Emotional self-efficacy, emotional empathy, anf emotional approach coping as sources of happiness

Cypriot Journal of

Educational Sciences

Volume 8, Issue 2 (2013) 247-256

http://www.awer-center.org/cjes/

Emotional Self-Efficacy, Emotional Empathy and Emotional

Approach Coping as Sources of Happiness Tarık Totan *, Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Education, Department of Guidance and

Counselling, Aydın, Turkey. Tayfun Doğan, Research Fellow, the University of Kansas, Department of Psychology, Lawrence, Kansas,

USA. Fatma Sapmaz, Sakarya University, Faculty of Education, Department of Guidance and Counselling,

Sakarya, Turkey.

Suggested Citation: Totan, F., Doğan, T & Sapmaz, F. (2013). Emotional Self-Efficacy, Emotional Empathy and Emotional

Approach Coping as Sources of Happiness. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences. 8(2), 247-256.

Received 05 December, 2012; revised 18 March, 2013; accepted 28 April, 2013 Selection and peer review under responsibility of Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Uzunboylu, Near East University ©2013 Academic World Education & Research Center. All rights reserved.

Abstract Among the many variables affecting happiness, there are those that arise from emotional factors. In this study, the hypothesis stating that happiness is affected by emotional self-efficacy, emotional empathy and emotional approach coping has been examined using the path model. A total of 334 university students participated in this study, 229 of whom were females and 105 being males. Oxford Happiness Questionnaire-Short Form, Emotional Self-efficacy Scale, Multi-Dimensional Emotional Empathy Scale, The Emotional Approach Coping Scale and personal information form have been used as data acquisition tools. As a result of path analysis, it was determined that the predicted path from emotional empathy to emotional approach coping was insignificant and thus it was taken out of the model. According to the modified path model, it was determined that there is a positive relationship between emotional self-efficacy and emotional empathy, that emotional self-efficacy positively affects emotional approach coping and happiness, that emotional empathy also positively affects happiness and that emotional approach coping also positively affects happiness. Keywords: Happiness, emotional self-efficacy, emotional empathy, emotional approach coping;

* ADDRESS FOR CORRESPONDENCE: Tarık Totan, Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Education, Department of Guidance and Counselling, Aydın, Turkey. E-mail address: [email protected] / Tel: +90-256-218-2000

http://www.awer-center.org/cjes/

mailto:[email protected]

Totan, F., Doğan, T. & Sapmaz, F. (2013). Emotional Self-Efficacy, Emotional Empathy and Emotional Approach Coping as Sources of Happiness. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences. 8(2), 247-256.

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1. Introduction

The variables that affect happiness are considerably affected by individual differences. So much so, that an ordinary event that does not cause one individual to be happy or unhappy can be a source of unhappiness for someone else. Individual difference is an important variable impacting upon happiness and plays an important role on that individuals experience differing emotions when faced with similar events and individual differences can also affect the intensity of these emotions. The characteristics of experienced emotions directly influence the intensity of these emotions. (Lazarus, 1991; van Geert, 1995; Diener, Suh, Lucas & Smith, 1999; Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002; Austenfeld & Stanton, 2004; Robinson & Kirkeby, 2005; Tamir, 2009). Happiness is one of the basic subjects of positive psychology and represents the positive side of mental health. Happiness is defined as experiencing positive emotions frequently while experiencing negative emotions less often and having a higher level of satisfaction in life (Diener, 1984). This definition contains two dimensions of happiness: Affective and cognitive. Accordingly, the frequency of experiencing positive and negative emotions comprises the affective dimension of happiness whereas satisfaction from life comprises the cognitive dimension. Self-efficacy which contains the cognitive, motivational, affective and selection processes can be defined as the belief of individuals regarding their capabilities, to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations, in order to succeed in a particular situation (Bandura, 1997), which determines the way people believe, think, are motivated and behave (Bandura, 1994). There is more than one area of self-efficacy. One of these areas is emotional self-efficacy which is related to the awareness of individuals regarding emotional processes and their organization (Muris, 2001; Kirk, Shutte & Hine, 2008). Furnham and Petrides (2003) state that emotional intelligence has two types: Trait emotional intelligence and self-efficacy. Trait emotional intelligence is regarded as various abilities related to the management of emotions by individuals (Petrides & Furnham, 2001). However, Kirk, Shutte, and Hine (2008) do not approve of emotional self-efficacy being regarded as emotional intelligence. Empathy is composed generally of emotional and cognitive processes. Empathy as a cognitive process can be defined as the understanding of the conceptions or perspectives of others, whereas empathy as an emotional process means feeling the emotional experiences of others (Rogers, 1983; Caruso & Mayer, 1998). In emotional empathy the individual understands the emotions of the other and can adjust his/her behaviour accordingly (Totan, Doğan & Sapmaz, 2012).

