Educational Research Multimedia & Publications, India

Online ISSN: 2229–4686 Print ISSN: 2231–4172

Volume V, Issue 2, April 2014

EDITORIAL BOARD Dr. V. S. More, India Dr. S. M. Ahire, India Dr. Manoj Kumar, India Dr. Abha Gupta, U.S.A. Dr. Ravindra Rena Namibia Dr. Rifki Ismal, UK. Dr. Haitham Nobanee, UAE. Dr. Pinaki Mazumder, USA. Dr. Amit Kumar Dwivedi, India Michael Sunday Agba, Nigeria Dr. Y. T. Pawar, India. Dr. Shakeel Ahmed, India Dr. (Mrs.) Swalehak Pathan, India. Dr. El-Nabulsi Ahmad Rami,S. Korea. Dr Balakrishnan P, Malaysia Dr. Hj. K. Jusoff, Malaysia Dr. Mohd Zainal Abidin, Malaysia Dr. Vicky Mody, USA. Dr. Rusli Bin Hj Abdullah,Malaysia Dr. Lynn C. Dailey,USA Dr. Bhanu Shrestha, Korea Dr. Ahmed Umar Khan,India Hamou Reda Mohamed, Algeria Dr. Ghous M Khan, USA Edib Smolo, Malaysia Prof. Ekta Arora, India. Dr. (Sr.) Jaya Shanthi, India. Prof. Nawab Ali Khan, India Prof. Shiv K. Tripathi, Tanzania Pravin P. Ingole, Germany Dr. Ananda. S., Sultanate of Oman Dr.Mohammad Waqar Ashraf, Saudi Arabia Dr. Amitabh Deo Kodwani, India Dr. Anand Agrawal, Malaysia. Emil R. Kaburuan, Ph.D. ,Taiwan Dr.Tanu Kashyap,,India Dr. G.Ananthapadmanabhan, India Dr.Setyabudi Indartono, Indonesia. Dr.Mohammed Belal Uddin, Bangladesh Dr. S. D. Sindhkhedkar, India

Editor-in-Chief : Dr. V. S. More (India)

Associate Editors:

Wichian Sittiprapaporn (Thailand), Chee-Keong C.(Malaysia)

Susana Garrido Azevedo (Portugal)

Managing Editor: Dr. Arif Anjum (India)

Assistant Editor:

Mohammed Aatif (India)

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ResearchersWorld -Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce ■ E-ISSN 2229-4686 ■ ISSN 2231-4172

International Refereed Research Journal ■ www.researchersworld.com ■ Vol. – V, Issue – 2, April 2014

INDEX

1.

COMPUTER SCIENCE

01-09 Fuzzy Ripening Mango Index using RGB Colour Sensor Model

Ab Razak Mansor, Mahmod Othman, Mohd Nazari Abu Bakar, Khairul Adilah Ahmad & Tajul Rosli Razak

( ) Malaysia

2.

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

10-19 The Impact of Self Disclosure on Turn over Intention: The Perceptions of Employees in Telecommunication Companies in Jordan

Ola Alhadid, Aisha Guta, Abeer Muhaisen & Basil Alzougool ( ) Jorden

3.

EDUCATION

20-28 Teachers’ Attitudes towards the Use of Indonesian in Arabic Classroom Mohamad Azrien Mohamed Adnan,

Shukeri Mohamad, Mohd Alwee Yusoff & Zamri Ghazali ( ) Malaysia

4.

EDUCATION

29-39 Impact Statements on the K-12 Science Program in the Enhanced Basic Education Curriculum in Provincial Schools

Marie Grace S. Cabansag ( ) Philippines

5.

MANAGEMENT

40-50 Detection And Remedies for Industrial Sickness in Small Industrial Units of Bangladesh: A Study on Sick Industrial Units of Industrial Estates in Sylhet Division

Abdul Latif & Abu Syeed Muhammed Abdullah ( ) Bangladesh

6.

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

51-59 Job Experiences of 2010 Rizal Technological University Business Management Graduates: Core Essences

Renilda A. Magsino, Ester T. Edralin & Ethelyn C. Verdadero ( ) Philippines

7. ENGLISH LITERATURE

60-68 An Eco-critical Reading of Gary Snyder’s Select Poetry

Firas A. Nsaif Al Jumaili ( ) Malaysia

8.

MANAGEMENT

69-78 The Relationship between Job Stress, Co-Worker Support and Organization-Based Self-Esteem: A Survey Across Different Occupations

Hazril Izwar Ibrahim ( ) Malaysia

9.

MARKETING PUBLIC RELATION

79-85 The Significance of Innovation in Marketing Public Relations for Increasing intake in Private Universities

Krismiyati, Rudy Latuperissa & Lina Sinatra Wijaya ( ) Indonesia

10. ENGLISH LITERATURE

86-92 Decoding The Text and the ‘Power’ of the reader Kalyan Das ( ) India


International Refereed Research Journal ■ www.researchersworld.com ■ Vol. – V, Issue – 2, April 2014

11.

ACCOUNTANCY

93-100 Needs and Problems of the Second Year Accountancy Students of the College of Business and Entrepreneurial Technology Rizal Technological University

Amelia M. Arganda, Rodolfo L.Ducut & Ester C. Andal ( ) Philippines

12.

CULTURE STUDIES

101-106 Square Dance and Intercultural Adaptation- A Case Study of One Chinese Dancing Dama Arrested in New York

Xiaochi ZHANG ( ) China

13. EDUCATION

107-120 University Autonomy: What Academics Think about It Sufean, H. & Wong, S.C. ( ) Malaysia

14.

MARKETING

121-130 Green Marketing and its Relationship to the Purchase Decision: An Empirical Study on Students from King Abdul Aziz University in Jeddah

Ghada Mohiuddin Hello & Naill Mohammad Al Momani (Saudi ) Arabia

15.

HISTORY

131-142 Identifying the Chief Trading Emporiums in Indian Ocean Maritime Trade C.1000-C.1500

Dr. Priyatosh Sharma ( ) India

16.

ENGLISH LITERATURE

143-147 Toni Morrison’s Projection of Black Womanhood through Pecola and Sethe in the Bluest Eye and beloved

Prasanta Kumar Padhi ( ) India

ResearchersWorld-Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce ■E-ISSN2229-4686 ■ISSN2231-4172

International Refereed Research Journal ■www.researchersworld.com■ Vol.–V, Issue–2, April 2014 [1]

FUZZY RIPENING MANGO INDEX

USING RGB COLOUR SENSOR MODEL

Ab Razak Mansor,

Faculty of Computer & Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA Kedah.

Mahmod Othman,

Faculty of Computer & Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Perlis.

Mohd Nazari Abu Bakar,

Faculty of Applied Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA Perlis.

Khairul Adilah Ahmad,


Kedah.

Tajul Rosli Razak,


Perlis.

ABSTRACT

Currently, the mango ripeness classification is determined manually by human graders according to a particular procedure. This method is inconsistent and subjective in nature because each grader has different techniques. Thus, it affects the quantity and quality of the mango fruit that can be marketed. In this project, a new model for classifying mango fruit is developed using the fuzzy logic RGB sensor colour model build in the MATLAB software. The grading system was programmed with a colour sensor to analyze the mango fruit ripening index. The decision making process uses fuzzy logic to train the data and also to classify or categorize the mango fruit. The model developed is able to distinguish or separate the three different classes of mango fruit. The proposed model is able to distinguish the three different classes of mango fruit automatically with more than 85% accuracy. Keywords: Mango Grading, Fuzzy System, RGB Colour Sensor.



INTRODUCTION:

Mango is one of the famous fruits in Malaysia for both local and international markets, grown in all regions but the area of concentration is in Northern Malaysian. Currently, the demand of mangoes for local market and overseas increases every year. Malaysian mangoes are exported to Singapore, Brunei and Hong Kong. It is estimated that the annual average growth rate is 19 percent of mango exports during the period 1992-2001. This situation explains the continuous increasing value of mango exports from year to year. The quality of mangoes must be controlled so that the fruit gets a good value for the market. Therefore, the Federal Agricultural Marketing Authority (FAMA) is responsible to ensure only a quality mango goes to the market. FAMA has launched Malaysia’s Best label as a benchmarking for quality fruits. Under this label, all fruits are required to be graded and inspected according to Malaysia’s Best quality specifications such as size, appearance and maturity index. It is important to inspect the index of maturity because it refers to skin colour change which also changes the internal characteristics of the fruit and level of acid sugar contents. Hence, different index of maturity will give different taste and it also can be exported to various countries depending on their distance. The colour plays an important role in determining the ripeness of a mango. Colour provides valuable information in examining the freshness of fruits and estimating its ripeness. Generally, when the ripeness of the fruits changes from one stage to another stage, the colour of the fruits also changes from one colour to another colour. Traditionally the method of determining the ripeness of a fruit including mango fruit is done by a human grader. Two factors they consider in determining the ripeness or maturity of fruit are by looking at the colour and shape of the fruit. This is the easiest and fastest way to determine the ripeness of fruits but the level of accuracy in deciding whether that fruit is unripe, ripe or overripe is low. Furthermore, the problem with the traditional method is the in consistency of choosing the ripeness of the mangoes in the large scale. It is difficult for humans to maintain their focus when dealing with a large quantity. So, the appropriate method to determine ripening index is needed to solve those problems above. Vision system is widely used to develop non-destructive fruit quality inspection grading which focused on fresh fruits (Khojastehnazhand & Omid, 2009, 2010; Riyadi, Rahni, Mustafa, & Hussain, 2007;Alavi, 2012). In Malaysia, the studies in automated grading system have become an interest for many researchers (Riyadi et al., 2007;Mustafa & Fuad, 2008; Jamil, Mohamed, & Abdullah, 2009). Currently, vision system has been used to classify mango more efficiently (Othman et al., 2012;Razak, Othman, Nazari, Adilah, & Mansor, 2012). All above systems are very beneficial to the agricultural industry. The colour in a mango is the most important visible characteristic used to assess ripeness, and it is a major factor in the consumer's purchase decision. The degree of ripeness is usually estimated visually by human graders who compare the mango colour to a classification chart. Human identification of colour is complex because sensations such as brightness, intensity, and lightness are important. As colour is an indication of mango ripeness, a green to yellow gradient can also be used to assess the stage at which a mango should be harvested and consumed. The mango fruit is a climacteric fruit, and therefore, it continues maturing after it has been harvested. The colour sensor was used to detect the intensity of RGB colour at mango skin for determining the ripeness of mango. This research is a first attempt to determine the fruit ripeness by using RGB colour sensor. The results were presented and discussed. Colour sensing is an important subject in optical sensors and used by machine to sense the presence of a target such as colour (Raja & Sankaranarayanan, 2006;Seelye & Gupta, 2011) . Colour sensors can also be used for sorting by colour, for example, in packaging. The objectives of this paper were thus to define the ripeness index based on intensity of RGB colour on mango skin, develop the calibration equation using colour values and evaluate the calibration efficiency by classifying the mango ripening index using Fuzzy Logic. Specific objectives implemented to accomplish the overall objective were to use a RGB Fiberoptic colour sensor to collect RGB data from mango fruits with three categories (i.e., unripe, ripe and over ripe); determine data colour features based on the colour signal; and develop algorithms for selecting useful colour features and classifying the ripeness mango conditions based on the colour feature sets using Fuzzy Logic.



MATERIAL AND METHODS: FUZZY LOGIC:

Fuzzy logic starts with the concept of fuzzy sets. The fuzzy set is the set without a crisp, clearly defined boundary. It can contain elements with only a partial degree of membership. A fuzzy set is defined by the following expression: Xx(x)µ,xS S (1) where 10,(x)µS is the membership function (MF) of fuzzy set 푆, 푋 is the universal set, 푥 is an element in 푋, 푆 is a fuzzy subset in 푋. Degree of membership for any set ranges from 0 to 1 where value of 1 represents 100% membership and 0 means 0% membership. A MF is a curve that defines how each point in the input space is mapped to a membership value between 0 and 1. The input space is sometimes referred to as the universe of discourse. The MFs are usually defined for inputs and output in terms of linguistic variables. There are many forms of MFs such as triangular, trapezoidal, Gaussian etc. In this study, trapezoidal MFs were selected for input and output variables as they can represent our linguistic variables more effectively (Lorestani, Omid, & Bagheri-Shooraki, 2006). The trapezoidal MF is a function that depends on three scalar parameters a, b ,c and d as shown in Fig.1.

Fig. 1. Trapezoidal Membership Function

Fuzzy sets and fuzzy operators are the subjects and verbs of fuzzy logic. The If-Then rule statements are used to formulate the conditional statements that comprise fuzzy logic. The fuzzy If-THEN rule is presented in the following form: B is A is yTHENxIF (2) where A and B are linguistic values defined by fuzzy sets on the ranges 푋 and 푌, respectively. The If-Then part of the rule “푥isA” is called the antecedent or premise, while the then-part of the rule “푦isB” is called the consequent or conclusion. More generally, rules have more than one premise, that is: C is THEN B is AND A is iii iiii zyxIF:R (3) where i = 1, 2, n (n is the number of the rules). iii C and B,A are the fuzzy sets for the inputs ( ii y&x ) and the output iz , respectively in the i-th rule, Ri. The values of Ci are the linguistic terms such as Unripe, Ripe, Over ripe. For mango ripeness evaluation, three attributes such as Red, Green and Blue intensity colour were used in the IF-part or antecedent of the rules. The logical operator of “AND” is used as defined by: BABA ,µ min (4) where BA is the MF of intersection of fuzzy sets A and B. The A and B are the MFs of the fuzzy sets of A and B, respectively. SAMPLING:

A Chokanan mangoes orchard in Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Perlis was selected as the source for providing the fruit data for this study. Mangoes which are free from abnormal features such as defects are selected for this experiment. The fruits should be varied in their surface colour and



maturity level. These research samples adopted the Federal Agriculture Marketing Authority (FAMA, 2006) of Malaysia classification of Chokanan mango into six grades based on its maturity level as shown in Table 1. Then, the mangoes are grouped into unripe (Index 1 and 2), ripe (Index 3 and 4) and overripe (Index 5 and 6). Samples of 150 mangoes from three types of maturity level were used during this experiment. From 150 mangoes, 50 are unripe, 50 ripe and the other 50 are overripe.

Table 1: Chokanan Maturity Indexes (Fama,2006)

Fruit Index Colour

Index 1 Dull Green

Index 2 Light green

Index 3 Greenish Yellow

Index 4 Yellowish Green

Index 5 Light Yellow

Index 6 Yellow-orange

DATA ACQUISITION:

RGB Fiberoptic Colour Sensor from Keyence product using high intensity RGB LED light sources separately was used to acquire data from mango skin. During operation, the CZ-V's amplifier separate RGB LEDs transmit red, green and blue light onto the mango skin . The signal from each colour is converted into 16-bit data in the receiver to enable colour recognition. The CZ-V amplifier provides three detection modes: SUPER 1 (Super Intensity), COLOUR+ 1 and COLOUR. The SUPER 1 Mode detects dark targets. COLOUR+ 1 and COLOUR Modes differentiate very slight colour changes. RGB colour sensor was set to operate on Colour Mode and measurement data are stored in CZ-V21 amplifier for further processing. Fig. 2 shows the setup of colour sensor used to acquire data from mango skin. It consists of sensor head, Fiberoptic cable and CZ-V amplifier. The sensor was set up vertically and sense 90 degree towards skin mango with a constant distance of 70 mm. All the mangoes were sensed by colour sensor in term of RGB colour intensity.

RGB Sensor Amplifier

Fig. 2. RGB Colour Sensor Data Acquisition Set up.



In order to classify the mango fruit, measured data is calculated by using (5) - (7). First, the colour matching rate is calculated by

100% 999

yX (5)

where X is a colour matching rate, y is a current colour value and 999 is reference colour value. Next, the mean value of each sample is calculated using (6),

N

x)x(M

n

ii

(6)

where )x(M = mean value of R,G and B for each category. n

iix = sum of R,G and B and N is total

number of R,G and B. Then, the data is normalized by using (7) as below:

100x

xMinxMaxxMinxCxF

(7)

where xF is normalized colour value in R, G and B. xC is a current colour value of R, G and B. xMin is a minimum colour value and xMax is a maximum colour value is taken from the lowest

and highest R,G and B colour value. THE PROPOSED ALGORITHMS FOR FUZZY MANGO CLASSIFICATION EQUATIONS:

The proposed algorithms of the fuzzy sensor mango classification model consists of five steps as listed below. Step 1: Calculate colour matching rate using (5) and mean value using (6). Step 2: The data is normalize by using (7). Step 3: Develop the membership function of input and output of grading model. Step 4: Generate the rule of grading model. Step 5: Classify the mangoes into 3 classes of grades. A total of 60 mangoes are used as training including 20 are unripe, 20 are ripe and the other 20 are over ripe. The algorithm of this model consisted of 5 steps: The proposed model started by gathering the data using RGB Colour Sensor in term of red, green and blue colours. The C mode for colour sensor is used to detect the RGB colour of mango. The specified distance to take the data between colour sensor transmitter and mango is 70 mm. The area of measurement around near the stalk of the mango and give more accurate information about mango ripeness (Syahir, 2012). Twenty points are sensed by RGB colour sensor within that area. Before measurement, pure colour of red, green and blue are sensed as reference colour. The values of red, green and blue are 865, 925 , 838 respectively. The colour matching rate is calculated from measured data using (5) and mean value using (6). The second step, all developed data in each category for each Red, Green and Blue are combined and normalized by using (7). To develop membership function of input variable and output category, the range of red, green and blue are determined for each category. Hundred and fifty mango fruit which fifty for each category are used to calculate value of range colour. These range value are used as reference and range input of fuzzy set. Table 2 showed the range data of RGB used for over ripe, ripe and unripe.



Table 2. Range of RGB Used for Over Ripe, Ripe And Unripe Mangoes.

Red Green Blue Category Min Max Min Max Min Max Unripe 0 30.35 57.39 99.97 43.52 100 Ripe 28.77 64.63 27.61 69.03 20.8 58.75 Overripe 50.97 100 0 35.30 0 34.4

Then, all the data are categorised into three linguistic variables by range as shown in Table 3:

Table 3: The Range Value of Linguistic Variable

Linguistic Term Range Red Green Blue

LOW 0-30 0-30 0-30 MEDIUM 20-60 20-70 30-50 HIGH 50-100 70-100 40-100

To developed membership function of output, the range of output category was determined by considering all range of Red, Green and Blue for each linguistic term and described in Table 4 below.

Table 4. The Range Value of Linguistic Variable for Output Category

Linguistic Term Range Unripe 0-30 Ripe 20-60 Over ripe 50-100

In order to develop the rule, we refer to table 1 above and some of fuzzy inference rules are designed as follows. Rule 1: IF (Red is Low) AND (Green is High) AND ( Blue is Medium) THEN Unripe Rule 2: IF (Red is Medium) AND (Green is Medium) AND (Blue is Medium) THEN Ripe Rule 3: IF (Red is High) AND (Green is Low) AND (Blue is Low) THEN Over Ripe RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

We implement our algorithm using Matlab’s Fuzzy Logic Toolbox. Fig. 3 shows the fuzzy inference system (FIS) consists of the three inputs (red, green and blue) and one which output (category) from MATLAB.

Fig. 3: The fuzzy inference system consists of three inputs and one output



All these membership functions are developed by using FIS editor and membership function editor from MATLAB. The membership function of output category is obtained firstly by setting up the range of output variable which is 100. Then, followed by setting the parameter for each category .The parameters for unripe are [0 0 20 40], the parameters for ripe are [20 40 60 80] and the parameters for overripe are [60 80 100 100]. Fig. 4 shows the membership function of output category. .

Fig.4: The membership function of output category

After the membership functions of the input and output were developed, then the rule will be created. A total of 21 rules statements have been created in step 4 used to classify the mango fruit categories. Fig. 5 shows how the rules were created using Matlab.

Fig. 5. Rule editor

Fig. 6 shows the rule viewer which consists of the system’s input and output. It also consists of the deffuzzification results. The first to third column is representing red, green and blue values while the last column is the category of ripeness column. The last row of the last column which is category column shows the deffuzzification results where the category of mango fruit is obtained.



Fig. 6. Deffuzzification result from the Rule Viewer

Based on the deffuzzification results from the Fig. 7, the mango fruit fulfilled Rule 5 in the Fig. 6, where red is medium, green is medium and blue is low. The value of category is calculated by centroid method, and then the classification of mango is determined based on the crisp logic given in Table 5.

Table 5: Fuzzification Algorithms

DeffuzzificationOutput (%) Mango Fruit Category (category <= 30) Unripe (category >= 31) && (category <= 70) Ripe (category >= 71) Overripe

For evaluation of the developed FIS, 15 mangoes are selected randomly from the testing sample. The intensity data of red, green and blue input of 15 mangoes are measured in order to validate mango fruit into unripe, ripe and overripe categories. Developed input data was transferred to rule viewer for classification process. Results of comparison between human grader and proposed method are shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Comparison of Proposed Fuzzy System and Human Expert in Grading of Chokanan Mango

Fuzzy Logic Prediction

Mango Grade Under ripe Ripe Over

ripe No of

mango used

Correctly classified mango

Human expert Under ripe 5 0 0 5 100%

Ripe 0 4 1 5 80% Over ripe 0 1 4 5 80%

Total Observed (%)

5 5 5 15 100% 80% 80% 87%

The better or good range for each colour needs to be obtained in order to improve the grading system performance. The fuzzy rules need to be added or improved especially for the fruit that lies closely between two different categories and the additional feature that incorporate differences between the categories such as texture need to be added. The results of the fuzzy logic system evaluated are against the human graders method to measure the accuracy for mango ripening index. Based on the results in Table 6, our proposed model has increased the accuracy of grading by as much as 87%. This shows that the grading system using fuzzy logic has a high potential of accurateness in grading the mango fruit.



CONCLUSION:

The research has proven that by using RGB colour sensor and fuzzy logic as classification algorithm, the accuracy of mango grading is more than 85%. Fuzzy logic is successfully applied to serve as a decision support technique in ripeness mango classification. Grading results obtained from fuzzy logic shows a very good agreement with the results from the human expert. Performance of the system can be improved by integrating with other feature such as texture. Furthermore, this research is a first attempt to determine fruit ripeness by using RGB colour sensor. The result shows that RGB colour sensor can be used accurately as data acquisition and can be applied to other classification fruits. REFERENCES:

[1] Alavi, N. (2012). Date grading using rule-based fuzzy inference system. Journal of Agricultural Technology, 8(4), 1243–1254.

[2] FAMA. (2006). Menuju kearah Kualiti Malaysia’s Best, Siri Panduan Kualiti Manga. [3] Jamil, N., Mohamed, A., & Abdullah, S. (2009). Automated Grading of Palm Oil Fresh Fruit

Bunches (FFB) Using Neuro-fuzzy Technique. 2009 International Conference of Soft Computing and Pattern Recognition, (1), 245–249.

[4] Khojastehnazhand, M., & Omid, M. (2009). Determination of orange volume and surface area using image processing technique. International, (2000), 237–242.

[5] Khojastehnazhand, M., & Omid, M. (2010). Development of a lemon sorting system based on color and size. African Journal of, 4(4), 122–127.

[6] Lorestani, A., Omid, M., & Bagheri-Shooraki, S. (2006). Design and evaluation of a fuzzy logic based decision support system for grading of golden delicious apples. Int. J. Agric., (1),

[7] Mustafa, N., & Fuad, N. (2008). Image processing of an agriculture produce: Determination of size and ripeness of a banana. … , 2008. ITSim 2008. ….

[8] Othman, M., Ahmad, K. A., Nazari, M., Bakar, A., Mansor, R., & Razak, T. R. (2012). Computer Vision and Data Mining based Classifier for Automated Chokanan Mango Grading. Technology, Science, Social Sciences and Humanities International Conference 2012 (pp. 1–11).

[9] Raja, A., & Sankaranarayanan, K. (2006). Use of RGB Color Sensor in Colorimeter for better Clinical measurement of Blood Glucose. BIME Journal, (06), 4–9.

[10] Razak, T. R. B., Othman, M. B., Nazari, M., Adilah, K., & Mansor, A. R. (2012). Analysis. International Conference on Agricultural, Environment and Biological Sciences (ICAEBS’2012) May 26-27, 2012 Phuket (pp. 18–22).

[11] Riyadi, S., Rahni, A. A. A., Mustafa, M. M., & Hussain, A. (2007). Shape characteristics analysis for papaya size classification. Research and Development, 2007. SCOReD 2007. 5th Student Conference on (pp. 1–5). IEEE.

[12] Syahir, F. (2012). Bio-inspired Vision Fusion for Quality Assessment of Harumanis Mangoes. 2012 Third International Conference on Intelligent Systems Modelling and Simulation, 317–324.

[13] Seelye, M., & Gupta, G. (2011). Low cost colour sensors for monitoring plant growth in a laboratory. … (I2MTC), 2011 IEEE.

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THE IMPACT OF SELF DISCLOSURE ON TURN OVER

INTENTION: THE PERCEPTIONS OF EMPLOYEES IN

TELECOMMUNICATION COMPANIES IN JORDAN

Ola Alhadid,

King Talal School for Business & Technology, Princess Sumaya University

for Technology, Jordan.

Aisha Guta,



Abeer Muhaisen,



Basil Alzougool,



ABSTRACT

The aim of this study is to explore the impact of self disclosure on turnover intention from the viewpoint of employees in the telecommunication industry in Jordan. A quantitative study (a questionnaire with 298 employees) was conducted in order to achieve the study objectives. The results showed that both overall self-disclosure and breadth self-disclosure do not have an impact on turnover intention while depth self-disclosure has a negative impact on turnover intention. In other words, if depth self-disclosure increases the turnover intention is likely to decrease. Several recommendations were suggested to reduce the turnover intention in the telecommunication industry in Jordan from the perspective of self-disclosure approach. Keywords: Self-disclosure, Turnover intention, Human Resources.



INTRODUCTION:

In our rapidly developing world we have accelerating changes in the scientific, social, economic and political fields. This has called for freedom of thought in the Middle East, convinced that the restrained thought becomes unusable after a period of time. The above has resulted into, how can we liberate our thoughts, our feelings and desires, and to exchange and share information and ideas with those around us to become mutual, overlapping network of information to reach a high level of transparency. Imposing self-disclosure in such situations to illustrates itself as a concept not limited only to the transfer of information and facts, but including the feelings and desires and needs as well, which is called self-disclosure. Self-disclosure creates opportunities for the exchange of ideas, experiences, feelings , desires and needs as well, and a way out that individuals resort to when attending the urgent need to vent pressure, frustration, and dissatisfaction. Thus self disclosure creates an exit for employees to self express their stress, pressure and frustration, which may result on improving the organization performance in terms of efficiency and effectiveness, decreasing turnover intention (Steele, 1975). Harris et al. (2002) found that high turnover intention is caused by low self-disclosure, and concluded that it might lead to lowering the companies’ incentive to provide training programs, and therefore reduce productivity. Self disclosure also plays a key role in the field of Human Recourses, which contributes largely to the goals and profit of an organization, through the focus on employee performance (Omarzu, 2000). To the best of our knowledge, examining the impact of self disclosure on employees’ turnover in general and in telecommunication industry in particular has largely been overlooked in previous literature.Therefore this study represent a humble contribution to the field in general and to the telecommunication industry in particular. Furthermore the telecommunication industry contributes to the state treasury and supporting the national economy, the percentage contribution of this sector to GDP in 2008 accounted for 14.3% (9.5% directly and 4.8% indirectly), and estimated employment opportunities provided by the sector equals 82 thousand job opportunity cumulatively (Oxfordbusinessgroup, 2012). Moreover, the average turnover rate was 2.8% in 2011 in Jordan and still rising due to the world economic crisis (Directorate of Labor Statistics, 2011) therefore it is important to find new approaches to reduce the turnover among employees (Ministry of Planning, 2012). This study therefore aims to address the following question: Does Self disclosure impact on turnover intention, from the perception of employees in telecommunication Companies in Jordan? The following sub-questions will be addressed as well:

1. Does breadth self-disclosure impact on employee turnover intention? 2. Does depth self-disclosure impact on employee turnover intention?

LITERATURE REVIEW:

Self-disclosure is when a individual reveals parts of his characteristics, abilities, and features during his social interaction, and how it would be reflected in the minds of others, whether this presentation was planned or automatically happen without deliberate planning (Chelune, 1979). There are many Self Discloser definitions and concepts cited by scholars in the field of psychology and management. For Example, Cozby (1973, p. 79) defined self disclosure as “Personal information orally transmitted to other people, as every behaviour by an individual is shared with others”. As the time passed, the concept of self-disclosure has been evolved as a communication skill. However, the definition that has been adopted for this research defined self-disclosure as “the one of the Hall-marks of intimate relationships. Revealing your motives, intentions, goals, values, and emotions' (Offermann and Rosh, 2012). This definition was adopted due to its collectiveness and close association with the Management Administration field rather than the psychological field.



There are a few studies that explored self –disclosure in Jordan. For example, Al-sabhan ( 2001) has investigated the factors influencing self - revealing among High- school students in Mafraq Governorate. The results of the study shown that, the person most targeted in concern to self - disclosure was a friend of the same sex, then mother and father and finally a counsellor. It is worth noting that there is a difference between the concept of self-disclosure and self-description, as self-description includes the discovery of non-hazardous or basic information that can be obtained from other people, such as age, workplace, and favourite food. On the contrary, self-disclosure contains dangerous information which reveals his private and personal information that others cannot obtain via other individuals , such as sense of the individual to be part of a minority, etc. (Reece, 1999). Brenner (2011) found that cultural differences has an impact on self-disclosure, for example what is normal for a group of people may not be normal for others, and this has high influence in any business aspect. Therefore Self-disclosure can be implemented either online or offline (Nguyen et al., 2012). For example, it could be implemented through social media, such as Facebook because Facebook offers users the ability to disclose different categories of information on their Facebook page (Special and Li-Barber, 2012). Self-disclosure is identified by three dimensions (i.e. breadth, depth, and duration) that are used in the process of self-disclosure. The first dimension (breadth) is measured by the number of topics that are discussed during the conversation. The more a person share with others varies topics the more it generates a desire to disclose their subjects in return. As for the second dimension, which is depth information is converted from general to more private individual information. Taylor and Altman (1987) suggested that the type of relationship is determined based on the breadth and depth of information disclosed. After determined the relationship we can classify the relation as a casual or solid relationship. Therefore, in any organization workers are more likely disclose to their co-workers, because co-workers support is related to fewer job disruptions and also help with work tasks (Gignac and Cao, 2009), on the other hand Madaus (2008) found that workers may not disclose to their managers because they have concerns or fears of job security. The third dimension is the duration dimension, where the duration is the period in which the person discloses it also reflects the desire and determination to practice the behavior of self-disclosure, taking into account the predisposing conditions of the person who wishes to disclose (Rubin, 1975). Therefore, the first two dimensions (breadth, depth) were only explored in this study, because of its significant impact on the degree of self-disclosure. The third dimension was not explored in this study due to lack of accurate measurements, limited time with employees specified by the company, and company policies. Before discussing the impact of self-disclosure on labour turnover, we must address the importance of self –disclosure and what are the needs that drive human to self-disclose with others in general. We can’t talk about human needs without reference to Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Hall and Raffo, 2004), where the order of human needs explain the nature of the motives or needs that drive human behaviour. Where the base of the pyramid represents the physical and basic biological needs, and those rang increasing upwards until it reaches the top of the pyramid, where self-realization need is located. Maslow noted that employees can’t move to a higher level, without at least satisfying the need prior. It should be noted here that Maslow Theory is exposed to many criticism, such as the theory assumes a gradual arrangement for the needs, but some people may differ in satisfying these needs. The theory also did not care about the size of fulfilment necessary for the transition to the Top level need, but it is assumed that there is satisfaction only without specifying the amount or scale (Globe 2004). Despite the criticism directed at Maslow’s theory, the main concerns is that communication (e.g. self-disclosure) generally is considered a core need, as it satisfies needs mentioned in Maslow's hierarchy, therefore its considered a social needs, which is an initiating point for the following top –level needs. With regards to labor turnover, people leaves their work from time to time for several reasons they may retire, be fired, join other businesses, which led to employee turnover. Employee turnover therefore, is the number of people that leave a business over a period of time as a percentage of people employed (Hall and Raffo, 2004). The telecommunication industry has one of the highest turnover percentage



11.9% among the industries (Directorate of Labor Statistics, 2011). Numerous research studies have been conducted to explain the reasons behind employees’ turnover. Work environment (open-door policy) is the most important factor that affects the employees’ tendency to disclose in a workplace. McKnight et al. (2009) studied the factors that reduce IT turnover intention and found that workplace factors and psychological incentives are the most factors that induce them to stay. Various studies suggest that peer relationships influences employee turnover. For example, Scott et al. (1999) found that strength peer relationships are negatively associated with employees’ turnover. Comparably, Sias and Cahill (1998) found that employees with close relationships often choose to stay in their work because they don’t want to leave their co-workers. Also when employees reveal in breadth (share general information) and then in depth ( share detailed information),so this will increase employees commitment, engagement and cohesion among the organization and co-workers (Sias, 2009). Individual’s worry after disclosing to be evaluated negatively; they might lose the respect of peers or job security, hence if evaluated negatively it will impact their future work opportunities and self-disclosure (Steele, 1975). Thus workforces that are accepting of others opinions and ideas will encourage self disclose and lower employee turnover. Knox et al. (2011) found that many supervisors disclosed primarily to normalize and also to build relationship with supervisees and to instruct them. Illustrating what motivate employees to stay in their jobs lead us to mention the two-factor theory by the psychologist Frederick Herzberg. Herzberg created a two-dimensional factors affecting people's attitudes toward work; which are hygiene and motivational factors (Hall and Raffo, 2004). He determined that such elements as company’s policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, and salary are hygiene (maintenance) factors. Based on the theory, the non-existence of hygiene factors can make job dissatisfaction, but their existence does not motivate or make satisfaction (Hall and Raffo, 2004). In contrast, he determined that motivational factors were factors that enriched a worker’s job; he discovered five aspects in particular that were tough determiners of job satisfaction which are achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, and advancement (Hall and Raffo, 2004). According to theory motivational inspire more than hygiene (maintenance) factors. Motivation contains stimulating profession, accountability, and fulfilment. In comparison, the hygiene (maintenance) factor do not bring positive satisfaction, however dissatisfaction happens from their deficiency (Hall and Raffo, 2004). Employees who are satisfied and saturated are in a pleasant and comfort (maintenance factor) work environment and have achieved personal development (motivational factor), therefore commitment, belongingness and involvement to the organization will increase and consequently increase their desire to stay in their work which will reduce employees turnover in organizations (Hall and Raffo, 2004). In the literature, there is some evidences of self –disclosure activities contributing to lowering employee turnover. For example, when comparing two companies of Fortune 5oo, Amazon and Nike it was found that self –disclosure has an impact on employee turnover. Amazon.com one of the growing Fortune 100 companies in the world (Amazon.com) has been criticized for its business practices towards its employees that didn’t encourage the practice of self disclosure (Mahaparta 2013). According to Mahaparta (2013) Amazon.com has the second highest employee turnover of all the Fortune 500 companies. On the other hand, Nike Inc. has a similar problem, but the world’s largest sporting-goods maker (Nike Inc.) took an initial approach “persuade contract manufacturers that better labour practices can sustain improving productivity with lower worker turnover and reduced costs” (Townsend, 2012). And inviting “openness and innovation, where new perceptions and thoughts are requested, understood and considered” through “group trainings and brainstorming sessions” (Townsend, 2012). Comparing the two companies in terms of approach Amazon.com has a high turnover, which might be caused by low self –disclosure of its employees. It might be also caused by many other factors. Although Nike Inc. has a similar problem but it is initiating a new approach towards lowing its labour



turnover, though allowing employees to self –disclosure as part of its corporate police. RESEARCH MODEL AND HYPOTHESES:

Based on the literature review and to fill the gap in the literature, we have developed a research model to guide us in this study. This model uses a combination of two self disclosure variables that might impact on turnover intention. The model is presented in Figure 1. A short discussion on each factor is presented below.

