+#.4#2+(#6,2(302&3(#,)#2+(#:.)2(A2#.4#W,(2)01"#2+(#

4,)7,)%#.4#2+,5#52&7'#.)#2+(#?(66X7,5<60'(7#5()5(#.4#3(5<.)5,8,6,2'#0)7#,),2,02,.)#,)#

3(602,.)#2.#TTR#(A<6.302,.)#0)7#07.<2,.)#<3.@,7(5#2+(#805,:#%3.&)75#4.3#2+(#

03%&1()2#2+02#2+('#03(#5+.?,)%#5,%)5#.4#0&2.).1.&5#0)7#,)7(<()7()2#6(03),)%=#

*+,5#,5#:.)5,52()2#?,2+#2+(#4,)7,)%5#.4#T,226(#OFGGGP"#?+.#:.)7&:2(7#0#52&7'#01.)%#

52&7()25#52&7',)%#02#5(),.3#5(:.)703'#0)7#2(32,03'#6(@(6#,)#(,%+2#N052#J5,0)#:.&)23,(5#

,):6&7,)%#W,(2)01=#T,226(#3(<.32(7#43.1#+,5#4,)7,)%5#2+02#2+(#52&7()25#<3(4(33(7#2.#

8(#0:2,@(#0)7#,)7(<()7()2#302+(3#2+0)#8(,)%#5<..)X4(7#?,2+#40:25#43.1#0)#066X

>).?,)%#4.&)2#.4#>).?6(7%(=#*+('#?0)2(7#2.#(A<6.3(#>).?6(7%(#2+(15(6@(5#0)7#

4.&)7#2+(,3#.?)#0)5?(35#OT,226("#FGGGP=#*+,5#4,)7,)%#.4#2+(#52&7'#7.(5#:+066()%(#2+(#

2307,2,.)06#2(0:+(3X7(<()7()2#,10%(#.4#W,(2)01(5(#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35=#!2#,5#@(3'#

<.5,2,@(#4.3#2+(#<3.1.2,.)#.4#52&7()2X:()23(7#6(03),)%"#?+(3(#52&7()25#20>(#:+03%(#

.4#2+(,3#.?)#6(03),)%=#;(3+0<5"#,2#,5#2,1(#4.3#60)%&0%(#2(0:+(35#0)7#(7&:02.35#2.#

230)54(3#5.1(#3(5<.)5,8,6,2'#2.#52&7()25"#.44(3,)%#2+(1#(1<.?(31()2#0)7#%&,70):(#

5.#2+02#2+('#03(#086(#2.#10>(#?(66X,)4.31(7#7(:,5,.)5#3(%037,)%#TTR5#,)#<032,:&603#

0)7#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#,)#%()(306=##

7.4.4 Recommended and non-recommended strategies

*+(#7,5:&55,.)#?,2+#2+(#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25#,)#2+(#52&7'#3(5&62(7#,)#2+(#

,7()2,4,:02,.)#.4#:(320,)#3(:.11()7(7#0)7#).)X3(:.11()7(7#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5=#

/.?(@(3"#2+(5(#52302(%,(5#?(3(#).2#7(<,:2(7#05#:.)5,52()26'#(44(:2,@(#.3#,)(44(:2,@(#

4.3#066#6(03)(35#,)#066#6(03),)%#5,2&02,.)5=#M02+(3"#?+(2+(3#2+('#?.&67#+0@(#0#<.5,2,@(#

224

.3#)(%02,@(#,1<0:2#7(<()7(7#.)#2+(,3#0<<3.<3,02()(55#0)7#<&3<.5(4&6)(55"#

(5<(:,066'#,)#3(602,.)#2.#2+(#N)%6,5+#<3.4,:,():'#6(@(6#.4#52&7()25#0)7#2+(#6(03),)%#

()@,3.)1()25=#*+&5"#,2#?05#2+(#52&7()25#?+.#?.&67#7(:,7(#2+(#&5(4&6)(55#.3#

(44(:2,@()(55#.4#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#,)#%()(306#.)#2+(#805,5#.4#5<(:,4,:#

5,2&02(7#6(03),)%#205>5#0)7#0:2,@,2,(5=#V.3#(A01<6("#?+,6(#5.1(#52&7()25#2.2066'#

7(),(7#2+(#@06&(#.4#2307,2,.)06#52302(%,(5"#05#,)#2+(#:05(5#.4#7.,)%#%301103#

(A(3:,5(5#.3#3(?3,2,)%#)(?#?.375"#.2+(3#52&7()25#0:>).?6(7%(7#2+(,3#@06&(#02#0#

:(320,)#520%(#.4#2+(,3#6(03),)%=#*+('#3(<.32(7#73.<<,)%#:(320,)#52302(%,(5#.)6'#

8(:0&5(#2+.5(#52302(%,(5#).#6.)%(3#502,54,(7#2+(,3#6(03),)%#)((75#02#2+(#:&33()2#

6(@(6=#M(%,.)06#3(5(03:+(35"#5&:+#05#T.I0523.#OCKK\P"#3(<.32(7#5,1,603#.85(3@02,.)5=#

!)#0#52&7'#.4#FD#E0<0)(5(#NVT#%307&02(#52&7()25"#T.I0523.#4.&)7#2+02#

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,)#U&),.3#0)7#5(),.3#+,%+#5:+..6"#2+('#?(3(#10,)6'#,)2(3(52(7#,)#<055,)%#2+(#

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.3#6(03),)%#%.065#2.#()5&3(#2+(#(44(:2,@()(55#.4#2+(#203%(2#52302(%,(5=

7.4.5 Barriers to LLS development

*+(#6,@(7#(A<(3,():(5#5+03(7#8'#2+(#2(0:+(3#0)7#52&7()2#,)2(3@,(?((5#,)#2+(#52&7'#

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225

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:.1<6(A#,)2(%302(7#52302(%,(5#0)7#60:>#.4#2,1(#,)@(521()2#,)#52302(%,(5#&5(7#.&25,7(#

.4#2+(#:60553..1"#OFP#2+(#7,44,:&62,(5#055.:,02(7#?,2+#2+(#52&7()25[#<3.6.)%(7#

0220:+1()2#2.#<3(@,.&56'#7(@(6.<(7#52302(%,(5"#0)7#OHP#2+(#<5':+.6.%,:06#40:2.35#

5&:+#05#5+')(55#.3#<3(X4.31(7#)(%02,@(#U&7%1()25#08.&2#:(320,)#52302(%,(5=##

V,3526'"#2+(#60:>#.4#,)@(521()2#,)#2(315#.4#2,1(#0)7#(44.32#:.&67#8(#0223,8&2(7#2.#

8.2+#5&8U(:2,@(#0)7#.8U(:2,@(#40:2.35=#i)#2+(#<032#.4#2+(#52&7()25"#1.52#.4#2+(,3#

2,1(#0)7#022()2,.)#:.&67#+0@(#8(()#7(@.2(7#2.#2+(#5&8U(:2#:.)2()2#03(05#302+(3#

2+0)#2+(#52302(%,(5#,)#0<<3.0:+,)%#2+(5(#5&8U(:25=#*+,5#,5#:.1<3(+()5,86(#?+()#

:.)5,7(3,)%#2+(#40:2#2+02#&)7&(#022()2,.)#,5#<0,7#2.#TTR#,55&(5#,)#2+(#:&33()2#

60)%&0%(#:&33,:&6&1=#;032,:&6036'#?,2+#2+(#,)2(%302(7#52302(%,(5#2+02#3(Y&,3(#

<3.6.)%(7#0)7#<(35,52()2#<30:2,:("#5&:+#05#20>,)%#).2(5#?+,6(#6,52(),)%"#1.52#

52&7()25#?,66#<3.8086'#8(#7,5:.&30%(7#8'#,),2,06#40,6&3(5#8(4.3(#2+('#:0)#0:2&066'#5((#

2+(#1(3,25#.3#(44(:2,@()(55#.4#2+.5(#52302(%,(5=#*+(#10,)#,1<6,:02,.)#4.3#60)%&0%(#

2(0:+(35#0)7#(7&:02.35#+(3(#,5#2.#(1<+05,5(#2+(#0:Y&,5,2,.)#.4#TTR5#05#2+(#

0220,)1()2#.4#<3.:(7&306#>).?6(7%(#302+(3#2+0)#7(:60302,@(#>).?6(7%(#0)7#2.#

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:+0)%(#0)7#2+(#+(5,202,.)#2.#7,@(32#0?0'#43.1#.)([5#:.14.32#h.)(=#i)(#52&7()2"#4.3#

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2307,2,.)06#?0'#.4#6(03),)%#7(X:.)2(A2&06,h(7#?.375#43.1#2+(#7,:2,.)03'#7,7#).2#

5((1#2.#502,54'#+,5#:&33()2#)((75=#J).2+(3#52&7()2#?05#2..#401,6,03#?,2+#3(07,)%#

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226

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401,6,03#52302(%,(5#?+,:+#0::.&)2(7#4.3#2+(,3#:.11.)#60:>#.4#5&::(55#,)#60)%&0%(#

6(03),)%=#J5#0#1022(3#.4#40:2"#2+(5(#6(03),)%#8(+0@,.&35#1,%+2#+0@(#8(()#3(<(02(76'#

:.)7,2,.)(7#02#6.?(3#5:+..6,)%#6(@(65#,)#W,(2)01"#5&:+#05#U&),.3#.3#+,%+#5:+..6"#,)2.#

52(074052#+08,25=#J2#2+(5(#6.?(3#6(@(65"#52&7()25#03(#).31066'#).2#():.&30%(7#2.#

Y&(52,.)#2+(#@06&(#.4#2+(#2(0:+(3X,),2,02(7#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#0)7#2+('#2()7#2.#

