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Energy xxx (2014) 1e19

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Energy

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Engine performance and emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceibapentandra and Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel in a CI diesel engine

Hwai Chyuan Ong a,*, H.H. Masjuki a, T.M.I. Mahlia b, A.S. Silitonga a,c, W.T. Chong a,Talal Yusaf d

aDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiabDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, MalaysiacDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Medan State Polytechnic, 20155 Medan, IndonesiadNational Centre for Engineering in Agriculture (NCEA), Faculty of Engineering and Surveying, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba,4350 QLD, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 25 June 2013Received in revised form3 March 2014Accepted 9 March 2014Available online xxx

Keywords:BiodieselJatropha curcasCeiba pentandraCalophyllum inophyllumEngine performanceEmissions

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ60 16 590 3110; faxE-mail addresses: onghc@um.edu.my, ong1983@ya

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.0350360-5442/� 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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a b s t r a c t

Biodiesel is a recognized replacement for diesel fuel in compressed ignition engines due to its significantenvironmental benefits. The purpose of this study is to investigate the engine performance and emis-sions produced from Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel in com-pressed ignition engine. The biodiesel production process and properties are discussed and a comparisonof the three biodiesels as well as diesel fuel is undertaken. After that, engine performance and emissionstesting was conducted using biodiesel blends 10%, 20%, 30% and 50% in a diesel engine at full throttleload. The engine performance shows that those biodiesel blends are suitable for use in diesel engines. A10% biodiesel blend shows the best engine performance in terms of engine torque, engine power, fuelconsumption and brake thermal efficiency among the all blending ratios for the three biodiesel blends.Biodiesel blends have also shown a significant reduction in CO2, CO and smoke opacity with a slightincrease in NOx emissions.

� 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The world is confronted with a twin crisis of limited supply andthe increasing cost of fossil fuels. This issue has led to increasedexploration into alternative renewable energy for ensuring energysecurity and resolving environmental issues. Biodiesel is recentlybeing considered to be a major substitute for fossil diesel world-wide [1]. Biodiesel is monoalkyl ester derived from vegetable oilsand fats. It is produced through an esterification-transesterificationprocess which has been widely used to reduce the high viscosityand FFA (free fatty acid) [2]. Recently, many developing countrieshave focused their attention on non-edible oil for renewable fuelsin order to reduce the net production from fossil fuel andthe combustion process. The advantages of biodiesel are renew-ability, higher combustion efficiency, lower sulphur aromatic con-tent, higher cetane number, biodegradability, and higher oxygencontent [3]. However, the disadvantages of biodiesel are lower

: þ60 3 7967 5317.hoo.com (H.C. Ong).

et al., Engine performance annergy (2014), http://dx.doi.or

energy content, high viscosity and high NOx (nitrogen oxide)emissions [4].

Non-edible vegetable oil has a high FFA value which causes theundesired soup formation and reduced the final yield during thebase catalyst transesterification process. Thus, several techniqueswere successfully developed to reduce the acid value such as pre-treatment of crude oil using refining and acid catalyst esterification[4]. A pretreatment process using an acid catalyst must be carriedout for high FFA oil before the base catalyst transesterificationprocess. This reaction is very useful for handling vegetable oil withhigh FFA and the reaction that are shown in the Eq. (1) [5].

(1)

However, the transesterification reaction can be expressed bythe following general Eq. (2) as shown below:

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

Abbreviations:

Symbol descriptionASTM American Society for Testing and MaterialsB5 biodiesel with 95% diesel fuelB10 biodiesel with 90% diesel fuelB20 biodiesel with 80% diesel fuelB30 biodiesel with 70% diesel fuelB50 biodiesel with 50% diesel fuelB75 biodiesel with 25% diesel fuelBsfc brake specific fuel consumptionBTE brake thermal efficiencyCaCl2 calcium chlorideCO carbon monoxideCO2 carbon dioxideCCIO crude C. inophyllum oilCCPO crude Ceiba pentandra oilCFPP cold filter plugging pointsCJCO crude J. Curcas oilCIB C. inophyllum blendingCIB10 C. inophyllum blending 10%CIB20 C. inophyllum blending 20%CIB30 C. inophyllum blending 30%CIB50 C. inophyllum blending 50%

CIME C. inophyllum methyl esterCPB C. pentandra blendingCPB10 C. pentandra blending 10%CPB20 C. pentandra blending 20%CPB30 C. pentandra blending 30%CPB50 C. pentandra blending 50%CPME C. pentandra methyl esterEGT exhaust gas temperatureEN European standardFFA free fatty acidHC hydrocarbonsH2SO4 sulphuric acidH3PO4 phosphoric acidHSU hartridge smoke unitsJB Jatropha biodieselJCB J. curcas blendingJCB10 J. curcas blending 10%JCB20 J. curcas blending 20%JCB30 J. curcas blending 30%JCB50 J. curcas blending 50%JCME J. curcas methyl esterNa2SO4 sodium sulphate or mineral thenarditeNaHCO3 sodium bicarbonateNOx oxides of nitrogenppm parts per million

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e192

(2)

1.1. Engine performance and exhaust emission for biodiesel blends

There are a large number of studies which focus on engineperformance and emission characteristics using biodiesel fuel butonly few researchers analyzed and reviewed the biodiesel fromhigh FFA feedstock. Banapurmath et al. [6] reported that the brakethermal efficiency using honge oil methyl ester, soybean oil methylester, Jatropha curcas methyl ester and diesel fuel are 29.51%,30.40%, 29.01% and 31.25% respectively at 80% load. Moreover, theHC and CO emissions with honge oil methyl ester, soybean oilmethyl ester, J. curcas methyl ester are found slightly increasedcompared to the diesel fuel operation. Haldar et al. [7] investigatedthe use of biodiesel blends of karanja, putranjiva and jatropha oilblends with diesel fuel in a Ricardo engine. The study found that thebiodiesel blends gave higher performance and reduced emissionssuch as CO, CO2, NOx and HC at 45� bTDC timing, 1200 rpm for 20%blend of degummed vegetable oil with diesel fuel. Lin et al. [8] alsofound that the addition of waste cooking oil biodiesel into ultra-lowsulfur diesel contributed to decrease in exhaust emissions. Theyobserved that blending using B5, B10, B20, and B30 decreasedpolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by 7.53%e37.5%, particulatematter by 5.29%e8.32%, total hydrocarbons by 10.5%e36.0%, andcarbon monoxide by 3.33%e13.1% as compared to using ultra-lowsulfur diesel. Kalam et al. [9] evaluated the performance and