Figure 1: illustrates the research model

Self-disclosure refers to the exchanging of ideas , experiences, feelings , desires and needs as well, and a way out that individuals resort to when attending the urgent need to vent pressure, frustration, and dissatisfaction. From a relational perspective, the worker’s disclosures promote the working alliance and a positive attachment between the client and worker (Knight 2012). Therefore, the more a person discloses to others the more he/she is likely to stay in his/her current position. Based on the discussion in literature review section, we hypothesize that self disclosure does have an impact on employee turnover intention (H). Breadth self-disclosure is the number of topics that are discussed during the conversation. Vera (1990) found that the frequency of self-disclosure was the strongest predictor of relationship satisfaction. Therefore, the more a person share with others various topics the more it generates a desire to disclose their subjects in return and the more he/she is likely to stay in his/her current position. Based on the discussion in literature review section, we hypothesize that breadth self-disclosure does have an impact on employee turnover intention (Ha). Depth self-disclosure is the in-depth information that is shared and disclosed. Here is the transition from general information to information that is more private for the individual. According to Van Horns (1997), intimate self-disclosure mattered more than descriptive self-disclosure in relationships staying together. Therefore, the more a person share with others depth topics the more he/she is likely to stay in his/her current position. Based on the discussion in literature review section, we hypothesize that depth self-disclosure does have an impact on employee turnover intention (Hb).

METHODS:

For the purpose of this study, a survey of the telecommunication companies in Jordan was conducted. The main method of data collection was a questionnaire which was distributed to a sample of employees in three telecommunication companies in Jordan. The target population for this study is all employees in the three telecommunications companies in Jordan. The numbers of employees in these three companies are as follows: Orange Jordan Company, the number of employees approximately 2000 employees (Orange Annual

Report, 2013).

H Turnover Intention

Self –Disclosure

Breadth Self –Disclosure

Depth Self –Disclosure

Ha

Hb



Zain Jordan Company, the number of employees approximately 1000 employees (Zain Annual Report, 2013).

Umniah Telecommunication Company, as the number of employees approximately less than 1000 employees (Umniah Annual Report, 2013).

The study sample consists of various kinds of employees (e.g. technicians, engineers, and administration management level).We used a random sampling method. The survey items were adopted from Jourard and Lasakow (1958), Billeter (2002), and Jacobs (2005) with some modifications to suit the context of this study. Section A in the survey relates to the employees profile such as (Gender, Age, Social statues, educational level, Job title, years of service, and monthly salary) and Section B includes the items used to measure two factors (Breadth and depth self disclosure) that influence turnover intention. Section C relates to the obstacles of self-disclosure. A three-point response scale (1 = rarely to 3 = highly) was used. The questionnaire was tested by three experts from the telecommunication industry and necessary alterations were made. The survey was distributed through a personal visit by the first three authors. The participants were explained the purposes of the study and asked to complete the surveys. In all, 450 surveys were administered to employees in the telecommunications companies in Jordan (150 surveys in each company) while only 298 surveys were returned and usable for this study. A summary of the demographic characteristics of the respondents is presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Demographic characteristics of the respondents

Demographic characteristic Categories n=298 %

Gender Male 164 55.0 Female 134 45.0

Age

From 21 to 30 161 54.0 From 31 to 40 89 29.9 From 41 to 51 33 11.1 From 51 and more 15 5.0

Marital Status Single 141 47.3 Married 151 50.7 Other 6 2.0

Education Undergraduate 65 21.8 Postgraduate 233 78.2

Years of service Less than 3 years 122 40.9 From 4 to 8 years 92 30.9 More than 9 years 84 28.2

DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS:

This study aimed to explore the impact of self disclosure on turnover intention, from the perception of employees in telecommunication Companies in Jordan. The data obtained from the study are analyzed through various techniques in SPSS 15.0 program. Data analysis involves three processes. First, the reliability of the measurement model were evaluated by computing the Cronbach's alpha. Second, the descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used to identify the current state of self disclosure of employees. Finally, simple linear and multiple regression and Pearson corelation were used to assess the impact of each factor on turnover intention considered in this study. The measurement model was evaluated for reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity. Construct reliability or internal consistency was assessed by computing Cronbach's alpha. Table 4 shows the reliability results of the constructs. The alpha values range from 0.806 to 0.880. Construct reliability is achieved if the alpha values are above the acceptable value of 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978).



Therefore, construct reliabilities of all the three factors used in the study are demonstrated. Table 4 . Results of construct reliability assessment

Factor No. of items Valid numbers Cronbach's Alfa Breadth of self disclosure 11 298 0.806 Depth of self disclosure 16 298 0.865 Overall self disclosure 27 298 0.880

Table 5 illustrates the mean and standard deviations of employees’ current state of self-disclosure in telecommunication companies in Jordan. The following scale is used; to facilitate reporting the participants' results: 1. High self-disclosure: Calculated mean for estimations greater than 2.33. 2. Often self-disclosure: Calculated mean for estimation is between 1.67 and 2.33. 3. Rare self-disclosure: Calculated mean for estimation less than 1.67 The table clearly illustrates that both dimensions of self-disclosure (Breadth and Depth) are extremely close to one another, however Depth show a (m=1.78) higher than Breadth (m=1.75), which means employees in both dimensions are often self-disclosed. The table also shows the mean of self disclosure in general at a value of (m=1.77), indicating that employees at telecommunication industry in Jordan is often self-disclosed.

Table 5.Mean and Standard Deviation of Self-Disclosure dimensions

Dimension Mean SD Breadth 1.75 0.445 Depth 1.78 0.423 Self-Disclosure 1.77 0.382

To test the impact of overall self disclosure and self-disclosure dimensions (breadth and depth) on turnover intention simple linear and multiple regression and Pearson corelation were used. Table 6 shows a summary of the influence of the three factors on turnover intention in the telecommunication industry in Jordan.

Table 6: A summary of the influence of the three factors on turnover intention

The factor B Beta t-test p value Self-disclosure 0.147 0.112 1.940 0.053 Breadth -0.08 -0.073 -1.049 0.295 Depth 0.222 0.188 2.721 0.007

As shown in the table, there is a significant impact of depth self-disclosure on turnover intention at p=0.007. Also Pearson correlation = -0.148 at p = 0.011 (see Table 7) reflects a significant moderate and negative relationship between the two variables.This means that when depth self-disclosure increases, turnover intention is likely to decrease. For overall self disclosure and breadth self disclosure, there is no impact of these two variables on turnover intention from the employees' perception. This is also supported by Pearson correlations between these two variables and turnover intention as shown in Table 7.

Table 7: Pearson Correlation between self disclosure dimensions and turnover intention

Self-disclosure Dimensions Correlation Coefficient P value

Breadth -0.032 0.582 Depth -0.148 0.011 Overall Self-disclosure -0.112 0.053

Summary of the results: Overall self-disclosure has no impact on employee turnover intention.



Breadth self disclosure has no impact on employee turnover intention. Depth self disclosure has an impact on employee turnover intention.

DISCUSSION:

According to the findings of the study, the employees in the telecommunication industry in Jordan reported that they often self-disclosed (m=1.77).Therefore, the telecommunication employees have an initiative to self disclose. However, the depth dimension of self-disclosure is found to be higher (m=1.78) than the breadth dimension. On the other hand, the employees in the telecommunication industry are likely to stay in their jobs (m=1.97) because they think that disclosing their selves help reducing the possibility to leave the work. Various statistical analyses have been employed to examine if self-disclosure (and depth and breadth) has an impact on turnover intention. As presented in the results section, the overall self–disclosure has no impact on employee turnover from employees’ perception (H Rejected).This could be explained using Maslow Hierarchy of Needs, where self-disclosure is located on the top of the pyramid noted that employees can’t move to a higher need level, without at least satisfying the need prior. Moreover, the results shown that self–disclosure in terms of breadth doesn’t have an impact on turnover intention (Ha Rejected). This shows that employees in the telecommunication companies in Jordan did not perceive that they are likely to stay in their jobs if they self-disclosed in breadth. In contrast, self-discloser in terms of depth has an impact on employee turnover intention from employees’ perspective (Hb Accepted), accordingly when self-disclosure in terms of depth increase this leads to reducing the possibility of employee’s turnover, this shows that employees in telecommunication companies in Jordan, who reveal in depth are less likely to leave their position at work. We could clarify these results through the use of Herzberg Hygiene Theory of motivation, where breadth is a hygiene factor, and the absence of it will cause dissatisfaction but won’t motivate employees or have an impact on turnover intention .On the other hand, depth is a motivational factor and will increase employee satisfaction leading to reducing turnover intention.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

The dilemma of the study that there was a high turnover 11.9% in the telecommunication industry, through reviewing previous literature; self-disclosure was the least tackled variable by human resource management that could explain these high rates of turnover intention. The study importance is derived from the importance of the telecommunication industry and its contributes to the state treasury and supporting the national economy, the percentage contribution of this sector to GDP in 2008 accounted for 14.3% (9.5% directly and 4.8% indirectly), and estimated employment opportunities provided by the sector equals 82 thousand job opportunity cumulatively (Oxfordbussinessgroup.com). The aim of the study was therefore to provide possible solutions to reduce the turnover percentage in the telecommunication sector, through shedding light on the importance of self-disclosure and its practice. A quantitative (a questionnaire with 298 employees) study was conducted in order to achieve the study objectives. The questionnaire results showed that both breadth self-disclosure and overall self-disclosure did not have an impact on turnover intention, while depth self-disclosure has an impact on turnover intention. In other words, if depth self-disclosure increases the turnover intention is likely to decrease. Like any other research this study has limitations; this study is limited to two dimensions of self-disclosure, future research could explore other dimensions that may impact on turnover intention such as the duration of self-disclosure . This study also explored self disclosure in the telecommunication industry, the applicability of these results on other sectors deserves further study. In light of the above results, several recommendations can be suggested to reduce the turnover intention in the telecommunication industry in Jordan from the perspective of self-disclosure approach. These recommendations include conducting training sessions and workshops to encourage self-disclosure, especially in the depth dimension. Managers in the telecommunication sectors need to work on



expansion of knowledge and awareness of self-disclosure, by conducting training sessions and workshops to improve the communication skills among employees with one another and also with their managers. Throughout these sessions employees will be able to disclose their opinions, values and goals, and managers will accept employees thoughts and ideas even if it conflict with their own ones. Self-disclosure will provide relaxed work environment furthermore accepting and respecting all kinds of cultures regardless of the differences, which will reduce turnover intention. Managers could understand the basic needs and wants of their employees and know how to satisfy those needs such as love and belonging needs, by practicing and encouraging self-disclosure employees will explicit their knowledge, objectives and motives. Nevertheless some managers may empower their employees so employees will feel that they are an important part of this organization and consequently will increase their commitment, therefore satisfying their belonging needs.

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ResearchersWorld -Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce ■E-ISSN 2229-4686 ■ISSN 2231-4172

International Refereed Research Journal ■ www.researchersworld.com■ Vol.– V, Issue–2, April 2014 [20]

TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE USE OF FIRST

LANGUAGE IN ARABIC CLASSROOM

Mohamad Azrien Mohamed Adnan,

Academy of Islamic Studies University of Malaya Nilam Puri,

Kelantan, Malaysia.

Shukeri Mohamad,


Kelantan, Malaysia.

Mohd Alwee Yusoff,


Kelantan, Malaysia.

Zamri Ghazali,


Kelantan, Malaysia.

ABSTRACT

The use of the target language has long been considered an important principle of second language (L2) instruction. Previous research has attempted to quantify the amount of the first language (L1) used in the classroom and has explored the purposes or functions of teachers' ‘lapses’ into their students' L1. The purpose of this qualitative study is to explore the teachers’ attitudes towards the use of Bahasa Indonesia in Arabic language classroom. Data was collected based on the interviews of the teachers. The respondents of this study were two experienced teachers who have more than 15 years of teaching experience. The findings indicated that teachers prefer using Arabic language itself in Arabic language classroom. The Direct Method was applied as teaching strategies. As a result, students are able to speak Arabic without any sense of shame and fear. Keywords: First language, target language, Arabic classroom, qualitative.



INTRODUCTION:

The issues on whether to use or not to use students’ first language (L1) in second language (L2) classroom have generated increasingly debates among researchers and language teachers for many years. Some teachers feel that L1 can be used in certain circumstances. For instance, it can be used to increase students’ comprehension and learning of L2 (Cook, 2001; Tang, 2002), present new vocabularies, explain difficult grammar and give instructions as well as suggestions (Mirza, Mahmus, & Jabbar, 2012). According to Cole (1998), L1 is most useful for novices since students at this level have little or no knowledge about L2. It also can be used to introduce the major differences between L1 and L2, to save a lot of guessing, to motivate students and to reduce their anxiety. On the other hand, Mahadeo (2006) asserts that the use of L1 is a barrier to learning L2 and it also prevents the student from acquiring the valuable input in the L2 (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). Although there are a number of studies discussed the use of L1 in EFL classroom, but the isu of Bahasa as a students’ L1 in Arabic as a foreign language (AFL) classroom has not been studied enough to inform AFL pedagogies. This study is a contribution to filling the existing knowledge gap. It investigates the attitudes of AFL teachers and seek to determine the role of Bahasa in AFL classes. LITERATURE REVIEW: THE USE OF L1 IN MAJOR L2 METHODOLOGIES:

Language teachers have been debating whether or not to use the L1 in the L2 teaching. Some teacher have the opinion that L1 may be used under certain limitations and appropriate (Cole, 1998) and others feel that L1 should not be allowed at all because it prevents students to learn L2 (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). Nazary (2008) asserted that in the field of L2, there are several common classifications of methods which deal with the role of L1 in the L2 classroom: Traditional methods (Grammar Translation Method (GTM), Direct Method (DM), Audio-lingual Method and Communicative Methods). The GTM is usually conducted in the students’ L1 to help them understand their L1 better through translation and analysis of the L2 grammar (Hadley, 2001). Grammar rules are learned deductively; students learn grammar rules by rote, and then practice the rules by doing grammar drills and translating sentences to and from the target language. There is little use of L2 and the instruction is given in the students’ L1 (Celce-Murcia, 1991). More attention is paid to the form of the sentences being translated than to their content. There are two main goals to grammar-translation classes. One is to develop students’ reading ability to a level where they can read literature in the target language (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). The other is to develop students’ general mental discipline. According to Hamdallah (1999), this method depends heavily on translating to the students’ L1. The DM of teaching is not limited to but often used in teaching L2. This method refrains from using the learners' L1 and uses only the L2. The aim of this method is to emphasize language use by direct contact with the L2 in meaningful situations. It represents critical reaction to the teaching methods of the ancient Grammar Translation Method which produced knowledge about language rather than knowledge of language. The general goal of the direct method is to provide learners with a practically useful knowledge of language. They should learn to speak and understand the target language in everyday situations The audio-lingual method is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It was developed in an attempt to address some of the perceived weaknesses of the direct method. It is based on behaviourist theory, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement—correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback. This approach to language learning was similar to the direct method. Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students be taught a language directly, without using the students' native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method didn’t focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar.



The communicative method is an approach to the teaching of foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. According to Hamdallah (1999) and Hadley (2001), the communicative approach is one of the most popular language teaching approach today. This approach has raised the ban on using L1 in the L2 learning, however limited L1 use is allowed in the L2 classroom (Celce-Murcia, 1991; Hamdallah, 1999; Richards & Rodgers, 2001). The use of L2 in the foreign language classroom needs to be maximized in order to develop their language skills. According to Medgyes (1999), the use of mother tongue in classroom has been one of the greatest dilemmas in the foreign language class for nearly a century. Although learners should be exposed to the second language as much as possible, but Nation (2001) argued that the L1 play an essential role in communicating meaning in L2 teaching. REASONS FOR USING L1 IN THE L2 CLASSROOM:

The bilingual approach has been accepted by researchers who believe that specific use of L1 is a helpful technique in the L2 classroom. Thus, Many researchers have figured ways out to use L1 into the L2 teaching efficiently. For instants, Tang (2002) often use L1 in low and medium proficiency level in English classes to give instructions, explain meanings of words, explain complex ideas and explain complex grammar points. Students will understand better when the explanations of the subject matters are given in their own language. Alshammari (2011) and Machaal (2012) argue that the use of L1 can save teachers’ time of explaining, increase students’ understanding and make the learning process more effective. The use of L1 with novices has verified to be a very useful and valuable device in enhancing students' understanding. Another significant reason for teachers’ use of the L1 in the L2 classroom is to build natural relationship between teachers and their students. There is no obstacle between teachers and their students (Turgut & İrgin, 2009). The communication between teachers and students become easier (Nation, 2003). Accordingly, students feel free to ask their teachers. The proponents of the code-switching theory argue that when teachers use code-switching to put their message across, their behaviour is similar to naturally occurring code-switching activities that take place in various real-life situations (Macaro, 2009). This optimal use of L1 was defined as one “where code-switching in broadly communicative classrooms can enhance second language acquisition and/or proficiency better than second language exclusivity” (Macaro, 2009, p.38). A number of scholars seem to share this view (Atkinson, 1987; Auerbach, 1993; Cook, 2001). Furthermore, the usefulness of L1 as a cognitive and mediating learning tool has been gaining significance for some time already (Macaro, 2009). For instance, Swain and Lapkin acknowledged that to insist that no use be made of the L1 in carrying out tasks that are both linguistically and cognitively complex is to deny the use of an important cognitive tool. Harbord (1992) concluded that there are three reasons for using L1 in the classroom. They are: facilitating communication, facilitating teacher-student relationships, and facilitating the learning of L2. Cook (2001) elaborated further by stating teachers should use L1 to convey meaning and organize the class. Students can use it for scaffolding (building up the basics, from which further learning can be processed) and for cooperative learning with fellow classmates. Perhaps the biggest reason for using L1 in the classroom though, is that it can save a lot of time and confusion (Harbord, 1992). TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS L1 USE IN THE L2 CLASSROOM:

There have been a number of researches on the use of L1 in L2 classes. Harbord (1992) for example, indicated that many second language teachers have attempted to create English-only classrooms but unfortunately, it led to students misunderstanding. He, therefore, drew the conclusion to use translation method to make student understand better. This view was in line with researches done by Cameron (2001) and McCann (2005) who proposed that translation can be used positively in explaining the structures of language and giving feedback. Turnbull (2001) stressed that teachers may use L1 in appropriate ways to help students understand unfamiliar words. Al-Nofaie (2010) carried out a study to examine the attitudes of three teachers and 30 students in Saudi



school toward using L1 in English classes. The results showed that the participants’ use of L1 seems to be systematic. Teachers preferred using L1 with novices and low achieving students to assist them comprehend the new language, and for specific reasons. For instants, L1 was used to explain grammatical terms, introduce new vocabulary and give exam instructions. Alshammari (2011) investigated the opinions of teachers and students about the use of mother tongue in foreign language classroom. The findings revealed that the proper use of L1 in L2 classroom seems not to affect students’ exposure to the L2. It may be needed to increase students’ comprehension. These views were supported by Machaal (2012) and Salah & Farrah (2012). Machaal (2012) verified the attitudes and beliefs of the students, foreign language teachers and policy makes towards the use of first language in foreign language classes. The findings showed that most participants agreed and supported the use of L1 in L2 classroom. They accepted that L1 should be used when necessary and it could be useful in explaining vocabularies and facilitating comprehension. While Salah & Farrah (2012) in their study aimed to investigate teachers’ perceptions toward using mother tongue in the target language classroom. The study found that L1 should be occasionally used to simplify the teaching and learning processes. ARGUMENTS AGAINST USING L1:

Some researchers argue that using L1 in the L2 classroom might affect students’ learning process negatively since it reduces the learners’ exposure to the L2 and reduces their opportunities for using the target language (Deller & Rinvolucri, 2002; Polio & Duff, 1994). According to Krashen & Terrell (1983), L1 should not be used in the L2 classroom to enhance students’ exposure to the L2, since students acquire the L2 through the same way they acquire their L1. Another argument is interference from the mother tongue. Interference can make difficulty in the L2 learning and to avoid that, L1 should be separated in L2 learning (Cook, 2001; Richards & Rodgers, 2001). According to Harbord (1992), student maybe assume that word by word translation is a meaningful techniques if teachers overuse L1 in their teaching, therefore they will work towards transferring meaning in L2 learning. Phillipson (1992) asserts that the more L2 is taught the better the result. In line with his study, Auerbach (1993) indicates that students will learn more quickly if the more they are exposed to L2; as they hear and use L2, they will internalize it and begin to think in L2. Similarly, Polio & Duff (1994, p. 322) show that using L1 “prevent students from receiving input they might be exposed to in social situations outside the classroom”. RESEARCH QUESTION:

The current study attempts at answering the following questions: CENTRAL RESEARCH QUESTION:

What is the teaching Arabic as a foreign language to non-native Arabic teachers in Higher learning Institution in Indonesia? SUB RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

1. What are the attitudes of the teachers towards the use of Bahasa Indonesia in Arabic language classroom?

2. How do the teachers conduct the AFL classes? 3. What resources and teaching methodologies used by the teachers? 4. What are the teachers’ suggestions to enhance the teaching of AFL to the non-native learners in the

Institution? METHODOLOGY: PARTICIPANTS:

The study was carried out in a higher learning institution in Indonesia. For selecting the institution and



the participants, a purposive sampling was applied. The study included two experienced lecturers who have more than 15 years of teaching experiences. The opinion of the experienced teachers are helpful and it should be taken into consideration (Nunan, 1992). The participants were chosen based on their position in the institution. In administrative position, the informant 1 is a deputy rector and informant 2 is a head of Arabic department. RESEARCH INSTRUMENT AND PROCEDURES FOR DATA COLLECTION:

Interviews method was applied for data collection. Teachers’ attitudes were investigated qualitatively through semi-structured interviews only due to their small number. The interview sessions were conducted during 30-45 minutes. The interviewees’ responses were recorded during the interviews. The audio-recorded interviews were transcribed, summarized and coded. All transcripts were read several times to obtain a thorough understanding. INTER-RATER RELIABILITIES:

Inter-rater reliabilities was used in this study to assess the degree to which two or more evaluators using the same rating scale give the same rating to an identical observable situation. The inter-raters were given the full transcript to state the agreement with the themes developed by the researcher. The raters were Associate Professors from Malaysia Public Higher Education Institution. They were experts in Arabic as a second language and were knowledgeable in developing themes. The inter-raters reliability was calculated using a formula as follow:

푹풆풍풊풂풃풊풍풊풕풚 =푁푢푚푏푒푟표푓푎푔푟푒푒푚푒푛푡

푇표푡푎푙푛푢푚푏푒푟표푓푎푔푟푒푒푚푒푛푡 + 푑푖푠푎푔푟푒푒푚푒푛푡푥100

The first rater produced 88.24%, and the second rater generated 100%. The average of the two raters is 94.12% which indicate a good reliability. PILOT STUDY:

A pilot study is designed to test logistics and gather information prior to a real study, in order to establish the issues to be addressed in the real study. A good research strategy requires careful planning and a pilot study will often be a part of this strategy. According to Wiersma (2000), a pilot study should be done to detect some unclear statements, poorly understood sentences, repeated question or unneeded questions. Therefore, the pilot study was carried by interviewing an Associate Professor from a Malaysia Public University who has more than 15 years of experience in teaching Islamic studies and Arabic language. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION:

What are the attitudes of the teachers towards the use of Bahasa Indonesia in Arabic language classroom? THEME 1: PROHIBITION OF USING BAHASA:

The study revealed that the participants are very strict about using L1. In this study, the teachers are reluctant in allowing students to use L1 in or outside the classroom. Students must use Arabic when they want to interact among them or with teachers. They are forced to use Arabic in their daily activities. They will be punished when using L1 in the school area. Teachers prohibit students from using L1 to increase students’ exposure to the L2 and provide them with sufficient opportunities to practise Arabic. Students will learn more quickly when they are exposed to the L2, because they hear and use Arabic, they try to think in Arabic. This finding supports the belief that L2 is best learned through the exposure to the language itself (Polio & Duff, 1994). THEME 2: LANGUAGE OF RELIGION:

Arabic language is the Quranic language. It is a language of religion. All Islamic studies subjects are taught in Arabic. Arabic language and Islamic studies cannot be separated. Students need to learn the



Arabic language before understanding Islamic knowledge. For example, Informant 1 stated: …Arabic language is more important because it is a language of religion. (I1, DU 102)…Islamic jurisprudence use Arabic. Exegesis, Tajweed also use Arabic, Hadith use Arabic. .. All Islamic studies subjects are in Arabic (I1, DU 103)

How do the teachers conduct the AFL classes? THEME 1: OBLIGATION OF USING ARABIC LANGUAGE:

The use of Arabic language is compulsory either in classroom or outside classroom. Students are required to write, read and speak Arabic. The reason of this obligation is to provide students with sufficient opportunities to practice Arabic language. Monolingual approach results in increasing confidence in speaking and listening skills, creating more realistic environment for the students. THEME 2: HABITUATE:

The frequently use of Arabic language in Arabic classroom whether in writing, reading or speaking, will lead the students familiar with Arabic language and they can get accustomed to the Arabic language. The focus on target language can increase students’ communication and stimulate both conscious and unconscious learning. THEME 3: MINIMUM TRANSLATION:

Arabic must be used as much as possible in the Arabic language classroom to expose students to sufficient Arabic. But in a few cases, if students did not understand the meaning of a word, and it cannot be explained by a body language, pictures, drawing or other techniques, teacher were allowed to use L1 sometimes and for specific reasons. For example, Informant 2 stated:

…They can translate it into Bahasa Indonesia, but should be one time only. For instance, the word “jauhar” (diamond), it is difficult to explain in Arabic, and there is no object can be used to explain it… so, they translate it into Bahasa Indonesia…and it could not be written in the whiteboard. (I2, DU 53)

THEME 4: DRILL AND PRACTICES:

Drills are usually repetitive and are used as a reinforcement tool. Effective use of drill and practice depends on the recognition of the type of skill being developed, and the use of appropriate strategies to develop these competencies. Teachers use drill and practice activities to help their students master the materials at their own pace. The drill and practice activities mainly for the beginning learner or for students who are experiencing learning problems. In this institution, after every Morning Prayer, students will be provided with the drills and tests to help improve their Arabic language efficiency. They are usually assisted by senior students who are more experts and more knowledgeable. What resources and teaching methodologies used by the teachers? THEME 1: DIRECT METHOD:

Teachers use direct method when teaching Arabic language. Meaning that, L1 is inhibited in teaching L2. The purpose of using direct method is to make the learning of Arabic interesting and lively by establishing direct bond between a word and its meaning. Informant 1 stated:

… by means of direct method, so, see and speak, or see and imitate, that’s all, no translation. So, translation in our method is prohibited (I1, DU 40)

The central of Direct Method is the association of words and sentences with their meaning through demonstration, dramatizing, painting, etc. Direct Method involves all discussion in the target language.



The teacher uses examples of language in order to inductively teach grammar; students are to try to guess the rules of the language by the examples provided. Teachers interact with the students a lot, asking them questions about relevant topics and trying to use the grammatical structure of the day in the conversation. Accuracy is sought and errors are corrected.

THEME 2: ROLE PLAY:

In order to let students speak Arabic, teachers have to conduct some events such as Arabic drama or Arabic series. The reason behind this event is not only to let students speak, but also to let them see and hear what are showed in Arabic drama or series. The more they hear, the more they get familiar with Arabic language.

THEME 3: TEXT BOOKS:

Teaching language must be in the real context. This institution uses non-classical books as students’ textbook, such as kitab an-nahw al-wadih for teaching Arabic syntax. Some students’ textbooks are written by teachers such as morphology books and rhetoric book. The self-written textbooks are based on the real context so that students may understand betters. Today, curriculum in most subjects is built around themes. For example, a teacher might teach a unit on “What Does That Symbol Mean?” involving the use of symbols in Arabic and are based on the local culture. Language teachers can tie instruction to these themes to make language instruction more meaningful and seamlessly integrated into the school day. Students not only learn the language, but also content and culture. Thematic planning makes instruction more comprehensible because the theme creates a meaningful context. When students are studying a thematic unit, they are using their new language skills in context—and not simply learning vocabulary in isolation. THEME 4: ENVIRONMENT:

The findings showed that teachers in this institution never used language technology in teaching Arabic language. They built an Arabic environment within the campus. Students acquire Arabic language through that environment. Informant 2 stated:

… In term of teaching Arabic, we do not use language technology… We use this existing environment, like living laboratory, large laboratory (I2, DU 76)

The environment affects second language acquisition. An environment which encourages the greatest amount of use of the language is beneficial. People use an 'affective filter' that regulates how much input is received by a language processing mechanism. If the affective filter is over-used, a person tries to compose grammatically perfect sentences every times he/she speaks, and if it is underused he/she speaks without regard to the 'rules' he/she is aware of. The optimal user of the affective filter speaks naturally and often and eventually incorporates more rules into his/her speech. In this way, the brain is provided with more experience and input while also progressing toward more fluent speech What are the teachers’ suggestions to enhance the teaching of AFL to the non-native learners in the Institution? THEME 1: COMMITMENT:

Teachers’ commitment in using Arabic language with the students will help improve student language acquisition. When teachers always use Arabic in their daily activities, they show positive attitude to their students. Consequently, students will be accustomed to using Arabic when they hear the teachers speak Arabic exclusively. Informant 1 stated:

…the more important, the lecturers also speak Arabic in front of students, of course, there must have students who want to talk just like their teachers (I1, DU. 122).

Informant 2 stated: …require teachers’ commitment, as long as the teachers do not speak Malay or Indonesian with their students, the students will become committed (I2, DU 101)



THEME 2: CONTINUOUS PRACTICE:

Practice make perfect. Second language acquisition requires continuous practice. Everyone knows the importance of language practice for language learners. Repetition seems to be a one of the common tools that people use to practice. Limited repetition may have a limited role, especially with regards to some aspects of pronunciation. However the thing to remember is that language is fluid and creative. So learning language by repetition is counter intuitive. Respecting this fluidity and creativity is important and should not be under-rated. Language is so connected to who we are that it is difficult to separate ourselves from the language we use. We speak what we think or feel and the connection between words and our experience (including actions at times) is instantaneous. So we need to be mindful that wherever possible the practice that we do needs to honour this connection. If it does not, then we are practicing in a way that does not does not call on the faculties that we use when we are actually using the language in real life.

CONCLUSION:

Arabic learning is increasingly gaining a place in Muslim society. Many people felt that Arabic is the language need to be learned because of its privileges as well as its importance in our daily life. Arabic language classes are also open in many schools and higher learning institutions. Many parents are aware of the importance of the Arabic language and they are racing to send their children to learn Arabic. But to what extent the teaching of Arabic language classes that have an impact on the students? Will they be able to speak well and use the right language and fluent Arabic? Krashen & Terrell (1983) mainly focus on the meaning and the ability to communicate because they assume that communication is the main function of language. They emphasize to the importance of vocabulary and see that language as a tool to communicate and convey the meaning of the message. Therefore, language acquisition is only possible when people are able to understand a message in the second language they learnt. The result showed that the percentage of using Bahasa in the teaching of Arabic is very small and almost nil. Teachers only use bahasa in a desperate situation and they are allowed only one word in a class session. They prefer using Arabic language itself to teach Arabic. They inhibit students from using L1 and focus on L2 to enhance communication and also to create confidence learners and challenge them to communicate with others through their limited language. Because of the prohibition of using L1 in the school campus, this institution is able to educate its students to master Arabic language. Language teaching requires a continuous process and language itself should always be practiced in teaching and learning. This is to ensure that students fully master all the required skills such as reading, listening, writing and speaking skills. Learning the language would be better if teachers are able to organize lesson plans effectively, use appropriately and effectively techniques and methods of teaching and ensure lessons run properly.

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International Refereed Research Journal ■www.researchersworld.com■ Vol.– V, Issue–2, April 2014 [29]

IMPACT STATEMENTS ON THE K-12 SCIENCE PROGRAM

IN THE ENHANCED BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM

IN PROVINCIAL SCHOOLS

Marie Grace S. Cabansag, Ph.D.

Associate Professor IV Philippine Normal University Alicia, Isabela, Philippines.

ABSTRACT

The study described the knowledge, observations, benefits, expectations or potentials and sources of misinterpretations on the K-12 science program on its first implementation in selected provincial high schools in the Philippines. The impact statements of teachers, students and parent-respondents were analyzed using thematic content coding technique. Coding frames were constructed by adopting both “a priori” and “in-vivo” codes. The results showed the respondents viewed the K-12 science program as a means of preparing students toward better employment opportunities in the country or abroad. It also reports the program is viewed for holistic development of the 21st century learners equipped with necessary life skills who can contribute for economic and social development of the family and community. The impact statements suggest the need for close monitoring of the program implementation and provision of continuous professional trainings for teachers to clear areas of misinterpretations. Misconceptions on the nature of additional years of study further suggest the provision and wide dissemination of policy standards on employment and education opportunities in the ASEAN Economic Community integration. Keywords: Impact statement, K-12 curriculum, basic education, science program.