There are mechanisms independent of one another that affect emotions in a good or bad way (Quidbach, Berry, Hansenne & Mikolajczak, 2010). It is known that emotions have positive or negative effects on happiness (Carr, 2004). It is stated that positive emotions may increase the happiness of an individual while negative emotions may cause the individual to be unhappy. In fact being happy or unhappy has positive or negative effects on the emotions of individuals (Van Kleef, De Dreu, Pietroni & Manstead, 2006; Robinson & Kirkeby, 2005; Suziki, Hoshino, & Shigemasu, 2010). Feeling happy has a positive contribution to make in psychological functioning (Mauss et. al., 2011). In addition, the emotional systems of happy persons are more functionally in comparison to those of unhappy persons (Diener & Seligman, 2002). Emotional approach coping, evaluated as a form of emotion-focused coping, is shaped by coping effectively with the processes that arise due to sources of emotional stress. In this regard, emotional approach coping includes the development of various coping strategies and the avoidance of the stress causing factor of emotions-thoughts (Sullivan & Stanton, 2009). Austenfeld and Stanton (2004) have stated that the increase of emotional approach coping has positive effects on the psychological health of individuals. In accordance with the aforementioned basis, this study examines the hypothesis model stating that emotional empathy, emotional self-efficacy, and emotional approach coping are affective variables in increasing the happiness of individuals. The hypothesis model stating that there is a positive relationship between emotional self-efficacy,


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and emotional empathy, and that both of these variables together with emotional approach coping affect happiness directly and indirectly, has been built using the path model.

Figure 1. Hypothesis path model regarding the effect of emotional self-efficacy, emotional empathy, and emotional approach coping on happiness

Whereas emotional self-efficacy and emotional empathy are exogenous variables in the hypothesis model of the study, emotional approach coping and happiness have been treated as endogenous variables. In the path model, it has been assumed that there will be a positive relationship between emotional self-efficacy and emotional empathy. It has been predicted that emotional empathy will have a positive effect on emotional approach coping and happiness. The path from emotional approach coping to happiness signifies that the direct effect of emotional self-efficacy and emotional empathy on happiness exists indirectly over emotional approach coping.

2. METHODS

2.1. Participants

A total of 334 individuals who were students at the Dokuz Eylül University Buca Faculty of Education during the 2011-2012 academic year participated in the study, 229 (68.57%) of whom were female and 105 (31.43%) of whom were male. At the time of the study, 89 (26.65%) participants were first year, 84 (25.15%) were second year, 92 (27.55%) were third year and 79 (23.66%) were fourth year students. The age range of the participants was from 17-24 whereas the average age has been determined as 20 years 5 months.


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2.2. Data collection tools

2.2.1. Oxford Happiness Questionnaire-Short Form (OHQ-SF)

The scale developed by Hills and Argyle (2002) is an eight items Likert type measurement tool. The Turkish adaptation of the scale has been made by Doğan and Akıncı Çötok (2011). As a result of the exploratory factor analysis, a seven item single factor structure with an eigenvalue of 2.782 has been obtained. The single factor structure of OHQ-SF in Turkish has been examined via confirmatory factor analysis and it has been determined that the 7 item single factor structure has been verified (χ2/df=2.77, AGFI= .93, GFI= .97, CFI= .95, NFI= .92, IFI= .95, RMSEA= .074). For the reliability of the scale, the internal consistency coefficient has been determined as .74 whereas the test-re-test reliability coefficient has been reported as .85.

2.2.2. Emotional Self-efficacy Scale

The Emotional Self-efficacy Scale developed by Kirk, Shutte and Hine (2008) is a five point Likert type scale consisting of 32 items. The Turkish adaptation of the scale has been made by Totan, İkiz and Karaca (2010) and it has been determined that the original form of the scale has been preserved. The internal consistency of the original scale is .96 while the test-re-test coefficient is .85 (Kirk, Shutte & Hine, 2008). In their adaptation study, Totan, İkiz and Karaca (2010) have reported the internal consistency coefficient of the scale as .93 and the test-re-test coefficient as .62 thereby confirming the single factor structure of the scale (χ2= 1508.96, df= 462, χ2/df= 3.27, RMSEA= .071, NFI= .92, IFI= .94, RFI= .91, RMR= .073, GFI= .88).

2.2.3. Multi-Dimensional Emotional Empathy Scale

The Multi-Dimensional Emotional Empathy Scale developed by Caruso and Mayer (1998) is a five point Likert type scale composed of 30 items. During the development study, the researchers have determined that there are six dimensions explaining 51.16% of the total variance with factor loads of over .45. These dimensions are interrelated as .12 – .61. The internal consistencies of sub-dimensions vary between .44 and .86. It has been determined that the scale adapted into Turkish by Totan, Koruklu, and Sağkal (2012) has a single dimensional structure (χ2= 320.23, df= 244, χ2/df= 1.32, GFI= .92, CFI= 94, IFI= .94, RMSEA= .059, RMR= .06). The internal consistency coefficient of the single dimensional structure in Turkish has been determined as .86.