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emission characteristics of a multi-cylinder diesel engine operatingon waste cooking oil biodiesel with diesel fuel. They tested withseveral blends which are waste cooking oil in biodiesel, 5% palm oilwith 95% ordinary diesel fuel and 5% coconut oil with 95% ordinarydiesel fuel. They found that a reduction in brake power of 1.2% and0.7% for 5% palm oil and 5% coconut oil respectively compared withdiesel fuel. In addition, reduction of exhaust emissions such as HC,CO, NOx and smoke opacity is offered by the blended fuels. Chauhanet al. [3] studied the engine performance impact of JCB (J. curcasblending) into diesel fuel and reported the brake thermal efficiencyof jatropha biodiesel blends were lower than diesel and brakespecific energy consumption was found higher. However, HC, COand CO2 and smoke were found lower with jatropha biodieselblends except NOx emissions. Agarwal and Dhar [10] investigatedthe performance, emission and combustion characteristic of kar-anja biodiesel blends (B10, B20, B50 and B100) with diesel fuel indirect injection CI engine. The fuel consumption and thermal effi-ciency are relatively inferior for all karanja biodiesel blendscompared to diesel fuel. Besides, HC emissions were lower forkaranja biodiesel blends than diesel fuel for all blend concentra-tions. The CO and NOx emissions were slightly higher as well ashigher karanja oil blends and also smoke opacity was lower as wellas lower karanja biodiesel blends compared to diesel fuel. Ac-cording to Vallinayagam et al. [11] studied show that the pinebiodiesel (B25, B50 and B75) could reduce CO, HC and smokeemissions by 65%, 30% and 70%, respectively except NOx emission ishigher than diesel fuel at full load condition. Besides, it was showedthat the brake thermal efficiency and maximum heat release rateincrease by 5% and 27%, respectively. Mofijur’s team [12] revealsthat the jatropha biodiesel blends were reduced in brake power is4.67% for B10 and 8.86% for B20. Besides, they also found that theaverage brake specific fuel consumption (Bsfc) for B10 is 278.46 g/kWh and 281.9 g/kWh for B20. The results indicated a reduction inHC emission of 3.84% (B10) and 10.25% (B20) as well as CO emissionreduction of 16% (B10) and 25% (B20). However, NOx emission was

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e19 3

higher at 3% (B10) and 6% (B20). Jaichandar and Annamalai [13]stated that high oxygen content in the pongamia biodieselcontribute complete combustion was reduced emissions such asCO, HC and smoke opacity.

1.2. Botanical description of three feedstock

J. curcas L. is a small tree or large shrub up to 5�7 m tall,belonging to the euphorbiaceae family [14]. It is a drought resistantcrop that has a life expectancy up to 50 years. J. curcas can survive inabandoned lands and climatic zones with a mean annual rainfall250�1200 mm [15]. The tree is widely spread in tropical and sub-tropical regions and it is native to North and South America, Africaand Indian subcontinent [16]. The oil yields of J. curcas is reported tobe 1590 kg/ha and the decorticated seed of J. curcas contains around43�59% of oil [17].

Ceiba pentandra L. Gaertn or locally known as kekabu and kapokbelongs to themalvaceae family [18]. It was native to Southeast Asiaand cultivated in Southeast Asia, India, Sri Lanka and tropicalAmerica [19]. It was grown naturally in humid and sub humidtropical regions. C. pentandra is generally a drought-resistant treeand pods from these trees are leathery, ellipsoid and pendulouscapsules. C. pentandra seeds occupy about 25e28% wt. of each fruitand the seeds produce an average 1280 kg/ha of oil yield [20].

Calophyllum inophyllum L. or commonly known as polanga, is anon-edible oilseed ornamental evergreen tree belonging to theclusiaceae family [14]. It grows best in deep soil or on exposed seasands and the rain fall requirement is around 750e5000 mm [21].

Fig. 1. Distribution of J. curcas, C. pentandra an

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This plant has multiple origins including East Africa, India, SouthEast Asia and Australia. The tree yield is 100e200 fruits/kg and theoil yield has been reported to be 2000 kg/ha [14]. The seed has avery high oil content (65�75%) with tinted green, thick andwoodsyor nutty smelling oil [22]. Finally, the distribution areas of threepotential non-edible feedstocks are shown in Fig. 1.

1.3. Purpose of study

The purpose of this study is to produce biodiesel from high FFAcrude J. curcas, C. pentandra and C. inophyllum oil using acid catalyst(H2SO4) and alkaline catalyst (NaOH) transesterification process.After that, the physiochemical properties of the produced methylester will be studied and evaluated based on ASTM D6751 andEN14214 biodiesel standards. Furthermore, those biodiesels wereused to study engine performance and emissions characteristics ona single cylinder four stroke compression ignition engine. Finally, acomprehensive comparison of these three feedstocks are analyzedand discussed in detail in term of biodiesel production process,physiochemical properties, engine performance and emission as abiofuel in diesel engine.

2. Material and method

2.1. Materials

The J. curcas and C. inophyllum seeds were collected fromKebumen, West Java while C. pentandra was obtained from

d C. inophyllum plants around the world.

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e194

Probolinggo, East Java Indonesia. All reagents used are methanol(99.9% purity), sulphuric acid (H2SO4, purity >98.9%), Phosphoricacid (H3PO4 20%), sodium hydroxide pellet (NaOH purity 99%),CaCl2 anhydrous (99%), Na2SO4 anhydrous (99%) and sodiumhydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3). The whatman filter paper size150 mm (filter fioroni, France) was purchased from Metta KarunaEnterprise (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia). Fig. 2 shows J. curcas,C. pentandra and C. inophyllum seeds before and after peeling(kernel).

2.2. Extraction of seed oil

Extraction of seed oils were done in Bogor, Indonesia. The seedsare dried under sunlight until the color of the seeds turns intoblack-brown. The ideal conditions to preserve the seeds are 26e27 �C and 60�70% humidity. The extraction of seed oil was doneusing a screw expeller machine. The extracted crude oil was filteredthrough filter tool to remove impurities contained in the crude oil.The oil yields obtained was expressed in terms of weight percent-age of the samples and calculated as:

Oil contentð%Þ ¼ Final weight of oil extractedðgÞTotal weight of seedðgÞ � 100%

2.3. Biodiesel production

The crude oil has high FFA (2% wt. of FFA and above) which willreact undesirably with the alkali catalyst and cause the formation of

Fig. 2. J. curcas, C. pentandra and C. inophyllum seed before and after peeling.

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soap. Therefore, degumming and two-step transesterification pro-cesses are needed to convert the crude oil to methyl ester. The re-action was carried out using 0.5% vol. of H3PO4 20% concentrationadded to crude oil at a temperature of 60 �C for 30 min in a doublejacketed.

After that, 1 L of degummed oil with 9:1 M ratio of methanol tooil and 1% vol. of H2SO4 were mixed in a reactor at 60 �C and astirring speed of 1000 rpm for 2 h. After the reaction is completed,the products were poured into a separating funnel and left for 4 h toseparate the excess alcohol, H2SO4 and impurities. Then, theesterified oil was transferred into a rotary evaporator under vac-uum conditions at 65 �C for 1 h to remove extra methanol andwater.