INTRODUCTION:

The implementation of the K-12 curriculum in the Philippines started in 2012 beginning with grade 1 and grade 7 learners and the succeeding levels were introduced as these students get promoted to the next grade levels in the ensuing school year. Prior to this, the Kindergarten Education Act was implemented in school year 2011–2012 by virtue of Republic Act 10157; the law institutionalized the inclusion of kindergarten education into the basic education system of the Philippines (PhilStar.com.,2012). Subsequently, Republic Act 10533 also known as the “Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013” enabled the implementation of the K-12 in the country (The Official Gazette,2013). The Philippine K-12 curricular program provides at least one year of Kindergarten education and a total of twelve years of basic education similar with most of the countries in the world. The addition of two years on the former ten-year basic education program was envisioned for mastery of learning making learners better prepared for the world of work besides the conventional belief of just preparing them for collegiate education. (K-12 Basic Education Program, The Official Gazette, 2012; K-12 Primer ǀK-12 Update Teachers’ Lounge, 2013). The features of the K-12 Enhanced Basic Education Program include the strengthened Science and Math education which follows a spiral progression. The use of spiral progression avoids disjunctions between stages of schooling and allows learners to learn topics and skills appropriate to their developmental and/or cognitive stages. The spiral progression is also believed to strengthen retention and mastery of topics and skills as they are revisited and consolidated with increasing depth and complexity of learning in the succeeding grade levels (Quijano and Technical Working Group on Curriculum, 2012). In the articles “Additional Years in Philippine Basic Education” by the SEAMEO-INNOTECH (2010) and the K-12 PrimerǀK-12 Update in Teachers’ Lounge of Rex publishing (2013), the comparative data on the length of basic and pre-university education in Asia was explained and showed the Philippine education system provides only ten (10) years for the basic education cycle and as the preparatory education for the collegiate level while most of the countries around the globe have either 11 or 12 years of basic education cycle. The ten-year Philippine basic education system became a disadvantage for Filipino workers abroad and for those who intend to study outside the Philippines. Many Filipino professionals desire working abroad for greener pastures but they tend to land a job apart from the diploma they pursued in the Philippine higher education institutions. Some persistent overseas workers submit themselves to state policies on earning professional license besides having earned the same in their home country in order to practice a profession abroad. Children of Filipino migrants to other countries tend to repeat a grade level already earned in the Philippines or to enroll additional courses to fit into the basic education program of their new home country. The Department of Education (DepEd) of the Philippines is aware that the Filipino graduates are disadvantaged for not being recognized as professionals abroad due to the ten-year curriculum that is usually perceived by other countries as insufficient. According to UNESCO Educational Commission to the Philippines, six (6) years of elementary school and four (4) years in the secondary is not adequate. The group proposed eventually the increase to 12 years. Moreover, high school graduates are observed to have inadequate basic competencies including mature disposition essential in real life outside the school thus, making them unfit for university education. Whereas, graduates in high school that do not pursue collegiate education become vulnerable to exploitative labor practices (Economic Issue of the Day in Philippine Institute for Development Studies, 2012). With these scenarios, the DepEd lays high confidence on the K-12 Program in providing better quality of education that is based on spirally progressing curriculum starting with simple topics moving toward increasing complexity in order for the learners to gain mastery of concepts and skills. Graduates of the K-12 program are therefore envisioned as better prepared to compete globally for employment opportunities (K-12 PrimerǀK-12 Update, Teachers’ Lounge, 2013). This change on basic education cycle caused the conduct of stakeholder consultations, policy discourses, and education summits to gather inputs and feedback on the educational reform, however, the K-12 Program remains an issue of



inquiries on its implementation and effectiveness. It continuously solicits different responses among various individuals from the educators, students, parents and various stakeholders. The grade 7 students observed their science lessons as comparable to science classes of second year high school biology, third year chemistry and fourth year physics in the earlier Basic Education Curriculum. The grade 7 students are put to a certain level of confidence performing varied learning activities aided with learning modules in the K-12 Science Program. On the other hand, the implementation of the K-12 Program remains a formidable matter for schools not well prepared to embrace the program. Teachers are made to adjust to innovative practices integrated in the preparation of lessons, actual delivery of teaching, rating student performances and of the overall classroom management. The parents foresee a longer time of schooling that will boil down to more expenses on the education of their children. Hence, the impact statements from the immediate beneficiaries of the K-12 Program provide salient data on the status of the first implementation of the program among provincial schools and use such data for monitoring and basis by the technical working groups for curricular review and further enhancement.

LITERATURE REVIEW:

The science content and science processes in the K-12 Curriculum are intertwined and are organized around situations and problems that challenge and arouse students’ curiosity and motivate them to learn and appreciate science as relevant and useful subject. There are varied hands-on, minds-on, and hearts-on activities that are used to develop students’ interest and let them become active learners instead of just relying solely on textbooks. As a whole, the K-12 science curriculum is learner-centered and inquiry-based, emphasizing the use of evidence in constructing explanations. Concepts and skills in Life Sciences, Physics, Chemistry, and Earth Sciences are presented with increasing levels of complexity from one grade level to another in spiral progression, thus paving the way to deeper understanding of concepts. These concepts and skills are integrated rather than discipline-based, stressing the connections across science topics and other disciplines as well as applications of concepts and thinking skills to real life. After completion of grade 10, the students’ learning competencies and skills will be assessed to match the areas of specialization or tracks they are to pursue in the senior high school level. These tracks will be either on Academic, Technical-Vocational Livelihood, or Sports and Arts. Students will be required to undergo immersion activities or apprenticeship which may provide rich experiences relevant to their chosen specialization. (K-12 Basic Education Program, 2012; K-12 Primer ǀK-12 Update, Teachers’ Lounge, 2013). Science and Math proficiency had been pointed out by the Philippine President Benigno Simeon C. Aquino III as one among his 10-point basic education agenda aimed at rebuilding infrastructures for science and math education so the Philippines can produce quality graduates in these fields and will ensure the country’s pool of expert professionals who are globally competitive (Piamonte, 2012 in the article Primer on the Enhanced K-12 Basic Education Program, Unescoclubphilippines). Enhancing the quality of basic education through K-12 Program is urgent and critical as the Philippines had been left behind the countries in Asia and one among the three remaining countries in the world in terms of offering the global trend of 12-year basic education cycle. The two other countries, Djibouti and Angola in Africa are like the Philippines with a 10-year basic education cycle (K-12 Primer ǀK-12 Update, Teachers’ Lounge, 2013; Piamonte, 2012 in the Primer on the Enhanced K-12 Basic Education Program, Unescoclubphilippines). Moreover, Piamonte exposed graduates of degree courses in the Philippines are not recognized as professionals abroad. The case of licensed and registered Philippine nurses who intend to work abroad for example, need to take state board examinations to qualify them as professional nurses. The reason behind this scenario is the short term duration of the Philippine basic education cycle. Hence, the urgent need to adopt a K-12 program which provides quality education and is internationally recognized and comparable. The curricular reforms in the Philippine K-12 “Enhanced Basic Education” are geared toward global responsiveness and competitiveness as measured against the standards of regional or international organizations such as the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC). The Philippines is a member of the



AEC for a regional economic integration by 2015 that promotes among other visions an open market for employment opportunities among labor forces of the member countries. Neighboring Asian countries of the Philippines have long been prepared in terms of the educational requirements of their work force for a job fair at least across Southeast Asia. The requirements of the twelve-year basic education were fully implemented among other ASEAN member countries compared to the Philippines that started implementation in year 2012. Hence, this K-12 Program is a strategy that prepares the Philippines in parallel assessment on quality of graduates along with competitors in regional or international economic communities (Garcia, 2013). Consequently, the roadmap of the Philippines toward ASEAN 2015 includes the provision of enabling laws such as the “Republic Act (R.A.) 10157” gives the Philippine Department of Education the authority to implement reforms in basic education and of requiring kindergarten education as prerequisite to elementary education in all public schools in the country (RTVM, 2012).The general kindergarten program is the 10-month training provided to children who are at least five years old upon entry in the elementary schools. The lessons are presented through the thematic and integrative curriculum to ensure the development of foundation skills among children and to prepare them for Grade 1 (Brago,2012). Likewise, Republic Act 10533, the “Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013” authorized the implementation of the K-12 in the country with the following expected benefits as enumerated in the K-12 Primer (Teachers’ Lounge, 2013), these benefits are: a) the provision of ample time for the acquisition and mastery of learning competencies and skills integrated in co-curricular and community activities toward holistic development of the learner, b) the learners are better prepared for tertiary education, c) learners earn certificates of competency after acquiring required skills in their chosen area of specialization during senior high school training, d) lower household expenses compared to a two-year college education, since the two-year senior high school training as part of basic education is given free in Philippine public schools compared to privelege college education; e) the K-12 graduate of about eighteen years old will then be capacitated to earn, and can contribute to Philippine economic growth, f) graduates of the K-12 program will be accorded recognition abroad, g) the learners will be holistically developed in all dimensions, h) the lessons in each level are decongested providing room for in-depth learning of concepts and mastery, i) the integration of kindergarten education into the basic education system provide better preparation toward grade 1 level learning competencies, and j) the K-12 graduates will be able to meet the standards for higher education in the country and abroad, equipped with the 21st century skills and enriched learning competencies which will be acquired from longer exposure and focus on core subjects such as Science, Mathematics and English together with elective courses prepare students to be responsive to the needs of the industrial and manufacturing sectors. The realization of K-12 curriculum benefits rest largely on the action of the education sector whereas the roadmap to ASEAN 2015 is placed on the competitiveness of Filipino professionals and the competitiveness of graduates of Philippine Educational institutions via K-12 program (Garcia, 2013). The proximity of time between implementation of the K-12 program in Philippine schools and the integration of the country to ASEAN economic community in 2015 causes all the cramming of the technical working groups and the mixed reactions by the teachers, students, and parents who are directly affected. This study therefore aimed to document the impact of the initial implementation of K-12 Program focusing on science education in grades 7 and 8 of the school year 2013-2014. The impact statements serve as the yardstick that measure how much of the K-12 program issues and benefits are understood by the stakeholders and thereby provide data for curricular review as the K-12 Program is on its gradual year to year implementation. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

The study aimed to describe the impact statements on the initial implementation of the science program in the K-12 enhanced basic education curriculum in provincial schools. Specifically, the study sought to answer the following:



1. What are the views of the teachers, students and parents on the implementation of the Science program in the K-12 enhanced basic education curriculum?

2. What are the benefits ascribed by the respondents to the K-12 science program? 3. How do respondents relate the potential impact of the K-12 science program in life situations? and 4. What are the views of respondents as sources of misinterpretations in the K-12 Science program?

METHODOLOGY:

The qualitative method of research was used in gathering and documenting the impact statements on the first implementation of the K-12 science program as experienced by grade 7 and 8 students, their teachers and parents from the four congressional districts in the province of Isabela, Philippines. The respondents were selected through cluster sampling technique. The clusters consist of the four congressional districts of Isabela and the towns per district were randomly picked. Twenty five (25) teachers who were directly involved in the teaching of science in grades 7 and 8 and were willing to share information about the study were requested to fill out a questionnaire after a brief discussion on the K-12 science program of the enhanced basic education. The questions revolved on what they observed having been done in schools in relation to the K-12 science program, the benefits they ascribe to it, the potentials, and issues of misinterpretations in the implementation of the K-12 science program. The fifteen (15) parents with children enrolled in grade 7 or 8 and the selected eighty four (84) students of grade 7 and 8 who gave consent to participate in the study have also been requested to share information in similar manner as the teacher respondents. The impact statements were written by each of the respondents on the questionnaire to ensure precision and accuracy of data collection. The data gathered were consolidated into themes and treated statistically using frequency endorsement count and percentage. The written responses were coded using thematic content analysis as the main technique. The responses analyzed by coding strategy generated the main themes, sub-themes and categories. Coding frames were constructed by adopting both “a priori” and “in-vivo” codes (Barbour, 2007 and Charmaz, 2006). “A priori” and “in-vivo” codes are distinguished from each other in that the former are those whose sense is apparent from the data themselves whereas the latter have meanings which are special to the participants (Barbour, 2007). RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

The thematic content analyses began with categorizing the impact statements into the four major themes as statements of a. observed practices and knowledge on K-12 Science program, b. impact statements on benefits derived from the program, c. potential impacts of the program on future life situations, and d. views on sources of misinterpretations on the program. The sub-themes identified as either the statements describing the program, the learners and teachers or the society. These statements grouped by sub-themes were finally categorized into more definite themes of more coherent ideas as presented in graphs. The categorized impact statements were further analyzed by coding frames of “priori” or impact statements whose sense or meaning is apparent from the data and “in-vivo” with meanings which are special to the respondents (Barbour, 2007). VIEWS ON THE SCIENCE PROGRAM IN THE K-12 ENHANCED BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM:

The practices and knowledge on K-12 Science program as indicated in Figure 1 present the general impact statements. These statements were drawn either from one’s personal encounter of the respondents or through information drives spearheaded by the Department of Education. The statements showed that the parents, students and teachers are commonly aware of certain issues about the program while the rest of the issues were left to the concern only of the students and teachers.



Figure 1: Views of teachers, students and parents on k12 science program

The parents, students and teachers have common understanding on K-12 science program in terms of three issues which are the increase in the number of years in schooling, increase of performance, and of holistic development of learners. The parents and students share a common view that the K-12 program will provide elective courses on Technology and Livelihood Education. This information had drawn much attention to parents as a significant characteristic of the program that is different from the earlier basic education curricula. The economic status of the Filipino family serves as a strong motivation to children in school to pursue education. It is a common belief that education is a stepping stone toward better living standards. The impact of offering courses on technology and livelihood education is exceedingly high among parents compared to those of the student- respondents because of varying perceptions. The parents perceive the possibility of their children gaining vocational skills for work to earn additional income for the family but for the students exposed and have access to communications technology perceive the courses as avenues for learning more technological skills suited for computer operations which are applicable for games and social media networking. Both perceptions contribute to the rechanneling of course objectives to match desired outcomes of instruction. The statement on the increase of two years on basic education also obtained very high impact among parents. The financial expenditure of the Filipino family focuses on the education of children and the additional years of schooling means additional stress on family budget. The common responses of parents on financial stress brought by expenses in school include: seeking cash loans from financial institutions or business firms which they promise to pay in the form of farm yields in harvest time, or by asking for advance payment of farm services for the next cropping season. And if all possible measures are exhausted, the family has to stop the child from attending school. On the other hand, the parent-respondents who belong to the upper economic class favor the additional years of basic education based on the advantages of comparable length of basic education as the other countries of the world. These insights call for the attention of education leaders in enriching the community of salient information referring to the delivery and outcomes of the additional senior high school education. The impact statement on the observed increase in performance or knowledge bring a holistic development among learners and drew more concern for parents than the teachers and student-respondents. Many of the students recognized the increased level of performance that the K-12 science program claim to realize; this thinking could be traced from what they actually experienced since the mix of their science subject consist of the science lessons offered in higher levels in secondary school

0 20 40 60 80 100

Increase of 2 years in Basic Education

Increase level of performance

Holistic development of learners(Knowledge,skills,attitude)

Uses a spiral progression of topics

With electives in TLE

Activity-based learning

Use of learning modules, technology

Grades are based on level of proficiency

(Percentage)

Parents

Students

Teachers



having Biology for second year high school in the old basic education curriculum, Chemistry for third year and Physics for fourth year. The impact of the program among students also dealt with the provision of learning activities, use of technology in the delivery of instruction and of lessons in increasing difficulty which is a characteristic of the spiral progression of topics. These experiences communicated by the students to their parents bring a reasonable impact as parents normally desire to give their children quality education. In a small group discussion, some students disclosed that learning is more interesting, effective and enjoyable in K-12 because they learn Chemistry, Physics, Biology and Earth Science all in one year and there are varied learning activities which enhance their talents and skills. Moreover, students find the topics easy at first and gradually become hard but there is mastery of the topics because they are discussed in their own pace and longer years to study. On the contrary, some students did not agree that K-12 program is more interesting, effective and enjoyable because the topics are too difficult and they need to stay longer in school for two years on senior high school. Figure 1 also shows that the teachers’ knowledge on the program being the prime actors, revolve more on the delivery of topics in spiral progression and on grading system based on level of proficiency. The initial implementation of the program normally brings pressures to teachers on these two concerns as new practices are difficult to follow with great accuracy. The use of instructional modules and technology such as laptop and projectors had also brought impact on teachers. On the other hand, the issue on the provision of elective subjects in Technology and Livelihood Education did not draw attention to the teachers in science. The pool of teachers specializing in technology and livelihood education is concentrated in Technical Vocational Schools apart from the basic education schools directly supervised by the Department of Education and their number will not be enough to address the needed teaching force for the elective courses in K-12 program. The least attention of science teachers on the issue can be redirected toward helping solve the gap of needed teaching force by providing science teachers some technical and livelihood trainings akin to their science preparations such as on horticulture and on raising of animals. THE BENEFITS ASCRIBED TO THE K-12 SCIENCE PROGRAM:

The benefits ascribed by the respondents to the K-12 science program (Figure 2) were the advantages experienced by the learners and by the teachers.

Figure 2: Benefits ascribed to the K-12 Science program

The parents who were not directly benefited drew attention on increased employment of teachers in the K-12 program as well as seeing teachers with increased teaching resources like modules and gadgets. From this point of view, parents consider the possibility of creative teaching strategies able to

0 20 40 60 80 100

Functional learning, in depth knowledge &development of skills

Increased employment for teachers

Increased educational resources (teachingaids)

Creative strategies in teaching

Talents are honed through activities, moreparticipative learners

Students become responsible for ones ownlearning

Less work for teachers, simpler lessonpreparation

(Percentage)

Parents

Students

Teachers



transform learners into gaining functional understanding and becoming responsible for one’s own learning. Teachers on the other hand consider the increased teacher employment as having the most evident impact of the program. The onset of the program implementation had triggered hiring of more teachers in the public schools. Teachers also experienced the impact of the program on the use of activities that led students become more participative and had enhanced students’ talents. The activities introduced by teachers are aided by gadgets making them more creative in their teaching however, the depth of knowledge and skills development were deemed to have less impact to teachers as they probably look for better results than what they actually yielded from the students’ performance. This findings support the study of Cabansag (2013) that explained the vulnerability of science teachers of becoming motivated and unmotivated by the same factor. The motivation of science teachers in introducing varied learning activities may diminish and put them under stress when the results of their efforts are not compensated by students’ performances. A lesser percentage of the teacher-respondents regarded lesson preparation as simpler and less work in the K-12 program since their instructional modules provide almost all necessary steps they are supposed to be planning and writing. Similarly, there was less impact on teachers on issues of student’s responsibility for self-learning. Figure 2 also shows that learning activities paired in science lessons had the most noticeable impact of the K-12 program among students. Their attention was also drawn toward the use of instructional aids that goes with the activities. They also recognized having acquired in depth learning, developed skills and their becoming responsible for their learning as brought by the implementation of the K-12 science program. The supervisors of instruction should in effect, consistently encourage teachers in providing quality learning tasks in classes to sustain interest of the teachers and students in the teaching-learning process. THE K-12 SCIENCE PROGRAM POTENTIAL IMPACT:

The potential impact of K-12 science program on future life situations focused on economic and social benefits as shown in Figure 3. The impact of skills training and specializations will prepare the students in the world of work had the greatest impact among parent- respondents. The parents also hoped the K-12 graduates will be globally competitive. Prior to enrollment to grade 11, the students will be assessed in terms of learning competencies and skills acquired from grade 7 through grade 10. Results of the assessment will be used to guide the incoming senior high school students in choosing an area of specialization to focus either on Academics, Technical-Vocational, or Sports and Arts (K-12 PrimerǀK-12 Update, Teachers’ Lounge, 2013).

Figure 3: Views on potential impact of K-12 Science program on life situations

Science as one of the core subjects and specializations in academics will prepare students in the science related degrees and will equip them with competencies to meet the demands and standards set by universities abroad; and K-12 graduates will be well prepared to pursue professions and earn mutual recognition as the graduates of universities in other countries. The teachers and students have similar



views on becoming globally competitive as a result of the implementation of the K-12 program as a whole (Figure 3). The teacher- respondents had remarkable regard on the capability of the K-12 graduates of getting a job after graduation. The certifications of competencies will be issued after proper evaluation by the government agency called “Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA)” will enable the K-12 graduates get a job requiring technical and vocational skills. Finally, Figure 3 shows that student respondents view the potential impact of the K-12 program on the global scenario in terms of competitiveness and in meeting the standards of other universities abroad. These impact statements point out to high hopes of the respondents on the possibility of K-12 graduates in Philippine schools for mutual recognition on educational preparations for university work will eventually qualify them to get equal opportunities for employment in the global market. These impact statements are the expected outcomes which are yet to be seen in the next five years. Policies on employment in the global market and opportunities on education in the country and abroad should therefore be widely disseminated for better positioning of the country’s human resource. Economists and authorities in the labor market should generate a map of employment opportunities that suit the skills and trainings of the work force of the country to optimize the potentials offered by this education program. SOURCES OF MISINTERPRETATIONS IN THE K-12 SCIENCE PROGRAM:

The additional two-year training in senior high school has been designed for students to have sufficient time to consolidate and master the academic and technical skills embodied in the desired learning competencies in the 21st century (Philippine Institute for Developmental Studies, 2012) but some of the parents and teacher-respondents view the additional years of study in terms of expenses (Figure 4) notwithstanding the advantage of the senior high school years given free as part of basic education in public schools compared to a more expensive two- year college work in higher education. The birthing years of new programs usually cause pains both to the implementer and receiver which include shortage of allotted funds or delay of release of funds resulting to insufficient resources. Structures such as classrooms take time for construction and normally get realized later. The sequencing of learning competencies depend on concepts and skills that are integrated rather than discipline-based, stressing the connections across science topics and other disciplines as well as applications of concepts and thinking skills to real life (Piamonte, 2012 in “Primer on the Enhanced K-12 Basic Education Program.” Unescoclubphilippines). Teacher respondents who usually beg off or refuse the idea behind the sequence of competencies considered the issue as source of misinterpretation. The suggested learning activities paired to the learning competencies allow multi-disciplinary concepts to surface during the processing of information. The facility of the teacher to focus on desired competencies could be a factor to consider. This probably stems from other issues as shown in Figure 4 such as the different points of view of trainers or lecturers on capability seminars for K-12 program hence, leading to confusions; a typical issue among teachers is on matters of grading system. Unlike the old curriculum that uses quantitative or numeric values, the K-12 curriculum on the other hand uses qualitative descriptions coded with characters of the alphabet as A- for Advanced, P- Proficient, AP- for Approaching Proficiency, D- Developing, and B- for Beginning. The transmutations from computed values to qualitative descriptions also have some technical matters and could bring misinterpretations. Other impact statements also reveal that teachers consider insufficient trainings and seminars for teachers to cause misinterpretations on the nature K-12 curriculum.



Figure 4: Views on sources of misinterpretations on the K-12 Science program

The prevailing idea on basic education is just a preparation for college or university admission and not as preparation for employment thus, the provision of Technology and Livelihood Education “TLE” in the K-12 curriculum (designed to prepare students for employment after graduation from senior high school) is presumed by some parents as preparing semi-skilled youth to the labor force at an early age of eighteen (18) and could lead to manpower exploitation. The traditional Filipino folks consider the age of eighteen as rather young to make independent decisions and take serious responsibilities such as earning for a living. The SEAMEO-INNOTECH (2010) report showed that the Philippines should improve its educational goals to make them clearer more focused on the acquisition and mastery of learning competencies and skills desired in the 21st century. According to the report, while the current educational goal of the country on developing functional literate Filipinos by 2015 is anchored on the UNESCO 4 Pillars of Learning, the goals should be redirected to shift focus to 21st century competencies given the realities of today’s knowledge society. The organization also reported that both elementary and secondary education levels in the Philippines were found to be congested of subjects or lessons compared with Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, and Singapore. In elementary level, certain subjects such as mathematics, sciences, social studies, and other subject areas should be decongested. The SEAMEO-INNOTECH (2010) also recommended the convergence of the 2010 Secondary Education Curriculum. As for secondary education, it is necessary to support the spiral progression curriculum model which follows world standards of offering an integrated approach in the delivery of the different subject areas that promotes critical thinking and active participation to suit the demands in the 21st century learning. The report further reminded the need to develop a higher system of secondary education with considerations on the provision of opportunities for learners with other forms of intelligences such as trainings for students who are inclined on taking technical and vocational disciplines (SEAMEO-INNOTECH, 2010). This report explains the rationale of enhancing the basic education curriculum of the country and the imminence of implementation is supported by the visions of the ASEAN Economic Community integration by year 2015. CONCLUSION:

The impact statements from the surveyed stakeholders of the K-12 curriculum put emphasis on the role of education in realizing holistic development of the 21st century learners equipped with necessary life skills who can contribute for economic and social development of the family and community. Science as one of the focus subject areas in the K-12 curriculum has been viewed as venue for honing students’ talents obtained through various learning activities. Misconceptions on the nature of the additional two



years of basic education known as the senior high school level pose negative impact among parents on the lower economic status. The impact statements suggest the need for close monitoring of the program implementation coupled with continuous professional trainings of teachers to clear areas of misinterpretations such as on grading system, skills development for employment standards, and on processing of learning activities to attain target competencies and attainment of mastery. The impact statements further suggest the provision and wide dissemination of policy standards on employment and education opportunities in the ASEAN Economic Community integration. REFERENCES:

[1] Barbour, R. (2007). Doing focus groups. London, UK: Sage Publication Ltd. [2] Brago, P.L. ,(2012). PhilStar.com. http://www.philstar.com/.../exhibit-k-12-among-highlights-

independence-day-. Retrieved December 30, 2013, from http//www.philstar.com [3] Cabansag, M.S. (2013). Career Motivational Beliefs and Teachers’ Pattern of Behavior Toward

Science Teaching, Researchers World: Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce, Volume IV-4, pp 1-11. [4] Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative

analysis. London, UK: Sage Publications Ltd. [5] Economic Issue of the Day (2012). Philippine Institute for Development Studies. Vol XII No.2.

December 2012. [6] Garcia, J. A. S. (2013). Framework for ASEAN 2015: A Roadmap for Schools

http://www.pacu.org.ph/wp2/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Framework-for-ASEAN-2015A Roadmap-for-Schools-Dr-John-Addy-Gar.pdf.Retrieved December 30, 2013, from http://www.pacu.org.ph

[7] K-12 PrimerǀK-12 Update, Teachers’ Lounge. Rexpublishing (2013) http://www.rexpublishing.com.ph/basic-education/teacherslounge/basic-education/k-to-12-Primer/. Retrieved December 30, 2013 from http://www.rexpublishing.com.ph

[8] K to 12 Basic Education Program (2012). The Official Gazette (Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office and PREGINET). Retrieved December 27, 2013 from http://www.gov.ph/

[9] Piamonte, M. U. (2012). Primer on the Enhanced K to 12 Basic Education Program. Unescoclubphilippines.unescoclubphilippines.weebly.com/.../unesco_clubs_talk_on_k-12_mar. Retrieved December 23, 2013 from http://www. unescoclubphilippines.weebly.com

[10] Quijano, Yolanda S. & Technical Working Group on Curriculum (2012). Orientation for K to 12 Division Coordinators. DepED Complex. 20 April 2012.

[11] Republic Act 10157. Kindergarten Education Act. PhilStar.com. (2012). http://www.philstar.com/headlines/810874/deped-issues-implementing-rules-kindergarten-act. Retrieved December 27, 2013 from http://www.philstar.com

[12] Republic Act 10533. Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013.The Official Gazette. (Presidential communications Development and Strategic Planning Office and PREGINET). Retrieved December 27, 2013 from http://www.gov.ph/

[13] RTVM (2012). Formal Presentation of the Kindergarten Law (R.A. 10157). Presidential Broadcast Staff Radio Television Malacanang Online. 27 February 2012. http://rtvm.gov.ph/main/?p=309. Retrieved December 28, 2013 from http://rtvm.gov.ph/

[14] SEAMEO-INNOTECH (2010). Additional Years in Philippine Basic Education: Rationale and Legal Bases. Department of Education,7(2).pp. 79-80.

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International Refereed Research Journal ■ www.researchersworld.com ■ Vol.– V, Issue–2, April 2014 [40]

DETECTION AND REMEDIES FOR INDUSTRIAL

SICKNESS IN SMALL INDUSTRIAL UNITS OF

BANGLADESH: A STUDY ON SICK INDUSTRIAL

UNITS OF INDUSTRIAL ESTATES IN SYLHET DIVISION

Abdul Latif,

Associate Professor Department of Business Administration,

Sylhet International University, Syhet, Bangladesh.

Abu Syeed Muhammed Abdullah

Senior Lecturer Department of Business Administration,

Sylhet International University, Sylhet, Bangladesh.

ABSTRACT

Small industrial units are the seedbed on industrial development in underdeveloped economy for its less capital involvement and more employment generation capability. But this sector cannot contribute expectedly for infection to sickness that ultimately prevents the entrepreneurial bases of economy. Sickness can be occurred in the inception period, in operation and /or in macro environment.There are various techniques to prevent sickness and to make the treatment of occurred sickness. In this study, the researchers selected 13 sick units of BSCIC industrial units and collected the information regarding the causes, stages and measures to prevent sickness. It is found that 07 are born to sick due to improper capital budgeting, 06 are made sick for managerial problems and no units are bound to be sick for environmental problems. Keywords: Sickness, BSCIC, Capital Budgeting, Industrial Development.



INTRODUCTION:

The manufacturing sector is playing a significant role in national economy. It contributes 13.1% of total employment, in number it is 5.1 million (labor survey, 1999-2000, BBS) and 9o% of export. The small scale industries areemploying more than 80% of industrial employment though its contribution to GDP that is not so significant. The investment per employee in small scale industry is lower by Tk. 100,000 than large scale industry (Ahmad M.U. 1999).Small scale industries are justified for high labor intensity, the use of indigenousmaterials, employment at minimum investment cost, regional industrial development, building upentrepreneurial base at comparatively lower cost etc. Though this sector is significant, some constraints are afflicting that sector. For these constraints, small scale industries are not able to perform its expected role being in the sound line. For these lasting constraints,industrial units being unable to perform normally incur loss subsequently and become closed for sickness. In a report it is found that 1581 industries become sick. (MOI, 1992). Some industries are born as sick, some are made sick and some are thrust to be sick. The poor vision, forecasting, appraisal and planning are the causes of the firms’ born as sick. The poor management, lack of monitoring, improper financial, human resource and marketing lead some firms to be sick. Some firms are thrust to be sick by environmental factors as change of technology, market, etc.(Alam. S.M. Jahirul, August 2003). Industrial sickness is a buzzword. For sickness,industry becomes unable to perform the normal activities. Continuous losses due to adverse factors destroy the financial viability of any enterprise. Some constraints are common to all industries and some too particular to specific industry. These constraints may be broadly classified into internal or indigenous and external or exogenous factors. The enterprise is a system of internal and external factors. Sickness of many firms is normally caused by internal factors (Srivastiva, Yadav, Pp: 15-16). The internal factors such as marketing, management, faulty project evaluation and implementation, etc. are generated within the firm and can be controlled.Another important internal factor is the entrepreneur himself or herself. In many cases they are lured by incentive scheme of government in setting up the industry and thenthey perform aloneall the painful task of managing the troubles. After some days they lose the interest and cause sickness to the industry. The external constraints are created by external factors and are beyond the control of the industrial unit (Desai, D. 2006). The external factors can be classified by factors related to government and authorities, to environment and to the natural calamities. The government related factors are changes in industrial, monetary, fiscal policies etc.. The environment related factors are changes in demand, recession in economy, shortage of working capital etc. and the natural calamities such as flood, drought, cyclone etc. Sometimes internal factors are supported by the external factors and the result is the creation of very complex situation in the industrial unit. The constraints that convert the industrial unit to sick are also classified by management, marketing, financial, technological, environmental factors. Among the management factors, the improper strategic management plan, poor organizational structure, improper human resource management, improper operations management techniques as productivity, etc. are to be mentioned. Poor financial policy, working capital management, improper financial management etc. are among financial factors. The environmental factors include economic environment, changes in economic position, lack of coordination between government and agencies, unrest of workers etc.. The important technological factors are location, layout plan, forecasting of demand, capacity planning, inventory management, total quality management, master production schedule, optimization, reengineering etc. The poor quality entrepreneurship and dishonest purposes of entrepreneurs are also treated as other causes of industrial sickness. Continued Industrial sickness causes threat to survival of the enterprise. Sufficient care should be taken to remove the sickness and to ensure the survival of the enterprise. This study is to pinpoint the problems of sick industries in one of the seven divisions of Bangladesh -Sylhet; a remittance and natural resources rich but industrially backward north-east part of Bangladesh and to search the proper remedies to prevent the industries from sickness and cure the sick units.



LITERATURE REVIEW:

Sickness in industry is a common phenomenon. Almost all the literatures found in the field of industrial sickness described the causes pertaining to sickness and remedial measurement also. Wikipedia defines Industrial Sickness "an industrial company (being a company registered for not less than five years) which has, at the end of any financial year, accumulated losses equal to, or exceeding, its entire net worth and has also suffered cash losses in such financial year and the financial year immediately preceding such financial year”. This site also discusses the causes of sickness in small scale industry. BIDS survey (1998) showed that 19.6% of textile, 14.3% infood, 5.75% of non-electrical, 5.4% of leather industry became sick. It also showed that 72.5% of small scale industry, 19.7% of medium industry and 4.8% of large scale industry became sick. (Bhattachrjya D. et.al. (1998). Saha (1999) surveyed in 1992 on the causes of sickness and found that the internal causes are problems in marketing (31%), management and entrepreneurial problems (22%), faulty project plan and Appraisal (14%), improper management and other techniques (12%) , delay in implementation ( 12%) and other (9%). The external factors are location selection (22%), working capital management (2.8%), power shortage (15%), changes in policy (13%), unavailability of raw materials (11%), labor Shortage (5.7%), (5%), other (8%), (FFYP 97-02) Goyal, Dr. K.A (et.al) (2012)mentioned industrial sickness as a continuous process and during the time of favorable run of an industry may go sick when the surroundings of the industry become unfavorable. This paper gives an idea regarding industrial sickness, its causes, quantum of industrial sickness as well. Misra, Dr. Shivani (July 2012) in of the article entitled “Striving and Thriving in the Era of Globalization” depicted 9 reasons as the causes of sickness in industry in India. He showed lack of demand 71.6%, shortage of working capital 48.0%, non-availability of raw material 15.1%, power shortage 21.4%, labour problems 7.4%, marketing problems 44.5%, equipment problems 10.6%, and management problems 5.5%. Junejo, Mumtaz Ali; Rohra, Chandan Lal; and Maitlo, Dr. Ghulam Murtaza (2007) in a study based on in-depth study of Larkana estate area of India showed that 23.25 percent of the units fell sick because of lack of good management, 16.74 percent short fall of working capital, 13.95 percent inadequate feasibility reports, 13.95 percent marketing problems, 9.30 percent poorcredit facilities, 1.86 percent load shedding problem and 2.79 percent tax problem. Sujatha, Y.; Reddy, P. Sunilkumar and Rao, Dr. K. Prahlada; (2012) found that lack of finance: bad production policies, wrong demand & forecasting, selection of in appropriate product mix, absence of product planning, wrong market research methods and bad sales promotions, ineffective corporate management, inappropriate personnel management, personnel problem, marketing constraints, production constraints, and finance limitations are the major causes of sickness to small scale industries. Besides, they provided various remedial steps to stop such sickness. Rajeevan N.; Sulphey, Dr. M. M.; (2012) found that among registered units of SSI in India 13.98%, and among un-registered units of SSI 6.89% of the total units are sick. While considering the reasons due to this sickness they found lack of demand 58%, 69.1% & 66% ; working capital shortage 57%, 43% & 46 %; non availability of raw materials 12 %, 12% & 12%; power supply 17 %, 12%, &13%; labour problems 6%, 4%, &5%; marketing problems 37%, 36% &36% ; equipment problems 9 %, 12% & 11% and management problems 5%, 3% &4% under registered units, unregistered units and total units respectively are responsible for sickness to small scale industries. Rashid, Md. Mamunur (2012) identified some causes to industrial sickness in Bangladeshi Small Scale Industries. The causes he identified as Internal causes of sickness include Marketing problem (31%), Management inefficiency and lack of entrepreneurial skills (22%), Faulty project planning and appraisal (14%), Imbalance of machinery and inappropriate technology (12%), Implementation delay (12%) ( mobilization of equity, etc), diversions of funds labor problem, etc (9&) and as external causes of sickness include Delay in loan sanction and disbursement(22%), Non-availability/ shortage of working capital(21%), Power problem (15%), Changes in govt. policy ( import liberalization)(13%),



Non-availability/irregular supply of raw material and other critical inputs (11%), Natural calamities (5%), Smuggling and political unrest(5%), and others (5%). Das, Bhushan Chandra; Chakraborty, K.S.; Krishnankutty Raveesh; (2012) observed the causes of industrial sickness in micro and small manufacturing enterprises in Tripura. It is found that market demand, management issues, obsolete technology, diversion of funds, inadequate working capital, poor realization of debts, etc. are the major causes of sickness in micro and small sector of Tripura. Goswami, Deepak; Hazarika, Padmalochan; and Sarma, Kandarpa Kumar; in aProceedings of the 13th WSEAS International Conference on Mathematics and Computers in Business and Economics (MCBE’ 12) held at “G. Enescu “University, Iasi, Romania, June 13-5-2012, propose amathematical model to study and analyze industrial sickness by considering four different stages related to eight distinct symptoms and signs. They used this model to generate a few industrial sickness stages of certain small scale units of Assam in the NE region of India. They argued this model to be used to predict a certain microscopic picture within a macroscopic scenario showing distinct parametric association with the overall economic state of an industrial belt of a state or a country. Hoque, A.K.M Solayman; Biswas S.K.; (2007) watched industrial sickness from Bangladesh Perspective. Besides identifying the various key reasons liable to industrial sickness, they emphasizes on Government policy level for the well being of national economy and development. Besides they showed some ways to utilize the application of the theories and principles of Production and Operations Management in preventing the industries becoming sick. Rastogi, Dr. M. K.; Yadava, Prakash (2013) suggested the small scale industries to identify revival strategies to avoid the sickness. They put emphasis on employee engagement, aggressive promotion of old products in new market, cost management strategies, investments in new markets and R&D, focus on core business, changes in product mix and pricing, lean management and also on Image building. INDUSTRIAL SICKNESS:

The definition of small scale industries is changed in different times:- Industrial Policy 1991 defined Small scale industries by investment boundary of not more than Tk. 30 million where in Industrial policy 1999 it is defined as a boundary of investment of not more than TK. 100 million and of total workers of not more than 50. Sick units are not healthy units and identified by the units those are unable to create profit for a longer time and are not adding any reserve from its operation. The definition of sick units is also varied by different experts and authorities. According to Reserve bank of India, a sick unit incurs loss in one year, and may continue in current year and the following year, its current ratio is less than 1:1 and is worsening debt-equity ratio; besides, its cumulative capital and reserve become less than cumulative losses. (Reserve Bank of India, 1988, ‘Trend and Progress of Banking in India 1987-88, Government of India, New Delhi.) In this definition sick industry is identified by profitability, liquidity and solvency. The Sick Small Scale Industry Unit of RBI defined the sick industries by any of its borrowed account became doubtful and the erosion of net worth to 50% or more due to accumulated loss for preceding two consecutive years. Thus the common element of industrial sickness can are identified a by cash loss, poor performance in the functional areas that is reflected by the financial performance. The signals and symptoms of industrial sickness is not seen suddenly rather it is the distinct process of 5-7 years and at last come to a stage of beyond cure. PROCESS OF INDUSTRIAL SICKNESS:

The process of industrial sickness is shown in the following table by different stages; normal tends to sickness, incipient sickness and ultimate sickness (Bidani and Mitra; 1983):



Normal units Functional areas are normal and efficient. Profit generation. Current ratio>1 Tending towards sickness

Initial aberration. Decline in profit last year. Loss anticipation current year.