2.2.4. The Emotional Approach Coping Scale

The Emotional Approach Coping Scale has been developed by Stanton, Kirk, Cameron, and Danoff-Burg (2000). The original scale contains two sub-dimensions and is a Likert type scale with sixteen items. The internal consistency coefficients of the original scale have been reported to be between .72-.94. It has been observed that the Turkish adaptation of the scale preserves the sixteen items and two factor structures. It has been reported in a study that the internal consistency coefficients of the sub-dimensions of the scale are .85 and .90, and in total .90 (Senol-Durak & Durak, 2011) whereas another study has reported that the scale is competent for the university and community samples (Durak & Senol-Durak, 2011).


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2.2.5. The personal information form

The personal information form contains a total of three questions, one of which is a close-ended, two-choice question intended to determine the gender of the participants, one of which is an open-ended question intended to determine the age of the participants and one of which is a close-ended, four-choice question intended to determine their educational class.

2.3. Process and data analysis

The research data was collected during the spring semester of the 2011-2012 academic year. The objective of the study, along with the data analysis method, was explained to the participants and only university student volunteers were included in the study. In conclusion, missing values and coding errors were examined in the study data acquired. It was determined that there is a data loss of less than five for all the items comprising the study and that there is no coding error. Univariate outlier values (z= ±3.26) were taken out of the research data whereas it was determined via Mahalanobis D2 that there are no multivariate outliers. It has been anticipated that there is no multicollinearity problem due to the observation that there is no relation above .90 between the research variables (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). The analyses of the study were carried out using IBM PAWS SPSS 18 (SPSS, 2009) and IBM SPSS AMOS 19 (Arbuckle, 2010) software with a significance level of .050.

3. Findings

In the hypothesis model prepared in order to examine the effects of emotional self-efficacy, emotional empathy, and emotional approach coping on happiness, it has been projected that emotional self-efficacy has a positive effect on emotional approach coping and empathy and similarly that emotional empathy has a positive effect on emotional approach coping and happiness. In the model there is also a path from emotional approach coping to happiness. The relationships among the variables in this model have been examined using Pearson Product Moment Correlation coefficients. Bonferroni Correction has been made in order to prevent the first type of error in the bilateral relationship examination (Green & Salkind, 2008). The significance level after the correction has been determined as .008.

Table 1. Relationships, descriptive statistics results, and Cronbach alpha values of the variables in the path

model

Variables 1 2 3 Cronbach

alpha Mean s.d.

Emotional self-efficacy (1) - - - .91 121.44 16.66 Emotional empathy (2) .49 - - .72 98.75 11.33 Emotional approach coping (3) .57 .40 - .93 57.26 12.94 Happiness (4) .64 .45 .53 .75 26.06 4.59

As a result of the correlation analyses, it has been determined that happiness has a positive and significant relationship with emotional self-efficacy (r2= .41), emotional empathy (r2= .21) and emotional approach coping (r2= .29). In addition, it has been determined that there are positive and significant relationships between emotional self-efficacy and emotional empathy (r2= .24) and emotional approach coping (r2= .33) and between emotional empathy and emotional approach coping (r2= .16). The internal consistency coefficients of the variables to be used in path analysis were determined to be between .72-.93 and it was concluded that all variables displayed a high level of stability. When the normality assumption, which is one of the criteria of multivariate statistics, is examined using Kolmogorov-Smirnov analyses, it was


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understood that this assumption proved to be right for emotional self-efficacy (Z= 1.246, p= .089), emotional empathy (Z= 1.306, p= .066), emotional approach coping (Z= 1.160, p= .136) and happiness (Z= .926, p= .357).

Figure 2. The final path model regarding the effect of emotional self-efficacy, emotional empathy and emotional approach coping on happiness

As a result of the path analysis, it was determined that the significance level of the path between emotional empathy and emotional approach coping, which is one of the paths from the hypothesis model, was of no significance so the path between the two variables was taken out of the model and the analysis was repeated. It was determined that the removal of the path from emotional empathy to emotional approach coping had a positive contribution on the goodness of fit indexes of the model and that the modified hypothesis model was acceptable (χ2= .873, p= .000, df= 1, χ2/df= .87, GFI= .98, CFI= .98, RFI= .92, IFI= .98, NFI= .98, RMSEA= .021). As a result of the path analysis it was determined that there is a relationship of .49 between emotional self-efficacy and emotional empathy, that the path coefficient for the path from emotional self-efficacy to emotional approach coping .57 and that the path coefficient for the path from emotional self-efficacy to happiness was .20. The path coefficient for the path from emotional approach coping to happiness was determined to be 18. 32% of the change in emotional approach coping, and is explained by emotional self-efficacy, whereas 43% of the change in happiness is explained by emotional self-efficacy, emotional approach coping and emotional empathy. As a result of the path analysis, it was concluded that emotional approach coping plays a role in the indirect effect between emotional self-efficacy and happiness, however it plays no role in the indirect effect between emotional empathy and happiness.