Then, 0.23% wt. of NaHCO3 is diluted into 100 ml of distillatedwater and added to the esterified oil. In this process, the reactionwas stirred constantly and maintained for 30 min. At the upperlayer, the neutralized oil was separated and removed from waterand glycerol.

After that, neutralized oil was reacted with 9:1 M ratio ofmethanol and 1% wt. of NaOH maintained at 50 �C and a stirringspeed of 1000 rpm for 1 h. Then, the produced biodiesel wasdeposited in a separation funnel for 6 h to separate glycerol frombiodiesel. The lower layer which contained impurities, excessmethanol and glycerol was drawn off.

The methyl ester produced was transferred into a rotary evap-orator to remove the remaining methanol. Then, the methyl esterwas washed with distilled water several times to remove theentrained impurities glycerol. In this process, 50% vol. of distilledwater at 50 �Cwas sprayed over the surface of the esters and stirredgently. After that, the methyl ester was dried using CaCl2 anhydrousfor 1 day then Na2SO4 for 3 h and filtered by a paper filter. Finally,the methyl ester was purified further using a rotary evaporator at65 �C for 1 h to remove the water from biodiesel completely.

2.4. Biodiesel diesel blending

The preparation of biodiesel diesel blends was done at 26 �C by abeaker glass precisely on a volume basis followed by agitation at2000 rpm for 30min to ensure homogeneity. The 10%, 20%, 30% and50% of biodiesel were used to mix with diesel fuel which waslabeled as B10, B20, B30, and B50 respectively.

2.5. Fuel properties

The properties of crude oil, produced biodiesel and biodieselblends were measured in the Energy Efficiency Laboratory at theMechanical of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia. The biodiesel standard testing methods was following toAmerican standards (ASTM D6751) and European Union (EN14214). Each property test was repeated for three times and themean value was calculated for each sample. The list of equipmentused for the properties test and the uncertainty calculation aredescribed in Tables 1and 2.

Besides, the fatty acid compositions of CJCO (contains in crude J.curcas oil), CCPO (crude C. pentandra oil) and CCIO (crude C. ino-phyllum oil) were identified by gas chromatography Agilent 7890(California, USA) equipped with FID (flame ionization detector) andfollow EN 14105 specifications.

2.6. Experimental setup and method for engine test

The engine test was conducted on a single cylinder, four strokeand direct injection engine. The engine was coupled with an Eddycurrent dynamometer and Auto-controller system. The specifica-tions of the engine and dynamometer are shown in Table 3 and

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

Table 1List of apparatus used for properties test.

Property Apparatus Standard method Statistical error

Kinematic viscosity NVB classic (Normalab, France), Stabinger ViscometerSVM 3000 (Anton Paar, Austria)

ASTM D445 �0.01 mm2/s

Density DM40 LiquiPhysics� density meter (Mettler Toledo, Switzerland) ASTM D127 �0.1 kg/m3

Flash point NPM 440 Pensky-martens flash point tester (Normalab, France) ASTM D93 �0.1 �CCloud and pour point NTE 450 Cloud and pour point tester (Normalab, France) ASTM D2500 �0.1 �CCalorific value 6100 EF Semi auto bomb calorimeter (Perr, USA) ASTM D240 �0.001 MJ/kgAcid number and

iodine valueAutomation titration rondo 20 (Mettler Toledo, Switzerland) ASTMD664 and

EN 14111Acid number � 0.001 mgKOH/g, iodine value �0.1 g I2/100 g and deviation 0.001%

Canradsons carbon residue(100 sample)

NMC 440 micro-Carbone conradson residue tester(Normalab, France)

ASTM D4530 �0.01%

Copper strip corrosion(3 h at 50 �C)

Seta copper corrosion bath 11300-0 (Stanhope-Seta, UK) ASTM D130 e

Sulphate ash content Professional laboratory furnace Model L40/11(Nabertherm, Germany)

ASTM D874 �0.001%

Sulfur content (S 15grade and S500 grade)

Multi EA 5000 (Analytical jena, Germany) ASTM D6667 �0.001 ppm

Oxidation stability, 110 �C 873 Rancimat (Metrohm, Switzerland) EN 14112 �0.01 hMethanol content Agilent 7890 gas chromatograph (Agilent, USA) EN 14110 �0.008% or 0.0008 minFAME content EN 14103Cetane number 92000-3 Ignition quality tester (IQT�) (Stanhope-Seta, UK) ASTM D6890 �0.1Water content 837 KF coulometer (Metrohm, Switzerland) EN ISO 12937 �0.001% vol.Carbon CE 440 CHN Elemental Analyzer (EIA, USA) ASTM D5291 �0.001% wt.HydrogenOxygen

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e19 5

Table 4 respectively. Moreover, the schematic layout of the exper-imental setup is shown in Fig. 3. BOSCH BEA 150 was used toanalyze the exhaust emissions from the engine. These included; CO(carbon monoxide), CO2 (carbon dioxide), HC (hydrocarbon), NOx

(oxides of nitrogen) and smoke opacity. The measurement rangeand accuracy of instruments used are given in Table 5. A filter gasanalyzer was used to collect smoke samples from the enginethrough a smoke sampling sensor to measure smoke opacity. Priorto testing, the analyzers were calibrated and maintained separatelyusing the sample gases supplied by BOSCH (Robert Bosch Sdn Bhd,Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia).

The experimental work started with a preliminary investigationof the engine running on diesel. It is used to determine the engineoperating characteristics and exhaust levels constituting the base-line. The same procedure was repeated for each fuel blends bykeeping the same operating conditions. The engine was tested at100% throttle open wide at various speeds from 1500 rpm to2400 rpm with an interval of 100 rpm. During the experiment, theengine was started with diesel fuel and warmed up until reaching astable condition. The same procedures were repeated for the threedifferent blends of JCME, CPME and CIME. The volumetric flow ratewas measured with a fuel meter (KoBOLD rate totalizer). The sig-nals obtained from various sensors were fed to engine indicator forstoring the data and interfacing with computer. The stored datawere analyzed using an analysis software package. Furthermore,the Bsfc, engine power and exhaust gas temperature was evaluatedusing Dynomax-2000 software. Also, the engine emission

Table 2Uncertainty of properties.

Main properties Units Uncertainty

�Kinematic viscosity mm2/s 1.39Density kg/m3 0.05Acid value mg KOH/g 1.22Flash point �C 0.26Calorific value MJ/kg 1.51

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parameters from the pipe exhaust gas analyzer were noted andrecorded. The experiment was repeated three times for each fuelblend. All engine performance and emissions characteristics wereconducted in The Heat Engine Laboratory at Mechanical of Engi-neering, University of Malaya.