0220:+#085.6&2(#@06&(#2.#2+(5(#52302(%,(5=#!2#,5#5&%%(52(7#8'#2+(#4,)7,)%#2+02#:+0)%(5#

8(#044(:2(7#).2#.)6'#02#2+(#2(32,03'#6(@(6"#8&2#065.#02#6.?(3#6(@(65#.4#5:+..6,)%#5.#2+02#

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2.#<3.4(55,.)06#230,),)%#4.3#60)%&0%(#2(0:+(35#0:3.55#6(@(65#,)#2+(#:&33()2#5'52(1=#!2#

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3+(2.3,:#,)2.#%()&,)(#<30:2,:(=##

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0)7#<055,@(#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35=(B5&>,#OFGGGP"#4.3#(A01<6("#<.,)2(7#2.##2+(#

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).2#?.3>#065.#<3(@()2(7#2+(1#43.1#(A<(3,1()2,)%#?,2+#2+(#)(%02,@(6'X608(66(7#

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227

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52302(%,(5=#J5#0#3(5&62"#2+(#7.1,).#(44(:25#43.1#2+,5#7,523&52#()20,65#,)2(3(52#

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W,(2)01(5(#52&7()25#?.&67#8(#(,2+(3#0@.,70):(#.3#&)7(3X&2,6,502,.)#.4#52302(%,(5#,)#

2+(,3#3(%&603#6(03),)%#<30:2,:(=#!2#,5#,1<.320)2#2+02#60)%&0%(#2(0:+(35#8(#0?03(#.4#

2+(#<5':+.6.%,:06#+,)730):(5#2+02#:.&67#7(2(3#2+(,3#52&7()25#43.1#2+(#(44(:2,@(#

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m#/0?>"#FGGGZ#$.77,)%5"#CKKFP"#2(0:+(35#5+.&67#5<()7#2,1(#6,52(),)%#2.#52&7()25#

0)7#()%0%,)%#,)#,)2(30:2,@(#7,06.%&(#?,2+#2+(1#5.#05#2.#(52086,5+#0)#(1.2,.)06#

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0)7#40:,6,202,)%#2+(#TTR#7(@(6.<1()2#01.)%#W,(2)01(5(#52&7()25=##

7.4.6 Shared characteristics of strategy use

*+(#52&7()2#52302(%'#<3.4,6(#(1(3%,)%#43.1#2+(#,)2(3@,(?#7020#3(@(06(7#2+3((#10,)#

:+030:2(3,52,:5=##

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:.)5,52()2#?,2+#2+(#Y&0)2,202,@(#4,)7,)%5#.)#6(03),)%#8(6,(45#0)7#8(+0@,.&35"#?+(3(#

2+(#10U.3,2'#.4#2+(#52&7()25#,)7,:02(7#2+(,3#0%3((1()2#.3#523.)%#0%3((1()2#2.#8.2+#

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]DP#0)7#_!#()U.'#6(03),)%#?,2+#1'#43,()75#,)#<0,35#.3#%3.&<5a#O!2(1#]KP=#*+,5#3(<.32(7#

0<<3(:,02,.)#4.3#2(0:+(35[#5&<<.32#0)7#:6.5(#:.))(:2,.)#?,2+#2+(,3#<((35#2+3.&%+#

6(03),)%#0:2,@,2,(5#+05#<0326'#(A<60,)(7#2+(,3#TTR#7(@(6.<1()2#2+3.&%+#:60553..1#

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228

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7(@(6.<1()2#:.11&),2'"#05#5&%%(52(7#8'#/&0)%#0)7#J)73(?5#OFGCGP"#8(#,)23.7&:(#

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229

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0%0,)#0%3((086(#?,2+#2+(#Y&0)2,202,@(#4,)7,)%#.4#2+(#52&7'"#?+,:+#4(02&3(7#2+(#

0%3((1()2#0)7#523.)%#0%3((1()2#01.)%#0<<3.A,102(6'#KGÅ#.4#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(#

3(5<.)7()25#?,2+#2+(#5202(1()2#_I.1<&2(35#0)7#2+(#!)2(3)(2#+(6<#1(#6(03)#N)%6,5+#

8(22(3a#O!2(1#]FP=#!2#,5#?.32+#).2,)%#2+02#2+(#3(5<.)5(5#2.#2+,5#5202(1()2#0:+,(@(7#

2+(#+,%+(52#1(7,0)#0%3((1()2#5:.3(#.4#]#OR23.)%6'#0%3((P"#?+,:+#103>(7#2+(#

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40:2.35#5&:+#05#2(:+).6.%'#07@0):(1()2=#*+(#7020#43.1#2+,5#52&7'#:.)4,315#2+(#

:.)2()2,.)#2+02#52302(%'#&5(#,5#4301(7#).2#.)6'#8'#2+(#,11(7,02(#6(03),)%#:.)2(A25#

8&2#065.#8'#2+(#603%(3#5.:,06#()@,3.)1()2=#*+,5#4,)7,)%#065.#:.)4,315#2+(#@06,7,2'#.4#

2+(#3(5(03:+(3X%()(302(7#Y&(52,.))0,3(#O2+(#N)%6,5+#T0)%&0%(#T(03),)%#R2302(%'#

^&(52,.))0,3(P#?+,:+#?05#:.)523&:2(7#0)7#(1<6.'(7#,)#2+(#Y&0)2,202,@(#520%(=#*+,5#

.3,%,)06#Y&(52,.))0,3(#?,2+#,):.3<.302(7#2(:+).6.%'X805(7#52302(%,(5"#:.&<6(7#?,2+#

2+(#,)Y&,3'#,)2.#)(?6'#07.<2(7#52302(%,(5#,)#2+(#,)2(3@,(?5"#+0@(#()086(7#2+(#

077,2,.)#.4#)(?#>).?6(7%(#2.#2+(#:&33()2#6,2(302&3("#1.52#.4#?+,:+#:6&52(35#03.&)7#

2307,2,.)066'#7(@(6.<(7#52302(%,(5#,)#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%=#!2#,5#+,%+6'#3(:.11()7(7#

2+02#4&32+(3#3(5(03:+#8(#7,3(:2(7#2.#2+(#(A<6.302,.)#0)7#<3.1.2,.)#.4#2+(5(#

2(:+).6.%'X73,@()#52302(%,(5#?+.5(#<.2()2,06#4.3#6(03),)%#()+0):(1()2#:.&67#

%3(026'#8()(4,25#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35=##

7.5 Achievement of research objective 4

>2^%E0*8%'Hj#3/(*W+2%"*(.'*(@5,,*".(.*,.%+,4(!7)(*65@+.%/"(@/".*W.(.'+.(

+@@/22/6+.*&())-&9##

*+(#:.1<6(A,2'#0)7#7')01,:,2'#.4#TTR#&5(#&)7(3#2+(#,)46&():(#.4#7,44(3()2#6(03),)%#

:.)2(A25#0)7#()@,3.)1()25#?(3(#730102,:066'#&)@(,6(7#8'#2+(#Y&06,202,@(#7020#.4#

2+,5#,)@(52,%02,.)=#J5#0#?+.6("#2+(#7020#,)#2+,5#52&7'#<3.@,7(7#502,540:2.3'#0)5?(35#

2.#2+(#3(5(03:+#Y&(52,.)5#.4#2+,5#.8U(:2,@("#3(5&62,)%#,)#8(22(3#&)7(3520)7,)%#08.&2#

230

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*+(#4,)7,)%5#065.#<3.@,7(7#<30:2,:06#5&%%(52,.)5#.)#+.?#2.#,1<3.@(#2+(#6(03),)%#

()@,3.)1()2#2.#8(22(3#0::.11.702(#52&7()25[#TTR5#,)#2+,5#5<(:,4,:#5(22,)%=##

7.5.1 Learning facilities

*+(#7020#0)06'5,5#,)#2+(#52&7'#3(5&62(7#,)#2+(#3(@(602,.)#2+02#2+(#:&33()2#<+'5,:06#

6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2#?05#3(602,@(6'#:.)7&:,@(#2.#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#43.1#2+(#

<(35<(:2,@(5#.4#2+(#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25=#;032,:&6036'"#2+(#.@(3066#6(03),)%#40:,6,2,(5#

02#2+(#&),@(35,2'#?(3(#7(5:3,8(7#05#502,540:2.3'#0)7#40:,6,202,@(#2.#N)%6,5+#60)%&0%(#

6(03),)%"#4.3#(A01<6(#?,2+#7,@(35(#N)%6,5+#102(3,065#0)7#&)6,1,2(7#!)2(3)(2#0::(55=#

*+,5#<.5,2,@(#4,)7,)%#:0)#8(#(A<60,)(7#8'#2+(#40:2#2+02#2+(#&),@(35,2'#,5#.)(#.4#2+(#

<,.)((3,)%#<3,@02(#&),@(35,2,(5#,)#W,(2)01#?,2+#(A2()5,@(#,)@(521()2#,)#2+(#

2(0:+,)%k6(03),)%#40:,6,2,(5"#0)7#,5#6.:02(7#,)#2+(#8,%%(52#5.:,.X(:.).1,:#:()23(#.4#

/.#I+,#b,)+#:,2'=#c,2+#0#@,(?#2.#102:+,)%#,25#.?)#Y&06,2'#?,2+#2+(#Y&06,2'#.44(3(7#

8'#(7&:02,.)06#,)52,2&2,.)5#,)#07@0):(7#:.&)23,(5"#2+(#&),@(35,2'#+05#8(()#523,@,)%#2.#