It was determined that all the paths related to the examination of the direct and indirect effects of emotional self-efficacy, emotional empathy and emotional approach coping on happiness were significant. According to the path analysis result, the paths from emotional self-efficacy to emotional approach coping and happiness are positively significant. Also, the path from the emotional approach to happiness is positively significant. It was determined that the integrity of fit indexes was better when the path between emotional empathy and emotional approach coping was taken out of the hypothesis model. It was determined that there are no significant proposals which will be effective in decreasing the chi-square value of the final model.


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Table 2. Multiple regression analysis emotional self-efficacy, emotional empathy, and emotional approach coping on happiness

Paths Estimate S.E. C.R. p

Emotional approach coping Emotional self-efficacy .441 .035 12.577 .000

Happiness Emotional empathy .174 .019 9.196 .000

Happiness Emotional approach coping .063 .018 3.593 .000

Happiness Emotional self-efficacy .054 .015 3.570 .000

Emotional empathy ↔ Emotional self-efficacy 92.590 11.498 8.052 .000

Emotional self-efficacy 276.845 21.455 12.903 .000

Emotional empathy 128.065 9.925 12.903 .000

Error 1 (e1) 113.096 8.765 12.903 .000

Error 2 (e3) 11.539 .894 12.903 .000

4. Results and Discussion

In the first model of this study which was designated as the hypothesis model due to a theoretical framework, it was suggested that there is a positive relationship between emotional self-efficacy and emotional empathy, that emotional self-efficacy has a positive effect on emotional approach coping and happiness, that emotional empathy has a positive effect on emotional approach coping and happiness and that emotional approach coping has a positive direct effect on happiness. As a result of the path analyses, it was understood that the path from emotional empathy to emotional approach coping was insignificant and that the model provided sufficient competence when this path was removed from the model.

It is known that emotions have positive or negative effects on happiness or that happiness is directly related to emotional functioning (Van Kleef, De Dreu, Pietroni & Manstead, 2006; Robinson & Kirkeby, 2005; Suziki, Hoshino & Shigemasu, 2010). Hills and Argyle (2001) have determined that emotional stability has a negative relationship with happiness. As a result of a hierarchical regression analysis, Furnham and Petrides (2003) have determined that emotional intelligence affects happiness and explains half of the variance regarding happiness. Karademas (2006) has determined that individuals are more optimistic when they get social support emotionally and thus they are more satisfied with life. In their hypothesis model where life satisfaction, self-efficacy and optimism validates positive thinking, Caprara and Steca (2005) have determined that the perception of self-efficacy arising from positive emotions affects the perception of self-efficacy that arises before negative emotions are organized. It is stated that beliefs of self-efficacy can be related to positive or negative emotions, thus increasing the expectations regarding the future, which in turn cause satisfaction from life and more positive emotions (Caprara, Steca, Gerbino, Paciello & Vecchio, 2006).

Even though a positive and significant correlation was determined between emotional empathy and happiness as a result of the study, it was determined that the path from emotional empathy to happiness is significant but the path to emotional approach coping was insignificant. Thus, the path from emotional empathy to emotional approach coping which was in the hypothesis model was taken out. It can be thought that this does not tally with the theoretical foundations. Emotional approach coping, which is a form of emotion focused coping and positive psychological adjustment is treated as two sub-dimensions; emotional processing which includes the efforts to understand one’s emotions, and emotional processing, defined as the


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free expression of one’s emotions (Stanton et. al., 2000). Empathy means the adjustment of one’s emotions according to the emotions of others, when it is handled as an emotional process (Totan, Doğan & Sapmaz, 2012). In the light of these explanations, it can be anticipated that there is a positive relationship between emotional self-efficacy and emotional empathy.

As a result of the study, it has been concluded that the structure predicted in the hypothesis model, putting forth that happiness is related to emotional processes, exists outside the path between emotional empathy and emotional approach coping. Happiness is also sociable like other emotions (Ahmad, 2008). It is thought that empathy, which can be accepted as a social behaviour, is related to happiness (Thin, 2012). Social environment and social behaviour affect happiness. In this framework, it can be proposed to execute models where emotional self-efficacy and emotional empathy are present as endogenous variables in affecting happiness and where variables such as social interaction are present as exogenous variables.

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