3. Biodiesel properties analysis

The fatty acid composition of the three crude oils were analyzedand illustrated in Fig. 4. The main fatty acid contains in crudeJ. curcas oil (CJCO) are oleic (44.5%) followed by linoleic (35.4%),palmitic (13.0%) and stearic (5.8%). CJCO consists 80.9% of unsatu-rated fatty acids (oleic and linoleic acids) indicated that it has lowtemperature properties. The crude C. inophyllum oil (CCIO) alsocontains higher amount of unsaturated fatty oleic (46.1%) andlinoleic acid (24.7%) than saturated fatty palmitic acids (14.7%) andstearic acid (13.2%). Besides, the crude C. pentandra oil (CCPO)contains linoleic acid (39.7%), palmitic acid (19.2%) and 18.5% ofmalvaloyl acid. The similar composition results of CJCO, CCIO andCCPO also reported by Sarin et al. [23], Atabani et al. [24], andAbdullah et al. [18] respectively. The fatty acid composition struc-ture has direct correlation to biodiesel properties. Generally, non-edible oil composed by high number of double carbon chain andthis structural fatty acid composition will influence the physico-chemical properties of biodiesel such as cetane number, oxidation

Table 3Technical specification of the test engine.

Type TF 120 M Yanmar

Injection system Direct injectionCylinder number 1Cylinder bore � stroke volume 92 mm � 96 mmDisplacement 0.638 LCompression ratio 17.7:1Maximum power 7.7 kWMaximum engine speed 2400 rpmCooling system Water coolingInjection timing 17.0 bTDCInjection pressure 200 kg/cm2

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

Table 4Technical data and specification of dynamometer and controller unit.

Technical specification of dynamometer

Maximum power 20 kWMaximum speed 10,000 rpmMaximum torque 80 NMWater consumption for

maximum power14 L/min

Water pressure 23 lbf/in2

Electricity requirement 220V, 60 Hz, 0.5ATechnical specification of the dynamometer control unitModel Auto-ETS1 OM12CAccuracy 0.10%Precision 0.005% � 1 digitWeight measurement Linear (load cell)Speed measurement SensorScreen type 7 Segment 5 LED Character height 10 mmPower VDC � 10% @ 50 mA maxOperation temperature 0 �C to 70 �COperation voltage 230 VAC � 10% 50-60 HZOutput PC interface with Dyno2000� software

Fig. 3. Schematic layout of single cylinder dire

Table 5The specification of the gas analyzer device.

Technical dataExhaust component Measurement range ResolutionCO 0.000e10.00% vol. 0.001% vol.CO2 0.00e18.00% vol. 0.01% vol.HC 0e9999 ppm vol. 1 ppm vol.NOx 0e5000 ppm vol. �1 ppm vol.Smoke opacity meter moduleMeasured quantity Measurement range ResolutionDegree of opacity 0e100% 0.10%Oil temperatureMeasured quantity Measurement range ResolutionTemperature �20 to þ150 �C 0.16 �C

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e196

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stability heat of combustion and viscosity [25]. Pinzi et al. [26] re-ported that high carbon chain length lead to higher the heatingvalue and will greatly influence the cold properties of biodiesel. Thehigh number of saturation chain level will reduce the cloud point ofbiodiesel. In other words, higher concentrations of unsaturatedfatty acids can improve cloud point and cold filter plugging pointsfor biodiesel [27].

ct injection diesel engine test bed setup.

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

CJCO CCPO CCIO

Fatty

aci

d co

mpo

sitio

n (%

)

Curde oil

C12:0C14:0C16:0C16:1C18:0C18:1C18:2C18:3C20:0Malvaloyl (18:*CE)

Fig. 4. Free fatty acid composition of three non-edible feedstock.

Table 6The properties of crude oils.

Properties CJCO CCPO CCIO

Oil content (%) 60 35 75Kinematic viscosity at 40 �C (mm2/s) 28.35 34.45 53.17Density at 15 �C (kg/m3) 915.1 905.2 951.1Free fatty acid (%) 16.35 23.4 29.66Acid value (mg KOH/g) 32.73 46.26 59.33Flash point (�C) 190.5 170.5 195.5Calorific value (MJ/kg) 38.96 39.58 38.51pH at 26 �C 4.63 4.23 4.60

Table 7The properties of diesel and biodiesel.

Properties Unit Dieselfuel

Jatropha curcasbiodiesel

Jab

Viscosity kinematic at 40 �C mm2/s 2.91 4.08 4Density at 15 �C kg/m3 839.0 860.0 8Acid value mg KOH/g 0.15 0.28 0Calorific value MJ/kg 45.82 40.22 4Flash point �C 71.5 160.5 e

Pour point �C 1.0 2.0 e

Cloud point �C 2.0 2.8 e

Cold filter plugging point �C �8.0 1.0 e

Cetane number e 49.7 58.2 e

Carbon %wt. 88.5 72.5 e

Hydrogen %wt. 13.5 12.8 e

Oxygen %wt. 0.0 11.80 e

Flash point �C 71.5 160.5 e

Pour point �C 1.0 2.0 e

Cloud point �C 2.0 2.8 e

Cold filter plugging point �C �8.0 1.0 e

Water content %vol. 0.0038 0.035 0Ester content % m/m e 97.0 e

Methanol content % m/m e 0.04 0Copper strip corrosion at 50 �C 3 h e 1a 1a e

Iodine value g I2/100 g e 105 1Sulphated ash % wt. 0.02 0.003 0Sulphur content (S 15 grade) ppm e 8.01 e

Sulphur content (S 500 grade) ppm 449.65 e e

Phosphorous content mg/kg e 3 e

Conradson carbon residue(100% sample)

%wt. 0.187 0.02 0

Oxidation stability hours, 110 �C hours 23.70 9.41 e

Phosphorus content mg/kg e 3 3Total contamination mg/kg e 3.5 3Group I Metal (Na þ K) mg/kg e 2.5 e

Group II Metal (Ca þ Mg) mg/kg e <1 e

a Achten, 2010.b Sivakumar et al., 2013.c Sahoo and Das, 2009.

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e19 7

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The physicochemical properties of crude oil, biodiesel and dieselwere measured and the results are shown in Table 6 and Table 7. Itcan be seen that the viscosity was reduced after transesterificationprocess which the viscosity for JCME, CPME and CIME beingreduced to 4.08 mm2/s, 4.16 mm2/s, and 4.17 mm2/s respectively.This indicates the effectiveness of this production approach and theviability of this feedstock for biodiesel conversion. Moreover, thedensity range was 860e880 kg/m3 at 15 �C which is an acceptableresult. The obtained flash point was 160.5 �C, 156.5 �C and 168.5 �Cfor JCME, CPME and CIME respectively which satisfies ASTM and ENbiodiesel standards. Water content was found to be 0.035%, 0.045%and 0.018% for JCME, CPME and CIME respectively. Additionally, thegross calorific values were found to be 40.22 MJ/kg, 40.49 MJ/kgand 40.10 MJ/kg for JCME, CPME and CIME respectively. Copperstrip corrosion of three methyl ester was found to be 1a and 1b.Iodine value was found to be 105 g I2/100 g, 107 g I2/100 g and 109 gI2/100 g for JCME, SFME and CPME respectively. All the physico-chemical properties obtained for JCME, CPME and CIME satisfiedthe ASTM and EN biodiesel standards. Furthermore, the FFA contentand acid value of those biodiesel was also in line within the ASTMand EN biodiesel standards which has a maximum value of lessthan 0.5%.