<3.@,7(#2+(#8(52#2(0:+,)%k6(03),)%#40:,6,2,(5#2.#2+(,3#52044#0)7#52&7()25=##

9(5<,2(#2+(#.@(3066#<.5,2,@(#@,(?"#5.1(#52&7()25#(A<3(55(7#2+(,3#(A<(:202,.)#4.3#0#

1.3(#:.1<3(+()5,@(#30)%(#.4#<3,)2(7#N)%6,5+#8..>5#4.3#3(4(3():(#02#2+(#6,8303'=#

*+,5#,)07(Y&0:'#.4#<3,)2(7#3(4(3():(#102(3,065#4.3#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#:.)4,315#2+(#

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&),@(35,2'=#!)#90)%[5#52&7'"#2+(#52&7()25#3(<.32(7#43(Y&()2#<&3:+05(#.4#3(4(3():(#

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231

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2+(#52&7()25#3(5<.)7,)%#2.#2+(#Y&(52,.))0,3(=#b0U.3#,1<6,:02,.)5#:0)#8(#730?)#4.3#

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6(03)(35#.4#7,@(35(#6(03),)%#)((75#0)7#<3(4(3():(5=##

7.5.2 Learning opportunities

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<,:2&3(#.4#2+(#<3.@,5,.)#.4#6(03),)%#.<<.32&),2,(5#02#2+(#&),@(35,2'=#i)#2+(#.)(#+0)7"#

,2#?05#4.&)7#2+02#2+(#2(0:+,)%#52044#?(3(#5&::(554&6#,)#:3(02,)%#0)#,)<&2#0)7#.&2<&2#

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6(03),)%#.&25,7(#.4#2+(#:60553..1=##

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0)7#2+(#Jb!*z#:6&8#Q#?+.5(#10,)#3(5<.)5,8,6,2'#?05#2.#:.))(:2#?,2+#,)2(3)02,.)06#

52&7()2#%3.&<5#0)7#.3%0),5(#(A:+0)%(#0:2,@,2,(5#2.#<3.1.2(#)(2?.3>,)%#0)7#

&)7(3520)7,)%#01.)%#52&7()25#.4#7,44(3()2#)02,.)06,2,(5=#*+(#@06&(#.4#2+(5(#2?.#

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52&7()25#.4#+,%+(3#<3.4,:,():'#,)#N)%6,5+=#*+(#,)@.6@(1()2#.4#FG#2.#HG#52&7()25#4.3#

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10U.35#0)7#).)X10U.3#:&33()26'#02#2+(#&),@(35,2'=#!)#0#5,1,603#@(,)"#*30)#0)7#-0670&4#

OFGGSP#:.)7&:2(7#0)#,)@(52,%02,.)#,)2.#2+(#6(@(6#.4#7(X1.2,@02,.)#01.)%#0#%3.&<5#

.4#CGG#W,(2)01(5(#&),@(35,2'#52&7()25#0)7#4.&)7#2+02#,)07(Y&02(#.<<.32&),2,(5#4.3#

232

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4.3#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#,5#0#5+03(7#5+.32:.1,)%#.4#1.52#:.&)23,(5#?+(3(#N)%6,5+#,5#0#

4.3(,%)#60)%&0%(#Of0."#FGGLP=##

*+,5#4,)7,)%#6(7#2.#2+(#3(06,502,.)#.4#2+(#)((7#4.3#044.370):(5#.4#1.3(#)02&306,52,:#

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<3.4,:,()2#N)%6,5+#10U.3#52&7()25#?.&67#(A<(:2#2.#8(#()%0%(7#,)#.306#0:2,@,2,(5#.3#

:.1<(2,2,.)5#2.#:+066()%(#2+(,3#08,6,2'=#J)#N)%6,5+#7(802(#:.1<(2,2,.)#.3#N)%6,5+#

5,)%,)%#:.)2(52#?.&67#8(#@(3'#0<<(06,)%#2.#2+(1=#i)#2+(#.2+(3#+0)7"#1.52#52&7()25#

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055.:,02(7#?,2+#2+(,3#.?)#10U.3#.3#:03((3#:+.,:(=#!2#5((1(7#2+02#(A230X:&33,:&6&1#

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40:,6,202,)%#N)%6,5+#6(03),)%#0)7#0::.11.702,)%#4&2&3(#:03((3#)((75=#*+,5#4,)7,)%#,5#

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7,44(3()2#0:2,@,2,(5"#2+('#8.2+#(1<+05,5(7#2+(#4&)#0)7#3(60A,)%#4(02&3(#.4#2+(5(#

6(03),)%#.<<.32&),2,(5=#J66#.4#2+(5(#4,)7,)%5#03(#,)7,:02,@(#.4#2+(#40:2#2+02#.)(#.3#2?.#

0:2,@,2,(5#:.&67#+0376'#0::.11.702(#2+(#)((75#0)7#502,54'#2+(#,)2(3(525#.4#10)'#NVT#

52&7()25#02#2+(#&),@(35,2'=#V.3#2+,5#3(05.)"#,2#,5#:.)5,7(3(7#)(:(5503'#4.3#2(0:+(35#

0)7#(7&:02,.)#071,),52302.35#2.#60&):+#0#@03,(2'#.4#0:2,@,2,(5"#203%(2,)%#7,44(3()2#

%3.&<5#.4#52&7()25#0:3.55#7,5:,<6,)(5=##

7.5.3 Teacher-student relationship

*+(#3(602,.)5+,<#8(2?(()#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25#+05#8(()#?,7(6'#3(:.%),h(7#05#0#

5,%),4,:0)2#:.)23,8&2.3#2.#2+(#2(0:+,)%X6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2=#J::.37,)%#2.#/066#0)7#

d,710)#OFGG\P"#2+(#2(0:+,)%#0)7#6(03),)%#:.)2(A2#,5#7,3(:26'#044(:2(7#8'#2+(#?0'#

2+02#3(602,.)5+,<5#8(2?(()#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25#03(#10)0%(7=#J#6,)>#8(2?(()#

<.5,2,@(#2(0:+(3X52&7()2#30<<.32#0)7#+,%+#0:07(1,:#Y&06,2'#+05#8(()#(52086,5+(7#,)#

233

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40:,6,202(#52&7()2#()%0%(1()2"#1.2,@02,.)"#0)7#0:+,(@(1()2#OJ@(3,66"#FGGKZ#/&66()0#

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J61.52#066#.4#2+(#,)2(3@,(?#<032,:,<0)25#%0@(#40@.&3086(#:.11()25#.)#2+,5#

3(602,.)5+,<=#;032,:&6036'"#2+(#52&7()25#5+.?(7#2+(,3#0<<3(:,02,.)#4.3#2+(#

43,()76,)(55"#7(7,:02,.)#0)7#?,66,)%)(55#2.#.44(3#+(6<#43.1#2+(#NVT#52044#02#2+(#

&),@(35,2'=#*+,5#3(<.32(7#5&<<.32,@(#0)7#:.6608.302,@(#()%0%(1()2#8(2?(()#2+(#

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5&::(55#,)#60)%&0%(#2(0:+,)%#0)7#6(03),)%#02#2+(#&),@(35,2'=#*+,5#<.5,2,@(#30<<.32#

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TTR5#01.)%#52&7()25#2+3.&%+#2+(#<.5,2,@(#2?.X?0'#(A:+0)%(#.4#,)4.3102,.)=##

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3(602,.)5+,<#,)#2+,5#52&7'#,5#0#@(3'#,1<.320)2#4,)7,)%"#5,%),4',)%#0#1.@(1()2#0?0'#

43.1#2+(#+,%+6'X7.:&1()2(7#+,(303:+,:06#3(602,.)5+,<#,)#2+(#6,2(302&3(=#!)#40:2"#2+(#

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+(3,20%(#?,2+#,25#?(66X>).?)#<.?(3#7,520):(#?+(3(8'#2(0:+(35#2()7#2.#8&,67#2+(#

5202&5#.4#8(,)%#1.3(#>).?6(7%(086(#0)7#0&2+.3,202,@(=#J::.37,)%#2.#/.452(7(#0)7#

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5:.3,)%#+,%+#.)#2+(#;.?(3#9,520):(#!)7(A#Ob060'5,0#5:.3(5#+,%+(52#?,2+#CG\Z#I+,)0j#

DGZ#R,)%0<.3(j#S\Z#W,(2)01j#SGZ#/.)%#d.)%j#LDZ#d.3(0j#LGZ#*0,?0)j#]D#0)7#E0<0)j#

]\P=#$02,.)5#?,2+#+,%+#5:.3(5#.)#<.?(3#7,520):(#03(#%()(3066'#055(32(7#2.#<60:(#

%3(02(3#(1<+05,5#.)#+,(303:+,:06#3(602,.)5+,<5=#*+(#4,)7,)%#.4#2+,5#52&7'"#+.?(@(3"#

5((15#2.#:+066()%(#2+,5#2307,2,.)06#8(6,(4"#<3.@,7,)%#(1<,3,:06#(@,7():(#4.3#0#<.5,2,@(#

30<<.32#8(2?(()#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25=#*+,5#4,)7,)%#,5#:.)5,52()2#?,2+#2+(#?.3>#.4#

9.0)#OFGCFP"#?+.#,)@(52,%02(7#2+(#(A<(3,():(5#.4#066#I018.7,0)#0)7#T0.2,0)#

,)2(3)02,.)06#52&7()25#02#0#&),@(35,2'#,)#J)#f,0)%"#W,(2)01=#*+(#52&7()25#,)#9.0)[5#