Incipient sickness Deterioration in functions; loss incurred; anticipated current year; deterioration anticipated, CR>1

Sickness Deterioration debt-equity ratio current year, functions inefficient; cash losses last year also in current year; CR<1 worsening debt-equity

According to Srivastiva and Yadav (1986), the stages can be shown as the following table

Cash profit Net working capital Net wroth Healthy Unit + + + Tending towards Sickness - + + Incipient of Sickness 02 or more - Sick All

Thus the stages of sickness follow distinct stages. The management should diagnose the firm properly and take necessary steps to keep the units healthy at proper time. SIGNALS OF INDUSTRIAL SICKNESS:

Sickness is not happened overnight- it is the matter of numbers of years. Different signs and signals of sickness are available along these years. The important signals are: a. Capacity utilization declines. b. The short term obligations cannot be meet for shortage of liquid fund. c. Inventories become excessive for declining sales. d. Non submission of data to bank and other financial institutions e. Irregularity in bank account f. Frequent breakdowns in plants and equipments and ultimate disruption in production g. The quality of product and services is declined. h. Inability to pay the statutory reserve like the interest of loan, utility bills, tax and other charges. i. Unavailability of necessary technology j. Frequent turnover of workers and managers for lack of sufficient compensation and working

environment.

Persistence of such signals reflectsin plants’ performance, capacity utilization and financial reports of any enterprise. The shortage of cash for longer period, deterioration of different financial ratios, outstanding statutory dues etc are the symptoms of sickness. The sickness can also be identified by morale degradation of employees and desperation of managers. The financial reports are not reflective of sickness of units’ performance all the time because of practicing window dressing and of availability of data generally after one year. The industrial sickness happens in different stage of industry life cycle. At the planning and construction stage the causes are selecting an uneconomic location, inefficient method of production, products that are going to be obsolete etc. At the second stage the causes of sickness roots in mistakes in recruitment, using poor inputs and so on. And at the third and final stage the causes are declining demand, more sophisticated production method initiated at the industry and arrival of new and strong competitors in the industry etc. Actually the root cause of sickness is management problems and the resultant cause is financial problems. Some technical factors of sickness can be removed by using standard techniques by qualified persons. Proper inventory management ensures better supply chain management. Lack of that causes working capital blocked for longer period. The upstream and downstream supply chain and different



process create value of the product or services for ultimate customers. (M.Christopher,2005). Supply chain management reduces uncertainties in delivery of products. Total Quality management and Quality Cycle ensure the quality of product and eliminate wastages. ISO certifications ensure the consumers about the quality of product. No technology is appropriate for all the time. It is necessary to modify the technology to make it up to date. Reengineering is the process to make the technology up to date. Without necessary reengineering the firm have chance to be sick. By using proper ergonomics, the firm must consider the health and hygienic issues of the workers creating frequent turnover-that is one of the causes of industrial sickness. Motion, time study all are important in performing efficiently and effectively. Too much capacity is agonizing as too little capacity. It should be optimizing. Manpower should be adjusted to the work load. Hire and fire policy of USA or diversifying the work of employees policy of Japan may be adopted to save the firm from sickness. Proper scheduling and production planning is necessary to be effective. Master production scheduling (MPS) and different techniques of optimization are to be adopted to ensure the survival of the enterprise. Productivity and other factors of production should be under continuous improvement to keep the firm healthy. Location, layout and material handing plan ensure the cost of production and smooth flow of production. The consequences of industrial sickness are very widespread. The entrepreneurs along with bank and other financial institutions lose a huge amount of money invested at the project, lose of employment opportunities due to closure of units, spreading unrest in the industry, wastage of scarce resources like land, capital and natural resources create adverse effect to investors and entrepreneurs and loss of expected revenue of governments etc. (Sandesara J.C. 1988) OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY:

The ultimate objective of the study is to find out the causes of sickness in industrial units of Sylhet division and the preventive measures that are taken and can be taken to remove the problems. To do so the researchers identified their objectives as: a. To compare the proportion of sick units in industrial states by division wise. b. To compare the proportion of sick units in industrial estates of Sylhet divisionby district wise. c. To study the reason and stages of sickness in closed industrial units of estates. d. To study the measures that is taken to remove the limitations causing such sickness. e. To recommend some measures to prevent sickness and make treatments of such sickness.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

To study the causes of small scale industrial sickness the researchers selected to study the enterprises of industrial estates of Sylhet division for maximum probability of getting proper information of such units as the entrepreneurs and the estates authorities are capable of providing it.The population is selected as the small scale industries of Sylhet division and the samples are collected from the 5 industrial estates of Sylhet division. The selective method of sampling is adopted to keep the representation of all industries as far as possible to avail the data. The primary and secondary sources of data are used.The researchers collected information from all 19 units in this respect by direct interview in unstructured way. The secondary data are collected from books, articles and published documents to get more information regarding this topic. The tabulation of the data is held in purposive ways to give insightful information of sickness. For analysis and interpretations the researchers used percentiles, ratio,proportion and logical viewpoints. Finally the researchers made some recommendations in this context by the help of existing literature and logical opinion. ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS:

The magnitude of industrial sickness can be understood by measuring the statistics of bankruptcy, ratio of sick unit to total unit, number of sick units, the sign of sickness in industrially developed site and also in industrially backward site, the growth of total small scaleindustries and sick SSI both inadvanced and backward area.



It is natural that inefficient units would be replaced by more efficient units but the consequences of sickness affect the entrepreneurial spirit of a nation. To study the intensity of sickness in remittance and natural resource rich and industrially backward Sylhet division, apparently due to lack of entrepreneurial efforts, it is logical to study the density of industrial sickness in that division. From the data of 5268industrial units of BSCIC industrial estates, the researchers found the division wise estates areas, total industrial units, active units and sick units’ ratio as follows:

Table 1:Division wise sick units in Industrial Estates:

Percentage

Divisions Area Population Estate Area

Total industrial units Active Units Sick/Closed

Barishal 13297 8147000 185 192 0.58 0.20 Chittagong 33771 28079000 340 880 0.72 0.07 Dhaka 31120 46729000 714 2668 0.42 0.03 Khulna 22272 15563000 170 368 0.71 0.11 Rajshahi 34514 33994000 450 907 0.83 0.04 Sylhet 12596 9807000 98 253 0.64 0.10

Source: MIS 2012 From the table 1; it is found that the percentage of sick units to total industrial units in Sylhet division is 10%, where the highest ratio is found in Barishal and Khulna division (20% and 11%). Considering the estate area and total industrial units, Dhaka division is in better position where the proportion of sick units is only 3.00%. Industrially advanced Chittagong region has also a greater percentage of sick units i.e. 7% whereas industrially not so advanced Rajshahi has lower sick units (only 4%). So, it can be concluded that more entrepreneurial efforts give birth to more sick or closed units. To get more insight to the density of sick units in Sylhet division, the district wise analysis nears significance. The table blow shows the district wise intensity of sick units in Sylhet division:

Table 2:Districts wise sick unit in industrial estates of Sylhet Division

District Area Population Density Estate Area

Indus-trial Plot

Industrial Unit

On Produc

tion

Under Constr-uction

Sick or

Closed Hobigonj 2,636.58 2,059,000 780.94 15.00 70 59 35 17 2 Maulvi Bazar 2,799.39 1,902,000 679.43 14.59 101 64 29 10 7

Sunamganj 3,669.58 2,443,000 665.74 25.52 116 21 7 7 0

Sylhet 3,490.40 3,404,000 975.25 25.76 255 150 130 6 13

Total 12,595.95 9,807,000 778.58 81 542 294 201 40 22

Source: MIS 2012 From the above table, the highest numbers (13) of sick units are found on two BSCIC industrial estates of Sylhet division, the lowest in Sunamgonj (o). In Sunamgonj district the industrial activities in industrial estates area is very insignificant (only seven active units) so the sickness is zero here. Moulvibazar has 7 sick units out of 29 active units and Hoibigonj has two units out of 59 where active units are 35. It is also established in Sylhet division that more industrial activities creates more sick units.



Industry Wise Sick Units:

It is also important to study the industry wise sickness in order to get more insights into the problems of sick units. In the table3, the industry wise sickness in Sylhet division is shown:

Table 3: Industry wise sick units in Sylhet division

Sylhet Sick units

Number of Active Units

Sick/Closed Unit Proportion

Number of SickUnits

Sick/Closed Unit Proportion to Total

Chemical & Pharmaceuticals 12 0.09 0 0.00

Cloth 14 0.11 6 0.46 Engineering 28 0.22 2 0.15 Food 64 0.49 4 0.31 Forest 1 0.01 0 0.00 Jute 0 0.00 0 0.00 Leather 1 0.01 1 0.08 Paper 5 0.04 0 0.00 Other 5 0.04 0 0.00

Total 130 1.00 13 1.00 Source: MIS 2012 and Field survey The table shows maximum involvement of entrepreneurs in food processing industry that creates 31% (4) of total sick units (13). This is due to the stiff competition in the market and management failure to cope with that competition. The highest number of sick units is created by cloth industry because of non-availability of raw materials, labor, and repairing facilities of machinery locally. Further the marketing of cloth is conducted by traders of Narayangonj and Dhaka. So then carrying cost of raw materials and also of finished goods destroys the firm’s competitiveness and makes it sick. Two engineering units are sick for managerial problems. One leather producing unit is sick due to impractical planning in inception period and this region is not suitable for producing and marketing leather goods for in availability of raw materials, skilled labor, and also traders.

Causes of Sickness:

To find out the causes of sickness and stages of sickness the researchers tabled the information gathered as below: Table 4: Causes and Categories of Sickness

Category Causes No of units Industry Born Sick Vision, forecasting, Appraisal, Planning 07 Cloth, Leather

Make sick

Managerial problem 06 Food, engineering Lack of inputs 00 - Problems Industrial Relation 00 - Technical/Operational problem 00 -

Thrust to be sick Change in technology 00 - Change in market 00 - Change in Policy 00 -

Source: Field survey From the above table it is apparent that, the sick units of cloth industry are due to weakness in planning, faulty project appraisals and lack of vision. That is, these units are born to be sick. No attempts are taken to revive them except in one unit where the entrepreneurs tried to change the product and target market twice but failed. The single unit of leather industry faced similar problem of born to



be sick, but there were scope to revive the unit by producing specialized product with specialized techniques. The financing organizations did not co-operate the entrepreneur to think in that way. The food processing industry faced stiff competition from the market and due to huge number of local, national and international competitors; the management of those units tried their best but could not survive. From the record of the estates it is found that in 2005 there were 19 sick units in four industrial estates. But the estate authority suggested the entrepreneurs to sell those units to other entrepreneurs and with the help of the estate authority 6 units were transferred to other entrepreneurs and now running swiftly with good management of the new entrepreneurs. The Unique food of Khadimanager was transferred to Modhubhan foods, the best Food to Sylhet printing and Packaging, one printing and packaging unit to foam producing unit, one bakery to Pran group for bakery producing unit, one cloth unit of Gutatiker to another printing and packaging unit. The new enterprises are running very well now. So the estate authority should think about transferring the sick units to interested entrepreneurs with good track record or good planning. Corrective Measures:

After analyzing the industry type, sickness, causes of sickness and stage of sickness held, the corrective actions that can be recommended to prevent sickness andto provide the treatment of sickness are as follows: At Planning Stage:

Keeping the causes of sickness in the planning of any project makes the project born sick. So, preventive measures can be taken to remove the causes of sickness in the project planning. The preventive measures include scientific and systematic selection of project, proper evaluation and implementation by taking the help of experts in every stage. Specifically the location selection, layout and material handing plan should be given proper importance, In every stages of capital budgeting the Chamber of Commerce and Industries may be involved for their more practical outlook. At The Operation Stages of Normal Units:

To prevent the‘make sickness’ of industrial units it is important to routine check up the operation of units by various technical methods like implementing inventory and supply chain management, implementing TQM and quality cycle in significant stages of production, reengineering when necessary and routine checkup of financial reports and keep it at standard level. For Units Tending to Be Sick:

Regular check up of the managerial practices and removing the deficiency in finance, marketing, human relation, operation & infrastructure are important to prevent the sickness for the units that tend to be sick. For Units of Incipient Sick:

Identification and detection of sickness at the incipient stage of sickness are most important for effective decision making. In order to do that, banks and other financial institutions should periodically review the accounts of borrowers to arrest the sickness in incipient stage and cooperate the entrepreneurs to provide effective treatment to remove sickness. It needs integration of diverse viewpoints of management, financial institutions and labor union to come on the unified decision to treat the sickness. For Sick Units:

To make effective decision regarding the sick units there must be effective division in authorityto treat those units. Not only financial measures can treat sick units, other measures must need to rehabilitate



those units. The actions of rehabilitation should be started with no delay. Above all in industrial policy of Govt. there must be necessary conservative ways to keep the domestic industrial units alive from liberalization of trade worldwide.The strategies to great sick units must include the strategy to close some units, revive some and combine some with other industrial units and other measures also. CONCLUSION:

Industrial development of any country depends on the efforts of entrepreneurs. The entrepreneurs are afraid of industrial sickness as it involves the loss of invested capital, career and huge opportunity cost of intelligent entrepreneurs nowadays. The concern authority should come forward with different measures to reduce the risks by removing the causes of sickness as much as possible in industrial units. Along with cooperation of authorities, the proper training of entrepreneurs and flow of necessary information is also important to prevent sickness. REFERENCES:

[1] Ahmad M.U. (1999). Small and Cottage Industry Development Policies in Bangladesh: An Analysis of Effectiveness in the Context of Industrial Policy 1999. Bakprikaon, Vol. 24, March Issue, Dhaka.

[2] Report on Sick Industries, Rehabilitation, and Revival Cell (1992). MOI,GOV, Dhaka. [3] Alam, S.M. Jahirul, (2003). Industrial Rehabilitation Strategy Paper, Bangladesh.” Prepared for

Ministry of Industries, Dhaka. [4] Desai, Vasant. (2006). Small-scale Industries and Entrepreneurship. Mumbai: Himalaya

Publishing House. [5] Bhattachrjya, D. et.al. (1998). Sick Industries in Bangladesh. A Report of the Study

Commissioned by MOI, GOB, BIDS, Dhaka. [6] Bidani, S.N. and Mitra, P.K. (1983). Industrial Sickness: Identification and Rehabilitation.New

Delhi: Vision Book Publication. [7] Srivastiva, S.S. and Yadav, R.A. (1986). Management and Monitoring of Industrial Sickness.

New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. [8] Christopher, M. (2005). Logistics and Supply Chain Management. Pearson Education Inc. [9] Sandesara, J.C. (1988).Industrial Framework for Promoting Small-Scale Industries in India.

Asian Development Review, Vol.6, Issue 2, 10-40. [10] MIS (2012), Ministry of Industries, Government of Bangladesh, Dhaka. [11] Goyal, Dr. K.A; Gupta, Dr. Nitin; Gupta, Neeta. (2012). An Overview of Sickness in Micro, Small

& Medium Enterprises in India. Pacific Business Review International, Vol. 5, Issue 5, 29-35. [12] Misra, Dr. Shivani (2012). Small Scale Industries: Striving and Thriving in the Era of

Globalization. International Journal of Enterprise Computing and Business Systems, Vol. 2, Issue 2, 56-73.

[13] Junejo, Mumtaz Ali; Rohra, Chandan Lal; and Maitlo, Dr. Ghulam Murtaza. (2007). Sickness in Small-Scale Industries of Sindh: Causes & Remedies. A Case Study of Larkana Estate Area. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, Vol. 1, Issue 4, 860-865.

[14] Sujatha, Y.; Reddy, P. Sunilkumar and Rao, Dr. K. Prahlada. (2012). Small Scale Industries Common Causes of Sickness and Probable Remedies. International Journal of Current Research, Vol. 4, Issue, 01, 146-148.

[15] Rajeevan N.; Sulphey, Dr. M. M. (2012). A Study on the Position of Small and Medium Enterprises in Kerala Vis A Vis the National Scenario. International Journal of Research in Commerce, Economics & Management, Vol. 2, Issue 3,57-60.

[16] Rashid, Md. Mamunur. (2012). Proposed Research Direction for Sustainable SMEs in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Research Publications Journal, Vol. 6, Issue 3, 317-329.

[17] Das, Bhushan Chandra; Chakraborty, K.S.; Krishnankutty Raveesh. (2012). Industrial Sickness in Micro and Small Manufacturing Enterprises in Backward Regions of India: A Case Study of



Tripura. AFBE Journal, Special Issue of Selected Papers from AFBEUNITEN Conference - 2012, Vol. 5, No. 3, 240-251.

[18] Goswami, Deepak; Hazarika, Padmalochan; and Sarma, Kandarpa Kumar. (2012). Stages and Symptoms of Industrial Sickness- A Mathematical Model Applied to a Few Small Scale Industrial Units in NE Indian State of Assam. World Scientific and Engineering Academy and Society : Mathematical Models and Methods in Applied Sciences. Proceedings of the 13th WSEAS International Conference on Mathematics and Computers in Business and Economics (MCBE’ 12),“G. Enescu” University, Iasi, Romania, held at June 13-15,2012, 152-157.

[19] Hoque, A.K.M Solayman; Biswas, S.K. (2013). Problems of Sick Industries: Bangladesh Perspective. Proceedings of the International Conference on Mechanical Engineering 2007 (ICME2007),held at December 29- 31, 2007, Dhaka, Bangladesh, ICME07-AM-22.

[20] Rastogi, Dr. M. K.; Yadava, Prakash. (2013). Analysis of Remedies for Revival of Sick Small Units in Indian Economy. International Journal of Management & Business Studies, Vol. 3, Issue 4, 31-35.

[21] Wikipedia. (2013).http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_sickness. Retrieved November 12, 2013, from http://en.wikipedia.org

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International Refereed Research Journal ■ www.researchersworld.com■ Vol.–V, Issue–2, April 2014 [51]

JOB EXPERIENCES OF 2010 RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL

UNIVERSITY BUSINESSMANAGEMENT GRADUATES:

CORE ESSENCES

Renilda A. Magsino,

Faculty, College of Business and Entrepreneurial Technology Rizal Technological University

Boni Avenue, Mandaluyong City, Philippines.

Ester T. Edralin,

Faculty, College of Business and Entrepreneurial Technology

Rizal Technological University Boni Avenue, Mandaluyong City,

Philippines.

Ethelyn C. Verdadero,


Rizal Technological University Boni Avenue, Mandaluyong City,

Philippines.

ABSTRACT

Two hundred eighty-nine 2010 business management graduates of the Rizal Technological University, a state university in the Philippines were traced and their employment experiences solicited using the social networking site, the Facebook (FB). Using the descriptive research design, the data were used to portray the traced graduates’ employment profiles and capture their reflections to explore a wider array of dimensions and be able to give light on the graduate employment situation that would contribute to solving the government’s education and economic problems. One hundred eighty-six or 64% of the 289 traced graduates were found to have verifiable employment data. Out of the 186, 43 or 23% were working for banking and finance-related sector and 39 or 21% were in trading and merchandising. The study showed that most of the graduates were able to start a career path by gaining entry to prestigious companies. Five themes emerged from the 16 reflections: self confidence in performing assigned tasks, positive attitude, value of experience, traits developed in school and financial considerations. The themes that emerged reflected three core essences or factors that made them stay or contributory to their being retained by their employers on the job: financial or being able to buy what they want and help the family in the daily expenses; attitude, self-confidence and skills developed in school, as contributory to their work performance and retention; and experience, the main reason for staying on the job despite physical and emotional difficulties. Keywords:reflections, graduate employment, themes, tracer studies, job experiences,

nominal group interviews.



INTRODUCTION:

Employment statistics trend in Asia had not progressed at the same rate as tertiary education enrolment, which increased from 28.6 million in 1970 to 152.2 million in 2007 (UNESCO, 2012). Its findings anchored on the concept that employability is the result of many factors and that graduate unemployment in the Philippines has largely been attributed to structural or skills mismatch. This happens when jobseekers are not seen by employers as equipped with the needed skills. The situation affects the fresh graduates who get frustrated at not being able to land a job or whose probationary contracts not renewed for varied reasons. The implication is not just the nation’s economics. Studies have shown that experiences of new entrants to the labor force have profound influence on their future social, economic and behavioural fortunes (Green, Shuttleworth&Lavery, 2005 as cited in UNESCO study 2012). Job seekers or young workers who encounter negative experiences have a higher probability of encountering further work-related disadvantages later in life, as well as social exclusion, poverty and ill-health (Baum & Mitchell, 2008, cited in UNESCO Study, 2012). Aside from graduate employability concerns, tertiary institutions of learning are pressured to cope with the demands of employers. The problem seen by Kuk and Hughes (2003) is not professional preparation from schools but what seasoned practitioners believe as the gap between what new professionals know and what they can do. This is congruent to Bridgstock’s (2009) findings that technology have changed the concept of employability. She explained that generic skills required by employers cannot guarantee employment. Over and above the skills is the ability to self-manage the career-building process. It therefore becomes imperative for the academe and employers to find out the naturally occurring characteristics and perspectives of newly-hired graduates after a tracer study has been conducted to come up with samples from which associations could be determined. This endeavour could be strenuous due to dearth in literature. After all, the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) had conducted only 5 nationwide graduate tracer studies in 12 years (UNESCO, 2012). It is understandable since the Philippines is not alone in this predicament. In 1980, Rosen, Taube & Wordsworth, as cited by Renn& Hodges, 2007 (published in the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators Journal, 2007, Vol. 44, No. 2 p. 370), found that “it has been over 25 years since an open-ended study on the experiences of new professionals has been published”. It is for this reason that the proponents decided to look into these issues to fill in some literature gaps. This research was inspired by the Renn& Hodges 2007 study which got off the ground with 10 participants, the UNESCO Study published in 2012 with 30 samples from graduates who earned their degrees in 2008 and 2009 and the Valle research on the critical reflections of Filipino immigrant accountants on their work experiences in San Francisco Bay Area, published in the Journal of Filipino Studies which had 8 respondents. The above papers have, to a certain extent the same goals as these researchers have aimed for. Although descriptive, this study gave more emphasis on the qualitative aspect and the quantitative approach was used only for the tracer study and determining proportions. The following issues were sought to be explored and described: 1. Employment profile of traced 2010 RTU business management graduates as of March, 2012 and

how it compared with some national and foreign studies; 2. Job experiences of the interviewed graduates; and 3. Core essences of the themes that emerged from the reflections gathered from the nominal group

interviews.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

Using the descriptive research design, qualitative and quantitative approaches were applied, where appropriate on the following issues:



1. Profile of Traced 2010 RTU Business Management Graduates as of March, 2012: Initially, the researchers made use of the social networking site “Facebook” (FB) to trace the target graduates. The use of FB proved very effective since studies showed that Filipinos are the fifth heaviest social network users worldwide (Dimacali, 2010). An invitation was posted on the FB wall of one of the graduates in late 2010 which eventually snowballed and yielded 289 in 2012. The invitation requested data on current employment, name, address and nature of business of employer and significant experiences encountered in performing jobs held after graduation. The quantitative and qualitative approaches were applied using desk research technique from secondary data which, according to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill ( 2009) are principally used in descriptive research. Documentary secondary sources are often used in research projects that also use primary data collection methods, like this study. Secondary data, aside from ease of collection is also cheaper since the expenses incurred in collection have already been paid by the original compiler of information (Churchill, Brown &Suter, 2012). Data gathered comprised the graduates’ profile made available to the public through the internet and private messages sent in reply to the invitation. Borrowing the basic concepts and principles of archival and records management (john.curtin.edu.au/society/archives) these materials could be considered “complete”, therefore reliable and trustworthy since these were created by the graduates themselves at a time nearest the period of experience. A record is considered complete when it is a finished, bounded entity comprising structure, content and context and when it has the following elements: date (time and place of creation, transmission and/or receipt); originating address, an author/compiler, an addressee/recipient, and title of subject accompanying its content/message. This concept added validity to data collection. Although confidentiality was not an issue for some data, especially those made available in a public domain at some point in time, names of graduates and specific names of employers were not divulged for reasons of ethics. Private messages were treated with confidentiality although many of the graduates signified consent to publication. To avoid losing data once the account holders update their profile, the source materials were printed and saved electronically as soon as the data became available. The quantitative approach was used to determine proportions of people who think and behave in a certain way. This approach is, according to Churchill, et al. (2012) and Cooper and Schindler (2008) also appropriate for describing characteristics of certain groups and making specific predictions. It is also used to portray an accurate profile of persons ( Saunders, 2009). The graduates’ employment profile, particularly name and nature of business of the graduates’ employers were captured and proportions were determined.

2. Job Experiences of the Graduates:

The qualitative approach was used to study this issue. Five graduates sent private messages narrating their memorable experiences on their jobs in response to the researchers’ invitation through the FB posts which were solicited to draw upon as fully as possible social experiences aimed to be explored. Mason (2002, p.64) suggested that “most qualitative researchers view knowledge as situational , and the interview” (in the form of private exchange of messages using the FB) “is just as much a social situation as is any other interaction”. The content analysis provided the researchers a means to study human behaviour through the analysis of their communications (Fraenkel&Wallen, 2010). Some of the advantages of using this method, as discussed by Fraenkel (2010) are: the researcher can “observe” without being observed, since the contents being analysed are not influenced by the researchers’ presence and it is extremely useful as a means of analysing interview and observational data. The method used here is also a form of narrative research, which, according to Fraenkel (2010) is the study of the life experiences of an individual as told to the researcher. Some messages were quoted verbatim for an explicit narrative of the events as what Mason (2002) is advocating rather than claiming to offer mere descriptions. 3. Core essences from the themes that emerged from the reflections gathered from the nominal

group interviews:

The themes that emerged from the nominal group interviews and private messages were coded using a simple qualitative thematic coding analysis template (Trochim&Donelly, 2006). This was done by



sorting the responses and messages into simple categories resulting from the nominal group interviews and gave each category a short label that represented the theme. The nominal group interviews were conducted by the researchers at a Christmas party organized by some of the 2010 graduates in December 8, 2012. Nominal group interviews are similar in characteristics to focus group interviews. The primary difference, according to Churchill, et al. (2012) is that nominal group interviews require written responses from participants. The response form used which was patterned after the question prompts in Renn’s 2007 study , is similar to the focus group discussion guide for a focus group interview (Cooper, 2008. p 78 & 655). The conduct of nominal interview went very smooth because of the relaxed party atmosphere. The activity, as planned, required them to think and write before speaking and limit respondent interaction to maximize individual input in an effort to come up with the ideas with the highest priority from where themes will emerge. As what a qualitative approach should be, there was no intervention from the researchers except facilitating the process. The responses were natural and spontaneous. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

1. Profile of traced 2010 RTU Business Management Graduates as of March, 2012:

Two hundred eighty-nine graduates were traced through the FB social networking site.Of the 289 traced graduates, 186 or 64% were found by the researchers as having verifiable employment data.The rest (36%) neither have employment data in their FB profile, nor verifiable company names when searched in the list of business establishments in the Philippines. (NSO, 2010) Table 1 shows the distribution of graduate employment data.

Table 1: Distribution of graduate employment data by sector

Sector No. of graduates Percentage Rank Trading/Merchandising 39 21 2 Banking/finance-related 43 23 1 Services/consultancy 19 10 4 Manufacturing 9 5 6 Government services 9 5 6 Media 5 3 7 Business Process Solutions 29 16 3 Hospitality 12 6 5 Construction/real estate 9 5 6 Shipping/cargo/logistics 2 1 9 Engineering 3 1.5 8 Agricultural firm 1 .5 10 Utilities 1 .5 10 Telecommunications 3 1.5 8 Others 1 .5 8 Self-employed 1 .5 10

Total 186 100

The table above shows that banking and finance-related sector got the top rank with 43 graduates, or 23%; trading and merchandising is 2nd with 39 or 21%; technology/business solutions is 3rd with 29 or 16% and the rest are distributed among the different sectors. Upon scrutiny, it was concluded that majority of the employed graduates or 59.7% work for companies that provide business/finance and management services. Although the study was not able to determine the exact tasks the graduates were performing, the fact that most of them were able to enter the business management sector suggests



that they gained the opportunity to establish a career path. The UNESCO (2012) study on the graduate employability in Asia revealed that although there are data on the unemployment rate among Filipino college graduates in general, “no recent figures on the employment rate among fresh college graduates are available” (p. 40). This confirmed the observation that there was a dearth in related studies. However, these researchers found a few studies and compared these with the RTU figures. Table 2 presents the RTU rate of employability as compared with the findings from other studies and reports.

Table 2: Comparative data on graduate employment rate, 2010

RTU (local) National Foreign

64% Milan (2010) – 40% Ibon Foundation(2010)* 30%

(US) Rampel (2011) ** 56% (UK) HECSU*** 61.8% UL (Ireland) **** 46%

*Cited by Padilla, A. (2010) **Rampel, C. (2011) Data for year 2010 ***Higher Education Careers Services (2012) ****University of Limerick. Sheridan, A. (2013)

Milan, L. (2010) cited a study titled The OFW Economic Engine, Philippine Reality and Required Reform Arising from Global Financial Crisis which found out that of the one million graduates annually, only 30 to 40% will find any employment. The Padilla (2010) report likewise cited the independent research and advocacy group IBON Foundation’s statement that out of every ten fresh college graduates in the Philippines who will join the labor force that year, only three or 30% will be lucky to actually land a job. Rampel (2011) also reported in the New York Times that employment rates for new college graduates have fallen sharply in the last two years. It added that “among the members of Class 2010, just 56% had held at least one job by this spring, when this survey was conducted”. In Ireland, the most recently available national rate of graduate employment was 46% for 2010 (Sheridan, 2013). The study revealed that RTU fared better in terms of employability rate compared with other Philippine studies as well as some published foreign literature. It is worth considering that the Commonwealth Times reported in May 14, 2012 that under a new law, the State of Virginia in the United States is required to publish online the employment rates and average salaries for graduates from each institution of higher education. The purpose is for prospective students and parents to see the statistics for each program and type of degree at each school. However, this US policy runs counter to the UNESCO (2012) findings which considers it contentious to argue that the quality of higher education should be measured solely in terms of employment rate of graduates.

2. Job Experiences of Graduates:

The contents of the private messages of five of the traced graduates who volunteered information revealed not only negative but also desired experiences. The transcripts below were quoted verbatim, to extract more accurate interpretations. Anna considers her 2nd job experience as memorable. She sent the following message: I am currently employed at … , a subsidiary of … which is a financial service company based in New York. We provide services like online brokerage and related banking products and retail services to retail investors. Our office is at …Makati City. I am a Financial Service Representative. Actually, I just started this month for this job. I resigned from my first job for career growth. I recently obtained my license as registered representative/stock broker in the USA. My job is basically customer service for our investors. It’s in a call center set-up. We are answering inquiries like what is happening with the stock market, what are the different types of securities, how are they different from each other, what is beneficial to them, etc. We will also processing (sic) their orders with the securities that they wanted



to purchase or if they wanted to sell their securities. The message, although very formal and bland, suggested that Anna’s work at the time was aligned with her business course. It was evident that she has self-confidence because she had full grasp of the tasks. Bernie, on the other hand, found that having language problem was a very difficult situation one can get into. He wrote: I am employed at … here at Riyadh, KSA as Training Supervisor. I started here last December 6, 2010. Well, my first months of experience here is very difficult considering that I don’t know how to speak Arabic. I have to make adjustments in terms of communicating with people especially that I am working at the Retailing Industry. Actually same things of what I am doing here but the difference is the system. I am Training Supervisor here but same work compared with the ordinary employee, only the difference is the salary. Work here is very hard but if they pay all your compensation, it is worth the sacrifices. My lifestyle have a little bit changed compared with when I was working there in the Philippines as ordinary employee. It will take me years to afford what I have now if I did not come over here. Bernie’s experience is a normal predicament or way of life of an ordinary overseas Filipino worker (OFW) in an Arab country, particularly Saudi Arabia, that everyone has learned to live by. As with other OFWs, monetary considerations become the main reason for holding on to a difficult work. “Challenging ” on the other hand, is how Carol described her experience: Working with … is very challenging. I am reporting directly to the store manager. I do the final interview, report for work (sic), submission of requirements on process documents, daily inventory of supplies and fixed assets at selling area, etc… Being under operation is worth enough experience for me as a new graduate of a business course. I do the monitoring of all promos and merchandisers, check employee performance in terms of efficiency and effectiveness on their respective jobs. Lastly, I do the monthly manpower reports, tenants’ reports and evaluating performances of my staff and recommend them for renewal of contract. Diana Comment On Her Multi-Tasking Job: I am assigned at the design department under the …. Project (US Client) as their administrative assistant and sometimes as HR assistant and coordinated with … regarding the applicants to be interviewed and hired. It is a multi-tasking job as I have said… but I really enjoy working with them although our office hour is a little bit late (1 to 10 pm). But super enjoy! I’ve learned a lot in this kind of industry. Diana enjoyed multi-tasking. She didn’t mind working on an erratic work schedule and seemed to be excited about having an American client which is expected from an Asian neophyte. Work, for Eric on the other hand was not easy since he started working right after graduation. His message : Being a field HR representative is hard especially the problem with transportation but I took it anyway thinking it would be a good experience and stepping stone for something better. I went through and experienced scolding and humiliation to a point of almost giving up but I ended staying and hoping to reach my goal, which is financial and gaining experience for my future job. 3. Core essences were gleaned from the themes that emerged from the nominal group

interviews and personal messages. Five themes emerged from the 16 reflections lifted from the posts, messages and nominal group interviews.