The properties of three methyl ester blending with diesel weregiven in Table 8. The experimental results revealed that blendingwith diesel has significant improvement of the final biodiesel blendproperties. The viscosity of biodiesel blends were decreased withthe increase of petro diesel ratios in the blends. Additionally, theflash point of biodiesel blends is comparatively higher than petrodiesel. Thus, it showed that biodiesel is safe for storage and suitable

trophaiodiesela

Ceiba pentandrabiodiesel

Ceibabiodieselb

Calophylluminophyllum biodiesel

Polangabiodieselc

.84 4.16 4.17 4.27 4.3964.0 876.9 876 878.5 889.0.50 0.38 0.36 0.45 e

1.00 40.49 e 40.10 41.39156.5 169 168.5 e

2.5 e 2.0 4.33.0 e 2.0 13.21.0 e 1.0 e

57.2 47 59.6 e

78.0 e 82.0 e

12.0 e 12.5 e

11.68 e 11.72 e

156.5 e 168.5 e

2.5 e 2.0 e

3.0 e 2.0 e

1.0 e 1.0 e

.07 0.045 0.031 0.018 e

98.6 e 97.6 e

.06 0.02 0.042 0.01 e

1a e 1b e

06.0 107 e 109 e

.005 0.005 0.01 0.001 e

13.97 e 11.91 e

e e e e

4 e 6 e

.02 0.029 e 0.035 e

4.42 e 13.08 e

4 e 6 e

.6 5.5 e 6.2 e

5.0 4.2 5.0 e

<1 2.0 <1 e

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

Table 8Comparison properties of non-edible biodiesel blends.

Biodieselblends

Viscosity(mm2/s)

Density(kg/m3)

Flash point(�C)

Pour point(�C)

Cloud point(�C)

Calorific value(MJ/kg)

Acid value(mg KOH/g)

Oxidationstability (h)

Cetanenumber

JCB10 3.46 839.9 82.5 1.1 2.8 45.25 0.17 20.82 51.6JCB20 3.55 845.2 82.5 2.0 3.6 44.24 0.18 15.82 52.2JCB30 3.92 851.2 84.5 2.0 3.6 43.85 0.19 11.83 53.3JCB50 4.01 860.6 94.5 3.0 4.0 42.11 0.23 10.12 55.6CPB10 3.51 851.3 81.5 0.0 1.0 44.47 0.17 20.82 50.2CPB20 3.58 854.0 82.5 0.0 1.9 43.15 0.18 15.82 51.7CPB30 3.96 855.0 85.5 2.0 2.0 42.85 0.20 11.82 52.4CPB50 4.12 864.5 94.5 2.0 2.5 40.59 0.26 10.90 54.6CIB10 3.55 851.0 77.5 0.0 4.0 42.53 0.17 25.08 52.4CIB20 3.61 855.1 79.5 2.0 4.0 41.50 0.19 24.08 53.9CIB30 3.98 857.9 82.5 3.0 5.0 40.47 0.22 20.08 55.8CIB50 4.25 867.9 83.5 4.0 4.0 40.16 0.28 19.26 56.7

(a)

(b)

(c)

15

20

25

30

35

40

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

Tor

que

(N.m

)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

JCB 10

JCB 20

JCB 30

JCB 50

15

20

25

30

35

40

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

Tor

que

(N.m

)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CPB 10

CPB 20

CPB 30

CPB 50

15

20

25

30

35

40

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

Tor

que

(N.m

)

Speed

Petrol diesel

CIB 10

CIB 20

CIB 30

CIB 50

Fig. 5. Torque vs. engine speed for biodiesel blend compared with petrol diesel at full load (a) J. curcas, (b) C. pentandra and (c) C. inophyllum.

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e198

Please cite this article in press as: Ong HC, et al., Engine performance and emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophylluminophyllum biodiesel in a CI diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

(a)

(b)

(c)

2.02.22.42.62.83.03.23.43.63.8

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

Bra

ke p

ower

(kW

)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

JCB 10

JCB 20

JCB 30

JCB 50

2.02.22.42.62.83.03.23.43.63.8

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

Bra

ke p

ower

(kW

)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CPB 10

CPB 20

CPB 30

CPB 50

2.02.22.42.62.83.03.23.43.63.8

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

Bra

ke p

ower

(kW

)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CIB 10

CIB 20

CIB 30

CIB 50

Fig. 6. Brake power vs. engine speed for biodiesel blend compared with petrol diesel at full load (a) J. curcas, (b) C. pentandra and (c) C. inophyllum.

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e19 9

for use as a transportation fuel. The calorific value of biodieseldiesel blends was less than diesel (45.825 MJ/kg). Moreover, thephysicochemical properties of three biodiesels were improved byblending with diesel. Biodiesel blending will offer a dual benefit forbiodiesel and diesel.

4. Performance analysis

4.1. Engine torque

The effect of the biodiesel diesel blends and diesel on enginetorque is investigated at full load conditions. The variation ofengine torque is shown in Fig. 5aec. As seen from the figures,engine torque was low at lower speeds and increased untilreaching the optimum speed at 1900 rpm. A maximum enginetorque of JCB10 (34.92 Nm), CPB10 (32.10 Nm) and CIB10 (32.03Nm) was measured at 1900 rpm. However, torque values were

Please cite this article in press as: Ong HC, et al., Engine performance aninophyllum biodiesel in a CI diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.or

reduced when increasing the blending ratio of biodiesel. Thereasons for higher torque produced by B10 are due to the lowerdensity and viscosity of B10 compared to other biodiesel blendratios. The engine torque for petrol diesel fuel is approximately8.80% higher than CPB10 and CIB10 at 1900 rpm except for JCB10.The higher engine torque of JCB revealed the ability on engineworking better than CPB and CIB. This shows that JCB has ach-ieved more on engine requirement than CPB and CIB. This ispredominantly due decrease in calorific value of fuel with in-crease in biodiesel percentage in the blends. This is showed thatthe calorific value plays a key role in determining the enginetorque. This kind of variation in engine torque was investigated byDhar et al. [28] which show that the maximum torque producedby 10% karanja oil methyl ester and 20% karanja oil methyl esterwere higher than mineral diesel. Kumar et al. [29] reviewed thatB10e30 coconut oil in the blend produced higher engine torquethan diesel.