52&7'#3(<.32(7#+0@,)%#%..7#3(602,.)5+,<5#?,2+#2+(,3#W,(2)01(5(#2(0:+(35#0)7#2+,5#

30<<.32#+(6<(7#2+(1#2.#.@(3:.1(#2+(#60)%&0%(#7,44,:&62,(5#2+('#?(3(#40:,)%#0)7#

,):3(05(7#2+(,3#6(@(6#.4#502,540:2,.)#?,2+#2+(,3#0:07(1,:#.&2:.1(5=#!2#,5#@(3'#6,>(6'#

234

2+02#<.5,2,@(#:+0)%(#,5#8(,)%#044(:2(7#,)#2+(#2(0:+,)%#0)7#6(03),)%#:.)2(A2#.4#

W,(2)01"#(5<(:,066'#02#2+(#2(32,03'#6(@(6"#3(%037,)%#0#1.3(#:.)523&:2,@(#2(0:+(3X

52&7()2#3(602,.)5+,<=#*+,5#2(0:+(3X52&7()2#30<<.32#)((7#2.#8(#4&32+(3#(1<+05,5(7#

2+3.&%+#:6(036'#7(4,)(7#<.6,:'#0)7#1.3(#4.:&5(7#3(5(03:+#,)#2+(#4&2&3(=##

7.6 Achievement of research objective 5

>2^%E0*8%'Lj#3/(6*M*$/A(.'*(#5%6%"#(A,%"@%A$*&(%"(,*$+.%/"(./())-&(0/,(.*+@'%"#I

$*+,"%"#(A,+@.%@*&(+"6(A/$%@49##

*+(#0)06'5,5#0)7#7,5:&55,.)#.4#2+(#4,)7,)%5#,)#2+(#52&7'#:033,(7#10)'#,1<.320)2#

,1<6,:02,.)5#4.3#2+(#NVT#2(0:+,)%X6(03),)%#<30:2,:(5#0)7#<.6,:'#,)#2+(#:&33()2#

:.)2(A2=#*+(#4.66.?,)%#5(:2,.)5#?,66#5<(:,4'#5.1(#%&,7,)%#<3,):,<6(5#4.3#52&7()25#

3(%037,)%#0#1.3(#(44(:2,@(#07.<2,.)#.4#TTR5"#05#?(66#05#4.3#2(0:+(35"#071,),52302.35#

0)7#<.6,:'#10>(35#3(%037,)%#0#1.3(#43&,24&6#()4.3:(1()2#0)7#()7.35(1()2#.4#TTR5=##

7.6.1 Implications for students

! *+(#4,)7,)%5#5&%%(52(7#2+02#2+(#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#52&7()25#?(3(#1(7,&1#

&5(35#.4#52302(%,(5#0)7#2+('#2()7(7#2.#&5(#0#?,7(#30)%(#.4#52302(%,(5#.)#0#

43(Y&()2#805,5#,)#2+(,3#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#<3.:(55=#/.?(@(3"#05#2+(3(#?05#0#

2()7():'#2.#&5(#1.3(#52302(%,(5#.4#0#3(<(2,2,@(#0)7k.3#1(1.3,502,.)06#

)02&3("#,2#?.&67#8(#<3&7()2#,4#NVT#52&7()25#(A<6.3(#0)7#07.<2#1.3(#

52302(%,(5#.4#.2+(3#)02&3(5#0)7#4&):2,.)5=#c+,6(#(@(3'#52302(%'#,5#1(0)2#2.#

5(3@(#0#6(03),)%#<&3<.5("#,2#,5#,1<(302,@(#2+02#52&7()25#7(@(6.<#0)#

0?03()(55#.4#2+(#0<<3.<3,02()(55#.4#066#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5=#J#5()5,86(#

10),<&602,.)#0)7#.3:+(52302,.)#.4#7,@(35(#52302(%,(5#?.&67#8(#+,%+6'#

8()(4,:,06#4.3#2+(#1&62,X520%(#6(03),)%#<3.:(55#?,2+#,25#,)+(3()2#

:.1<6,:02,.)5=##

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2+(#:3(02,.)#.4#6(03),)%#0)7#&50%(#.<<.32&),2,(5"#)01(6'#022()7,)%#(@()25#

?+(3(#N)%6,5+#,5#&5(7#O,):6&7,)%#:6&85"#5(1,)035"#.3#?.3>5+.<5PZ#0)7#U.,),)%#

.)6,)(#4.3&15#,)#N)%6,5+=##!2#,5#5&%%(52(7#2+02#52&7()25#8(#1.3(#0:2,@(#,)#2+(#

235

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! *+(#3(@(602,.)#2+02#2+(#4,352#'(03#52&7()25#07.<2(7#.@(3066#52302(%,(5#6(55#

43(Y&()26'#2+0)#2+(#5(),.3#52&7()25#6(075#2.#2+(#5&%%(52,.)#2+02#4,352#'(03#

52&7()25#)((7#2.#5<()7#1.3(#2,1(#0)7#(44.32#,)#2+(#(A<6.302,.)#0)7#

(A<(3,1()2#.4#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#,)#N)%6,5+=#b.3(#:.11&),:02,.)#0)7#

(A<(3,():(#5+03,)%#?,2+#5(),.3#52&7()25#?.&67#8(#0#?.32+?+,6(#()7(0@.&3#

2.#(44(:2,@(6'#.@(3:.1(#2+(#:+066()%(5#73,@()#8'#2+(#230)5,2,.)06#<+05(#43.1#

+,%+#5:+..6#2.#&),@(35,2'#52&7'=##

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52&7()25=#*+,5#(@,7():(7#7,5<03,2'#,)#52302(%'#&5(#,5#,)7,:02,@(#.4#2+(#)((7#4.3#

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2+(,3#(44,:,():'#,)#,1<3.@,)%#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#.&2:.1(5=#

7.6.2 Implications for teachers

! *+(#7020#,)#2+(#52&7'#+,%+6,%+2(7#0#<3(4(3():(#01.)%#2+(#52&7()25#4.3#2+(#

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8(#3(:.11()7086(#4.3#NVT#2(0:+(35#2.#+(6<#,):3(05(#2+(,3#3(<(32.,3(#.4#

)(?6'#7(@(6.<(7#52302(%,(5#73,@()#8'#2(:+).6.%'#07@0):(1()2#0)7#2.#

0::.11.702(#2+(,3#52302(%'#3(4.31#?,2+#2,1(6'#%&,70):(#0)7#<30:2,:(#

.<<.32&),2,(5=##

! f,@()#2+(#2()7():'#,)#&5,)%#3(<(2,2,@(#0)7k.3#1(1.3,502,.)06#52302(%,(5#.)#

0#43(Y&()2#805,5#01.)%#W,(2)01(5(#52&7()25"#,2#,5#<(3+0<5#:.)523&:2,@(#4.3#

60)%&0%(#2(0:+(35#2.#(A<6.3(#?0'5#2.#.<2,1,h(#2+(#(44(:2,@(#&5(#.4#2+(5(#

52302(%,(5#,)#5<(:,4,:#6(03),)%#:.)2(A25#302+(3#2+0)#0#:.1<6(2(#7(),06#.3#

0@.,70):(=#R,1&620)(.&56'"#2.?0375#2+(#%.06#.4#()+0):,)%#2+(#&5(#.4#7,@(35(#

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%()7(3"#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5"#0:07(1,:#10U.35"#0)7#<3.4,:,():'#03(#

5&%%(52,@(#.4#2+(#,)2(34(3():(#.4#2+(5(#40:2.35#,)#2+(#7(@(6.<1()2#0)7#

07.<2,.)#.4#TTR5=#*+(3(4.3("#0#:.)5,7(302,.)#.4#2+(5(#6(03)(3#@03,086(5#,5#

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0)7#0::.11.702,.)#.4#TTR5#01.)%#,)7,@,7&06#60)%&0%(#6(03)(35=##

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7.6.3 Implications for educational administrators and policy makers

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239

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240

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7.7 Conclusion

*+,5#:+0<2(3#+05#7,5:&55(7#2+(#4,)7,)%5#.4#2+(#52&7'#,)#3(602,.)#2.#,25#.8U(:2,@(5#0)7#

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2+.5(#.4#<3(@,.&5#3(5(03:+#<3.U(:25#0)7#2+(.3,(5#3(@,(?(7#,)#3(6(@0)2#6,2(302&3(=##

*+(#,1<6,:02,.)5#.4#2+(#4,)7,)%5#4.3#7,44(3()2#520>(+.67(35#+0@(#8(()#:6(036'#

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241

8 Conclusion

8.1 Introduction

*+,5#:.):6&5,.)#:+0<2(3#5,%),4,(5#2+(#()7#.4#0#3(5(03:+#U.&3)('=#!2#:3,2,:066'#3(46(:25#

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5,%),4,:0)2#:.)23,8&2,.)5#.4#2+(#52&7'#2.#(7&:02,.)06#3(5(03:+"#(7&:02,.)06#<.6,:'#

0)7#<30:2,:("#<032,:&6036'#,)#2+(#03(0#.4#TTR5=#*+(#3(5(03:+(3[5#(A<(3,():(5#0)7#

<(35.)06#1(0),)%5#055.:,02(7#?,2+#2+(#:.)7&:2,.)#.4#2+,5#3(5(03:+#52&7'#03(#065.#

7(5:3,8(7#2.#,66&52302(#+(3#0:07(1,:#0)7#<3.4(55,.)06#%3.?2+#2+3.&%+.&2#2+(#

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8.2 Significance of the study

8.2.1 Significance for research in LLSs

8.2.1.1 Methodological improvement and innovations *+,5#3(5(03:+#52&7'#+05#:.)23,8&2(7#2.#2+(#6,2(302&3(#0#@03,(2'#.4#1(2+.7.6.%,:06#

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8.2.1.2 Knowledge expansion and generation J<032#43.1#2+(#1(2+.7.6.%,:06#:.)23,8&2,.)5"#2+(#52&7'#065.#(A2()7(7#2+(#6,2(302&3(#