Table 3 shows these themes which were self confidence in performing assigned tasks, positive attitude, value of experience, traits developed in school and financial considerations. For purposes of the study, the term self-confidence was taken to mean as belief in one’s abilities, a mental attitude of trusting or relying on oneself. Positive attitude, on the other hand is being able to accept, with grace, situations that are inevitable. The definitions were agreed upon during the discussions to be able to come up with standard



interpretation. The themes emerged naturally as the participants discussed what were written on their prompt sheets. After the session, these prompt sheets were collected back by the researchers to guide them in the analysis of the themes.

Table 3: Simple Qualitative Thematic Coding Analysis (Trochim et al. 2006)

PERSON Theme 1

Self-Confidence

Theme 2 Positive Attitude

Theme 3 Value of

Experience

Theme 4 Skills

Developed in School

Theme 5 Financial

Considerations

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16

X X

X X

X

X

X X X X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X X X

X

X

X X

X The themes that emerged reflected the following core essences: Financial: Being able to buy what he wanted , send siblings to college and help parents in house expenses was Alvin’s main concern when he first started working for a big fast food chain as Manager. But he found out later that the position was very stressful especially when he has to face an angry client or reprimanded by higher supervisors for problems in his branch. Bernadette likewise was not thinking long-term when she was hired. All she was concerned about was to have work and help her parents financially.

Attitude, Self-Confidence and Skills Developed in School: The study showed that most of the graduates were able to start a career path by gaining entry to prestigious banks, financial institutions, and well-known companies. Most of the participants attributed their good attitude gained from school as a factor for being praised at work and be retained on the job. Marie said she always have positive thoughts that hunting for a job is creating one’s future. Once she gets what she wants, she avoids complacency because she wants to go up the ladder. She believes that grabbing an opportunity is just like taking a risk. She welcomes failures and sacrifices because these are part of success. Time management helped her go through the frustrating moments and closing a deal with an unsure client gave her a great feeling. Christian also considered good attitude as a virtue that could lead him to better opportunities. Early in his job, he had already set his mind on following orders. He learned a lot from the trainer who helped him handle cash properly to avoid shortage. Good attitude, according to him helped him go over many problems at work and accept wholeheartedly the criticisms which he considered constructive. He was happy for the financial rewards that helped his family in many ways and save some money for future ventures. Experience:



Next to financial considerations, the concern for gaining experience was the main reason for staying on the job despite difficulties.Those employed by prestigious companies with very rigid selection and hiring process such as Philippine National Bank, Banco de Oro, Land Bank, IBM Philippines, San Miguel Corporation, United Laboratories, AP Moller-Maersk Group, Globe Telecom and Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company, to name a few were already assured of quality work experience to capitalize on in the building of their career path. REFERENCES:

[1] Bridgstock, R. (2009). The graduate attributes we’ve overlooked: enhancing graduate employability through career management skills. Higher Education Research and Development Journal Vol. 28, Issue 1. 31-44.

[2] Churchill, G.A, Brown, T.J. &Suter, T.A. (2012). Introduction to Marketing Research. Singapore: Cenagage Learning Asia Pte.Ltd.

[3] Cooper, D. & Schindler P. S. (2012) Business Research Methods. International Edition: McGraw-Hill. [4] Dawson, C. (2009). Introduction to Research Methods. UK: How-to-books. [5] Dimacali, T.J. Pinoys fifth heaviest social network users worldwide. GMA News TV. October

25, 2010. [6] Facebook Social Networking Site [7] Fraenkel, J.R. &Wallen, N.E. (2010). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. 7thed.

New York: McGraw-Hill. [8] Graduate employment stable despite weak economy and public sector cuts, reveals latest figures.

Higher Education Careers Services Unit, UK. Retrieved August 20, 2012 from www.personneltoday.com/blogs/press-release-service/2012/10/graduate-employment-stable-despite-weak-economy-and-public-sector-cuts-reveals-latest-figures-from-h.html

[9] Hind, D. &Moss,S. (2011). Employability skills for students. Sunderland, Business Education Publishers, Ltd. Retrieved August 12, 2012 from http://sharepoint.soton.ac.uk/sites/ese/quality_handbook

[10] Kuk,L. & Hughes, B. Bridging the competency gap for new professionals. Retrieved August 12, 2012 from http://www.colostate.edu/Depts/SAHE/Journal2/2003

[11] Mason, J. (2002). Qualitative Researching 2nded .London: Sage. [12] Milan, L. (2010). Oversupply of unemployable graduates.Planet Philippines. Retrieved August

12, 2012 from http://planetphilippines.com.migration. [13] National Statistics Office 2010 Annual Survey on Philippine Business and Industry-Economy-

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Philippine Online Chronicles. Retrieved September 10, 2012 from www.thepoc.net/features/politi-ko/politiko-features/5378-employment-prospects-growing-dimmer-for-new-graduates-studies-show

[15] Philippine Graduate Tracer Study. Commission on Higher Education Study.(2012) [16] Rampel, C. Many with new college degrees find the job market humbling. Published in the New

York Times. May 18, 2011. Retrieved September 3, 2012 from www.nytimes.com/2011/05/19/business/economy/19grads.html

[17] Renn, K.A. & Hodges, J.P. (2007). The first year on the job: Experiences of new professionals in student affairs. NASPA Journal, 2007.Vol. 44. No 2. 367-373.

[18] RTU Research Manual. (2012) [19] Saunders, M., Lewis, P., Thornhill, (2009). A. Research Methods for Business Students.10th ed.

International Edition.McGraw-Hill. [20] Sheridan, A. (2013). First UL graduates in aviation take flight. Published in Limerick

Leader.Retrieved January 5, 2012 fromhttp://m.limerickleader.ie./what-s-features/first-ul-graduates-in-aviation-take-flight-1-4717480

[21] The Commonwealth Times. May 14, 2012. State now required to publish grads’employment rates.



[22] The Telegraph. December 31, 2012. University employment rates reveal gulf between old and new as Oxfords slips.

[23] Trochim, W.K.(2006). The Research Methods Knowledge Base. Retrieved August 20, 2012 from www.social researchmethods.net/kb//contents.php.

[24] UNESCO Bangkok.(2012). Graduate employability in Asia. Retrieved July 23, 2013 from UNESCO website.

[25] UNESCO-UNEVOC. (2012). School-to-work transitions: Information bases. Retrieved January 2, 2013 from http://www.usajobs.gov/StudentsAndGrads

[26] Valle, M.B. Critical reflections of Filipino immigrant accountants on their work experiences in the San Francisco Bay Area: A participatory research. Retrieved August 3, 2012 from http://class.csueastbay./edu/filipinostudies

[27] http://john.curtin.edu.au/society/archives/management.html [28] www.quintcareers.com/Real_ World/first_job_preparation.html [29] www.headacademy.ac.uk/flexible-learning

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ResearchersWorld-Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce ■ E-ISSN2229-4686 ■ ISSN2231-4172


AN ECOCRITICAL READING OF GARY

SNYDER’S SELECT POETRY

Firas A. Nsaif Al Jumaili,

Lecturer, English Department Al Buraimi University College, Iraq.

P.h. D Candidate, University of Malaya, Malaysia.

ABSTRACT

Born in 1930, Gary Snyder’s earliest years witnessed a sharp decline in idealistic thought as a result of the dominance of modernist movements. The present article deals with Snyder’s idealistic vision of the relationship between human beings and the natural world. It investigates the ecological implications in his major poetic works, Riprap and Cold Mountain Poems (1959), Turtle Island (1974) and Mountains and Rivers without End (1996). I will read those works from an ecological point of view to draw the attention of the readers to the significance of the environmental concerns embodied in the poetic works of Gary Snyder. Keywords: ecology, nature, interdependence, nonhuman, ecopoetry.



People’s awareness of the ecological aspect of the universe may go back more than five centuries, specifically to the rise of western civilization in the seventeenth century. Technological inventions and scientific discoveries were all directed towards achieving human control over the natural environment. It is the German scientist Ernst Haeckel who first coined the term "ecology" ("Ökologie") in 1866.Ecology deals with organisms and their environment. It consists of all living beings, the natural surroundings in which they live, and their relationship to it. Haeckel defined it as “the study of all environmental conditions of existence” (Worster, 1977, p. 192). Snyder believes that nature is constituted of microscopic organisms, animals, plants and human societies. He calls for the protection of nature from the damages of civilization and urges humans to be in touch with their “wild” selves and return to a sense of union with nature. Although Snyder belongs to the school of deep ecology, his interests also associate him with social ecology. Social ecology is mainly concerned with the debate between forms of power in the human world, and how this leads to the control of nature. It stresses that the solution to human destruction on nonhuman nature is a social one while deep ecology is more concerned with changing human consciousness as it draws from religious and philosophical attitudes. Snyder concurs with both, emphasizing the need to change consciousness while endorsing social changes to harmonizing human’s relationship to nonhuman nature. Snyder’s ecological views are derived from certain traditional beliefs taken from Indian culture, Buddhism and other contemporary beliefs. Snyder looks at the earth as a ‘mother’ to living beings. This image is repeatedly seen in his book Turtle Island (1974).According to Snyder, the relationship between the earth and living beings should be motherly since the earth is like a mother that provides its inhabitants with food, water and air. Earth, therefore, deserves the respect of its children and their protection. More significantly, Snyder believes in the interdependence of all life forms on earth; this concept seems to be considerably derived from Buddhism. Snyder shares the Buddhist belief in the interrelation of all living beings not only on a spiritual level as Buddhism saw it, but also on a biological and physical level as shown in the food chain. Humankind, for Snyder, is a transient form with particular characteristics like spirit and energy among various forms of living beings but not superior to others as humans are only a part of them. To survive, mankind should keep the diversity of those forms of life because their extinction would threaten human life on the planet. Snyder (1974, p.103) states: The treasure of life is the richness of stored information in the diverse genes of all living beings. If the human race, following on some set of catastrophes, were to survive at the expense of many plant and animal species, it would be no victory. Diversity provides life with the capacity for a multitude of adaptations and responses to long-range changes on the planet. This variety may make adaptation to unexpected problems such as natural catastrophes or climate change more possible. For Snyder, the extinction of any living being, no matter plant or animal, inevitably weakens the earth’s natural stability and leads to deadly consequences on the environment. Civilization and its indifference to ecology is a fundamental component in Snyder’s view of the natural world. Snyder (1974, p.107) writes: At the root of the problem where our civilization goes wrong is the mistaken belief that nature is something less than authentic, that nature is not as alive as man is, or as intelligent, that in a sense it is dead, and that animals are of so low an order of intelligence and feeling, we need not take their feelings into account. The sense of superiority humans have over other elements of nature can be seen in civilized legislation which allows the killing of nonhuman beings. This, according to Snyder, is considered a crime. Modern civilization, Snyder remarks, deprives people of the natural world and impedes people from being conscious of its significance to their survival: "They buy vegetables in the supermarket, but do not think about the soil these grow in” (Snyder, 1980, p.3). Snyder is frequently referred to as an ecopoet. He was not so much interested in producing a delightful portrayal of nature as he was in improving his relationship with ecology. As J. Scott Bryson(2002, pp.5-6) points out, there are two main features of ecopoetry.The first is an "ecocentric perspective" where



the focus of attention is not only humanity but also the natural world. The second feature is that a poem should establish a new consciousness of defending the natural environment. It is not humanity but nature which is superior and should be defended and respected. Having lived his childhood in the Pacific Northwest, Gary Snyder began to develop deep feelings towards the natural world at an early age which later characterized his poetic style. Snyder developed his ecological vision of poetry as a way of stimulating positive changes in the ecological world order, which may help to preserve life on this planet. Additionally, Snyder’s great interest in Buddhism contributed significantly to his involvement with environmental issues as he found considerable correspondence between Buddhism and environmentalism. Buddhism desires to achieve loving kindness, sympathetic joy and serenity not only to human beings but to all things in the universe. Being unkind to the planet and its inhabitants opposes Buddhist beliefs. Thus, Snyder blends religion and environmentalism in his writing. Snyder’s ecological concerns that exist in his poetry and prose, therefore, come from his childhood in the Pacific Northwest, his great interest in Zen Buddhism, and his anthropological interest in the American Indians. This merging of interests led to the emergence of a writer with an activist attitude who looks at the universe as the web of a mutualistic organism. In his earlier years, Snyder worked in the Pacific Northwest wilderness as a member of a trail crew, a fire lookout in the Cascades, and a dock worker on the San Francisco docks. Snyder's own life plays an important role in many of his works. His experience as a fire lookout on Crater Mountain in the Cascades of Washington in the summer of 1952 is central to his aesthetic and spiritual growth, whereas his work as a member of a trail crew in Yosemite National Park in the summer of 1955 inspired him to write his first book, Riprap and the Cold mountain poems in 1959 (Suiter, 2002, pp.1-3). Snyder’s reverence to all forms of life is expressed in his poetic and prose works. He writes: “I have had a very moving, profound perception . . . that everything was alive … and that on one level there is no hierarchy of qualities in life--- that the life of a stone or a weed is as completely beautiful and authentic, wise and valuable as the life of say, an Einstein” (Snyder 1980, p.17). In fact, the concept of equality of all things in nature, that is, the life of a great genius like Einstein is not less important than the life of a stone, seemed revolutionary to many. The idea may seem unfair to us but to Snyder who has frequently been described as “the laureate of Deep Ecology,” it is quite fair. Deep ecologists think that if people intend to protect the environment for all species, they must challenge and change long-held basic beliefs and attitudes about our species’ place in nature. People must realize that animals, plants, and the ecosystems that sustain them have intrinsic value, that is, they are valuable apart from any instrumental value they might have for human beings. Rivers and lakes should contain clean water not just because humans need uncontaminated water for swimming and drinking, but also because fish do to survive. Deep ecologists teach respect for all forms of life and conditions that sustain life (Naess, 1973, pp. 95-100). The opening poem of Riprap (1959), Snyder’s first book of poetry, “Mid-August at Sourdough Lookout” presents an ecological image that indeed, was based on Zen Buddhism as well as on scientific knowledge. The poem brings both the land and the self. The density of the imagery of the first stanza suggests the smallness of the poet’s humanity as opposed to “high still air.”

Down valley a smoke haze Three days heat, after five days rain Pitch glows on the fir-cones Across rocks and the meadows Swarms of new flies. (Snyder, 2004, p.3)

In other words, reading the poem ecologically emphasises the tiny place humans have in the hugeness of the universe. To put his ideas into practice, Snyder lived with primitive people for some time on a small Japanese island called Suwanosejima during his stay in Japan (1954-1968).Snyder presents in this poem a picture of solitariness and serenity. Living a simple life and being close to nature make the poet feel at peace. Snyder rejected the sweeping materialism of Western civilization, represented in “its unconscious desire to render the wild world tame and to bend nature to its will” (Stueding, 1976, p. 153).



The poem “Water” from Riprap depicts the time Snyder spent in Yosemite as a trail crew worker laying riprap:

Pressure of sun on the rockslide Whirled me in a dizzy hop-and-step descent, Pool of pebbles buzzed in a Juniper shadow, Tiny tongue of a this-year rattlesnake flicked, I leaped, laughing for little boulder-color coil---- Pounded by heat raced down the slabs to the creek Deep tumbling under arching walls and stuck Whole head and shoulders in the water: Stretched full on cobble---ears roaring Eyes open aching from the cold and faced a trout. (Snyder, 2004. p.12)

If the poem is read carefully, we can discover that Snyder places equal value between himself and other ecosystems. He does not present himself as a dominant figure but as a small part in the universe. This is shown in the last line in the poem when he is face to face with a fish. The whole poem seems to be a description of a real event but religious and ecological implications are conveyed through it. The theme Snyder emphasizes is that everything has its position in the universe and no one component is superior over others in the world. “For All”, another poem from his later volume Axe Handles (1983), has the same ecological implication of equality among all living beings. Snyder calls for new loyalty, a loyalty to the land and environment more than a flag or government:

I pledge allegiance I pledge allegiance to the soil of Turtle Island and to the beings who thereon dwell in diversity under the sun With joyful interpenetration for all. (Snyder, 2000, p.504)

Snyder presented a new pledge which seems to be a revolutionary concept. He shifted the focus from national identity to nature. Loyalty is sworn "to the soil,""the beings" and the ecosystem. He stresses what he considers the most important characteristic of nature: the interdependence of all beings. Human beings are only implicitly mentioned and are never given superiority over other forms of life. This demonstrates once more that human beings are an essential component of the world but they are not the most important. The poem holds central parts of Snyder's ecological consciousness. In another poem from Riprap, “Milton by Firelight,” Snyder warns against the decline of the natural environment:

In ten thousand years the Sierras Will be dry and dead, home of the scorpion Ice-scratched slabs and bent trees. No paradise, no fall Only the weathering land. ( Snyder 2000,p.9)

The poet is concerned about the damage caused to the environment by scientific “progress” which had given man superiority over the nonhuman elements of nature. In this poem, Snyder especially displays his cosmic consciousness which he always expresses in his writing. In a way, Snyder seems to be similar to other American nature writers like Henry David Thoreau, Wendell Berry, Annie Dillard and Edward Abbey. However, Snyder’s idea of nature goes beyond the conventional romanticizing of it. He attempts to be objective though no description can be completely objective. Snyder immersed himself in experience and mixed the inner and outer worlds. His realism



and eco-mysticism are evident in his objective rendering of details (Steuding, 1967, pp. 40- 41). Eco-mysticism calls for contact with the sensual experiences offered by the natural world in order to strengthen our old spiritual connection to the Earth. Such a spiritual connection may sharpen people’s knowledge of the environmental world and the place of humans in the ecosystem. The publication of Pulitzer Prize winning Turtle Island in 1974 marked a turning point for Snyder towards the embodiment of more ecological views which made him a major spokesman of an ecological vision of the world. Turtle Island is divided into four sections; the first three comprise verse while the last is prose. In this work, one can see Snyder the ecologist more clearly. In Turtle Island, Snyder wrote verse which not only deal with ideas but “with modes of action and with the unity of interrelationships in nature, and its verification is the fullness of the environment it creates” (Altieri, 1979, p. 135). Snyder presents a model of poetry which looks significantly different from his previous poetic works. Snyder describes his new model of poetry in an essay in The Old Ways, a work contemporary to Turtle Island:

We're just starting, in the last ten years here, to begin to make songs that will speak for plants, mountains, animals and children. When you see your first deer of the day you sing your salute to the deer, or your first red-wing blackbird—I saw one this morning! Such poetries will be created by us as we reinhabit this land with people who know they belong to it; for whom "primitive" is not a word that means past, but primary, and future… These poesies to come will help us learn to be people of knowledge in this universe in community with the other people—nonhuman included—brothers and sisters. (Snyder,1977, p.42)

Snyder’s words indicate that a significant change in Snyder’s vision of poetry was under way. From Turtle Island onwards, Snyder the ecologist would appear more. Snyder stresses on the importance of being primitive to be in harmony with nature. In accordance with his ecological concerns, Snyder calls for poetry that includes man, animals and ecosystems; a kind of poetry which presents a community of human and nonhuman as “brothers and sisters.” Snyder is now less concerned with spiritual states than with man’s harmony with the environment. Man should know plant life, weather, soil and all knowledge needed to preserve biological life. Turtle Island exhibits Snyder’s mystical relation to land in several ways. Snyder attempts to establish a connection between his scientific language as an ecologist and his literary production. When “ecologists talk about ecology of oak communities,” Snyder writes, we should understand “they are communities” and that oak and human communities “share attributes” (Snyder 1974, p 108). In other words, human beings are part of a broad community with the non-human; plants, animals and “a variety of wild life” (p.108). Snyder thinks that all things in the universe have equal value. To Snyder, “the richness and diversity of the nonhuman world only deepens felt responsibility for the human one” (Hunt 2004, p.1). Snyder’s ecological vision is that nature, society and spirit are interdependent and what happens to each would inevitably affect the others. To be more specific, what happens in nature has social and spiritual effects. Thus, what happens in society has natural and spiritual consequences and what happens spiritually has social and natural results. Turtle Island is “evidence of Snyder’s flowering social conscience and of his continuation of ministry of love and concern for one’s fellow creatures and for the biosphere” (Steuding, 1976, p. 156). Snyder also believes in the unity of cultures which can be realized through the ecological perspective that focuses on the interrelation of people. Snyder thinks that the majesty of the land would take people away from their little selves to a broader world, a world of mountains and rivers. Native American traditions as well as Buddhist traditions, which Snyder greatly admired, teach people how to go beyond of their selves. Buddhism as a philosophy was greatly admired by Snyder as it opposed materialism and does not recognize a conflict between itself and modern science. On the contrary, it holds that Buddha applied the experimental approach to the question of ultimate truth. Both Native Americans and Buddhists have an ecological understanding of interdependence and the equality of all living and nonliving “citizens” of nature (McClintock 1994, p. 121).



The opening poem of Turtle Island,“Anasazi” is very important as it sets the tone for the whole work. The poem shows Snyder’s interest in Native Indians for the whole poem is dedicated to the Anasazi’s tribal existence and praises the state of harmony between those primitive people and their physical environment: Anasazi, Anasazi, tucked up in clefts in the cliffs growing strict fields of corn and beans sinking deeper and deeper in earth (Snyder 1974,p.3) Snyder was interested in Indians since childhood. Not only did he know them through books,he lived amongst them when he was a child. The poem displays the Anasazi people as skilful at gardening, pottery making, basket weaving and architecture. They were especially admired for their villages built into the sides of steep cliffs:

Trickling streams in hidden canyons Under the cold rolling desert Corn-basket wide eyed Red baby Rock lip home, Anasazi. (p.3)

Snyder wanted to study human life, not in isolation from other elements of nature but as an integral part of the natural world. Snyder’s belief for the need to recognize the earth itself as a living being—along with all its trees, rocks, plants, and animals including humans—is a major theme in this poem as it is in much of Snyder’s work. Throughout the poem, there is an interaction of humans, animals, plants, even sandstone and rock canyons. The poem concludes with a striking image of identification between the Indian tribe and the landscape. The poem “applies to us only insofar as we can see ourselves as products of, and preservers of, a physical environment” (Molesworth1983, p.94). “By Frazier Creek Falls” involves the reader in the wilderness experience. Paul (1986, p.58) wrote, “I know of no one since Thoreau who has so thoroughly espoused the wild as Gary Snyder—and no one who is so much its poet”. The poet looks out and down from the edge of the falls where he sees half-forested, dry hills and a clear sky and observe the effect of the wind in the pines’ “rustling trembling limbs and twigs” (Snyder, 1974, p.41). The poet stands thrilled, listening. He relates joyfully, “This living flowing land is all there is, forever / We are it/ it sings through us---” (p.41).Snyder emphasizes the interaction between man and nature and that humans are not separate from nature but are, instead, a part of it. The poem which lends the first section of Turtle Island its title, “Manzanita”, seems to be a song of plant life. The poem shows Snyder’s concept of “ethnobotany” and the use of vegetative life in human culture. The poem celebrates the immediate physical environment:

Manzanita the tips in fruit, Clusters of hard green berries The longer you look The bigger they seem, "little apples".(Snyder 1974, p.1)

The poem suggests that natural variety is the critical factor in creating a healthy life. That is, unity and harmony can only be achieved through the preservation of the diversity of the natural world. “Charms,” the last poem of this section, on the other hand, is about animal life. If “Manzanita” expresses a vegetable kingdom, “Charms” adds the animal kingdom:

Thus I could be devastated and athirst with longing for a lovely mare or lioness, or lady mouse, in seeing the beauty from THERE shining through her, some toss of the whiskers



or grace-full wave of the tail that enchants. enchants, and thus CHARMS (Snyder 1974, p.28)

As Hunt points out, “Rocks, trees, sheep, rabbits, coyotes, eagles, bear, deer, and ravens all speak to [Snyder], for him and through him”(Hunt, 2004, p. 1).Taken together, those two poems do not only show Snyder’s new model of poetry, but they also show “How the reinhabitation of the land will be aided by songs of knowledge and community”( Molesworth, 1983,p. 101). Each poem, in fact, “speaks to a consciousness built of a total harmonization of man with nature and man with man” (p. 101). “Tomorrows Song” from section three may be the most radical poem not only in this section but in the whole work:

The USA slowly lost its mandate in the middle and later twentieth century it never gave the mountains and rivers, trees and animals, a vote. all the people turned away from it myths die; even continents are impermanent(Snyder 1974, p.76)

The poem expresses Snyder’s most radical and challenging notion where animals and plants should be represented in government. If America wants to maintain its status and power, it should give the right to vote even to mountains and rivers. This, in fact, shows a remarkable development in Snyder’s vision for the nonhuman world. “Walking the New York Bedrock” from Mountains and Rivers without End (1996), which is considered by many as Snyder’s most significant work, explores the wilderness within the city landscape. The poem speaks about plant and animal life within the city. Snyder does not show resentment towards the urban environment. As Christopher Benefy point out “Snyder imagines the world of wild nature beneath the structure of civilization” (1979, p. 42):

Squalls From the steps leading down to the subway. Blue-chested runner, a female, on car streets, Red lights block traffic but she like the Beam of a streetlight in the whine of Skilsaw, She runs right through. A cross street leads toward a river North goes to the woods South takes you fishing Peregrines nest at the thirty-fifth floor. (Snyder, 1996, pp.100- 101)

While contemplating the city in a dreamlike vision, the speaker comes to recognize that he could escape this city by going to the nearby woods and rivers but he does not need to. One can have illumination in the city as well as in the country. City and country are accordingly not at odds. Whenever one is, one must inhabit the place, know it deeply and flow with it. Like the ginkgo trees in the subway, the wild peregrine hawk is at “home” on a ledge “at the thirty-seventh floor” (Hunt 2004, p 187). Snyder’s view on civilization is different from that of the Beat writers. While the Beat writers like Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg reject the urban way of life and oppose all kinds of civilization, Snyder does not. Through celebrating nature and wild life, Snyder believes that one may explore the wild within the city and gain enlightenment without going to the mountains. It does not make any difference for Snyder, therefore, to live in the country or in the city since he can be enlightened in both. Snyder can discover the wild even within the city and the wilderness has acquired added meaning from that which was known to Thoreau and Whitman. Snyder elevates the wild and was its poet in the second half of the 20th century, yet he adds a new urban dimension to it. Snyder once told New York



Quarterly, “It is simply placing myself at a different place in the network, which does not mean that I’m any less interested in the totality of the network, it’s simply that’s where I center myself” (Snyder 1980, P.37). The concept of the food chain which Snyder believed in may be detected in the difference between the “streets-bottom feeders” and those who occupy “sunnier niches” and the peregrine hawk feeding off the lower-down pigeon to survive. “Walking the New York Bedrock” shows the wild dispersed throughout the city: The lessons we learn from the wild become the etiquette of freedom. We can enjoy

our humanity with its flashy brains and sexual buzz, its social cravings and stubborn tantrums, and take ourselves as on more and no less than another being in the Big Watershed… The wild requires that we learn the terrains, and nod to all the plants and animals and birds, ford to the streams and cross the ridges. And tell a story when we get back home. (Snyder, 1990, p. 24)

Snyder made great efforts to redefine the traditional concept of nature and fought against the negative notions and acts of people that greatly harmed environment. Snyder’s writings, therefore, tried to change the attitude of people towards nature and by doing so, he wanted to change the way they act towards nature. His writings showed new ways of interacting with nature which preserve the natural world. For Snyder, a possible solution for the global crisis is to stimulate people to reconcile and bridge the gap between their civilization and wild culture. Snyder’s commitment to this presentation of nature is instrumental in shaping modern environmental thought. Although Snyder’s concern and involvement in environmental activism may be seen as an active display of passion, one can argue that his writings are more active and influential than his activism. In all his poetry, ecological issues are given great importance, especially in Turtle Island. Snyder fought for the preservation of the environment from the deadly harm modern civilization caused. By showing the sublimity of the natural world and giving a sacred dimension to the moral commitment to the environment’s safety from any probable human damage, Snyder could attract the people’s attention to the beauty of the wilderness and urge them to protest against any harm which might be done to the natural world. Snyder considered himself a mediator between civilization and nature. He became, in America, a patron saint of ecology. His campaign for ecology has never ended. Snyder wrote in an essay entitled “Writers and the War against Nature" in one of his collection of essays Back on the Fire ( 2007, p.62), "What is happening now to nature worldwide, to plant life and wildlife, in ocean, grassland, forest, savannah, and desert in all spaces and habitat can be likened to a war against nature." REFERENCES:

[1] Snyder, Gary. (1969). Earth House Hold. New York: New Directions. [2] Snyder, Gary. (1974). Turtle Island. New York: New Directions Publishing. [3] Snyder, Gary. (1977). The Old Ways: Six Essays. San Francisco: City lights Books. [4] Snyder, Gary. (1980). The Real Work: Interviews & Talks, 1964-1979. New York: New Directions. [5] Snyder, Gary. (1990). The Practice of the Wild. San Francisco: North Point Press. [6] Snyder, Gary. (1996). Mountains and Rivers without End. New York: Counterpoint. [7] Snyder, Gary. (2000). The Gary Snyder Reader. New York: Counterpoint. [8] Snyder, Gary. (2004). Riprap and Cold Mountains Poems. Washington: Shoemaker&Hoard. [9] Snyder, Gary. (2008). Back on the Fire Essays. California: Counterpoint Press. [10] Altieri, Charles. (1979). Enlarging the Temple: New Directions in American Poetry during the

1960s. Pennsylvania: Bucknell University Press. [11] Benfey, Christopher. (1997). The Critter Poet. The New Republic. 216. 12, pp. 38-42. [12] Bryson, J. Scott. ( 2002). Introduction. In: J. Scott Bryson. ed. 2002. Ecopoetry. A Critical

Introduction Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.1-13. [13] Hunt, Anthony. (2004). Genesis,Structure, and Meaning in Gary Snyder’s Mountains and Rivers [14] without End. Reno: University of Nevada Press [15] McClintock, James. (1994). Nature’s Kindred Spirit. .Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin press. [16] Molesworth, Charles. (1983) Gary Snyder's Vision; Poetry and the Real Work. Missouri:

University of Missouri Press.



[17] Naess, A. (1973). The Shallow and the Deep Long-Range Ecology Movement. Inquiry , Vol 16, 95-100.

[18] Paul, Sherman. (1986). In Search of the Primitive: Rereading David Antin, Jerome Rothenberg and Gary Snyder. Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press.

[19] Paul, Sherman. (1990). From Lookout to Ashram. In: Patrick D. Murphy. ed. 1990. Critical Essays on Gary Snyder. G. K. Hall & Co.

[20] Steuding, Bob. (1976). Gary Snyder. Boston: Twayne. [21] Suiter, John. (2002). Poets on the Peaks. New York: Counterpoint. [22] Worster, Donald. (1977). Nature's Economy: The Roots of Ecology. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JOB STRESS, CO-WORKER

SUPPORT AND ORGANIZATION-BASED SELF-ESTEEM:

A SURVEY ACROSS DIFFERENT OCCUPATIONS

Hazril Izwar Ibrahim,

School of Management Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia.

ABSTRACT

The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between co-worker supports, job stress and organization based self-esteem (OBSE). The independent variables are job stress and co-worker support, while organization-based self-esteem is the dependent variable. A survey was conducted on 190 respondents from different occupational background. The respondents were randomly selected from different employment background. The study revealed that only co-worker support was significant in predicting organization based self-esteem. Keywords: Job stress, Co-worker support, OBSE.