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

(a)

(b)

(c)

200220240260280300320340360380400420

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

Bsf

c (g

/kW

h)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

JCB 10

JCB 20

JCB 30

JCB 50

250270290310330350370390410430450

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

Bsf

c (g

/Wh)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CPB 10

CPB 20

CPB 30

CPB 50

250

270

290

310

330

350

370

390

410

430

450

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

Bsf

c (g

/kW

h)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CIB 10

CIB 20

CIB 30

CIB 50

Fig. 7. Bsfc vs. engine speed for biodiesel blend compared with petrol diesel at full load (a) J. curcas, (b) C. pentandra and (c) C. inophyllum.

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e1910

4.2. Brake power

The effect of brake power with engine speed for diesel, JCB,CPB and CIB oil are shown in Fig. 6ae6c. The maximum brakepowers of JCB10, CPB10 and CIB10 were 3.71 kW, 3.31 kW and3.20 kW respectively at 1900 rpm. It was observed that JCB hashigher brake power compared to CPB and CIB. On the other hand,the maximum brake power of petrol diesel was 3.55 kW at1900 rpm and this is higher than CPB and CIB. The poor mixtureformation, higher viscosity and density of CPB and CIB caused thelower brake power. However, generally the engine power ofbiodiesel blends is slightly lower than petrol diesel. The lowcalorific value of the biodiesel blends caused the bad combustion.

Please cite this article in press as: Ong HC, et al., Engine performance aninophyllum biodiesel in a CI diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.or

Furthermore, JCB as an oxygenated fuel has a beneficial effect oncombustion especially in fuel rich zones. Therefore, more com-plete combustion results in increasing the torque and power.However, B20 and above can reduce combustion quality due tooffset by the low calorific value and high viscosity (Table 8). Thisagree with many researcher expressed that power reduced due tolow calorific value [30]. Usta et al. [31] investigated the amount ofbiodiesel blend increased to 25% can generate lower power(1.91%) than tobacco seed methyl ester. The trend implies thatratio biodiesel increased will reduce power in diesel engine. Thisargument also noted by Kalam et al. [32] which stated that thepercentage of biodiesel diesel blends very important in engineperformance.

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

(a)

(b)

(c)

0.18

0.20

0.22

0.24

0.26

0.28

0.30

0.32

0.34

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

BT

E (

%)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

JCB 10

JCB 20

JCB 30

JCB 50

0.150.170.190.210.230.250.270.290.310.33

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

BT

E (

%)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CPB 10

CPB 20

CPB 30

CPB 50

0.150.170.190.210.230.250.270.290.310.33

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

BT

E (

%)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CIB 10

CIB 20

CIB 30

CIB 50

Fig. 8. BTE vs. engine speed for biodiesel blend compared with petrol diesel at full load (a) J. curcas, (b) C. pentandra and (c) C. inophyllum.

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e19 11

4.3. Brake specific fuel consumption

Fig. 7ae7c shows the brake specific fuel consumption forbiodiesel blends and diesel fuel. The lowest Bsfc for JCB10, CPB10and CIB10 were measured as 261 g/kWh, 281 g/kWh and 290 g/kWh at 1900 rpm. However, the highest Bsfc obtained for JCB50,CPB50 and CIB50 were 401 g/kWh, 429 g/kWh and 433 g/kWhrespectively at 2400 rpm. At high speed, the friction heat losesand deteriorating combustion increased the Bsfc. The lower vis-cosity and density of B10 (Table 8) reduced Bsfc and it shows thatJCB has the lowest fuel consumption due to lower viscosity anddensity compared to CPB and CIB. It is believed that this decreaseoccurred in Bsfc as a result of better physical and chemical

Please cite this article in press as: Ong HC, et al., Engine performance aninophyllum biodiesel in a CI diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.or

properties of biodiesel blends for combustion at medium speeds.Besides, the Bsfc increases for B20, B30 and B50 shows high fuelconsumption due to the lower calorific value of B20, B30 and B50.It is because the fact that engine consumes more fuel with B20,B30 and B50 than B10 and diesel fuel to develop the same poweroutput. Furthermore, the higher density of biodiesel blendscaused higher mass injection for the same volume at the sameinjection pressure. Therefore, the Bsfc for B20, B30 and B50 werehigher than B10 and diesel fuel. Similar trends of Bsfc decrease inB10 and increase in B20eB50 were also reported by Mofijur et al.and Buyukaya [12,30]. In addition, the general Bsfc was founddecrease in B10 compared to diesel fuel. It can be concluded thatB10 is the optimum blending level for higher power and torque

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

(a)

(b)

(c)

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

EG

T (

o C)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

JCB 10

JCB 20

JCB 30

JCB 50

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

EG

T (

o C)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CPB 10

CPB 20

CPB 30

CPB 50

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

EG

T (

o C)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CIB 10

CIB 20

CIB 30

CIB 50

Fig. 9. EGT vs. engine speed for biodiesel blend compared with diesel at full load (a) J. curcas, (b) C. pentandra and (c) C. inophyllum.

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e1912

output with lower brake specific fuel consumption. This indicatesthat using B10 increased oxygen content and higher combustionrate at the same engine power on full load conditions as well asat various engine speeds.

4.4. Brake thermal efficiency

The brake thermal efficiency of the engine for petrol dieseland various biodiesel blends (B10, B20, B30 and B50) are shownin Fig. 8ae8c. The results show that brake thermal efficiencieshave similar trends with the petrol diesel for all biodiesel blend

Please cite this article in press as: Ong HC, et al., Engine performance aninophyllum biodiesel in a CI diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.or

fuels. The optimum BTE of CPB10 (28.82%) and CIB10 (25.66%)were lower compared to petrol diesel (30.62%), except JCB10(31.53%) is higher than petrol diesel. The B20, B30 and B50 for allbiodiesel blends show the lowest performance. This is due thepresence of oxygen in biodiesel blends caused by an increase infuel supply to the chamber which is reducing the combustionprocess. Therefore, the thermal efficiency for B20, B30 and B50were lower than B10. The facts show that biodiesel fuel blendsoffer almost the same power output with slightly lower thermalefficiency when used in a diesel engine. Moreover, JCB resulted inhigher brake thermal efficiency than CPB and CIB. It is seen that

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

(a)

(b)

(c)

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

NO

x(p

pm v

ol.)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

JCB 10

JCB 20

JCB 30

JCB 50

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

NO

x(p

pm v

ol.)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CPB 10

CPB 20

CPB 30

CPB 50

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

NO

x (p

pm v

ol.)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CIB 10

CIB 20

CIB 30

CIB 50

Fig. 10. NOx emission vs. engine speed for biodiesel blend compared with petrol diesel at full load (a) J. curcas, (b) C. pentandra and (c) C. inophyllum.