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243

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244

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8.2.2 Significance for practices concerning LLSs

8.2.2.1 Significance for learning practices *+(#4,)7,)%5#.4#2+(#52&7'#+0@(#:.)23,8&2(7#2.#2+(#,1<3.@(1()2#.4#TTR#07.<2,.)#,)#0#

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2+(#:&33()2#5'52(1#,)#W,(2)01"#TTR5#+0@(#8(()#?,7(6'#:.)5,7(3(7#0#5(64X3(%&602(7#

7.10,)#0)7#2+(3(4.3(#2+('#+0@(#).2#8(()#(A<6,:,26'#0773(55(7#,)#2+(#60)%&0%(#

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245

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8.2.2.2 Significance for teaching practices *+(#3(5&625#.4#2+,5#52&7'#+0@(#<3.@,7(7#5,%),4,:0)2#,)5,%+25#,)2.#2+(#?0'5#,)#?+,:+#

60)%&0%(#2(0:+,)%#<30:2,:(5#5+.&67#8(#7,3(:2(7=###

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5+.&67j##

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246

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W,(2)01(5(#NVT#6(03)(35#,)4.31#2(0:+(35#.4#+.?#2.#07U&52#2+(,3#2(0:+,)%#0)7#10>(#

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2.#?.3>#1.3(#(44(:2,@(6'#05#40:,6,202.35#0)7#1(7,02.35=##

8.2.3 Significance for policy concerning LLSs

*+(#4,)7,)%5#.4#2+(#52&7'#03(#5,%),4,:0)2#2.#(7&:02,.)06#<.6,:'#8(:0&5(#2+('#,)4.31#

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*+(#52&7'#,7()2,4,(7#2+(#43(Y&():'#0)7#<022(3)5#.4#TTR#&5(#01.)%#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#

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0#2()7():'#2.#07.<2#52302(%,(5#.4#7,@(35(#%.065#0)7#4&):2,.)5"#7(5<,2(#0#<3(4(3():(#

4.3#2307,2,.)06#1(1.3,502,.)06k3(<(2,2,@(#52302(%,(5=#*+(#52&7'#3(46(:2(7#2+(#

()2+&5,051#.4#52&7()25#4.3#2+(#:+0)%(7#2(0:+,)%X6(03),)%#:.)2(A2#.4#W,(2)01#?,2+#

2+(#:.18,)02,.)#.4#2307,2,.)06#0)7#).)X2307,2,.)06#52302(%,(5"#0)7#,)#7.,)%#5."#

:+066()%(7#2+(#52(3(.2'<,:06#,10%(#.4#J5,0)#3.2(#6(03)(35=#*+,5#3(@(602,.)#,5#

247

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2+(#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#(A<(3,():(#4.3#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#6(03)(35=#J::.37,)%6'"#2+(#

05<(:25#.4#102(3,06#7(5,%)"#(7&:02,.)06#.8U(:2,@(5"#6(03),)%#.<<.32&),2'#<3.@,5,.)"#

5&<<.32#5(3@,:(5#0)7#2+(#6,>(#)((7#2.#8(#07U&52(7#2.#8(22(3#0::.11.702(#2+(#

7')01,:#&5(#.4#TTRl5#8'#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#52&7()25"#(5<(:,066'#02#2+(#2(32,03'#6(@(6=##

*+(#4,)7,)%5#08.&2#2+(#(A<(3,():(5#.4#52&7()25#?,2+,)#2+(#:.)2(A2#.4#NVT#2(0:+,)%#

0)7#6(03),)%#02#2+(#2(32,03'#6(@(6#065.#.44(3#(@,7():(X805(7#4.&)702,.)#4.3#<.55,86(#

<.6,:'#1.7,4,:02,.)5#,)#2+(#4&2&3(=#!)#<032,:&603"#2+(#52&7'#:066(7#4.3#&3%()2#

:.)5,7(302,.)#.4#<30:2,:06#1(05&3(5#2.#,):3(05(#2+(#0@0,608,6,2'#0)7#@03,(2'#.4#

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248

8.3 Personal meanings associated with the research study

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252

3(06,5(7#43.1#2+(#52&7'[5#4,)7,)%5#2+02#5.1(#.4#1'#055&1<2,.)5#08.&2#2+(#

TTR#&5(#8'#1'#52&7()25#7,7#).2#23&6'#3(46(:2#3(06,2'=#*+,5#,5#<(3+0<5#<0326'#

8(:0&5(#.4#2+(#7,44(3():(5#,)#1'#.?)#(A<(3,():(5#0)7#2+(#(A<(3,():(5#.4#

1'#52&7()25#05#NVT#6(03)(35=#*+(3(4.3("#2+,5#3(5(03:+#U.&3)('#+05#83.&%+2#

+.1(#2.#1(#2+02#2.#()+0):(#(7&:02,.)06#(44,:,():'"#,2#,5#)(:(5503'#4.3#

2(0:+,)%#<30:2,:(5#2.#8(#,)4.31(7#0)7#%&,7(7#8'#3(5(03:+=#*+,5#3(06,502,.)#

+05#<032,:&6036'#,)5<,3(7#1'#:.11,21()2#2.#2+(#<3.1.2,.)#.4#3(5(03:+#,)#

2+(#03(0#.4#NVT#2(0:+,)%#0)7#6(03),)%=##

V,)066'"#1'#<(35.)06#%3.?2+#+05#065.#8(()#%3(026'#()+0):(7#2+3.&%+#7,44(3()2#

520%(5#.4#2+(#3(5(03:+#52&7'#0)7#8'#2+(#3(103>086(#6,4(#(A<(3,():(5#2+02#!#+0@(#8(()#

(A<.5(7#2.=#

! *+,5#:+066()%,)%#'(2#3(?037,)%#3(5(03:+#U.&3)('#+05#%,@()#1(#0#7,52,):2#

5()5(#.4#<(35.)06#0:+,(@(1()2=#c+()#!#?05#0?037(7#2+(#5:+.6035+,<#4.3#

;+9#52&7'#.@(35(05#43.1#1'#%.@(3)1()2"#1'#70&%+2(3#?05#U&52#.)(#0)7#0#

+064#'(035#.67=#!#?05#2(1<2(7#2.#%,@(#&<#,)#2+(#40:(#.4#5.#10)'#:+066()%(5#

2+02#60'#0+(07=#/.?(@(3"#?,2+#2+(#():.&30%(1()2#0)7#5&<<.32#.4#1'#401,6'"#

!#(1803>(7#.)#2+(#U.&3)('#?,2+#1,A(7#4((6,)%5#.4#(A:,2(1()2#0)7#

&):(320,)2'=#*+(#,),2,06#7,44,:&62,(5#:0&5(7#8'#:&62&306#7,44(3():(5"#

+.1(5,:>)(55"#0)7#0#)(?#6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2"#062+.&%+#@(3'#7,5:.&30%,)%"#

7,7#).2#701<()#1'#7(5,3(#4.3#>).?6(7%(=#J2#(0:+#3(5(03:+#520%("#!#

,7()2,4,(7#1'#.?)#6,1,202,.)5"#0)7#?.3>(7#7(2(31,)(76'#2.#.@(3:.1(#2+(1=#

T..>,)%#80:>"#!#+0@(#5(()#,2#05#0#<(35.)06#@,:2.3'#,)#8(,)%#086(#2.#.@(3:.1(#

1'#.?)#6,1,202,.)5=##

! E&%%6,)%#52&7'#0)7#401,6'#6,4("#(5<(:,066'#,)#0#)(?#:.&)23'"#+05#1(0)2#2+02#

:(320,)#50:3,4,:(5#+0@(#8(()#107(=#/.?(@(3"#,)#3(2&3)"#!#+0@(#%0,)(7#5.#

10)'#,1<.320)2#6,4(#5>,665#0)7#@06&(5"#,):6&7,)%#2,1(#10)0%(1()2"#%.06#

5(22,)%"#5(64X7,5:,<6,)("#0)7#7(2(31,)02,.)=#!1<.320)26'"#,2#,5#502,54',)%#2.#

?,2)(55#1'#808'#%3.?,)%#%307&066'#?,2+#1'#2+(5,5=##

253

*.#:.):6&7("#!#8(6,(@(#2+02#2+(#<3(5()2#52&7'#+05#:.)23,8&2(7#).2#.)6'#2.#2+(#

3(6(@0)2#8.7'#.4#>).?6(7%(#8&2#065.#2.#1'#%3.?2+#05#0#3(5(03:+(3"#0#60)%&0%(#

<30:2,2,.)(3#0)7#0#<(35.)=##

8.4 Recommendations for future research

*+(#3(46(:2,.)5#.)#2+(#523()%2+5#0)7#6,1,202,.)5#.4#2+,5#52&7'#+0@(#6(7#2.#2+(#

4.66.?,)%#<30:2,:06#3(:.11()702,.)5#4.3#4&2&3(#3(5(03:+#7,3(:2,.)5=##

8.4.1 Suggestions for extension of this research

*+(#52&7'#+05#10)'#523()%2+5#0)7#@06&(5#,)#2(315#.4#1(2+.7.6.%,:06#0)7#

:.):(<2&06#3,%.3=#i)#2+(#805,5#.4#0#2+.3.&%+#6,2(302&3(#3(@,(?#0)7#0#:03(4&6#

:.)5,7(302,.)#.4#2+(#:&33()2#:.)2(A2#,)#W,(2)01"#2+(#.8U(:2,@(5#.4#2+(#52&7'#?(3(#

7(@(6.<(7#2.#0773(55#2+(#%0<5#,)#2+(#4,(67=#*+(#2+(.3(2,:06#0)7#:.):(<2&06#

4301(?.3>"#.)#?+,:+#2+(#52&7'#?05#805(7"#?05#:.)523&:2(7#43.1#0)#(A+0&52,@(#

(A01,)02,.)#.4#(A,52,)%#2+(.3,(5#0)7#:.):(<25=##V&32+(31.3("#2+(#&5(#.4#2+(#1,A(7#

1(2+.75#7(5,%)#()+0):(7#2+(#83(072+#0)7#7(<2+#.4#2+(#:.66(:2(7#7020"#<3.7&:,)%#

:.1<3(+()5,@(#4,)7,)%5#43.1#7,44(3()2#0)%6(5#0)7#<(35<(:2,@(5=#*+(#.3,%,)06#

,)523&1()2#4.3#:.66(:2,)%#Y&0)2,202,@(#7020#ONTTR^P"#?+.5(#3(6,08,6,2'#0)7#@06,7,2'#

?(3(#<3.@()"#065.#077(7#0#1(2+.7.6.%,:06#,)).@02,.)#2.#2+(#4,(67=#*+(#,1<6,:02,.)5#