INTRODUCTION:

Stress stems from the relationship between a person and the surrounding environment and can be considered as an unpleasant emotional situation that a person experiences when work-related requirements cannot be counter-balanced with his/her ability to resolve them and prolonged or intense stress can have a negative impact on an individual’s mental and physical health (Health and Safety Executive, 2001; Cooper et al., 2001). According to Johnson et al, (2005) the amount of stress a person experiences at work is likely to be a result of the interaction of a number of factors such as the type of work they are doing (their occupation), the presence of work stressors, the amount of support they receive both at work and at home and the coping mechanisms they use to deal with stress. It is not possible therefore, to say that all people working in a certain occupation will experience the same amount of stress. It is however, reasonable to state that employees working in high-risk occupations will have an increased likelihood of experiencing negative stress outcomes. Stress results in organizational inefficiency, high staff turnover, absenteeism due to sickness, increased costs of healthcare and decreased job satisfaction (Wheeler & Riding, 1994). Cooper and Marshall’s (1976) five sources of stress are (1) Intrinsic to the job, including factors such as poor physical working conditions, work overload or time pressures;(2) role in the organisation, including role ambiguity and role conflict;(3) career development, including lack of job security and under/over promotion;(4) relationships at work, including poor relationships with your boss or colleagues, an extreme component of which is bullying in the workplace (Rayner and Hoel, 1997); and (5) organisational structure and climate, including little involvement in decision-making and office politics. Rapidly changing global business scene is increasing the pressure on the workforce to produce maximum output and enhance competitiveness. Indeed, workers are required to perform multiple tasks in the workplace to keep abreast of changing technologies (Cascio, 1995; Quick, 1997). According to Idris, Dollard and Winefield (2010) in Malaysia, for example, employees reported that they experienced stress that is provoked by several factors such as workloads, organizational politics and a lack of autonomy in the workplace. Against the backdrop of the uncertain economic situation, it is apparent that the level of support, in the context of social support, as provided by the employees’ co-workers and the job stress experienced by the employees would play an important role in determining an individual’s self-esteem. The effects of co-worker support and job stress are crucial, especially for organizations as it will affect the quality of production, productivity, creativity and innovation. LITERATURE REVIEW: JOB STRESS:

Job stress or occupational stress has received substantial attention in past research (Fisher, 2001; Bernardi, 1997; Patten, 1995; Choo, 1987). Job stress is very much an individual reaction and is different from general stress as it is also organization and job related (Montgomery et al., 1996). Sauter et al., (1999) defined job stress as the harmful physical and emotional responses which occurred when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker. Job stress can be defined as an employee’s awareness or feeling of personal dysfunction as a result of perceived conditions or happenings in the workplace, and the employee’s psychological and physiological reactions caused by these uncomfortable, undesirable, or threats in the employee’s immediate workplace environment (Montgomery et al., 1996). Although researchers tend to use the term stress differently, it is usually categorized into four dimensions: role ambiguities, role conflict, work overload and resource inadequacy (Rizzo, House, & Litzman, 1970). Thus, job stress can be defined as the physical and emotional responses that occur when the employee’s capabilities and resources cannot satisfy their job demands and requirements (Malik, 2011). Therefore, the presence of job stress among employees leads to physical and psychological risks for both individual and organization. It is a well-known fact that a person’s ability to cope with stress is related to the individual’s self-



esteem (Newman, & Rucker-Reed, 2004). According to Gardner, Dyne, and Pierce (2004), self-esteem has been positively correlate d with job performance and yet not widely studied in the police field. A research study by Harris and Cameron (2005) concluded that higher self-esteem among a cohort of 247 employees in various high stress occupations, which included police officers among others, had statistically significant and higher ratings of life satisfaction and lower job stress ratings. Low self-esteem has been associated with anxiety, neuroticism, vulnerability to stress, lack of initiative and poor performance (Tharenou, 1979). Specifically, Iwasaki et al. (2002) conclude that male and female workers in across all industries of work with higher self-esteem ratings showed statistically significant and lower job stress ratings. CO-WORKER SUPPORT:

Kwok and Wai (2005) state that the literature on social support that has accumulated over the past two decades suggests that social support can have a direct impact on psychological well-being (e.g. Billings and Moos, 1984; Holahan and Moos, 1981). Beehr and McGrath (1992) define co-worker’s social support as co-workers willingness to help one another (e.g., caring, friendly, warm relation, empathy, cooperation, no back biting and gossipping, appreciation, respect and support) in performing daily tasks and handling of upsetting and threatening situations to create healthy environments in the workplace (Frone et al., 1997; Mansor et al., 2003). As Hodson (1997) convincingly argued, the social relations of the workplace may make a key contribution to employees’ job satisfaction, productivity and well-being. The current study emphasis on co-worker support refers to co-workers assisting one another in their tasks when needed by sharing knowledge and expertise as well as providing encouragement and support (Zhou & George, 2001). In an environment where co-worker support is high, employees are able to discuss ideas more openly and honestly and there is a positive relationship to job satisfaction (Bateman, 2009). However, there are contradictory views regarding to the positive effects of co-worker support on employees, where, co-workers behaviours may be viewed as political or self-enhancing and therefore it may not always be associated with constructive work attitudes. Accepting support from co-workers may also suggest incompetence on behalf of the person accepting the support (Bateman, 2009).According to Ng and Sorenson (2008) the negative views regarding co-worker support stems from the perception that, because peers are usually regarded as equal, support from co-workers may suggest a lack of ability or independence. Despite this, there is overwhelming evidence that co-worker support has many positive effects in the work place (Babins & Boles, 1996). Social relationships are important in maintaining an individual’s self-esteem, as it fosters a sense of social support. According to House, Umberson and Landis (1988) social support is the quality of social relationships as perceived by an individual and it is distinct from concepts such as social integration, social network structure and social regulation. Functional social support refers to behaviours, such as emotional and instrumental support, that are exchanged between individuals. Emotional support conveys such as caring and empathy, while instrumental support is concerned with providing assistance with problem solving or information exchange (Semmer, Elfering, Jaconshagen, Perrot, Beehr & Boos, 2008). Both types of support are equally important, as they form the dimensions in co-worker support. A study in Malaysia by Teoh and Afiqah (2010) using 200 university students, through a questionnaire survey, examined whether personality traits and social support are associated with self-esteem. Their findings revealed that all the personality and social support factors were associated with the level of self-esteem. ORGANIZATION- BASED SELF ESTEEM (OBSE):

According to self-verification theory (e.g. Swann, 1983), self-esteem – and, by extension, OBSE – basically serves a self-regulatory function. This theory states that ‘people are motivated to verify, validate and sustain their existing self-concepts’ (Leary, 2007: 324). La pointe, Vanderberghe and Panaccio (2011) citing Stinson et al. (2010) as an example of the operation of self-verification theory, where, Stinson et al. (2010)



demonstrated that when the environment’s feedback (e.g. feedback concerning one’s relational value to others) is consistent with one’s self-esteem, people experience feelings of authenticity, control and certainty. In contrast, when the feedback is inconsistent, feelings of discomfort are generated, resulting in efforts to solve the discrepancy between feedback and self-esteem. Over time, these efforts ultimately draw on one’s emotional resources. Furthermore, self-verification has been shown to operate the same way with OBSE as with generalized self-esteem (Wiesenfeld et al., 2007). The sociometer theory considers self-esteem to be essentially a psychological meter, or a gauge that monitors the quality of people’s relationship with others (Leary, 1999). Researchers regard the maintenance and enhancement of self-esteem as a primary motive of human behaviour (Brown and Dutton, 1995). Building upon the notion that self-esteem is a hierarchical and multifaceted phenomenon, and Coopersmith’s (1967) observation that self-esteem indicates the extent to which the individual believes him/herself to be capable, significant, and worthy; Pierce, Gardner, Cummings and Dunham (1989) introduced the concept of organization-based self-esteem. Organization-based self-esteem (OBSE) is defined as the degree to which an individual believes him/herself to be capable, significant, and worthy as an organizational member (Pierce & Gardner, 2004). Dyne et al. (2000) argues that OBSE is the self-perceived value that individuals have of themselves within a specific organizational context. It reveals people’s sense of their own value and how they view themselves in the organizational settings and how their level of self-esteem changes while working for the said organization. The employees with high self-esteem think of themselves as ‘valuable’ for the organization (Alam, 2009). According to Qureshi et al. (2011) self-esteem is the basic appraisal one makes of oneself, as it concerns the overall value that one places on oneself, as a person. Creed et al. (2001) argues that belief in one’s capacity to change one’s own situation is a major determining factor in the level of self-esteem. The basic underlying theoretical tenet is that individuals will develop attitudes and behave in ways that will maintain their level of self-esteem. Moreover, self-esteem can also be defined as ‘a construct expressing the global relations toward the self’ (Classen et al., 2007) Korman’s (1970) view that an individual’s self- esteem is shaped by ones experiences, it can be hypothesized that the experiences one has within the organization will consequently have an impact on one’s level of OBSE and the attitudes that are developed as a result of how they perceive they are treated by the organization. Studies have indicated that the organizational context as a whole influence OBSE (Pierce et al, 1989, 1993). This conclusion seems to reinforce Korman‟s view (1970) that the environment in which an individual works in does in fact influence the beliefs that an individual has about his or her value and worth in the organization (Elloy & Patil,2012). The construct holds considerable importance in an organizational context. At the individual level, research has shown that persons high in OBSE have greater work motivation and intrinsic motivation (Hui & Lee, 2000), and achieve higher performance ratings (Van Dyne & Pierce, 2004; Pierce et al., 1993; Gardner, Pierce, Van Dyne, & Cummings, 2000; 1992; Marion-Landais, 2000) than do persons low in OBSE. Concerning the organizational level, scholars have also discovered that OBSE correlates negatively with turnover intentions and with turnover (Gardner & Pierce, 2001). Some studies have examined the relationship between OBSE and stress and found a negative relationship (Tang and Ibrahim, 1998). Jex and Elacqua (1999) in their study found that OBSE was negatively related to frustration and depression and physical strain. According to Kanning and Hill (2012) OBSE is an important psychological construct as shown in various studies. For instance, positive correlations were proven between self-esteem and intrinsic performance motivation, performance at the workplace, general job satisfaction as well as identification with and commitment to one’s own organization (Gardner & Pierce, 1998; Kanning & Schnitker, 2004; Tang & Gilbert, 1994). Persons with high organization based self-esteem show a stronger career orientation or are less interested in slowing down on the job than people with low self-esteem (Carson, Carson, Lanford & Roe, 1997). METHODOLOGY:

This paper outlines research into the experience of co-worker support, job stress and OBSE within diverse set of occupations. The independent variables are job stress and co-worker support, while,



OBSE is the dependent variable in this study. In order to analyse the relationship between co-worker support, OBSE and stress, we performed a study on a random sample of 190 individuals. The population of our study consists of 190 employees working in private enterprises and public organisations in Penang, Malaysia. A summary of this information is presented in Table I. The entire population was used in order for the sample to be representative, random and as large as possible. Respondents were chosen randomly and the survey was conducted to collect primary data using self-administered questionnaire. QUESTIONNAIRE SCALES ORGANIZATION BASED SELF ESTEEM:

Pierce et al. (1989)’s measurement of organizational-based self-esteem contained ten items and displayed a good reliability (α = .91), was used for the purpose of data collection. Respondents were asked to indicate from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) for the items about organizational-based self-esteem. An example item of Pierce et al. (1989)’s ten-item instrument using a seven point Likert scale includes “I count around here”. CO-WORKER SUPPORT:

The Social Support scale designed by O’Driscoll (2000) was used to measure co-worker support. This scale has a reliability of 0.89 (O’Driscoll, Brough & Kalliath, 2004). An example of an item is, “indicate how often your co-workers provide you with clear and helpful feedback”. Respondents were asked to indicate from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). This scale consists of four items and has a maximum score of 24 and minimum score of 4. A higher score indicates higher levels of co-worker support. JOB STRESS:

Job stress was measured using four items derived from Crank, Regoli, Hewitt, and Culbertson (1995) and had a Cronbach alpha of .82. Respondents were asked to indicate from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). RESULTS:

Table 1: Frequency of Respondents

Occupation Frequency Percentage Bank Officers 16 8.4 Teachers 79 41.6 Engineers (Manufacturing) 75 39.5 Nurses 17 8.9 Supervisors (Manufacturing) 1 0.5 Technician 1 0.5 Sales Executive 1 0.5

Total 190 100 Table 1 shows that 41.6% of the respondents are teachers, 39.5% respondents are engineers in the manufacturing sector, 8.9% respondents are nurses, 8.4% respondents are bank officers, 0.5% respondents are supervisors, 0.5% respondents are technicians and 0.5 % of the respondents are sales executives.

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics According to Occupations

Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Job Stress 1.00 5.00 3.6825 0.7962



Co-Worker Support 1.50 5.00 4.0289 0.6422 OBSE 2.30 5.00 3.7289 0.4419

Table 2 indicates that the minimum value for Job Stress is 1.00 and the maximum is 5.00. The mean for Job Stress is 3.6825 with a standard deviation of 0.7962. The minimum value for Co-worker Support is 1.50 and the maximum is 5.00. The mean for Co-worker Support is 4.0289 with a standard deviation of 0.6422. The minimum value for OBSE is 2.30 and the maximum is 5.00. The mean for OBSE is 3.7289 with a standard deviation of 0.4419. By comparing the mean value this signifies that the vale for Co-worker support is the highest among the three variables.

Table 3: Results of Regression

Variables B Std. Error Beta t Sig. Job Stress .044 .039 .080 1.130 .260 Co-worker Support .179 .236 .260 3.689 .000*

Dependent variable: OBSE Regression analysis was conducted to examine the effect of both Job Stress and Co-worker Support on OBSE. In other words, the results of the regression analysis would provide a more accurate picture, which of the two variables are more significant in influencing the employees’ perception of their OBSE. As depicted in Table 3, the results indicate that Co-worker Support has a significant effect on OBSE. Therefore Hypothesis 2 is supported. The results also indicate that Job Stress has no significant effect on OBSE. Thus, Hypothesis 1 is refuted. DISCUSSION:

The result clearly indicates that Co-worker support has a positive and significant impact on OBSE. Therefore, it can be concluded from this study that individuals who experience higher levels of emotional support, such as caring and empathy and instrumental support, such as assistance in problem solving or information exchange; perceived themselves to a valued member of the organization. Thus, this consequently leads to employees having positive and high level of self-esteem. While job stress is positively related to OBSE but its non-significance could indicate that while it is present but does not influence the employees’ self-esteem. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION:

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THE SIGNIFICANCE OF INNOVATION IN MARKETING

PUBLIC RELATIONS FOR INCREASING INTAKE IN

PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES

Krismiyati,

Faculty of Information Technology, Satya Wacana Christian University Salatiga, Central Java, Indonesia.

Rudy Latuperissa,


Lina Sinatra Wijaya,


ABSTRACT

Nowadays, private universities keep trying to do their best to increase the students’ intake, as the competition among them is tough. It is heightened by the condition that not only private universities but also state universities are active in promoting their program to attract prospective students. One of the strategies that private universities implement is having innovation as one of their marketing public relations strategy. This study tries to investigate the significance of innovation in Marketing Public Relations to increase students’ intake in private universities. This study involves 6 private universities in Central Java. They have implement marketing public relations strategies with innovation in it. The data were obtained from interviewing the public relations personals in those private universities. The interview used open-ended questions to explore a more thorough answer. The result of the study shows that innovation does have significance in increasing students intake in private universities. The increase of the intake they have achieve so far with the innovation they have implemented is from 5% - 20% depending on the situation and condition of each university. Keywords: Marketing Public Relations, strategy, innovation, intake, promotion, private

university.



INTRODUCTION:

Nowadays, most private universities try to compete with other private universities in order to gain as many students as possible. Based on the research done by Sinatra and Krismiyati ( 2013) , it is stated that most private universities have applied their marketing public relations strategies in their promotion program. In most of their program they should have new innovations to attract new students to register in their universities. The marketing public relations strategies that they have already done is having good relations with the high school students, media, parents, counseling teachers, society and also with the study programs. Besides having this relationship with the stakeholders, each private university should have a new innovation to attract the high school students to register in their universities. Seeing the fact that MPR strategies with new innovation is really important for a university, then it is crucial for the universities to really think and plan effectively and efficiently of what kind of innovation that they will use for achieving their objectives and target. Therefore the objectives of this study are to see whether there is any significance of innovation in Marketing Public Relations program done by private universities in Central Java in order to increase their students’ intake LITERATURE REVIEW:

This section will present a study literature done in this study that covers the previous study carried out in this field and some theoretical background serving as the theory basis of this study. THE CONCEPT OF MARKETING PUBLIC RELATIONS:

According to Harris ( 1993: 8), there are many signs that marketing public relations has come of age : a. Public Relations has become a big and profitable business. It means that most of the companies

acquired major PR firms not only to offer broader communication services to clients and gain greater access to client top management, but also because PR offers them greater proportionate profit potential.

b. Marketing public relations is the largest and fastest growing segment of a fast growing industry. c. Companies have recognized the growing importance of marketing public relations with bigger

budgets and fatter paychecks. d. Public relations is getting increasing interest in the marketing and business media e. The academic community is showing greater interest in public relations. From those points above, it shows that public relations are really needed in all aspects. Besides that knowing about marketing public relations strategies is really useful for gaining the image of the companies / institutions. Marketing public relations has grown rapidly and pragmatically to meet the opportunities of a changing marketplace. Therefore it is stated that Marketing public relations is the process of planning, executing and evaluating programs that encourage purchase and consumer satisfaction through credible communication of information and impressions that identify companies and their products with the needs , wants , concerns and interests of consumers. (Thomas, 1993) In Marketing and Public Relations, a New Marketing Model which relies on marketing with C-W-V models that is Consultative, Win-Win and Value Added. It means the marketing aspects of the model cannot be separated from the concern for the interests of the producers as consumers through the public consultation (research and development, interview and questionnaire), and mutual (mutual Symbiosis) for both parties and can provide added value or more benefits to the users of goods and services (Ruslan, 2006). Another experts Eduard Depari said that The term of Marketing Public Relations refers to a product or service marketing activities that are included in public relations activities. As the public relations activities, this should be designed to create, develop, and maintain the image of an organization or institution. It also reflects the self-selling, because between the good things about the institution and



also the image of the product cannot be separated, but on the other hand it should be interrelated and influenced one and another (Anggoro, 2005). According to Kasali ( 2005) , the Integrated Marketing Public Relations consist of (1) maintain the relationship with stakeholders, (2) focus on the target audience ,(3) Be consistent in implementing the strategies, (4) have an interactive dialogue, (5) Know the corporate mission, (6) apply the zero-based planning, (7) emphasize in integration among functions, (8) Rely on main competency, (9) manage the data bank for consumers, (10) Have relationship with the integrated communication consultants There are 3 phases that we should do in implementing marketing public relations communications. These phases will act as a guideline for planning the promotion strategies. These phases are : (1) market segmentation, (2) decide the segmentation which is based on the product and decide what promotion strategy will be used, (3) decide the product position as a product that can satisfy the consumers by using certain message ( Kennedy. John, 2006:69)

THE CONCEPT OF MARKETING PUBLIC RELATIONS STRATEGY:

In doing the job, Marketing Public Relations practitioner should know about the strategies that he/she should do in order to decide what communication tools used in implementing the program. The Marketing Public Relations strategies include : planning, implementing and evaluating the programs that can stimulate prospective students to choose study programs that are offered. It also can regain the satisfaction of prospective students through the reliable information given and also give positive impression about the university / programs offered which are suitable with their needs, desires, concerns and interests (Ruslan, 2006). In doing the MPR strategy, there are some steps that must be done in, such as (Ruslan, 2006): a. Conducting market research, to obtain information according to the needs and desires of consumers

in this case is the prospective students. b. Creating products. It means a study program in accordance with the results of the market research c. Determining the price of these products . it means the cost of the tuition fee charged by the university d. Determining the target consumer, target audience which is suitable with the programs offered. e. Planning and implementing promotional campaigns (pre-selling projects) which will be launched

and be able to compete in the future and is quite attractive to prospective students in terms of output which would be obtained after finishing their study.

f. Maintaining good relationships with its stakeholders especially the parents, High school teachers , etc. According to Kotler and Keller ( 2007 ). Marketing public relations tools covers many aspects as follows : a. Publications : companies entrust the expansions of the products based on the publication which will

influence and attract the targeted buyers. These publications includes annual reports, brochures, articles, company newspapers, magazines and also audiovisual materials

b. Identity media : the company needs to create an identity that can be easily recognized by the society. For example : company logo, stationery, brochures, signs, corporate forms, business cards, buildings, uniforms and also performance regulations for employees.

c. Events : the company can draw attention to their new products or service by having special events, such as interviews, seminars, exhibitions, competitions, contests etc , in order to reach wider community.

d. News : One of the main public relations work is to create or find events that fit with the company, its products, its people or its employees, and also make the media interested to make press releases and come to the press conferences managed by the company.

e. Speeches : Company should be able to answer the questions asked by the community well f. Public service activities : company can build a positive image by getting involved in any public

service activities g. Sponsorship : company can market their products by being a sponsor any sport events or cultural

events that give the benefit for the company.



In addition, Harris ( 1993: 38) stated The role of Marketing public Relations practitioners are getting involved in : product publicity, sponsorships, special events, public service, publications, media events, media tours and also the trade support. This Marketing Public Relations used in marketing situations to influence consumers, is an important component of the four Ps strategy, specially supporting promotion to facilitate a transaction . THE CONCEPT OF INTAKE AND INNOVATION:

Based on the free dictionary by Farlex, the word “intake” means a quantity taken in . but Hornby ( 1995 ) said in the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, intake means a number of people entering an institution etc during a particular period (group of people who get into an institution within a certain time). From this definition it can be concluded that the meaning of intake in this study is the number of new students who enroll and register at the college in a particular academic year. The word “ Innovation “ means a new technique, idea , etc ( Hornby, 1995 : 615) . Webster’s school dictionary stated that It means a new idea, method or device ( Merriam, 2004: 464) . From these two definitions, it can be concluded that the meaning of innovation in this study is a new technique in attracting high school students RESEARCH METHOD:

This study involved 6 private universities in Central Java. The data used for this study was qualitative data obtained from the interview. The interview involved the Public Relations personnel in each university. In addition, the data was also obtained from literature study and previous study related to this topic. This study chose private universities in Central Java with the hope that it could contribute to the development of MPR area in Central Java and privates universities at once. The interview was carried out in each university involved in the study using open-ended questions. The interview developed as it happened due to the situation and condition of the interview. After the interview was done, the data was transcribed and analyzed qualitatively to answer the posed research questions. After all the research questions were answered, the significance of the innovation in marketing public relations strategies will be revealed. The research question posed in this study was whether innovation in marketing public relations strategies is really a significant factor that should be created in supporting the promotion program in order to gain more student’s intake for private universities The interview used the following open-ended questions as guidance. The questions were: Does the implementation of innovation really show different influence for high school students in

choosing the university? Are there any hindrances in implementing the innovation? How much is the increase of the intake resulted from the implemented innovation?

Those questions were derived from the literature study conducted before as well as the previous study preceding this one. Those questions served as guidance only because in the interview, there were some questions came up based on the information given by the interviewee. This was also the reason why open-ended questions were used, that was giving the opportunity to both side to develop and elaborate the flow of the interview. After transcription was done, the data were classified into these categories: 1. The implementation of innovation in marketing public relations program 2. The hindrances faced by the public relations practitioners in implementing the innovation 3. The increase of students’ intake in last year academic year



Having done with categorizing the data into those three focuses, the significance of innovation will be shown. This model will show that innovation is really important for private universities in creating new attractive promotional to attract high school students. For ethical consideration, all the participants involved in this study have signed a consent form that their responses will be quoted anonymously for their confidentiality. They were ensured that their name would not be mentioned at all in the report. Apart from that, there was not any objection from the participants to be involved in this study. RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

The result and discussion of the study conducted in this context is presented in this section. It will present the result of this study which is followed by discussion and interpretation of the data. THE IMPLEMENTATION OF INNOVATION IN MPR STRATEGIES:

From the 8 private universities involved in this study, all of them have implemented the innovation in Marketing Public Relations Strategies. One university mentioned that they have already implemented the innovation in their MPR strategies during the year when they carried out their MPR program. They have run the bus for one day service to the prospective students. They have designed the bus in such a way that it resembles the process of registration for prospective students (PR personel 1). By so doing, it turns out that it attracts students interest to apply for a university program. Besides, those students do not need to come to the university to sit for the test and process their registration. Another PR personnel (PR4) says that what his university has implemented successfully attracted prospective students to apply. The innovation was pick up service for new students in the nearest airport to the university. In this case, not only the parents who feel secured sending their children to the university, but also the prospective students feel that they are cared for and served. This adds a plus point to the university service. From this experience, those students spread the news about the pick up service and the power of words of mouth begins. In line with that, the service that the university provide for the new students such as providing students with the information of finding the accommodation and personal guidance given by students from the previous cohort has become a particular value adding to other services given to the prospective students. In this case, according to one of the PR personnel (PR5), is the heart. Therefore, the service and care that is based on the sincerity of the heart plays an important role. Another innovation proposed in one of those private universities was giving a reward to those high school students who rank in the top ten to compete for a free tuition fee during their study. It has proven to attract prospective students to apply for the award. “With this innovation, we can attract more students to apply at our university (PR Personnel3). He also mentions that another innovation that has been implemented in his university has resulted in the big interest the prospective students to the program offered in that university. The PR personnel (PR 1) says “ By giving the school a reward of allowing one of their staff to pursue master degree program with a waived tuition fee for the school staff has also been a promising appeal for the teacher to lead the students applying in a particular program. Of course, it must be in accordance with students’ interest. So far, it works well for us “ From those implementation mentioned above, it is clear that the innovation is indeed significant in influencing the prospective students on whether they will apply to the university. It becomes a special attractive power that could arise their interest to choose a program in a particular university. Innovation in this case has a powerful impact in increasing the students’ intake in private universities. Most of the university involved in this study, have successfully increased their students’ intake through the innovation they integrate in their Marketing Public Relations strategies. THE HINDRANCES FACED BY THE PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONERS IN IMPLEMENTING THE INNOVATION:

The implementation of the innovation in Marketing Public Relations does not always go smoothly.



There are sometimes some circumstances that influence the level of its success. Based on the data obtained from the interview, most of the circumstances affecting whether the innovation will be a success in increasing students’ intake were technical problems. One PR personnel (PR1) says that what they have done so far in terms of implementing the innovation is that technical problem such as the downfall of the system they design as they use a great deal of social media and web-based system. In line with that, sometimes they could not give very fast responses to the problem due to technical problems. “As the system is human-designed, there mast be a downside or error that could happen. There is also a problem with the network sometimes” mentioned one university’s PR personnel (PR3). Apart from the technical problem, there is also a problem hindering the success of the implementation of the innovation in MPR, which comes from the other parties cooperating with the universities. In this case is from the coordination that one of the universities made with the one of the stakeholders. One of the PR personnel (PR4) explains that what they have planned to achieve by making commitment with guidance and consultation teachers in all over the city do not succeed. It does not work well like what they expect. Another big problem is the fund available for them to implement the innovation. One PR personnel (PR3) mention that fund is another problem in implementing the innovation in Marketing Public Relations. “We have to change the use of one media because of the fund limitation” said PR personnel (PR5). “Sometimes what we have planned could not be executed as the planned detail because of the fund. There are cases in which we have to look for another option for a particular plan, such as media” PR personnel explains (PR2). In short, there are two main hindrances faced by those PR personals in implementing the innovation; they are technical problems and fund limitation. These two hindrances influence the success of the innovation at the implementation stage. Although, there are problems, still the innovations make a difference in increasing the students’ intake at the university. THE INCREASE OF STUDENTS’ INTAKE IN LAST YEAR ACADEMIC YEAR:

With all the innovation in Marketing Public Relation strategies that the universities, it has given significant increase in students’ intake. The private universities involved in this study mention that their intakes do increase. One PR personnel (PR2) mentions that they have around 10-15 % increase in the intake in 2013. It is a big increase compared to the last year intake as a result of the innovation they make in their MPR strategies. “Our students’ intake this year has increased by 20%. It is such a success and it is more or less influenced by the innovation we have in our MPR strategies especially in our promotion program. We will continue to innovate every year so that we could keep the students’ intake increasing year by year “ PR personnel (PR4) explains. Despite of the hindrances met during the implementation of the innovation in MPR strategies, the students’ intake still increase from 5%-20%. It shows that the innovation does have an impact towards the students’ intake. All the PR personals involved in this study mention that innovations have significance in increasing the students’ intake. From the data obtained, it can be concluded that the increase of the students’ intake after they implement the innovation in their marketing public relations strategies is significant. Each university at least get 5% increase compared to last year intake in which they do not have innovation in it. With the usual strategies they have so far without innovation, the students’ intake is up and down. However, with the innovation they have in their new strategies, it does give impact towards the students’ intake. Most of them say that they will continue to innovate each year so they could increase the intake every year, as it is one of the goals of private universities, which try to keep their existence in the tough competition with the state universities. CONCLUSION:

To sum up with, the innovation that each university has in their strategy has contributed a significant increase in terms of the number of the students coming to the university. The increase obtained ranging from 5 – 20%. The result got from the innovations implemented during their promotion program varies



from one to other universities due to the different problem they face. Some technical problems and fund limitation have hindered the success of the innovation implementation. However, the innovations they have implemented so far have proven to increase the students’ intake in 2013 academic year. In short, innovation does have significance in increasing students intake in private universities in Central Java . REFERENCES:

[1] Anggoro, M., Linggar, (2005). Teori dan Profesi Kehumasan Serta Aplikasinya di Indonesia. Jakarta :Bumi Aksara

[2] Harris,Thomas (1993).The Marketers Guide to Public Relations. Canada :John Wiley and Sons, Inc. [3] Hornby A S (1995). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary5th ed. Great Britain:Oxford

University Press [4] Kasali, R, (2005). Manajemen Public Relations: Konsep dan Aplikasinya di Indonesia. Jakarta:

Pustaka Utama Grafiti [5] Kennedy.J & Soemanagara. D (2006).Marketing Communication-Taktik & Strategi Jakarta:

Bhuana Ilmu Populer [6] Kotler, P., & Keller,K (2007). Manajemen Pemasara, Edisi 12. Jakarta: Indeks [7] Sinatra, L & Krismiyati (2013). MPR Strategies modeling for increasing students’ intake at

private universities in Central Java- Indonesia. Researchers World, Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce, VolIV , Issue 3

[8] Merriam (2004).Webster’s School Dictionary, 11th ed. New York: Merriam Webster Publishing. [9] Ruslan, R (2006) Manajemen Public Relations dan Media Komunikasi : Konsepsi dan Aplikasi.

Jakarta:Raja Grafindo Persada. [10] Farlex : http://www.thefreedictionary.com/intake

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DECODING THE TEXT AND

THE ‘POWER’ OF THE READER

Kalyan Das,

Assistant Professor Department of English

P B College, Gauripur, Dhubri, Assam, India.

ABSTRACT

The process of interpretation and understanding of a literary text has always been thought of as an exercise controlled by either the text or the author. The reader has been given a peripheral role in the process of producing meaning. The recent emphasis on the reader as a very important entity, not just a ‘tabula rasa’ (Locke, 1996) gathers its strength from the new perspective in which the reading process is viewed. The philosophical notions developed by Edmund Husserl and Roman Ingarden, and the phenomenological theories of Schleiermacher and Don Ihde have paved way for the elevation of the reader to the position of the most important agent shaping and directing the process of decoding the meaning of a text. Literary theories proposed by Roman Ingarden, Hans Robert Jauss, Wolfgang Iser, Stanley Fish has brought the reader to the center stage. The gamut of ideas offered by these new groups of theoreticians has redefined the role of the text from an independent object into something that can only exist when it is read and when it interacts with the mind of the reader. This study describes how the philosophical notions combined with literary ideologies help the reader to emerge as the most powerful agent in the realization of the meaning of texts. Keywords: phenomenology, intentional objects, historical situatedness, reception theory.



INTRODUCTION:

The long history of the theory of literature, from Plato to the present, is mainly centered on ‘reading’ and on the debate of deciding the most dominant factor that controls, decides and shapes the reading process. The history of theory records certain well known shifts of emphasis in this relation. Although there have been found different factors dominating this kind of shift of emphasis in different ages, they have been similar in their central propaganda, that is, each of them claims to have control over the reading process and this determines the outcome of reading. One can visualize a little scene on a darkened stage, with the persona of the author on one side, the reader on the other and the text placed between them. The spot light in this drama focuses on only one entity at a time and the light foregrounds one of them so brightly that the others fade into practical invisibility. Thus the focused element, whether the author or the text or the reader, has always been deemed to be the main controller of the ‘reading’ of the text. Throughout the centuries, it becomes apparent, usually either the book or the author has been conceived as the guide to the reading process. The reader has tended to remain in shadow, taken for granted. Here or there, a theoretician may start to take the reader seriously when he or she discusses the reading of the literary text and its consequences. Yet, until recently, the reader has never been considered as the main component of the reading process. The recent emphasis on the reader as a very important entity, not just a ‘tabula rasa’ (Locke, 1996) gathers its strength from the new perspective in which the reading process is viewed. LITERATURE REVIEW:

The existence of a single and already defined meaning incorporated in a literary text has been critically evaluated by several studies over the past few decades. In a sharp contrast to the already assumed notion of the author or the text functioning together to shape the meaning, recent studies have shown that every reader is the source of his or her interpretation of a text and this meaning is a product of the transaction of his or her personal associations with the text. The earliest trace of a study proposing the existence of a text dependent on the reader can be found in Louise Rosenblatt’s much quoted work Literature as Exploration (Rosenblatt, 1938). In a reaction to the emphasis given on the autonomy of the text by the school of theorists known as New Critics, Rosenblatt (1938) advocated for the participation of the reader’s personal predilections in the interpretation of a text. While New Critics supported a practice which called for rigid personal dissociations in the interpretation of literature, Rosenblatt (1938) believed that the process of reading of a text is the result of a unique and personal event involving the reader’s mind, his or her emotions at a particular time and influenced by the unique conditions the reader is positioned. A similar focus on the freedom of reader is expressed by Rosenblatt (1978) in her famous work The Reader, the Text, the Poem: The Transactional Theory of Literary Works. In this study Rosenblatt emphatically expresses that he is opposed to the elevated position given to the text in the process of producing meaning and in the act of interpretation. By presenting the historical sequence of events from the eighteenth century when the author was deemed to be the dominant agent and the reader only an eavesdropper to the twentieth century focus on the text existing as an independent entity, Rosenblatt (1978) says that the reader had been put into ‘unrelenting invisibility.’ Putting forth her own theory, Rosenblatt (1978) hails the reader as the main agent in the process of interpretation as the textual meaning is not confined within the text, but emerges from the process of reader’s interaction with the text. Stanley Fish (1980) in his famous book Is There A Text In This Class describes in detail the important role that the reader plays in realizing the meaning of a text. According to Fish (1980), the qualities of text do not result in the special kind of attention it receives from the reader. Rather, the process of paying some special kind of attention to a text leads to the emergence of its special features, its poetically distinctive aspects. However, there have also been studies raising objection to the kind of importance given to the reader in the process of production of meaning. Wimsatt and Beardsley (1954) opined that the elevated position given to the reader may result in impressionism and also in relativism, and this may lead to the disappearance of the poem as a product for critical judgment. Fish (1980) on the other hand upheld the independence of the reader by commenting that the text is not a wholly objective entity and the lines in a text expresses only those values and thoughts which the reader associate them with. In this way the reader is portrayed as the primary player in the process of interpreting a text.