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e19 13

the operation of the engine is smooth on JCB than CPB and CIB.This enhances the fuel atomization leading to improved fuel airmixing. Besides, JCB10 has oxygenated fuel give better fuelcombustion and improved the thermal efficiency compared todiesel fuel. Muralidharan et al. [33] reported that the oxygencontent of the blends is sustained in the diffusive combustionphase and improve ignition delay for the combustion analysis.Another researcher summarized that the parameters such as fueltype, fuel quality, engine speed, cetane number, quality of fuelatomization and pressure influence are the important parameteraffecting the ignition delay [34]. Devan et al. [35]investigated thatthe brake thermal efficiency of 40% poon oil methyl ester blendswas higher compared to 100% poon oil methyl ester due to lowercalorific value and high viscosity. Biodiesel has high cetanenumber compared to diesel fuel which will give good ignitionquality [36]. This parameter can affect the combustion phasing tobe more precisely and reduce the sensitivity of the combustionprocess on fuels [37].

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4.5. Exhaust gas temperature

The variation of exhaust gas temperatures with engine speedfor different biodiesel blends are shown in Fig. 9aec. The EGT hasrisen with the increase of engine speed for all the test fuels. Thehighest EGT is observed to be 498 �C (JCB50), 497 �C (CPB50) and505 �C (CIB50) at 2400 rpm. Overall, EGT of CIB is the highestfollowed by CPB and JCB with the lowest exhaust gas tempera-ture. Higher oxygen quantity for JCB50, CPB50 and CIB50 in theintake air-fuel ratio causes high activation energy to complete thechemical reaction in the chamber. Therefore, JCB50, CPB50 andCIB50 have higher EGT than other biodiesel blends and dieselwhich affects high flame temperature and will produce high NOx

emissions. Kumar et al. [29] reviewed that biodiesel diesel blendshas higher EGT and it will increase Bsfc compared to diesel fuel. Itwas agreed with the Bsfc in this study (section 4.3). However, EGTis affected by ignition delay. A biodiesel has longer ignition delayand slower burning rate [31]. This is may be due to the higher

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

(a)

(b)

(c)

15

17

19

21

2325

27

29

31

33

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

HC

(pp

m v

ol.)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

JCB 10

JCB 20

JCB 30

JCB 50

15

17

19

21

23

25

27

29

31

33

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

HC

(pp

m v

ol.)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CPB 10

CPB 20

CPB 30

CPB 50

1517192123252729313335

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

HC

(pp

m v

ol.)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CIB 10

CIB 20

CIB 30

CIB 50

Fig. 11. HC emission vs. engine speed for biodiesel blend compared with petrol diesel at full load (a) J. curcas, (b) C. pentandra and (c) C. inophyllum.

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e1914

boiling points that not adequately evaporated during the maincombustion phase and continued to burn in the late combustionphase [35]. This resulted to CIB and CPB have higher EGT andlower BTE. At the same time, diesel has lowest EGT compared toall fuels. The reason may be higher calorific value and shortercombustion phase. In addition, Lin et al. [38] was observed thathigher EGT lead increase NOx due to lower thermal efficiency.This is an indication of higher EGT and it could be the possiblereason for lower performance for all CIB and CPB. Furthermore,EGT for JCB especially JCB10 is slightly higher than diesel andthere is not much value than among blends. This could be due tolow volatility which effects the spray formation in combustionchamber and thus leads to slow combustion.

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5. Emissions analysis

5.1. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)

The NOx emissions for different biodiesel blends and petroldiesel are shown in Fig.10ae10c. As seen from the figure, the lowestNOx produced was 86.10 ppm (JCB10), 91.56 ppm (CPB10) and99.27 ppm (CIB10) at 1900 rpm and the highest NOx produced was120.36 ppm (JCB50), 120.77 ppm (CPB50) and 133.33 ppm (CIB50)at 2400 rpm. However, the lowest NOx produced for petrol dieselwas 67.66 ppm at 1800 rpm and 88.10 ppmwas highest emission at1500 rpm. In addition, JCB50, CPB50 and CIB50 have high viscositywhich reduces injection timings in the combustion process. This

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

(a)

(b)

(c)

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

CO

2(%

vol.)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

JCB 10

JCB 20

JCB 30

JCB 50

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

CO

2(%

vol.)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CPB 10

CPB 20

CPB 30

CPB 50

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

CO

2 (%

vol.)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CIB 10

CIB 20

CIB 30

CIB 50

Fig. 12. CO2 emission vs. engine speed for biodiesel blend compared with petrol diesel at full load (a) J. curcas, (b) C. pentandra and (c) C. inophyllum.

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e19 15

process led to higher NOx emissions. Moreover, the previous section(Section 4.5) showed the relationship between EGT and for JCB50,CPB50 and CIB50which explains that increasing the biodiesel blendratio in the fuel gives a higher EGT and higher NOx emissions. It isproven that high cetane number (Table 8) needs high chemicalreaction in the chamber for JCB50, CPB50 and CIB50. This provesthat the most important factor for the emissions of NOx is thecombustion temperature in the engine cylinder and the local stoi-chiometry of the mixture. Additionally, biodiesel diesel blends hashigher NOx emissions compared to diesel fuel. Moreover, RizwanulFattah et al. [39] stated that NOx increases due to higher combus-tion temperature, longer combustion duration and oxygen con-centration in biodiesel. Besides, B20 produced higher NOx emissionof 16.9% compared to diesel fuel. Kivevele et al. [40] observed thatformation of NOx is affected by the peak flame temperature and it

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can be associated with oxygen content (10�11%) in biodiesel.Panwar et al. agreed that exhaust temperatures of biodiesel dieselblends was higher than diesel caused an increased in NOx emissions[41].

5.2. HC (Hydrocarbon emission)

Fig. 11ae11c show the HC emissions for J. curcas biodiesel,C. pentandra biodiesel and C. inophyllum biodiesel blendscompared to petrol diesel. There was an increase in HC emissionsfor biodiesel blends at full load compared to petrol diesel. It isseen that HC emissions were 30.73 ppm (JCB50), 30.86 ppm(CPB50) and 31.96 ppm (CIB50) and petrol diesel was around27.56 ppm at 1900 rpm. These effects of biodiesel blends vis-cosity on the fuel spray quality would produce more HC

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

(a)

(b)

(c)

0.020

0.040

0.060

0.080

0.100

0.120

0.140

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

CO

(%

vol.)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

JCB 10

JCB 20

JCB 30

JCB 50

0.020

0.040

0.060

0.080

0.100

0.120

0.140

0.160

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

CO

(%

vol.)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CPB 10

CPB 20

CPB 30

CPB 50

0.020

0.040

0.060

0.080

0.100

0.120

0.140

0.160

0.180

1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400

CO

(%

vol.)

Speed (rpm)

Petrol diesel

CIB 10

CIB 20

CIB 30

CIB 50

Fig. 13. CO emission vs. engine speed for biodiesel blend compared with petrol diesel at full load (a) J. curcas, (b) C. pentandra and (c) C. inophyllum.