.4#2+(#4,)7,)%5#?(3(#,1<.320)2#,)#,)4.31,)%#<.6,:'#0)7#<30:2,:(5#,)#2+(#3(6(@0)2#

03(0=##

c,2+#066#.4#2+(5(#523()%2+5#0)7#@06&(5"#,2#,5#0<<3.<3,02(#2+02#2+(#52&7'#,5#3(<6,:02(7#

8.2+#,)#6.:06#0)7#,)2(3)02,.)06#:.)2(A25=#!4#2+(#52&7'#,5#(A2()7(7#2.#.2+(3#3(5(03:+#

5(22,)%5#?+(3(#5,1,603#:.):(3)5#+0@(#03,5()"#2+(3(#?,66#8(#.<<.32&),2,(5#2.#05:(320,)#

?+(2+(3#2+(#<+().1()0#,7()2,4,(7#,)#2+,5#52&7'#03(#065.#4.&)7#,)#.2+(3#<60:(5=#J#

:.1<0302,@(#0)06'5,5#.4#4,)7,)%5#:0)#065.#8(#107(#<.55,86(#?,2+#0#@,(?#2.#730?,)%#

1.3(#Y&06,4,(7#:.):6&5,.)5#0)7#2+&5#1.3(#3.8&52#(@,7():(=#J#3(<6,:02,.)#.4#2+,5#

52&7'#&5,)%#2+(#<3.<.5(7#:.):(<2&06,h02,.)#0)7#:02(%.3,502,.)#5:+(1(#2.%(2+(3#

?,2+#,25#.3,%,)06#5&3@('#,)523&1()2#ONTTR^P#?,66#066.?#4.3#0<<3.<3,02(#,1<3.@(1()25#

2.#8(#107(=#*+(#3(6,08,6,2'#0)7#@06,7,2'#.4#2+(#NTTR^#?,66#8(#4&32+(3#(A01,)(7#0)7#

(52086,5+(7=##

254

8.4.2 Suggestions for methodological considerations

*+(3(#?(3(#1(2+.7.6.%,:06#05<(:25#.4#2+,5#52&7'#2+02#1,%+2#6,1,2#,25#%()(306,h08,6,2'"#

8&2#2+('#<3.@,7(7#&5(4&6#3(:.11()702,.)5#4.3#4&2&3(#3(5(03:+#7,3(:2,.)5=##

! V,3526'"#2+(#5(6(:2,.)#.4#5&3@('#Y&(52,.))0,3(#0)7#,)2(3@,(?#<032,:,<0)25#,)#

2+,5#52&7'#?05#5&8U(:2#2.#.<<.32&),2'k:.)@(),():(#0)7#<&3<.5(4&6#501<6,)%=#

V.3#2+,5#3(05.)"#2+(#4,)7,)%5#.820,)(7#,)#2+,5#52&7'#?(3(#).2#)(:(5503,6'#

3(<3(5()202,@(#.4#066#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#52&7()25#0)7#52044#,)#W,(2)01=#*+(#

3(5&625#3(%037,)%#<032,:&603#TTR#&5("#05#?(66#05#2+(#<(3:(<2,.)5"#022,2&7(5"#

0)7#(A<(3,():(5#,)#3(602,.)#2.#TTT5#?(3(#<032,:&603#2.#.)(#6(03),)%#

()@,3.)1()2#?,2+#,25#:.)2(A2&06#:+030:2(3,52,:5=#V.3#0#1.3(#3.8&52#4,)7,)%#

0)7#+,%+(3#:.)4,7():(#,)#10>,)%#%()(306,h02,.)5"#4&2&3(#3(5(03:+#5+.&67#

,)@.6@(#0#?,7(3#30)7.1#501<6,)%#.4#2+(#203%(2#<.<&602,.)=##

! R(:.)76'"#2+(#)&18(3#.4#,)2(3@,(?#<032,:,<0)25#,)#2+(#52&7'#?05#Y&,2(#51066#

062+.&%+#2+(#7(<2+#302+(3#2+0)#83(072+#.4#7020#,5#2+(#4.:&5#.4#2+(#

Y&06,202,@(#0<<3.0:+=#V&2&3(#3(5(03:+#1,%+2#<3.7&:(#3,:+(3#7020#?,2+#2+(#

,)@.6@(1()2#.4#1.3(#,)2(3@,(?#<032,:,<0)25=#!)#077,2,.)"#.2+(3#Y&06,202,@(#

3(5(03:+#0<<3.0:+(5"#5&:+#05#52302(%'#7,03'"#1,%+2#8(#&5(7#:.):&33()26'#

?,2+#Y&(52,.))0,3(5#0)7#,)2(3@,(?5"#2.#0:+,(@(#8(22(3#23,0)%&602,.)#.4#7020=##

! *+,376'"#2+(#(A<6.302.3'#0)7#7(5:3,<2,@(#3(5(03:+#7(5,%)#.4#2+(#52&7'#?05#

&5(4&6#4.3#3(5(03:+#:.)2(A25#5&:+#05#2+02#.4#W,(2)01"#?+(3(#0#4.&)702,.)#.4#

%()(306#>).?6(7%(#08.&2#2+(#,55&(#,5#2.2066'#085()2=#!)#.2+(3#:.)2(A25#?,2+#

(52086,5+(7#(A<6.302.3'#0)7#7(5:3,<2,@(#4,)7,)%5"#,2#,5#3(:.11()7(7#2+02#

.2+(3#3(5(03:+#,)Y&,3,(5#0)7#0<<3.0:+(5#03(#&2,6,h(7"#4.3#(A01<6(#

6.)%,2&7,)06#.3#(2+).%30<+,:06#7(5,%)5"#2.#0:+,(@(#.2+(3#<&3<.5(5#.4#

(A<60)02,.)"#<3(7,:2,.)#0)7#,)46&():(=##

8.4.3 Suggestions to address the knowledge-gap with research

*+,5#52&7'#+05#(A<6.3(7#0#@03,(2'#.4#,55&(5#.)#TTR5#01.)%#W,(2)01(5(#NVT#2(32,03'#

52&7()25"#,):6&7,)%#2+(#43(Y&():'#0)7#<022(3)5#.4#TTT#&5("#2+(#,)46&():(#.4#:(320,)#

6(03)(3#@03,086(5#.)#TTR#&5("#2+(#6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2#05#?(66#05#2+(#<(3:(<2,.)5"#

255

022,2&7(5#0)7#(A<(3,():(5#.4#2(0:+(35#0)7#52&7()25#:.):(3),)%#TTR5=#!2#+05#730?)#

10)'#3(6(@0)2#:.):6&5,.)5#0)7#7(@(6.<(7#2+(#%&,7,)%#<3,):,<6(5#,)#3(602,.)#2.#TTR5#

4.3#52&7()25"#2(0:+(35"#(7&:02,.)06#071,),52302,.)5#0)7#(7&:02,.)06#<.6,:'#10>(35=#

!2#+05#065.#,7()2,4,(7#5(@(306#>).?6(7%(#%0<5#,)#2+(#4,(67#?+(3(#4&2&3(#3(5(03:+#10'#

)((7#2.#0773(55=##

! V&32+(3#3(5(03:+#,)2.#2+(#)(?6'#7(@(6.<(7#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#8'#N)%6,5+#

6(03)(35"#<032,:&6036'#2+.5(#73,@()#0)7#055,52(7#8'#07@0):(7#2(:+).6.%'"#

?.&67#8(#.4#8()(4,2#,)#0773(55,)%#2+(#(1(3%()2#)((7#4.3#7')01,:#0)7#

7,%,206,h(7#6(03),)%#,)#2+(#1.7(3)#2,1(=##

! *+(#@03,086(#.4#&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5#?05#4.&)7#2.#5,%),4,:0)26'#055.:,02(#

?,2+#TTR#&5(Z#+.?(@(3"#2+,5#6(03)(3#@03,086(#+05#).2#8(()#(A01,)(7#,)#0)'#

7(<2+#,)#2+(#6,2(302&3(=#!2#,5#+,%+6'#3(:.11()7(7#2+02#4&2&3(#3(5(03:+#8(#

7,3(:2(7#2.#2+(#(A<6.302,.)#.4#&),@(35,2'#.3#5:+..6,)%#'(03#%3.&<5#,)#3(602,.)#

2.#TTR#&5(=##

! *+(#52&7'#,)@(52,%02(7#2+(#,)46&():(#.4#6(03)(3#@03,086(5#5&:+#05#%()7(3"#

&),@(35,2'#'(03#%3.&<5"#5(64X302(7#<3.4,:,():'"#0:07(1,:#10U.35"#0)7#

60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#8(6,(45=#/.?(@(3"#.2+(3#40:2.35#3(%037,)%#,)7,@,7&06#