PHILOSOPHY AND READING:

The question: how far does a text govern the reading process, and how far is the reading process controlled by the reader --- has attracted both philosophers and critics to look at ‘reading’ in details. The German philosopher, Edmund Husserl, with his notion of ‘Intentionality of Consciousness’ (McIntyre and Smith, 1989) provides a major turning point in the way the ‘reading-reader relation’ is looked at. Husserl’s notion of ‘Intentionality of Consciousness’ says that consciousness is always consciousness of something. Different objects of consciousness are ‘intentional objects’ and there is no ‘objectless consciousness and no unintended object.’ Thus, to be an object something first of all has to be an object of consciousness. The application of Husserl’s concept to literary discourse has initiated the rethinking of the ontology of the literary text. Gradually a point of view emerged which has initiated a discourse that explains that the existence of the literary text depends mainly on the application of the consciousness of the readers. A literary text emerges as a complete object only when it participates in an incoming consciousness. Thus prior to reading, this is, prior to the application of consciousness, the literary text is always incomplete. The literary text, only written, is an enfolded potential which can be realized through reading. This kind of rethinking of the ontology of the literary text is the contribution of phenomenology to literature, which in turn, is influenced by Husserl. The importance given to reading is also influenced by the notion developed by T S Kuhn (1962). T S Kuhn has shown that the emergence of a fact in scientific investigation through the process of establishing results is crucially related to the frame of reference that a particular scientific observer employs in his or her analysis of a particular object. Thus the way things are observed determines the understanding. In the same way, in literature, reading decides the understanding of the text. In this way the observer becomes an important entity. The claim that understanding is ahistorical, made by Husserl, is challenged by Martin Heidegger, who introduced historicity in understanding (Martinez and Chan, 2009). For him understanding is not an autonomous, ahistorical human activity. There is no escape from the historical situatedness of understanding, because it is the ontological ground of the readers’ being-in-the-world. The readers are human subject only because they are practically bound up with others and the material world. Thus the readers’ understanding is associated with the material world in which they are situated. There is no contemporary philosopher more concerned with the situated nature of the readers’ interpretations than Hans-Georg Gadamer (Malpas, 2013). His popularity in recent years is in no small part attributable to his radical insistence on the historical nature of understanding. Gadamer claims that it is precisely our being-in-the-world with its prejudices and presuppositions that come into function during reading, and makes understanding possible. Reading is always conditioned to the ‘horizon’ in which we are situated. But it should not be thought of in terms of a fixed or closed standpoint, it never restricts our reading and understanding of a text. Reading always involves understanding which is processed by the fusion of our own ‘horizon’ within which the work itself is placed. Gadamer uses the term “affective historical consciousness” (Swayne, 2012) to refer to the effectivity of history from past to present put into function during reading. According to Gadamer:

“… all interpretations of the literature produced in the past results from an interaction between past and present. The attempts made by the reader to understand a work depends crucially on the questions which the reader’s own cultural environment allows him or her to raise…. The reader’s present perspective always participates in a relationship with the past, and at the same time the past can only be understood through the limited perspective provided by the present… a hermeneutical notion of ‘understanding’ does not completely dissociate the knower from the object in the familiar fashion of empirical science; contrary to this it considers understanding as a result of a ‘fusion’ between the past and the present.” (Selden, 1997)

Gadamer claims that the past does not get done with, and remains intact and independent besides the present. Anything at time has an effect in the subsequent moment of time. Also, when a thing moves into subsequent time, there occurs a series of changing perceptions. Thus, a text written in past does not get identical response in the subsequent time. The reader in the present can not know an old text in its own term, the term in which it was received in its publication age. Still, mediated engagement is possible. The



mediated instrumentality is the text’s effective history which is still operating in the present. The effective history is still operating in which the reader stands and to which the reader contributes. According to Gadamer, the mediated negotiation between the present reader and the past text is inevitable. Interpretation and understanding of a text has been the central focus point of the philosophical study known as Hermeneutics and much of the Gadamer’s views on interpretations can be described as Gadamerian Hermeneutics. The German philosopher Schleiermacher has also expressed his advocacy towards the necessity of hermeneutics. Iser (2000) defines hermeneutics as a theory of interpretation of texts which tries to elucidate the way the process of understanding accomplishes itself (Iser, 2000). Iser (2000) suggests that hermeneutics describes the stage when interpretation reaches the point of becoming self-reflective and this leads to the process of continual and rapid self-monitoring of its functions and eventually this results in thematizing of what involves during the activity of interpretation itself.” Don Ihde, the American philosopher, opines that hermeneutics can be broadly described as interpretation, and the rules that forms an interpretation” (Ihde, 1986). According to Paul de Man (1982) hermeneutics is a process which analyzes the way meaning is determined. THEORY AND READING:

Theories concerning the understanding and production of meaning of a literary text have developed various critical perspectives. When the question – how does the reading of the literary text take place – is asked, there have been found various answers proposed by various theorists. However, the theoretical assumptions concerning reading and understanding show a trend towards shifting away from the historical situatedness approach of Gadamer. Firstly, there are those who have used the ahistorical philolophical insight of Husserl as their starting point and have considered understanding as autonomous, ahistorical human activity. Husserl himself was of the notion that the structure of consciousness can be studies according to rigorous logic after one has eliminated from one’s mind all common assumptions, leaving only the necessary logical structure available for analysis. Thus the object of understanding can also be analyzed leaving aside the historical context of the reader. Roman Ingarden is one of the theorists who has developed Husserl’s notion and considers ‘reading’ out of the context of history. He considers the literary work as fully dependent on the act of consciousness that functions over it. The literary text, he considers, contains many gaps to be filled up by the reading process. “There are ‘gaps’, ‘blanks’, ‘spots’ of indeterminacy in the text, which, by the process of reading is filled up and is transformed from an artifact into aesthetic object.” Ingarden uses the term ‘concretization’ (Takei, 1984) to designate reading. It refers to the potential getting realized. Although this activity is often unconscious, for Ingarden, it is an essential part of the apprehension of literary work. Without concretization the aesthetic work with its present world would not emerge from the ‘schematic structure’. By schematic structure Ingarden refers to the notion of a skeleton or fixed structure in the text. “Even though concretization can be subject to vast variation corresponding to different reader, there remains the ‘skeleton’ whose reconstruction can provide some sort of guarantee as to what constitutes a valid or invalid reading. A similar approach is taken by Hans Robert Jauss. He says that reading is determined by the “horizon of expectation” (Jauss, 1982), a term by which Jauss designated the shared set of assumptions which can be attributed to a given generation of readers. “He borrows from the philosophy of science (Kuhn, 1962) the term ‘paradigm’ which can be understood as the framework of scientific concepts in vogue and widely accepted in particular period. Ordinary science always undertakes its investigations within the philosophical and theoretical assumptions of a particular paradigm popular in a particular period and this process continues till a new model substitutes the old one and highlights new issues and constructs new philosophical and theoretical beliefs. In the same way reading is also subject to the horizon of expectations of a particular period. According to Jauss (1982) the horizon of expectations is shaped by the reader’s knowledge and experience of the life and customs of the world all of which normally have an effect on every human being and thus on the reader too. The most recent development in the growing emphasis given to reading is associated with the ‘reception theory’, one of the main contributors to which was Jauss himself. However, Jauss’s notion of



horizon of expectation is somewhat related to the notion of history as it associates reader’s perspective with his or life experience. According to Jauss (1982), the societal orientation of literature manifests itself only when the literary experience of every reader becomes part of the horizon of expectation. This kind of approach draws a fine line of distinction between Jauss’s perspective and the approach of Reception theory of Wolfgang Iser. Reception theory examines the reader’s role in literature and thus asks the question --- ‘what is involved in the act of reading?’ Wolfgang Iser of the Constance Scholl of reception theory discusses this question in detail. Iser is concerned primarily with individual text and how readers relate to it. Although he does not exclude social and historical factors, they are subordinate to the detailed considerations of the reading process itself. Thus Iser comes closer to the interpretative orientations of New Criticism. What has interested Iser from the outset is the question of how and under what condition a text has a meaning for a reader. In contrast to the traditional interpretation, which has sought to elucidate a hidden meaning in the text prior to reading, he wants to see meaning as the result of a possible interaction and association between the text and the reader. The text is an “effect to be experienced” through reading, not an “object to be defined.” Ingarden’s conception of the literary work of art thus provides a useful framework for Iser’s investigation. Thus the act of reading as a process becomes important through which meaning is constituted. Like Ingarden, Iser regards the text as a skeleton of “schematized aspects” and considers the text containing potential that must be concretized and actualized through the reading process. For Iser, reading always aims at approximating the “Implied reader’s” (Iser, 1974). By the term ‘Implied reader”, Iser means a textual structure and the real reader has the capacity of actualizing a text’s meaning maximally. The general historical reader has to approximate this ‘Implied reader’. The root of the ‘implied reader’ is there firmly etched in the discourse presented in the text, whom the reader creates for itself and consists of a network of clues, signals which would direct that kind of reading methodology which would actualize its (the text’s) potential maximally. But during reading the readier is not able to grasp all these signals, but some of them and makes an interpretation --- a shape or configuration. Iser claims that reading results in the formation of a shape in itself which is partial to the potential text, which is infinitively richer than any of its realizations. Reading is the discovery of the ‘repertoire’ of the text. By ‘repertoire of the text’, Iser means, the underlying codes which govern the meaning of a text, and which are alien from the codes of customary communication between people in day to day life. In a day-to-day communication situation, the speaker and the recipient share the same conventions and procedures, the latter comprehends the force of the speech act, and hence its meaning from the situational context. Thus the success of a linguistic action of communication is crucially dependent on the resolution of all the contextual indeterminacies with the help of the available conventions and procedures. Literary text also requires a resolution of indeterminacies. But the literary text does not contain a frame of reference like the speech act. Thus a public code like a traffic board is easily understandable as the readers can easily decode the message there. But mere linguistic competence like understanding the traffic board is not sufficient for interpreting a literary text. Jonathon Culler (1975) in his Structuralist Poetics considers that literary competence is also required for decoding a literary text. Culler (1975) considers that this literary competence is a kind of grammar of literature, a formation of the rules and conventions of different genres, and this is acquired in educational institutions. On the other hand, literary texts contain idiosyncratic private codes. The reading process must first discover the codes underlying the text and this is the first step towards decoding the meaning following those codes. Here Iser comes closer to Ingarden. Iser’s concept of ‘repertoire’ of the text can be related to a similar emphasis given to underlying codes and conventions in Structuralism. Stanley Fish, the American critic, however does not consider reading as a matter of discovering what the text means, but a process of experiencing what it does to the reader (Fish, 1970). For him there are not textual signals outside of conventions that an interpretative community has already agreed upon. He insists that there is nothing “in the work itself”, awaiting its release by the reader’s interpretation. THE EMERGENCE OF THE ACTIVE READER:

Reading always involves reader’s imagination. It is a special experience of linearity, and it is not an



unproblematic fluent movement through the linearity. It involves the act of continuous modification of our experience as we read word after word, sentence after sentence. When we read a text, we continuously evaluate and perceive events with regard to anticipation and retrospection, anticipation of what may come next and retrospection of what we have already experienced. An unexpected occurrence will cause us to reformulate our expectations in accordance with this event and to reinterpret the significance we have attributed to what has already occurred. Thus reading, in Iser’s sense, involves ‘transformed memories’ and ‘modified expectations’ of the reader and in this sense the reader becomes the most powerful agent in the process of interpreting a text. Thus the action of reading and interpretation can be characterized as a kind of ‘kaleidoscope of perspective’ which consists of a tendency for the search of consistency. “While expectations may be continually modified, and images continually expanded, the reader strives, even if unconsciously, to bring together everything together in a consistent whole” (Iser, 1972). A text contains various spots which clamour to be connected into a gestalt. In confronting the various signs or schemata of a text, readers try to establish connections between them and lend coherence to their activity. Iser assumes that readers always form a gestalt in the process of participating in the meaning production (Iser, 1972). If something occurs that is at odds with an imagined gestalt, then the reader endeavours to make things consistent again through a series of revisions. Iser talks about two functions involved in this process of ‘consistency building.” The first one is “illusion making and illusion breaking.”. Without the formation of illusions, the unfamiliar world of text would remain unfamiliar. But through the illusions formed by the reader textual experience becomes accessible and comprehensible for the reader.” The second function is “oscillation between involvement and observation.” During the process of illusion building the reader comes across various ‘alien associations’ which cannot be fit into the already formed illusions. Thus the reading process constantly involves reshaping of the formed illusion in view of the alien associations. The reader is involved in illusion making, at the same time the reader observes whether this is consistent with the ‘new experiences’. This makes reading a ‘living event’ and the reader an active agent. CONCLUSION:

The history of literary comprehension and interpretation has put great focus on the role played by the author or the text in producing meaning. But recent studies have placed the reader on the center stage in the process of understanding and interpretation of a literary text. The discussion presented above shows how the reader can be most important stakeholder in the process of actualizing the potential of a literary text. At the same time, being the most dominant player in the process of decoding a literary text, the reader is also blessed by the knowledge of truth that a text carries along with it. Iser’s most suggestive comments on reading concerns the effect on the subject. When we appropriate an alien experience foregrounded in the text, we simultaneously background our own previous experiences. Thus during reading we confront ‘alien meanings’ which are part of our hitherto unrecognized consciousness. Understood in this way, reading really affects a ‘heightening of self-awareness which develops through the reading process” (Iser, 1972). The incorporation of the unfamiliar experience in the reader helps the reader to see the world from an alien perspective. Thus reading literature becomes a tool for expansion of identity. It is this kind of therapeutic account of reading what Aristotle meant when he talked about the cathartic effect on the audience of tragedy --- “through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions” (Lucas, 1968). Thus, it seems that the reader is not totally ignored during centuries of theory. When Plato graciously but firmly excluded poets from his ideal Republic, it was because of the fear of the morally deleterious effect of poetry on the audience. Horace’s doctrine that the aim of poetry should be ‘to teach and delight’ (Tate, 1928) also takes care of the reader. It is the didactic moralistic concern of the Victorians for the reader that produced the art-for-art-sake reaction. Yet throughout all these years the reader has never been given the center of the stage. The reader is usually cast as a passive recipient, who, only in recent times has surfaced as the master of the reading process and its consequences.



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Theory. Essex: Prentice Hall. [22] Swayne. B. L. (2012) Hans-Georg Gadamer. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. [23] Takei, Y. (1984). The Literary Work and Its Concretization in Roman Ingarden’s Aesthetics. In

A. T. Tymieniecka (Ed.), Analecta Husserliana, 17, 285-307. [24] Tate, J. (1928). Horace and the moral function of poetry. Classical Quarterly: 65-72. [25] Wimsatt, W. K. & Beardsley, M. C. (1954). The Verbal Icon. Lexington: University of Kentucky.

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NEEDS AND PROBLEMS OF THE SECOND YEAR

ACCOUNTANCY STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE OF

BUSINESS AND ENTREPRENEURIAL TECHNOLOGY

RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Amelia M. Arganda,

Faculty/Dean, College of Business and Entrepreneurial Technology Rizal Technological University, Boni Avenue, Mandaluyog City, Philippines.

Rodolfo L.Ducut,

Faculty/Dept. Head, College of Business and Entrepreneurial Technology

Rizal Technological University, Boni Avenue, Mandaluyong City, Philippines.

Ester C. Andal,


Rizal Technological University, Boni Ave., Mandaluyong City, Philippines.

ABSTRACT

In the College of Business and Entrepreneurial Technology of the Rizal Technological University, so many student applicants would like to take the Accountancy course. Of those who were given the chance, however, only about forty percent (40%) were able to qualify, reached the fifth level, and allowed to take the Certified Public Accountant Examinations, At the start, that is, during their first and second year, these students have good academic performance. Along the way, however, they failed to make it due to some problems they met and affected their studies. It is in this regard that this study was undertaken. It aimed to identify the problems met by the students which affect their studies and tried to identify the measures which may solve or minimize the problems and eventually helping them to graduate with the course Bachelor of Science in Accountancy, take the CPA Board Examinations and become Certified Public Accountant. The study which made use of the descriptive research method is very significant to the students, Rizal Technological University Administration, College of Business and Entrepreneurial Technology Professors, parents as well as to the community. It was undertaken in both Mandaluyong City and Pasig City campuses. The subjects of the study were the second year accountancy students majority of whom are female, 17 to 18 years of age with family income of P10, 000 and below per month and most of the respondents belonged to family of four (4) to six (6) members. Keywords: Accounting; Accounting Profession; Accounting Career, Performance.



INTRODUCTION:

The College of Business and Entrepreneurial Technology has its Accountancy Program in both Pasig and Boni campuses. Few years back, however, the accountancy program in Pasig campus was phased down due to lack of facilities. It was accepting students up to the 1st year only, that is, Accounting 1 & 2 and Accounting 3 & 4. After which, students whose grades passed were allowed to take the qualifying examinations for Accountancy proper. Those who did not qualify were advised to transfer to another business course of their next choice. Those who qualified were transferred to Boni Campus to continue their course, But just the same in both campuses not all BSA students who were accepted in the program survived the course. For each level, qualifying examinations were given, very few have passed and reached the next level. Of those who were given the chance to take the course, only about forty percent (40%) reached the fifth year level and allowed to take the CPA Board Examinations. This condition which is always met by the Accountancy Department prompted the researchers to study the needs and problems of the second year accountancy students which somehow affect their studies. By identifying the problems, the school, parents, and the student themselves, can take measures to lessen the problems. Minimizing the problems may result to a better number of Accountancy students who could reach the fifth year level and eventually pass the CPA Board Examinations. This study aims to find out the needs and problems encountered by the second year accountancy students of the College of Business and Entrepreneurial Technology. Specifically, answers to the following questions will be sought: 1. What are the needs/problems encountered by the second year accountancy students in terms of:

1.1 Academic 1.2 Domestic 1.3 1.3 Community

2. What maybe the causes of those problems encountered by the students? 3. What measures could be undertaken to minimize, if not totally eradicate, the problems encountered? MATERIALS AND METHODS:

This research made use of the descriptive research method. Descriptive research is applicable for this study because there is already an existing situation. The study will only verify or confirm the existence of the condition and their effects to the academic performance of the second year accountancy students of the College of Business and Entrepreneurial Technology. The study was conducted at Rizal Technological University, College of Business and Entrepreneurial Technology in Boni and Pasig Campuses. The study was undertaken from the first semester of the second year of the accountancy program up to the second semester of the same program. The study made use of the universal population since there are only 300 second year accountancy students and all of them were accessible for survey and interview done by the researchers. The subjects of the study are the second year accountancy students of the College of Business and Entrepreneurial Technology of Rizal Technological University, 192 students from Boni Campus and 92 students from Pasig Campus. This research made use of a researcher-made survey questionnaire which consists of three parts: first part is the letter addressed to the second year Accountancy students and duly signed by the researchers. The letter explains the purpose of the study; second part consists of items which will describe the respondents; and the third part consists of questions which will lead the researchers to answer the questions contained in the statement of the problem in Chapter I of this study. An interview guide was also used by the researchers as supplement to clarify some items of the survey. The mortality rate of Accountancy students who failed to make it to the BS Accountancy program and eventually to the CPA Board Examination prompted the researchers to work on their study. Survey questionnaires were prepared and were distributed to the Accounting Faculty members who are handling the second year Accountancy students. Said faculty members administered the survey



questionnaires to their respective classes and on the same period, the answered/ filled up questionnaires were retrieved. The answers were tallied, interpreted, and presented in tabular forms. The study made use of the frequency and percentage where:

P = ୬ x 100

P = Percentage F = Number of responses N = Total number of respondents

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

Table I presents the percentage distribution respondents according to Field of Specialization.

Table I: Percentage of Distribution of Respondents According to Field of Specialization

Field of Specialization Boni Campus Pasig Campus Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Bachelor of Science in Accountancy 147 76.56 30 32.6

Bachelor of Science in Accounting Technology 45 23.44 62 67.4

Total 192 100.00 92 100.00 Based on the above table, there are more BS Accountancy students in Boni Campus with a frequency of 147 or 76.56% compared to Pasig Campus with 30 or 32.6%; while Pasig Campus has more BS in Accounting Technology students with 62 or 67.4% compared with 45 or 23.44% in Boni Campus.

Table II presents the percentage distribution of respondents according to age group.

Table II: Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Age Group

Age Group Boni Campus Pasig Campus Frequency Percentage Rank Frequency Percentage Rank

16 years old and below 5 2.60 4 1 1.08 3

17 to 18 years old 165 85.94 1 75 81.52 1

19 to 20 years old 14 7.29 2 8 8.70 2.5

21 years old and above 8 4.17 3 8 8.70 2.5

TOTAL 192 100.00 92 100.00

Table II shows that both campuses have the same trends of students’ age group. Majority of the students in both campuses are in the age group of 17 to 18 years old with 165 or 85.94% in Boni Campus and 75 or 81.52% in Pasig Campus. Fourteen (14) or 7.29% are in the age group of 19 to 20 years old in Boni Campus and 8 or 8.7% in Pasig Campus; eight (8) or 4.17% in both campus are in the age group of 21 years old and above; meanwhile only 5 or 2.6% and 1 or 1.08% are in the age group of 16 years old and below in Boni and Pasig Campuses, respectively. Table III presents the percentage distribution or respondents according to gender.



Table III: Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Gender

Gender Boni Campus Pasig Campus

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Male 50 26.04 19 20.65

Female 142 73.96 73 79.35 Total 192 100.00 92 100.00

As shown in Table III, both campuses are dominated by female Accountancy students with 142 or 73.96% in Boni Campus and 73 or 79.35% in Pasig Campus. Male respondents are 50 or 26.04% and 19 or 20.65% in Boni and Pasig, respectively. Table IV presents the family income per month of the respondents.

Table IV: Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Family Income per Month

Family Income Boni Campus Pasig Campus Frequency Percentage Rank Frequency Percentage Rank

P 10,000 and below 73 38.02 1 56 60.87 1 P 10,001 to P 20, 000 65 33.85 2 25 27.17 2 P 20,001 to P 30,000 34 17.71 3 8 8.70 3 P 30,001 to P 40, 000 8 4.17 4.5 2 2.17 4 P 40,001 to P 50,000 8 4.17 4.5 1 1.09 5 P 50,001 and above 4 2.06 6 - -

Total 192 100.00 92 100.00

Table IV shows that majority of the Accountancy students families are earning P10, 000 and below with 73 or 38.02% in Boni Campus and 56 or 60.87% in Pasig Campus ; 65 or 33.85% in Boni Campus and 25 or 27.17% in Pasig Campus are earning P10,001 to P20,000; 34 or 17.71% and 8 or 8.7% in Boni and Pasig, respectively are earning P20,001 to P30,000 per month; 8 or 4.17% and 2 or 2.17% in Boni Campus and Pasig Campus, respectively are earning P30,001 to P40,000 per month; there are 8 or 4.17% in Boni Campus who are earning P40,001 to P50,000 per month and only 1 or 1.09% in Pasig Campus is earning such amount; only 4 or 2.08% in Boni Campus are earning P50,001 and above per month. No respondent in Pasig Campus is earning such amount. Based on the above table, majority of the student-respondent families are minimum-wage earners or below. Table V presents the percentage distribution of respondents according to number of family members.

Table V: Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Number of Family Members

Number of Family Member

Boni Campus Pasig Campus Frequency Percentage Rank Frequency Percentage Rank

3 or less 12 6.25 3 12 13.04 3 4 to 6 128 66.67 1 59 64.13 1 7 to 10 51 26.56 2 21 22.83 2

11 or more 1 0.52 4 - - Total 192 100.00 92 100.00

Both campuses have the same trend of family members as shown in Table V. Most families have 4 to 6 family members with 128 or 66.67% respondents in Boni Campus and 59 or 64.13% respondents in Pasig Campus; 51 or 26.56% families in Boni Campus and 21 or 22.83% families in Pasig Campus have 7 to 10 family members; only 12 or 13.04% in both campuses have 3 or less family members and 1 or 0.52% in Boni Campus has 11 or more family members.



Table VI presents the percentage distribution of respondents according to mode of living.

Table VI: Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Mode of Living

Living with Boni Campus Pasig Campus

Frequency Percentage Rank Frequency Percentage Rank parents 135 70.31 1 59 64.13 1 relatives 37 19.27 2 27 29.37 2 friends - - 4 1 1.09 4.5

alone in boarding house 3 1.56 6 - -

guardian 1 0.52 3 1 1.09 4.5

sister/brother with family 14 7.30 6 - -

husband 1 0.52 6 - - brother and girlfriend’s family 1 0.52 6 -

brother and employer - - - 1 1.09 4.5 religious group - - - 1 1.09 4.5 husband’s family - - - 1 1.09 - co-worker - - - 1 1.09 -

Total 192 100.00 92 100.00 Table VI shows that most Accountancy Students in both campuses are living with their parents with 135 or 70.31% in Boni Campus and 59 or 64.13 in Pasig Campus; living with their relatives are 37 or 19.27% and 27 or 29.34% in Boni and Pasig, respectively; from Boni Campus , there are 3 or 1.56% who are living alone in the boarding house; 14 or 7.3% who are living with their brother or sister with family; 1 or 0.52% is living with guardian; 1 or 0.52% with husband; and 1 or 0.52% is living with the family of her brother’s girlfriend. From Pasig Campus, 1 or 1.09% is living with friends; 1 or 1.09% is living with guardian; 1 or 1.09% is living with brother’s employer; 1 or 1.09% is living with religious group; 1 or 1.09 is living with in-laws; and 1 or 1.09% is living with co-worker. The mode of living was included because there are times that academic performance of student is significantly affected by this factor. Table VII presents the percentage distribution of respondents according to location or residence. The location or residence, which was categorized into urban and rural, was included because it may have significant effect on the academic performance of the student.

Table VII: Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Location or Residence

Location of Residence

Boni Campus Pasig Campus Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Urban 164 85.42 70 76.09 Rural 28 14.58 22 23.91 Total 192 100.00 92 100.00

Table VII shows that most students in both campuses are living in the urban areas with 164 or 85.42% in Boni and 70 or 76.09% in Pasig. Minority of 27 or 14.58% in Boni campus and 22 or 23.91% in Pasig campus are living in the rural areas, and these are the students who are coming from the towns in Rizal. FINDINGS:

Based on the data gathered, interpreted and presented in tabular forms, the following have found out: Problems Encountered by the Respondents:



1. Difficulty to understand the problems/exercises is rank 1 with 112 or 58.33% responses in Boni Campus and 53 or 57.6% responses inPasig Campus.

2. Lack of effective study habits is rank 2 in Boni Campus with 100 or 52.08% Responses and rank 3.5 in Pasig Campus with 33 or 35.87% responses.

3. Difficulty to express oneself orally is the rank 3 in Boni Campus with 76 or 44.56% responses and rank 2 in Pasig Campus with 41 or 44.56% responses.

4. Lack of time to study is rank 4 in Boni Campus with 61 or 31.77% Responses and rank 3.5 in Pasig Campus with 3.3 or 35.87% responses.

Domestic Problems:

1. Increased television viewing, social networking, electronic games, is Rank number 1 among the domestic problems encountered in both Campuses with 120 or 62.5% responses in Boni Campus and 48 or 52.17% responses in Pasig campus.

2. Lack of financial resources is rank number 2 among the domestic problems encountered in both campuses with 73 or 38.02% responses in Boni campus and 46 or 50% responses in Pasig campus.

3. Emotional problems experienced by the respondents is rank number 3 in Boni campus with 31 or 16.14% and rank number 4 in Pasig campus with 22 or 23.91% responses.

4. Lack of adequate family support and supervision is rank number 4 among the domestic problems encountered in Boni campus with 20 or 10.42% responses and rank number 3 in Pasig campus with 25 or 27.17% responses.

Problems Encountered in the Community:

1. Social distractions is the rank number 1 among the problems encountered in the community by the respondents in both campuses with 136 or 70.83% responses in Boni campus and 70 or 76.09% responses in Pasig campus.

2. Too many community services/commitment is rank number 2 in both campuses wit 32 or 16.67% responses in Boni campus and 19 or 20.65% responses in Pasig campus.

3. Heavy traffic is rank number 3 in Boni campus with 10 or 5.2% responses.

Causes of the Problem: Causes of Academic Problems:

1. Instructor’s lectures were not clearly delivered/imparted is rank number 1 among the causes of academic problems in both campuses and 66 or 71.74% in Pasig campus.

2. Incomprehensible teaching technique is rank number 2 with 85 or 44.27% responses in Boni campus and 38 or 41.3% responses in Pasig campus.

3. No systematic plan for study is rank number 3 with 70 or 36.46% responses in Boni campus and 25 or 27.17 responses in Pasig campus.

4. Poor in communication skills is rank number 4 in Boni campus with 40 or 20.83% responses and rank 4.5 in Pasig campus with 21 or 22.83% responses.

5. Lack of computer units compared to number of students is rank number 5 in Boni campus with 32 or 16.67% responses and rank number 4.5 in Pasig campus with 21 or 22.83% responses.

Causes of Domestic Problems:

1. Family income is to low compared to the number of family members is rank number 1 with 76 or 39.58% responses in Boni campus and 45 or 48.91% responses in Pasig campus.

2. Experience emotional difficulties due to loss, separation, etc. is rank number 2 with 38 or 19.79% responses in Boni campus and 27 or 29.355 responses in Pasig campus.

3. Living separately from the family is rank number 3 with 37 or 19.27% responses in Boni campus and 17 or 18.48% responses in Pasig campus.



Causes of Problem met in the Community:

1. Living in heavy populated, noise-polluted community is rank number 1 with 80 or 41.67% responses in Boni campus and 51 or 55.43% responses in Pasig campus.

2. Committed to many community/social functions is rank number 2 with 42 or 21.88% responses in Boni campus and 24 or 26.09% responses in Pasig campus.

3. Living in the squatters’ area is rank number 3 in Boni campus with 10 or 5.21% responses. 4. Giving priority to friends and friends activities is rank number 3 in Pasig campus with 5 or 5.43%

responses and rank number 4 in Boni campus with 8 or 4.17% responses.

Measures to minimize the problems:

1. Form an effective study habit is rank number 1 in Boni campus with 146 or 76.04% responses and rank number 4 in Pasig campus with 48 or 52.17% responses.

2. Faculty members have to improve their teaching strategies is rank number 2 in Boni campus with 135 or 70.31% responses and rank number 1 in Pasig campus with 67 or 72.83 responses.

3. Learn how to manage time into school work, job, household work, etc. is rank number 3 in Boni campus and rank number 2.5 in Pasig campus.

4. Have interest in what you are doing is rank number 4 in Boni campus with 109 or 56.77% responses and rank number 2.5 in Pasig campus with 50 or 54.35% responses.

CONCLUSIONS:

1. Second year accountancy students find difficulty to understand the problems and exercises given by their Professors. They also find difficulty to express themselves in oral English and they lack effective study habits. As to domestic problems, most of the second year accountancy students are indulged in television viewing and social networking. Some do not finish their course due to lack of financial resources and some are experiencing emotional problems which greatly affect their studies. They also met some social distractions in the community such as overpopulated and noisy community which affect their concentration in their studies.

2. Instructor’s lectures were not clearly delivered or imparted and their incomprehensible teaching techniques are some causes of the academic problems encountered by the second year accountancy students. Coupled with this, the students do not have systematic plan for study and are poor in communication skills before their entry in the University. Some students could no longer continue their studies due to lack of financial resources because the family income is too low compared to the number of family members. Loss or separation from a loved one also affects the students’ academic performance.

3. Because of those problems, the students have difficulty catching up with the lessons, thus the hardship of maintaining good grades both in major and minor subjects, and the worse is disqualification in the BSA program.

4. Some measures which the students have selected and which are applicable in their situations are forming effective study habits and proper time management. Coupled with this, faculty members have to improve teaching strategies.

5. With the above findings and conclusions, the researchers, therefore conclude to accept the hypothesis since there is not much difference in the needs and problems encountered by the second year accountancy students in the College of Business and Entrepreneurial Technology Boni and Pasig campus.

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Based on the findings and conclusions, the following recommendations are hereby given:



1. Students have to be given series of orientations regarding proper time management and effective study habits to enable them to handle their studies effectively while doing other chores.

2. The College has to offer English Zero (0) to train College entrants on oral and written English communication before the start of formal classes.

3. Students have to inculcate self-discipline and have to give more time on their studies over watching television or social networking.

4. Scholarship programs of the University have to be enhanced to accommodate more financially distress students.

5. The administration has to improve the College Reading Center to making it more spacious accommodate more students especially those who could not concentrate in their own homes due to noise pollution within the vicinity.

6. Faculty members have to evaluate and improve teaching techniques and may seek the student’s suggestions to enable the latter to cope and understand the lessons.

7. The administration has to provide additional computer units for the use of accountancy students. REFERENCES:

[1] AECC. (1990). Objectives of education for accountants: Position Statement No. One. Issues in Accounting Education, 5(Fall), 307-312.

[2] A. McCroskey, J. C. (1982). Apprehension on College Student Retention and Success. Communication Quarterly, Vol. 37, No.2, Spring 1989, Pages 100-107

[3] Cheng, K.W. (2002), “Will Enron deter students from majoring in accounting?”, The CPA Journal, 72(12), pp. 13-15.

[4] Cheng, K. W. (2007). The curriculum design in universities from the perspective of providers in accounting education. Education, 127(4), 581-590.

[5] Cohen, J. and Hanno, D.M. (1993), “An analysis of underlying constructs affecting the choice of accounting as a major”, Issues in Accounting Education, 8(2), pp. 219-238.

[6] Fortin and Amernic, (1994). The Journal of Applied Business Research, July/August 2009 Volume 25, Number 4.

[7] Geiger, M. A. and S. M. Ogilby (2000). “The First Course in Accounting: Student's Perceptions and their Effect on the Decision to Major in Accounting.” Journal of Accounting Education 18: 63-78.

[8] Mauldin, S., Crain, J.L. & Mounce, P.H. (2000). The accounting principles instructor's influence on student's decision to major in accounting. Journal of Education for Business,75(3), 142-148.

[9] Nikolai, (1996). Educational Research on Improving Thinking and Communication Skills of Accounting Students, Journal of Accounting Education, Summer, 1996.

[10] Paolillo, J. & Estes, R. (1982).An empirical analysis of career choice factors among accountants, attorneys, engineers and physicians. The Accounting Review,62(30)785-793.

[11] Pimpa, N. (2007). The influence of normative referents on Thai students’ choice of international education [online] Monash Centre for Research in International Education. http://www.aare.edu.au/01pap/pim01016.htm

[12] Saemann, G. P & Crooker, K.J. (1999). Student perceptions of the profession and its effect on decisions to major in accounting. Journal of Accounting Education, 17, 1-22

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SQUARE DANCE AND INTERCULTURAL ADAPTATION-

A CASE STUDY OF ONE CHINESE DANCING DAMA

ARRESTED IN NEW YORK

Xiaochi ZHANG,

School of Foreign Languages, China West Normal University,

Sichuan, P. R. China.

ABSTRACT

Square dance is an art form and can represent vivid Chinese cultural features. The square dance the Chinese dama practice daily is easier to make them happier and happier when they tap to the tune in the public or in the parks. However, the author takes a case which involved one Chinese dama who was arrested for square dance in New York as an example and tries to analyze this accident from a perspective of intercultural adaptation. Also, the author deeply elaborates the features of Chinese culture and compares the Sino – American cultural differences in how person use a public space and what is acceptable behavior and what is not acceptable behavior, and offers some suggestions about how to adapt to a new culture in order to avoid unexpected and unpleasant accident in the intercultural adaptation. Keywords: square dance, art, Chinese dama, cultural customs, cultural difference,

intercultural adaptation.