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e1916

emissions. The high viscosity of biodiesel blends leads to poorcombustion when the engine operates at high speed. However,10% of biodiesel blends produced lesser HC emissions comparedto petrol diesel which are 18.66 ppm (JCB10), 19.03 ppm (CPB10)and 19.08 ppm (CIB10) at 1900 rpm. The presence of oxygencontent in biodiesel and lower viscosity leads to more completeand cleaner combustion that caused the reduction in HC emis-sions. Additionally, the carbon chain lengths of the biodieselcompounds have a significant influence on HC emissions. HCemissions from CPB10 were lower than JCB10 and CIB10 due tothe carbon chain length of C. pentandra being shorter thanJ. curcas and C. inophyllum (Fig. 4). Cetane number of JCB10higher than all blends and diesel contributed to shorter delayignition period and give better combustion leading to producelow HC emission. Also, the percentage oxygen contained in bio-diesel was responsible to reduce in HC emission. Devan andMahalakshmi [35] investigated that 20% poon oil biodiesel has

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higher HC compared to diesel fuel. This is due to the properties ofbiodiesel blends such as density and viscosity have a greaterinfluence on hydrocarbon emissions. Higher viscosity and den-sity may lead to higher fuel spray droplet size for poon oil and itsblends with diesel fuel, compared with that of standard dieselfuel. Moreover, Misra and Murthy [42] reported that increasedunburnt hydrocarbon emissions of soapnoat biodiesel show thecombustion in the engine is not proper and B10 has lower un-burnt hydrocarbon emissions. Roy et al. [43] found that B5 forcanola biodiesel has lowest HC compare to other biodiesel dieselblends ratio. Mofijur et al. [44] found that 5% moringa biodieseland 5% palm biodiesel have lower HC emission compared thandiesel fuel in multi cylinder engine. These reductions areattributed to the high oxygen contents of these biodiesel fuels.Furthermore, Kegl et al. [45] observed that the high values of HCemission are obtained at lower engine speeds for biodiesel anddiesel fuels.

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

(a)

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Fig. 14. Smoke opacity vs. engine speed for biodiesel blend compared with petrol diesel at full load (a) J. curcas, (b) C. pentandra and (c) C. inophyllum.

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e19 17

5.3. CO2 (Carbon dioxides)

Fig. 12aec illustrates the CO2 (carbon dioxide) emissions versusengine speed. The CO2 emissions decreased with an increase in thebiodiesel blends ratio. The highest CO2 emission is around 3.98%(JCB10), 3.32% (CPB10) and 3.17% (CIB10) at 1900 rpm. However, thelowest CO2 for JCB50, CPB50 and CIB50 was obtained as 2.36%,2.33% and 2.24% at 1500 rpm respectively. Moreover, the highestCO2 emission of diesel fuel was found to be 3.82% at 1900 rpm. Thehigher biodiesel blends ratio emits lower amount of CO2 emissionas a consequence of higher viscosity of biodiesel. The CO2 emissionof JCB was higher than CPB and CIB because of JCB has lower vis-cosity (Table 7) compared to other biodiesel blends. This result wasagreed with Sureshkumar et al. [46] whose investigated that

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pongamia pinnata methyl ester emit CO2 higher compared thandiesel at higher load. The high cetane number of pongamia pinnatamethyl ester will cause the auto ignition and then increase the CO2emission. Besides, Chauhan et al. [3] observed the CO2 emissions ofdiesel fuel are lower than karanja biodiesel and its blends. This isbecause biodiesel and its blends contain more oxygen elementwhich given better combustion phase.

5.4. CO (Carbon monoxide)

Fig. 13ae13c shows the variation of CO emissions with enginespeed for biodiesel blends and diesel fuel. The CO emission was thelowest at JCB10 (0.041%) and petrol diesel (0.049%) compared toCPB10 (0.064%) and CIB10 (0.073%) when operating at 100% load. It

d emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllumg/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035

H.C. Ong et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e1918

is clear that CO emissions significantly decreased when the bio-diesel blend ratio is reduced. Moreover, the measured density andviscosity of CIB were higher than JCB and CPB which is shown inTable 7. This may be attributed to JCB and CPB which have bettercombustion velocity and reduce the CO emissions. Thus, CIB hasproduced higher CO emission than JCB and CPB. Sanjid et al. [47]also found that biodiesel fuel have lower CO emissions comparedto diesel fuel due to lower density and viscosity which will lead togood fuel atomization and spray formation. It is noted that COemissions related to EGTwhereas JCB10 has lower EGT (Section 4.5)compared than CIB10 and CPB10. This is indicates JCB10 results inearlier combustion and longer expansion period.

5.5. Smoke opacity

Smoke emissions are the main problems in diesel engines. Inthis study, smoke measurement was carried out for all biodieselblends and petrol diesel using a gas analyzer. The variations ofsmoke opacity are shown in Fig. 14ae14c. Smoke opacity wasobserved and appeared visually lower than petrol diesel fuel for allbiodiesel blends. The smoke opacity was found to be 20.57%(JCB50), 21.46% (CPB50) and 22.88% (CIB50) compared with petroldiesel (30.19%) at 1900 rpm. The formation of smoke opacity resultsfrom incomplete burning of the hydrocarbon and carbon particlesin the fuel. On the other hand, the oxygen content of biodieselmight be favorable in reducing the smoke emissions. It was giventhat CIB has higher smoke opacity compared to JCB and CPB. Thesmoke opacity of JCB and CPB is reduced with an increase in thebiodiesel blending ratio which is attributed to the decrease in thecarbon residue (Table 7). It is noticeable that carbon residue ofbiodiesel and biodiesel blends are lower than petrol diesel fuel.Besides, there a correlation between smoke opacity and PM (par-ticulate matter) for biodiesel diesel blends in diesel engine. Thus,carbon residue and PM are an indirect indicator of soot content.Overall, biodiesel diesel blends has lower soot formation and car-bon residue which is consistent to the reduced smoke opacity [48].

6. Conclusion

The J. curcas, C. pentandra and C. inophyllum are chosen as apotential non-edible feedstock for the production of biodiesel. Thetwo step pretreatment and transesterification process successfullyproduces biodiesel from high FFA oil. The important propertiessuch as viscosity, density, acid value, flash point and calorific valuefulfill ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards. Additionally, variousblends of biodiesel diesel are used as fuel to evaluate engine per-formance and emission characteristic in a single cylinder directinjection diesel engine. The 10% blends produce the best engineperformance and can reduce exhaust emissions, except NOx,compared to diesel fuel. The lower concentration of biodiesel dieselblends indicates the complete combustion and reduces brakespecific fuel consumption. There was a reduction on brake specificfuel consumption for JCB10, CPB10 and CIB10 but an increase in NOx

emissions for biodiesel diesel blends. In conclusion, J. curcas,C. pentandra and C. inophyllum biodiesel can be used as an effectivealternative fuel in diesel engines.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to acknowledge the Ministry of Educa-tion of Malaysia and The University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia for the financial support under UM.C/HIR/MOHE/ENG/06(D000006-16001), UMRG (RP022A-13AET) and ERGS/01/2013/TK07/494UNITEN/01/01.

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