6(03)(35#5&:+#05#6(03),)%#52'6(5"#:&62&306#80:>%3.&)75"#6(03),)%#1.2,@02,.)"#

0)7#0)A,(2'"#1,%+2#065.#<60'#0#<032#,)#7(2(31,),)%#2+(#&5(#.4#TTR5=#*+(5(#

044(:2,@(#40:2.35#5+.&67#8(#:.)5,7(3(7#?+()#:.)7&:2,)%#0#4&2&3(#52&7'#.)#

TTR#&5(=##

! *+(#52&7'#(A01,)(7#5.1(#@03,086(5#2+02#8(6.)%#2.#2+(#6(03),)%#()@,3.)1()2#

0)7#:.)2(A2"#,):6&7,)%#6(03),)%#40:,6,2,(5"#6(03),)%#.<<.32&),2,(5#0)7#2(0:+(3X

52&7()2#3(602,.)5+,<=#!2#?05#4.&)7#2+02#2+(5(#:.)2(A2&06#40:2.35#:.&67#044(:2#

2+(#&5(#.4#TTR5#01.)%#52&7()25=#*+(3(4.3("#1.3(#,)@(52,%02,.)5#,)2.#2+(5(#

40:2.35#03(#3(:.11()7(7#2.#<3.7&:(#1.3(#3.8&52#(@,7():(#?+()#6,226(#:0)#

8(#4.&)7#,)#2+(#:&33()2#6,2(302&3(=#i2+(3#40:2.35"#?+,:+#1,%+2#8(#

:.)23,8&2,)%#@03,086(5"#03(#05<(:25#.4#2+(#,11(7,02(#:60553..1#:.)2(A2#5&:+#

05#:60553..1#:&62&3("#5:044.67,)%"#0)7#6(03),)%#205>5=##

256

! *+(#,1<.320):(#.4#TTR5#0)7#)((75#4.3#TTR#230,),)%"#?+,:+#?(3(#01.)%#2+(#

4&)701()206#,)Y&,3,(5#,)#2+,5#3(5(03:+#52&7'"#+0@(#8(()#:.)4,31(7=#!2#?.&67#

8(#<3.4,2086(#2.#()%0%(#,)#4&32+(3#3(5(03:+#,)2.#2+(#0<<3.<3,02(#7(5,%)5#.4#

5&:+#230,),)%#<3.%3015#0)7#2+(,3#(44(:2,@()(55#,)#()+0):,)%#60)%&0%(#

6(03),)%=##

8.5 Conclusion

*+,5#:+0<2(3#+05#:.):6&7(7#2+(#2+(5,5#?,2+#:3,2,:06#3(46(:2,.)5#.)#2+(#5,%),4,:0):(#.4#

2+(#52&7'#2.#2+(#603%(3#:.)2(A2#.4#3(5(03:+#0)7#<30:2,:(5=#J#@03,(2'#.4#,1<.320)2#

:.):6&5,.)5#0)7#,1<6,:02,.)5#:.):(3),)%#TTR5#+0@(#8(()#0:+,(@(7#.)#2+(#805,5#.4#

2+(#@06,702(7#1(2+.7.6.%,:06#:.)523&:2#0)7#2+(#:.1<3(+()5,@(#:.):(<2&06#

4301(?.3>=##*+(#<(35.)06#0:+,(@(1()25#.4#2+(#3(5(03:+(3#+0@(#8(()#+,%+6,%+2(7#2.#

,66&52302(#+(3#0:07(1,:#0)7#<3.4(55,.)06#%3.?2+#2+3.&%+.&2#2+(#U.&3)('=#c+,6(#2+,5#

:+0<2(3#+05#83.&%+2#2+(#2+(5,5#2.#0)#()7"#,2#+05#5,1&620)(.&56'#.<()(7#&<#)(?#

7,3(:2,.)5#0)7#<.55,8,6,2,(5#4.3#4&2&3(#3(5(03:+=#M(46(:2,)%#.)#2+,5#()2,3(#3(5(03:+#

U.&3)('"#?+,:+#,5#8.2+#,)2(66(:2&066'#0)7#(1.2,.)066'#:+066()%,)%"#2+(#3(5(03:+(3#

:0)).2#+(6<#4((6,)%#0#7((<#+(0324(62#%302,2&7(#2.#2+.5(#?+.#+0@(#7,3(:26'#0)7#

,)7,3(:26'#+(6<(7#2.#10>(#2+,5#52&7'#0#5&::(554&6#0)7#,)5<,302,.)06#3(5(03:+#U.&3)('=########

#

257

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J8.&#-0>(3#N6X9,8"#b=#OFGG\P=#T0)%&0%(#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#,)#d&?0,2j#T,)>5#2.#%()7(3"#60)%&0%(#6(@(6"#0)7#:&62&3(#,)#0#+'83,7#:.)2(A2=#7/,*%#"()+"#5+#*(F""+$&O(:dOCP"#D]XK]=##

J)7(35.)"#$=#E=#OFGG]P=#TF#52302(%'#3(5(03:+=#!)#N=#/,)>(6#ON7=P"#[+"6D//K(%"(&*@/"6($+"#5+#*($*+,"%"#(+"6(.*+@'%"##O<<=#S]SXSSCP=#b0+?0+"#$Ej#N3680&1=#

J)&%>0>&6"#f=#OFGCCP=#J#:.1<0302,@(#52&7'#,)#60)%&0%(#6(03),)%#52302(%,(5#.4#I+,)(5(#0)7#*+0,#52&7()25j#J#:05(#52&7'#.4#R&0)#R&)0)7+0#M0U08+02#B),@(35,2'=#!5,/A*+"(o/5,"+$(/0(-/@%+$(-@%*"@*&O(<nOFP"#CLHXCS\=##

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#

276

Appendix 1 Ethics approval

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279

Appendix 2 Interview questions

For students

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280

Interview questions for staff

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281

Appendix 3 Questionnaires

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QB C!(..$3>!$%$3.0!5I$&$!H3?)/0I!/0!@0$>!6=)@F0A!0$-/3(&0A!,&!5,&G0I,D07B! "! 8! 9! :! ;!RB C!(..$3>!$%$3/3?!H3?)/0I!=)(00$0B!! "! 8! 9! :! ;!SB C!=,--@3/=(.$!5/.I!2,&$/?3$&0!62(=$J.,J2(=$!,&!F*!$-(/)M%,/=$-(/)7B! "! 8! 9! :! ;!"TB C!K,/3!,3)/3$!2,&@-607!/3!H3?)/0IB! "! 8! 9! :! ;!""B C!-(/3.(/3!(!F),?MU(=$JF,,GM5$FD(?$!/3!H3?)/0IB! "! 8! 9! :! ;!

<,!-,3/.,&!-*!)$(&3/3?A!! ! ! ! ! !"8B C!0$.!0D$=/2/=!?,()0!2,&!/-D&,%/3?!-*!H3?)/0IB!! "! 8! 9! :! ;!"9B C!-,3/.,&!-*!D&,?&$00!/3!H3?)/0IB! "! 8! 9! :! ;!

-.,/01&+"2*+',&'"#("+*<,!)$(&3!H3?)/0I!%,=(F@)(&*A!!

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<,!)$(&3!H3?)/0I!?&(--(&A!!"SB C!-$-,&/0$!?&(--(&!&@)$0!(3>!0.&@=.@&$0B!! "! 8! 9! :! ;!8TB C!>,!?&(--(&!$E$&=/0$0B!! "! 8! 9! :! ;!

!

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;20/2+-'4*$!!#! "! 5! 6! 7!

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)/0$E$!!#! "! 5! 6! 7!

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+4!/)./.E$!#! "! 5! 6! 7!

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#! "! 5! 6! 7!

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'-!'?+8+3*@!'!0+&?8'2-/@!)/0$E$!!#! "! 5! 6! 7!

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=+!I)//)4!)<?4)..!&*.)8:!2-!,42/2-3@!!65$ %!8++(!:+4!:+4&'8!,'*.!/+!)<?4)..!2;)'.!A).?$!2-!)..'*.!+4!4)?+4/.E$!! #! "! 5! 6! 7!66$ %!&'()!'-!+1/82-)!+:!&'2-!?+2-/.!I):+4)!,42/2-3$!! #! "! 5! 6! 7!67$ %!;4':/!&*!,42/2-3$!! #! "! 5! 6! 7!6J$ %!4)K2.)!&*!,42/2-3!/+!2&?4+K)!/9)!8'-31'3)B0+-/)-/$!! #! "! 5! 6! 7!6M$ %!'.(!+/9)4.!/+!0+&&)-/!+-!&*!,42/2-3$!! #! "! 5! 6! 7!

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<'12!0'H'-68'0!29)6.,9!8)(/2+/'%!!$! 3! "! 4! #!

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$! 3! "! 4! #!

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( F0/03"$( G'0%( !**$( H"%;()**$(

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0% ^)+2+*,!1C+--1! ! ! ! !

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B9(*C!>6.!A6)!>6.)!8()2+/+8(2+6*_!

291

Appendix 4 Coding samples

Coding of the teacher interview participants

V.;0*E*P.&06' b%&@%;' 5,@*&"'(%.E)%;'=# b# *(0:+(3#CXb#(%.E)%;'A# V# *(0:+(3#FXV#(%.E)%;'D# V# *(0:+(3#HXV#(%.E)%;'H# V# *(0:+(3#\XV#(%.E)%;'L# b# *(0:+(3#]Xb#(%.E)%;'N# V# *(0:+(3#LXV#(%.E)%;'G# V# *(0:+(3#SXV#(%.E)%;'O# b# *(0:+(3#DXb#(%.E)%;'C# V# *(0:+(3#KXV#(%.E)%;'=K# V# *(0:+(3#CGXV# Coding of the student interview participants

V.;0*E*P.&06' b%&@%;' Y&*8%;6*0$'`%.;'";,#P6'

F.^,;6' Z%34W;.0%@'P;,4*E*%&E$'

5,@*&"'

Z0#@%&0'=# b# C52# N)%6,5+# f..7# R2&7()2#CXbXzCXN#Z0#@%&0'A# V# F)7# N)%6,5+# V0,3# R2&7()2#FXVXzFXN#Z0#@%&0'D# V# H37# N)%6,5+# W(3'#%..7# R2&7()2#HXVXzHXN#Z0#@%&0'H# V# C52# $.)XN)%6,5+# T,1,2(7# R2&7()2#\XVXzCX$#Z0#@%&0'L# V# F2+# N)%6,5+# f..7# R2&7()2#]XVXzFXN#Z0#@%&0'N# b# F)7# $.)XN)%6,5+# V0,3# R2&7()2#LXbXzFX$#Z0#@%&0'G# V# C52# $.)XN)%6,5+# V0,3# R2&7()2#SXVXzCX$#Z0#@%&0'O# b# F)7# $.)XN)%6,5+# f..7# R2&7()2#DXbXzFX$#Z0#@%&0'C# V# H37# $.)XN)%6,5+# W(3'#%..7# R2&7()2#KXVXzHX$#Z0#@%&0'=K# V# \2+# N)%6,5+# f..7# R2&7()2#CGXVXz\XN#

292

Appendix 5 Cronbach’s Alpha scores

of the questionnaire items

Regulating strategy scale

#B%3*.2*3*0$'Z0.0*60*E6'

I3.)80:+l5#J6<+0#

I3.)80:+l5#J6<+0#-05(7#.)#R20)7037,h(7#!2(15#

$#.4#!2(15#

=S]S# =SLF# CH#

R0%TW(,0.3'Z0.0*60*E6'# R:06(#b(0)#

,4#!2(1#9(6(2(7#

R:06(#W03,0):(#,4#!2(1#9(6(2(7#

I.33(:2(7#!2(1X*.206#I.33(602,.)#

RY&03(7#b&62,<6(#I.33(602,.)#

I3.)80:+l5#J6<+0#,4#!2(1#9(6(2(7#

^C=#!#&5(#0:07(1,:#<3,)2#102(3,065#O2(A28..>5"#3(4(3():(#8..>5"#6(55.)#).2(5P#=#

H]=D\# ]G=\CD# =CGD# =CDL# =SLD#

^F=#!#&5(#).)X0:07(1,:#<3,)2#102(3,065#O)(?5<0<(35"#U.&3)065"#).@(65"#52.3,(5P=#

HL=LK# \S=HD]# =\GL# =FC\# =S\C#

^H=#!#&5(#2307,2,.)06#83.07:052#102(3,065#O5+.?5k1.@,(5#.)#*W"#307,.#<3.%3015P=##

H]=KC# \S=FCD# =HS]# =FSF# =S\H#

^\=#!#&5(#3(:.37(7#102(3,065#O0&7,.k@,7(.#20<(5"#I95P=##

HL=]D# \L=KGL# =H]D# =FG]# =S\]#

^]=#!#&5(#.)6,)(k:.1<&2(3X805(7#102(3,065#O(X8..>5kU.&3)065"#5.42?03("#?(8:0525P##

HL=FL# \L=\\G# =HSC# =F]F# =S\H#

^L=#!#&5(#1.).6,)%&06#ON)%6,5+XN)%6,5+P#7,:2,.)03,(5#

HL=F\# \L=]F]# =HC\# =FFK# =S]G#

^S=#!#022()7#(@()25#?+(3(#N)%6,5+#,5#&5(7#O:6&85"#5(1,)035"#?.3>5+.<5"#(2:=P=#

HS=CF# \]=SDS# =\\L# =HHK# =SHL#

^D=#!#022()7#(@(),)%#N)%6,5+#:6055(5=##

HL=HH# \L=HSH# =FKC# =FCK# =S]\#

^K=#!#:.11&),:02(#?,2+#4.3(,%)(35#O(,2+(3#40:(X2.X40:(#.3#8'#(10,6k@.,:(10,6P=#

HL=]L# \\=LL\# =\KK# =HDG# =SHG#

^CG=#!#U.,)#.)6,)(#4.3&1O5P#,)#N)%6,5+=##

HS=C\# \L=\F\# =H\S# =HFS# =S\L#

^CC=#!#10,)20,)#0#86.%kV0:(X8..>k?(8<0%(#,)#N)%6,5+=#

HL=FL# \H=L\D# =HDK# =H\C# =S\H#

^CF=#!#5(2#5<(:,4,:#%.065#4.3#,1<3.@,)%#1'#N)%6,5+=#

HL=CH# \\=GGF# =]FH# =\GG# =SFL#

293

R0%TW(,0.3'Z0.0*60*E6'^CH=#!#1.),2.3#1'#<3.%3(55#,)#N)%6,5+=#

HL=\H# \H=L\\# =]SK# =\S\# =SFC#

Form-based strategy scale

B%3*.2*3*0$'Z0.0*60*E6'

I3.)80:+l5#J6<+0#

I3.)80:+l5#J6<+0#-05(7#.)#R20)7037,h(7#!2(15#

$#.4#!2(15#

=SDK# =SKH# C\#

R0%TW(,0.3'Z0.0*60*E6'

# R:06(#b(0)#,4#!2(1#9(6(2(7#

R:06(#W03,0):(#,4#!2(1#9(6(2(7#

I.33(:2(7#!2(1X*.206#I.33(602,.)#

RY&03(7#b&62,<6(#I.33(602,.)#

I3.)80:+l5#J6<+0#,4#!2(1#9(6(2(7#

^C\=#!#3(:.37#?.375#,)#%3.&<5#.3#<+305(5#O302+(3#2+0)#,)7,@,7&06#?.375P=##

\H=FD# ]C=LDH# =\CS# =FKD# =SS]#

^C]=#!#3(?3,2(#?.375#10)'#2,1(5#2.#3(1(18(3#2+(,3#5<(66,)%5=#

\F=K\# ]\=]]F# =CK]# =FH\# =SK\#

^CL=#!#83(0>#)(?#?.375#,)2.#<0325#2+02#!#>).?#O&5,)%#<3(4,A(5#0)7#5&44,A(5P=##

\H=\H# ]F=HGH# =HLL# =CKD# =SSK#

^CS=#!#%&(55#1(0),)%5#.4#?.375#43.1#:.)2(A25=##

\F=DK# ]F=HSS# =\FK# =H]G# =SS\#

^CD=#!#10>(#5()2():(5#2+02#:.)20,)#)(?#?.375=##

\H=FD# ]G=SSK# =\SK# =\CS# =SSG#

^CK=#!#6,52#?.375#8'#2.<,:5=## \H=CL# ]H=FLF# =F\]# =\GD# =SKC#^FG=#!#1(1.3,5(#%301103#3&6(5#0)7#523&:2&3(5=###

\F=\\# \K=DLG# =]HH# =]KH# =SL]#

^FC=#!#7.#%301103#(A(3:,5(5=## \F=\\# ]F=FCF# =HK\# =\CG# =SSS#^FF=#!#10>(#1'#.?)#5()2():(5#&5,)%#)(?#523&:2&3(5=###

\H=F\# ]G=S]S# =\KG# =\DD# =SLK#

^FH=#!#0)06'5(#2+(#%301102,:06#523&:2&3(5#.4#7,44(3()2#2(A25=#

\H=HL# ]F=CHK# =HDD# =\\K# =SSS#

^F\=#!#3(07#<+.)(2,:#230)5:3,<2,.)5#.4#?.375#,)#2+(#7,:2,.)03'#O(=%=#2+02#kÖÜ2kP=#

\H=GH# ]C=HKS# =H]F# =HGS# =SDC#

^F]=#!#&5(#N6(:23.),:#7,:2,.)03,(5#.3#;3.)&):,02,.)#R.42?03(#4.3#1.7(6#<3.)&):,02,.)#.4#?.375k<+305(5=#

\H=G\# ]G=FHK# =\FK# =FS]# =SS\#

^FL=#!#<30:2,:(#&)401,6,03#5.&)75#8'#50',)%#2+(1#0%0,)#0)7#0%0,)=##

\F=DF# \K=SLF# =]GK# =\SF# =SLS#

^FS=#!#3(<(02##042(3#)02,@(#5<(0>(35#O.)#3(:.37,)%5#.3#,)#1.@,(5P=##

\F=\D# ]C=CSD# =]G]# =\CG# =SLD#

294

Skill-based strategy scale

B%3*.2*3*0$'Z0.0*60*E6'

I3.)80:+l5#J6<+0#

I3.)80:+l5#J6<+0#-05(7#.)#R20)7037,h(7#!2(15#

$#.4#!2(15#

=KGG# =KGG# FG#

R0%TW(,0.3'Z0.0*60*E6'

# R:06(#b(0)#,4#!2(1#9(6(2(7#

R:06(#W03,0):(#,4#!2(1#9(6(2(7#

I.33(:2(7#!2(1X*.206#I.33(602,.)#

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296

Appendix 6 Post-hoc Mann-Whitney

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strategy use by

university year group

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Appendix 7 Spearman’s Rank

Order Correlation (rho) tests on

individual strategy use by

English learning beliefs

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#

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305

Appendix 8 Table of annotated

bibliography

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