INTRODUCTION:

With the successful development of China‘s reform, the Chinese people are getting much richer and many Chinese people have enough money to support their children to study abroad. In recent years, more and more Chinese students have gone to the college and universities in the United States of America. Meanwhile, the students parents often visit their sons and daughters. Especially, some students’ mothers are living together with their children to study everywhere in the United States. The typical Chinese lady – middle – aged and middle – class has of late been making waves in world financial markets. The group is called Chinese dama and for the lack of an accurate English equivalent even the mainstream Western press has been using the easily pronounceable dama. Dama literally means “big mama,” but one should refrain from adding an African – American accent to it. It is an affectionate term in the vein of “aunty”, which can be addressed to any middle – aged woman whether you are related to her or not. At the same time, Chinese dama also brought the Chinese square dance of their daily life’s components into the United States. The square dance is the dance at the square the Chinese dama practice daily is easier than the original ones, but it’s the same free – spirited and engaging dance that just makes dama happier and happier when you tap to the tune. The square dance is a traditional Chinese dance across the country in the morning and early evening in warm weather but it is not always welcome due to its high and strong volume. Hence, the author will take a case which involved one Chinese dama who was arrested for square dance in New York as an example and try to analyze this accident from an intercultural adaptation perspective. Further, the author will deeply elaborates the features of Chinese Culture and discuss the Sino – American cultural differences in how person use a public space and what is acceptable behavior and what is not acceptable behavior, and offer some suggestions about how to adapt to a new culture, so as to improve the people’s intercultural communication awareness and intercultural communication competence in an intercultural adaptation, and to make the people smoothly communicate with other people from different cultures and to avoid unexpected and unpleasant accident in the intercultural adaptation. A CASE:

New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York metropolitan area, one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. And Sunset Park, Brooklyn, is now New York’ largest Chinatown and has had quickly increase of Chinese residents in recent years. In June, 2013, a group of Chinese dama had square dance at Sunset Park, Brooklyn. The square dance group made the sound volume louder so that the residents nearby complained about the square dance. The square dance is fun and easy for the dancers themselves. To some extent, the primary function of square dance is socializing. The retired population including “dama” needs a public place to interact with one another and establish a sense of belonging in their minds. And they would enjoy dancing in the public or in the park. The square dance is not only a good physical exercise but also an activity of mental agility. People become very invested in it in China. The volume of the dancing music, which is usually loud and has now set off a intercultural skirmish. Parks in China are generally located far away from residential areas. This kind of square dance music is by far not the most annoying. But for some in Sunset Park, the music accompanying those doing the dance is nothing less than noise – obnoxious and objectionable noise. And it has caused confrontations between dancers and police. (Berg, 2013) When the policemen were called in response to multiple noise complaints, they brought a pair of handcuffs and arrested the square dance group leader, a 60 – year – old woman known by the surname Wang who was found guilty of making excessive noise at the park in court. However, Dama Wang said to the reporters that she could not understand why she was arrested and she believed the police were guilty of ethnic discrimination. In New York, it has been the law since July 2008 that sources of all noises beyond 45 decibels must be suspended. But in China, there is no way to transplant this efficient means of noise control.. This might lock up millions of the square dancing dama. After the news about this accident was reported, many Chinese people were surprised at it. Some



thought that square dance has swept the entire nation in China and become the most fashionable form of physical exercise and has been popular among Chinese dama, who gather together at parks or at some public places punctually every day, even in chilly northern winter. The Chinese dama’s square dance was banned and one of the square dance group leader was arrested by the American police. It is a worthwhile our further analysis and discussion as follows. ANALYSIS:

As Edward T. Hall points out, “culture hides much more than it reveals, and strangely enough, what it hides, it hides most effectively from its own participants.” And he also says that “culture controls behavior in deep and persisting ways, many of which are outside of awareness and therefore beyond conscious control of the individual.” (Hall, 1959) As humans, we learn some of the ways of our culture by being taught by our parents or teachers. We learn more of the ways of our culture by growing up in it. We see how other people in our culture do things, and we do them the same way. We even learn how ot to think and feel in this way. Since we learn the ways of taking care our basic needs in the cultural group in which we grow up, our own culture seems very natural to us. We feel in our hearts that the way that we do things is the only righty way to do them. Other people’s cultures often make us laugh or feel disgusted or shocked. (Xu，2012） However, we should remember that most of the time, the different ways that are the customs of different cultures are neither right not wrong. It is simply that different people do the same things in different manners. Thus, we should know some things about characteristics of Chinese cultures. CHARACTERISTICS OF CHINESE CULTURE:

Chinese culture can be defined as a cultural system rich in distinct national style which took shape within the terrain of China. The culture includes the spiritual culture and behavioral culture as well as their materialized presentations. It is these cultural forms that signify the fundamental features of the Chinese culture. It belongs to the historical category, having undergone 5,000 – year’s development before it turns into today’s splendid sight, both extensive and profound. To some extent, the Chinese culture indicates the Chinese tradition. After a long process of relatively independent development followed by the collision and exchange afterwards between China and foreign countries, the Chinese culture assumed unique characteristics, became an outstanding member in the brilliant global family of national cultures, and grew to be a main representative of Oriental national cultures (Huan, 2011). Music is one part of cultural components. The tradition of Chinese music dates back to remote antiquity. Governing the country and nourishing the mind through music are two of the main functions of this tradition. According to ancient Chinese culture, rituals provided the norms of conduct for people. The goal was to maintain social order. Music was for the mind’s cultivation and expression. Its purpose was to enhance people’s outlook on life and imbue them with energy and creativity, such that they could enjoy a more harmonious and happier spiritual life. Individual contentment would then lead to social harmony, as well as to a more harmonious relationship between people and nature. The highest level of ancient Chinese music was to represent spiritual harmony with nature. Hence, “Music brings harmony” is an important concept that has influenced Chinese culture for several thousand years. It stresses harmony as the culture’s core value. The tradition guiding rituals and music is that of a harmonious world order.” (Ye and Zhu, 2008) Generally speaking, square dance has a very strong cultural tie with Chinese music, and dates back to the traditional Chinese folk dance, it is a natural invention. The square dances began as a ceremony related to the group’s belief, cultural lore, and are part of educating the group on manners and behavior. These functions of the dance waken with urbanization, but the dances remain a very important part of Chinese culture. China is one of the large countries in the world, and has fifty – six ethnic groups with different cultural traditions including different music and dances. Also, square dance of each ethnic group has a little difference, but is a mixture of dancing styles and folk themes. It is engaging, entertaining and distinctly



characteristic of its own cultural upbringing. Each square dance is representative of each ethnic group’s cultural identity. It is very easy for Chinese to judge the dances’ hometown from their different dancing styles. Moreover, the square dance is fun and easy for the dancers themselves. People become very invested in it. And most importantly, the dance brings the dancers knowledge of themselves. The moves are the ritual that gives them Chinese the sense of order and human relations. Nowadays, the square dance is very popular for the Chinese dama’ self – entertainment, especially in the depth of the Chinese dama hearts they wanted to impart their joy to those around them. Not in a thousand years did it occur to them to disturb the peace of the environment. However, China does not have lots of facilities for the retired including dama. Many of the retired including dama have to dance in the public square or in the parks, so as to show off their talents and joy in front of a live audience. DISCUSSION:

In intercultural interactions, each participant is required to acquire the sociocultural skills necessary to interpret the codes and sets of social and cultural rules in friendship building (Collier, 1996), meet a set of expectations about how people should behave appropriately in a particular social situation (Callan, Gallois & Noller, 1986; Lewthwaite, 1996), and find a match between cultural identities and “develop the knowledge and ability to track and sometimes adapt to their partner’s cultural competence, participants can achieve a mutually satisfying relationship and at the same time maintain each individual’s cultural identities (Collier, 2002). Many of the problems in intercultural relationships can be traced to the participants’ lack of necessary sociocultrual skills and knowledge (Leong &Chou, 2002). At the same time, Ellingsworth assumes that all communication involves some degree of cultural variability. He, therefore, argues that explaining intercultural communication needs to start from interpersonal communication and cultural factors need to be incorporated. Elllingsworth’s theory is designed to explain how communicators adapt to each other in “.purpose – related encounters.” Therefore, from the above the case, the analysis and some scholars’ insights, we may easily find that if anyone includes immigrants, businessmen, students, tourists, or even Chinese dama enter a strange cultural region, he or she should have intercultural knowledge and backgrounds. First of all, preparing for a trip abroad is one concrete thing anyone can do to increase the chances of adapting to the new culture successfully. Good preparation will not prevent culture shock, but it can help to make it less severe. Taking the time to learn about the new culture helps the newcomer to anticipate what the new experience will be like, knowing about the culture, including history, geography, social conditions, arts and customs, is one way to increase cultural awareness and to gain an intellectual appreciation for it. (avis, 2010) In addition, the Chinese dama including other newcomers, or sojourners should adjust their behaviors to the cultural framework of the host culture. For example, Chinese dama should know, generally speaking, parks in China are generally located far away from residential areas. If a residential building can hear the music, there are probably all kinds of noises that either down out the music or blur it into the ambience. In China, this kind of dance music is by far not the most annoying. But not in New York, where one culture’s mellifluence could be another’s stridency, Chinese music, especially that is used for the square dance, does not easily merge into the background. It catches attention simply by its exoticism. Under the influence of the high volume from dancing music, it may arouse unpleasant response and uncomfortable feeling from the neighbors near the park square, who do not enjoy the Chinese music and share this kind of dancing culture in the public. Although the Chinese dama claimed the square dance was for self – entertainment and wanted to impart their joy to those around their neighborhood in the depth of their hearts, they unfortunely felt unexpected and unappreciated for their efforts to entertain the neighborhood. The old saying, “ When in Rome, do as the Romans do ” which clearly places the responsibility for change on the newcomer, offers a great deal of wisdom, but it cannot be followed in all circumstances. In most cases, behaviors that conform to cultural expectations show respect for the other culture and its



ways. (Xu, 2012). At last, anyone should not only conformity with common cultural customs and practices from the host culture but also obey the social laws and regulations in the host country. For instance, in New York, it has been the law since July 2008 that the sources of all noises beyond 45 decibels must be suspended. Naturally, it is why the policemen arrested the Chinese dama and stopped dancing in the Sunset Park, Brooklyn of New York. The law is a system of rules which a society or government develops over time in order to deal with business, agreements, social relationships, and crimes such as theft, murder, or violence. The two main branches of the law in most countries are the criminal law and the civil law. The former deals with wrongs affecting the community for which the State may prosecute in the criminal courts, which the latter is about deciding disputes between two parties, including individuals, administrative authorities, and commercial organizations. (Wang, 2008) In sum, law is a rule which is supported by the power of government and which controls the behavior of members of a society. The citizens of any country are supposed to have equal rights. They should all be equal in the eyes of the law. They also have their duties and obligations to abide by the laws. They should perform their civic duties in the same spirit that they accept their lawful rights in their own country or host country. To some extent, law is a representative of one country ‘s cultural and social l values. So, people who settle there, including Chinese dama should seriously obey the local cultural customs, and the law, and learn how to apply for the free use of community centers where rooms are sound – proof and air – conditioned. In this way, the Chinese dama may avoid to disturb their neighborhood while dancing. CONCLUSION:

Square dance is an art form, can represents vivid Chinese various cultural features. Different people dance with different performing styles. The square dance the Chinese dama practice daily is easier than the original ones, but it’s the same free – spirited and engaging dance that just make Chinese dama happier and happier when they tap to the tune. The Chinese dama really enjoy square dancing in the morning and early evening in the public and in the parks.. However, the square dance is not always welcome by the local people and will be forbidden by the police in New York, because of different cultural values and customs, even the laws, especially a big difference between American and Chinese cultures. Therefore, any Chinese dama including sojourners should learn some basic knowledge about intercultural adaptation which involves a choice of how or what to adapt to or change to fit into the American culture. And then the Chinese dama should adjust their behaviors to the cultural framework of the host culture. Finally the Chinese dama should obey the law or regulations from the United States of America. In this way, the square dance the Chinese dama perform would be eligible for the requirement from both the different cultures and laws. And the Chinese square dance would be welcome by the different people with different cultural backgrounds. Meanwhile, the Chinese dama would really be melted into a new culture, smoothly communicate with the Americans through the square dance, and then become a cultural mission between China and America. REFERENCES:

[1] Berg, Cardine. (2013). Dancing in Brookly leads to noise complaints. China Daily. Aug. 14, 2013. [2] Hall, E.T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Double day &Co. [3] Xu, Lisheng. (2012). Intercultural Communication in English (Revised Edition). Shanghai:

Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 43. [4] Wang, Enming. (2013). A Course of the Fundamentals of British and American Culture.

Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 120. [5] Jin, Li. (2011). Myths in American Culture. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 58. [6] Huan, Weiwei. (2011). An Introduction to Chinese Culture. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 12.



[7] Ye, Lang and Zhou, Liangzhi. (2008). Insights into Chinese Culture. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 87,89.

[8] Collier, M.J. （ 1996 ） . Communication competence problematic in ethnic friendships. Communication Monographs, 63,314 – 336.

[9] Callan, V. , Gallois, C., & Noller, P. (1986). Social Psychology. London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers.

[10] Collier, M.J. (2002). Intercultural friendship as interpersonal alliances. In J.N.Martin, T.K. Nakayanma & L.A.Flores (Eds.), Readings in Intercultural Communication: Experiences and Contexts (2nnd ed.). (pp. 301 – 310). New York: McGraw – Hill Higher Education.

[11] Leong, F.T.L., & Chou, E.L. (2002). Counseling international students and sojourners. In P.B.Pedersen,J.G.Draguns, W.J. Lonner & J.E.Trimble (Eds.), Counseling Across Cultures (5th ed.) (pp.185 – 207). London: Sage Publication.

[12] Davis, Linell.（2010）. Doing Culture: Cross – cultures Communication in Action. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 310.

[13] Wang, Huongjin. (2008). English Culture. Beijing: Beijing University Press, 151.

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UNIVERSITY AUTONOMY:

WHAT ACADEMICS THINK ABOUT IT

Sufean, H.,

Faculty of Education University of Malaya.

Wong, S.C., Faculty of Education University of Malaya.

ABSTRACT

University autonomy is close to the heart of academics in higher education institutions around the world. It is centered on the belief that liberalism is the essential philosophy for the freedom in exploring and expanding the frontier of knowledge in every sphere of life and civilization, without the shackles of any agency or government politics and dictates. This paper presents the findings of a study on what academics think about university autonomy, which comprises several components such as governance and management, study programs, research and development, teaching, and student development. The study employed the survey method and involved 611 academics from five premier public universities in Malaysia. This study found that, to a large extent and contrary to popular perception, public universities still do have a high degree of autonomy in several components, particularly in determining study programs to be offered, human resource development, internationalization, collaborative ventures with industries, and research priorities. Keywords: university autonomy, university development, university management,

university goals



INTRODUCTION:

University autonomy refers to the degree of dependency or independency of a university with other entities such as the government or corporations. If a university is totally dependent on the government, for example, then the university has blank autonomy; if a university is totally independent on its own, then the university has total autonomy (Soaib & Sufean, 2013). A university with blank autonomy is totally a subservient servant of its establisher which dictates the direction of governance, management, and disciplines of studies which the university must go for. On the other hand, if a university has total autonomy, then it has all the power to determine where it wants to go to and what it wants to do with respect to disciplines of studies, research, academics, and students (Sufean, 1995). University autonomy is related to notion of ‘territorial neutrality’ and ‘guild of artisans’ as in the European tradition, which upholds independence and self-rule that repel any form of invasion and interference by bodies or governments outside a jurisdiction. Medieval universities were communities of learned men who considered themselves as a guild of learned artisans and where youth of the elite class came to receive instruction from their masters (Clark, 1983; Kerr, 1973; Veysey, 1965). The guild of scholars administered its own affairs regardless if they received public subsidies or private support, or if their public sanction came from legislative acts of provinces or states (Hetherington, 1965). This academic tradition has been defended by scholars in universities for many centuries and the surviving examples are the Oxford and Cambridge Universities in the United Kingdom. However, some argue that the ideological foundations of the university as autonomous institution have undergone fundamental changes in the last few decades. Today, for most of the public universities, autonomy is not simply an institutional dimension but concerning relations with government that can be highly demanding in the competitive era of globalization (Roversi-Monaco, et al., 2005). Thus, some researchers asserted that university autonomy refers to the constantly changing relations between the state (or the government) and higher education institutions and the degree of control exerted by the state (or the government), depending on the national context and circumstances (Estermann & Nokkala, 2009; Sufean & Aziah, 2008). Gornitzka and Maassen (1998) make a classification of four types of university governance and autonomy, namely as follows: Institutional oligarchy model--autonomy of the university is based on shared norms of non-

interference of external parties; Total state-controlled model—governance and management as stipulated by the ruling government,

and research priority as determined by the government from time to time; Partially state-controlled model—collaboration between the state and university through democratic

decision-making; and Market driven private corporation model—governance and management are profit driven and

change according to global trends and developments. Clark (1983) asserted that university organizations are academic organizations determined by the discipline (or profession) and by enterprise (individual institutional). Thus, universities must not merely center in disciplines, but also simultaneously be pulled together in enterprises. Disciplines impel institutions to be intellectually driven—both in academic and in research—but institutions, on the other hand, impel disciplines to be student oriented and responsive to the demands and changing trends in the market field, locally or globally, conforming to externally driven expectations. This trend has influenced the way institutions are managed and there has been an overt paradigm shift from the academia structure to managerial structure in university governance (Yielder & Codling, 2004). Neave and Van Vught (1991) assert that the growth of "managerialism" in higher education institutions is characterized by the increasing influence of external stakeholders, particularly those that exercise influence over university’s revenue and funds. The government and employers, for example, can exert powerful influences on the orientation and behavior of university management. Trakman (2008) has



articulated five models of university governance – university governance by the academics, corporate governance, trustee governance, stakeholder governance, and galvanized model of governance that remain germane to the current ebb and flow of globalization. The five models are also imperative in the assimilation extent of ‘managerialism’ characteristics in higher education institutions. University governance by the academics is often linked to collegial governance, the long-established model of university governance. It is often argued that academic staffs are the grassroots of intellectuals best-suited to apprehend, determine and to achieve their university’s goal and aspirations (Dill & Helm, 1988; Evans, 1999; Pfnister, 1970; Williams, Gore, Broches, & Lostoski, 1987). This can be seen clearly in the university senate’s wide latitude of power in making and altering academic policies, ranging from student admission to graduation process (Jordan, 2001; Miller, 1999; Moore, 1975; Strohm, 1981). Collegial governance is reflective of the faculty as a professional body of academics, exercising their responsibilities with a strong sense of ownership to various academic programs, research works, teaching, and graduate supervision. However, collegiality may not be anymore sufficient to steer institutions to strategic goals. Yet, ignoring collegiality in the name of managerial efficiency may certainly be self-defeating. The subsequent model, corporate governance model, is often related to the business-enterprise model. It is often predicated on the ground that the effectiveness of the university can be improved with business-oriented Board of Directors, with three important officials representing university management such as the chief executive officer, chief operating officer, and chief financial officer. University Boards are responsible for university development and accountable to different stakeholders and the public. One of the key performance indicators of the Board is revenue generation. This trend of governance follows market trends and developments. Furthermore, the trustee model of university governance is anchored primarily on the Board of Trustees, which is given the fiduciary trust and duty to govern an estate. The Boardwould perform their roles and duties according to the interest and welfare of the stipulated beneficiary, and it must neither include their own self-interest agenda, nor the interest of a third party (Jackson & Crowley, 2006). However, the trustee model remains somewhat vague as it may give rise to ethical skepticism in times when the ‘trust relationship’ is being challenged. The stakeholder model exemplifies shared governance involving considerable numbers of stakeholders comprising academics, university students, alumni members, corporate representatives or partners, minister or government representatives, the public or the industry (Baldridge, 1982; Hill, Green, & Eckel, 2001; Longin, 2002). Thestakeholder governance differs from the corporate governance because the Board of Governors is broadly represented, and the stakeholders’ concerns go beyondagendas related to university’s efficient management and finance (AmericanAssociation of University Professors, 1966; American Federation of Teachers, 2002).Stakeholder governance enables a wide array of stakeholders’ participation in decisionmaking(Alfred, 1985; Currie, 2005; Floyd, 1994; Gilmour, 1991; Lapworth, 2004).Thus, the issue with stakeholder governance often lies in the selection of theappropriate stakeholders and the degree of power or authority vested in the governingbody. Despite of this, public universities, in general, do adopt and practice some formof stakeholder governance—with some academics, students, or representatives from thegovernment nominated as part of the governance board. Another model is the galvanized model of governance which incorporates the strength of the previous fourmodels (Birnbaum, 1991). This model is specifically directed toward specific needs of a particular university (Dearlove, 1997). This model is inclined towardscientific and technological innovations for boosting economicdevelopment of a country, as well as to propel academics to expand the frontier of knowledge and technology. With the galvanized model of governance and the appropriate allocation andexpenditure of funds provided by the government, universities would achieve excellence in specific fields of knowledge and technology. The history of universities in Europe and USA has revealed that, in order tosurvive, higher education systems have radically changed their governance over the centuries (Perkin, 1991). Nevertheless, tension between the need of collegiality and corporatism or other type of managerialism in some of the



modern universities remains prevalent—a dichotomy feature whereby the extent of academic freedom that influences the academics’ quality of work, and thus the characteristics of a higher education institution, is often questionable (Duke, 2001). Arguably, though university has been noted as a corporation, the existence of the bicameral system of governance in university—the Senate and the Board of Directors—remains one of the distinctive features as compared to business corporationshaving well-defined lines of authority (Soaib & Sufean, 2013). In comparison, the university management’s authorities have relatively little control particularly in the academic’s daily operation which is fragmented and diffused, inundated with various major facets of academics activities (Patterson, 2001). This unique characteristic lies on the fact that knowledge is the building block of university organization. The highly distinctive factions based on knowledge expertise in the university creates a large number of highly fragmented division and independent units, whereby university organization can be succinctly characterized as loosely coupled system (Weick, 1976), a bipolar notion of autonomy and interdependence. Therefore, in comparison with other types of organizations whereby decision-making structures and governance were articulated more clearly, the university organizations as loosely coupled systems demonstrate prominent changes that generally occur at the grassroots level. Based on the organizational structure and the university constitution, university organizations can be seen as loosely coupled in some significant ways and highly bureaucratic in other ways as the political coalition between university managers and government officials still exists (Owens & Valesky, 2007). In Malaysian public universities, the Vice-Chancellor and Deputy Vice-Chancellors are appointed by the Minister of Education. In this regard, it has often been construed as an indirect way of the government in asserting their informal chains of command and influence over the university’s affairs (Soaib& Sufean, 2013). This is because this kind of relationship somewhat distorts university autonomy to a certain degree (Ordorika, 2003). Nevertheless, although the public universities may be subjected, inevitably, to elaborate specific appointment and promotion policies, this mechanism of control however does not impose apparent restriction on the university in exercising their autonomy and freedom as an institution of knowledge. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY:

There is a prevalent contention that public universities suffer fromthe lack of autonomy because they are institutions established and controlled by the government. Furthermore, it is common to observe that the presidents or vice-chancellors of public universities are usually appointed by the government. In view of this context, the purpose of the study was to examine whether that contention had an empirical basis or not. This study examined and analyzed the extent of university autonomy in several specific aspects, as discussed in the following sections. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

The university autonomy instrument was borrowed and adapted from the study done by Sufean and Aziah (2008). University autonomy was operationally defined as the degree of dependency or independency, in relation to some power holder, and self-determination of the necessary course of policies and actions. It measures the decision-making powers which university has over its own affairs (i.e. university development) in nine major aspects: academic program, postgraduate educational program, research and consultation, teaching and learning, management, human resource, financial, infrastructure, and student affairs—please refer to the nine tables in this paper for the related items. The survey questionnaire consisted of 79 items, all of which had a five-point ordinal scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 3 (fairly agree) to 5 (strongly agree). A pilot study was conducted to establish the reliability of the survey instrument. In most quantitative studies, a pilot study was either to try out the instrument, or tosupply findings and adjustments for the actual study (Kerlinger, 1992). Apart from that, basically, the pilot study is to ensure that theitems in the questionnaire can be understood clearly. The pilot study was conducted in one public university,



and the responserate was at 50.2 % (225)academicsresponded to the questionnaire. The reliability value (alpha Cronbach value) for the entire university autonomy (UA) instrument was .926, and the reliability values for the nine domains were:

Academic programs .711 Postgraduate academic programs .718 Research and consultation .709 Teaching and learning .614 Management .704 Haman Resource .652 Finance .752 Infrastructure and facilities .695 Student affairs .712

The survey questionnaire was finalized and distributed to 2500 lecturerswho were randomly chosenfrom five premier comprehensive public universities in Malaysia. After three months and much persuasion, we managed to collect back 695 questionnaires, but after screening of outliers we only used data from 611 questionnaires for analysis using the SPSS software (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software). RESULTS AND FINDINGS:

Some preliminary analyses were conducted based on the actual survey data obtained from a total of 695 lecturers from five premier public universities. The data cleaning process was performed. Incomplete and outlier cases were deleted, which otherwise, their inclusion would cause the data to be invalid. After deleting the incomplete and outlier cases, a total of 611 valid survey forms were used for analysis. University autonomy in this study was not only conceptualized as the degree of dependency or independency in relation to some power holders, but it also included self-determination of a university on the necessary course of policies and actions for its own development and internal affairs. It is the ability of the universities to devise and implement their own strategies without government over-regulation and micro-management particularly in the nine major aspects of university development—academic programs, postgraduate programs, research and consultation, teaching and learning, management, human resource, finance, infrastructure facilities and students’ affairs. Table 1 shows the distribution of frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation for the responses regarding autonomy in planning academic programs. The values of the mean for all the items fall within the range from 3.90 to 4.46, indicating on average, the respondents’ propensity to ‘Agree’ with all statements concerning university autonomy in academic programs.

Table 1: Frequency, Mean and Standard Deviation of Responses for Items Related to Autonomy in Academic Programs at the Undergraduate Level

Items in Academic Programs

Level of agreement Total 1

(n,%) 2

(n,%) 3

(n,%) 4

(n,%) 5

(n,%) Mean SD

AA2 The faculty/university offers academic programs to students when there are professionals/expertise available in faculty/university

8 (1.3)

24 (3.9)

96 (15.7)

269 (44.0)

214 (35.0) 4.08 0.882

AA3 Some academic programs offered are designed by the faculty specifically to enhance students’ employability in the job market

3 (0.5)

14 (2.3)

105 (17.2)

291 (47.6)

198 (32.4) 4.09 0.79

AA4 The faculty/university takes into consideration of the availability of infrastructure and facilities when offering academic programs to students

14 (2.3)

32 (5.2)

130 (21.3)

260 (42.6)

175 (28.6) 3.90 0.952

AA6 Academic programs offered by the faculty/university are accredited by the relevant Ministry

3 (0.5)

57 (9.3)

205 (33.6)

346 (56.6)

3 (0.5) 4.46 0.682

Key: n is the frequency of responses. % is the percentage of responses.



For the subsequent interpretations the results in Table 1, the scores for ‘Agree’ (Scale 4) and ‘Strongly agree’ (Scale 5) for each of the items were recoded as ‘agree.’ From the recoded results, a total of 483 respondents (79.1 %) agreed that their faculty and university had a high autonomy in determining the kind of programs and courses to be offered, depending on the availability expertise and professionals. Furthermore, a total of 489 (80.0 %)respondents agreed that ‘some academic programs offered were designed by the faculty specifically to enhance students’ employability in the job market’. This finding infers that public universitieshave the freedom to propose and plan courses that will meet the marketplace’s demands. This fact demonstrates that the offering of programs and courses are largely determined by expertise in various areas of some study programs, as well as by human resource demand from potential employers which guarantee the employability of graduates produced. Apart from that, premier public universities do not simply offer study programs without giving due consideration to the availability and quality of infrastructure necessary for the process operation of study programs, either at undergraduate level or post-graduate level. A total of 435 (71.2%) respondents agreed that their faculty or university does give this kind of priority before promoting a study program. The universities acknowledge the importance to ensure proper infrastructural facilities for their students alongside maintaining the requisite standard of study programs, i.e. all study programs and courses meet the standards stipulated by the Quality Assurance Agency, Malaysia Ministry of Education. This fact was verified by a total of 551 (90.2 %) respondents, who indicated that academic programs operatewithin the quality assurance framework. Table 2 shows the results pertaining to responses on university autonomy in designing and offering of postgraduate academic programs. The values of the mean for all the items fall within the range from4.16 to 4.37, indicating on average, the respondents’ propensity to ‘Agree’ with the items concerning university autonomy in postgraduate academic programs.

Table 2: Frequency, Mean and Standard Deviation for Responses by Academics Regarding University Autonomy in Offering Postgraduate Academic Programs

Items in Postgraduate Academic Programs

Level of agreement Total

1 (n,%)

2 (n,%)

3 (n,%)

4 (n,%)

5 (n,%) Mean SD

AB6 This university internationalizes (open to international students) the available postgraduate academic programs offered

1 (0.2)

5 (0.8)

52 (8.5)

259 (42.4)

294 (48.1) 4.37 0.689

AB8 The faculty or university sets the levels of entry for the postgraduate academic programs offered

1 (0.2)

11 (1.8)

75 (12.3)

287 (47.0)

237 (38.8) 4.22 0.74

AB9 The university (or the faculty/department) is involved in the selection of students for the enrollment of the postgraduate programs

2 (0.3)

10 (1.6)

65 (10.6)

274 (44.8)

260 (42.6) 4.28 0.742

AB11

The faculty has the freedom to suggest new postgraduate academic programs which are of great potentials for the benefits of the postgraduate students

2 (0.3)

12 (2.0)

88 (14.4)

295 (48.3)

214 (35.0) 4.16 0.761

Based on the results in Table 2, if ‘Agree’ and ‘Strongly agree’ were recoded together, a total of 553 (90.5 %) respondents agreed that their university had the autonomy to internationalize (open to international students) postgraduate programs offered. This fact indicates that internationalisation of postgraduate academic programs constitutes as an integrated part of university development agenda. Also, it was found that a total of 524 (85.8%) respondents agreed that their faculty or university determined the entry criteria and prerequisites of postgraduate programs. Not only that,



a total of 534 (87.4%) respondents agreed that their department had total autonomy in the selection of postgraduate students. And, 509 (83.3%) respondents agreed that their faculty had the freedom to propose new postgraduate programs which were of great relevance and potentials to postgraduate students. All these facts indicate that the government education agency gave total autonomy to public universities in designing and expanding postgraduate programs. Table 3 consecutively shows the results pertaining to university autonomy in the area of research and consultation. The mean values for all the items fall within the range 3.99 to 4.30, indicating on average, the respondents’ propensity to ‘Agree’ with all statements concerning university autonomy in research and consultation.

Table 3: Frequency, Mean and Standard Deviation of Responses Regarding University Autonomy in Research and Consultation

Items in Research and Consultation


1 (n,%)

2 (n,%)

3 (n,%)

4 (n,%)

5 (n,%) Mean SD

AC2

University is free to carry out research and consultation works based on the professionals/experts available in the university

1 (0.2)

10 (1.6)

57 (9.3)

280 (45.8)

263 (43.0) 4.30 0.718

AC3

The university looks into the needs of the clients (students and stakeholders) and encourages the relevant research and consultation activities to be carried out in the university.

3 (0.5)

17 (2.8)

115 (18.8)

297 (48.6)

179 (29.3) 4.03 0.798

AC4

In the effort to enhance research or consultation activities, the university or faculty can develop the necessary infrastructure and facilities

7 (1.1)

16 (2.6)

121 (19.8)

299 (48.9)

168 (27.5) 3.99 0.826

AC6 The university gives recognition to highly competent faculty and research staff for their excellence in research

3 (0.5)

23 (3.8)

85 (13.9)

257 (42.1)

243 (39.8) 4.17 0.839

Similarly, if ‘Agree’ (Scale 4) and ‘Strongly agree’ (Scale 5) were recoded together, results in Table 3 show that a total of 543 (88.8%) respondents agreed that their university had the freedom to carry out research and consultation works based on the availability of professionals and experts. This fact indicates that a university usually utilizes the skills and expertise of professors for enhancing knowledge and innovations through research and consultation. In addition, a total of 476 respondents (77.9 %) agreed that their university provided grants or install the necessary facilities to encourage relevant research and consultation activities to be carried out. Universities also normally do encourage academics and researchers to bring in research grants from external sources, such as various government agencies and industries. This fact was affirmed by 467 (76.4%) respondents. Moreover, as a form of motivation, premier universities gave due recognition to highly competent faculty and research staff for their excellence in research. A total of 500 (81.9%) respondents testified positively to this point. Table 4 shows the results for university autonomy in the area of teaching and learning. The mean values generally fall within the range 3.91 to 4.13, indicating on average, the respondents’ propensity to ‘Agree’ with the survey items.



Table 4: Frequency, Mean and Standard Deviation for Responses Regarding University Autonomy in Teaching and Learning

Items in Teaching and Learning Level of agreement Total

1 (n,%)

2 (n,%)

3 (n,%)

4 (n,%)

5 (n,%) Mean SD

AD2 Lecturers in this university are free to choose the appropriate teaching and learning methods

9 (1.5)

29 (4.7)

101 (16.5)

276 (45.2)

196 (32.1) 4.02 0.9

AD3

The university/faculty equips the students with the needed knowledge through teaching and learning in order to meet the required standards.

2 (0.3)

9 (1.5)

92 (15.1)

315 (51.6)

193 (31.6) 4.13 0.735

AD4

The university/faculty provides the necessary infrastructure and facilities which are suitable with the teaching and learning methods chosen by the lecturers

2 (0.3)

29 (4.7)

135 (22.1)

302 (49.4)

143 (23.4) 3.91 0.817

AD5 The university/faculty prepares an environment that cultivates the usage of ICT in teaching and learning process

0 (0.0)

13 (2.1)

107 (17.5)

305 (49.9)

186 (30.4) 4.09 0.747

AD6 The university/faculty can offer a more flexible teaching and learning methods for the postgraduate students.

2 (0.3)

12 (2.0)

104 (17.0)

310 (50.7)

183 (30.0) 4.08 0.756

AD8

The university/faculty can improvise the teaching and learning methods whenever deemed necessary according to the needs of the academic programs.

2 (0.3)

13 (2.1)

125 (20.5)

318 (52.0)

153 (25.0) 3.99 0.755

Based on the results in Table 4, a total of 472 (77.3%) respondents agreed that lecturers were free to choose the appropriate teaching and learning methods in classrooms and tutorials. This refers to the lecturers’ own prerogative in selectingthe relevant topics, contents, and teaching materials of courses. Also, 508 (83.2%) respondents agreed that courses in their faculty were tailored to equip students with the required knowledge content and skills. This fact refers to university’s pivotal role in ensuring that graduates produced match employers’ requirements. This is the pragmatism philosophy emphasized by contemporary universities and colleges. Furthermore, 491 (80.3 %) respondents agreed that the university or faculty encouraged the use of ICT (information communication technology) in teaching and learning process. Also, most respondents agreed that lecturers had the autonomy to review and redesign course contents, materials, and evaluation methods from time to time within the quality assurance framework. Table 5 shows the results pertaining to autonomy in university management. The mean values of all the items fall within the range from3.43 to 3.73, indicating on average, the respondents’ propensity to ‘fairly agree’withall items on autonomy in university management. This pattern of responses is a bit different from those in previous tables.

Table 5: Frequency, Mean and Standard Deviation for Responses Regarding University Autonomy in Management

Items in Management Level of agreement Total

1 (n,%)

2 (n,%)

3 (n,%)

4 (n,%)

5 (n,%) Mean SD

AE1 In relation to the government, the university/faculty has a large degree of autonomy in the management process.

18 (2.9)

84 (13.7)

188 (30.8)

226 (37.0)

95 (15.5) 3.48 1.007

AE2 The management of the university is on clientele basis (e.g. students, stakeholders)

15 (2.5)

66 (10.8)

199 (32.6)

242 (39.6)

89 (14.6) 3.53 0.951

AE3 The university/ faculty improve continuously management effectiveness through the provision of necessary facilities.

4 (0.7)

39 (6.4)

194 (31.8)

283 (46.3)

91 (14.9) 3.68 0.826



AE5

The university adopts corporate management style to motivate employees to work productively, so as to enhance university sustainability/ survival operation.

17 (2.8)

71 (11.6)

161 (26.4)

261 (42.7)

101 (16.5) 3.59 0.987

AE8 The public responsibility is reflected through many academics and student activities planned by the university/faculty.

10 (1.6)

31 (5.1)

175 (28.6)

295 (48.3)

100 (16.4) 3.73 0.853

If the responses ‘Agree’ (Scale 4) and ‘Strongly agree’ (Scale 5) were aggregated, then only a total of 321 (52.5%) respondents agreed with the item that ‘in relation to the government, the university/faculty has a large degree of autonomy in management process.’Also, only 311 (54.2%) respondentsagreed with the item that ‘the management of the university is on clientele basis (e.g. students, stakeholders).’Other moderate responses were for items such as: The university/ faculty improve continuously management effectiveness through the provision of

necessary facilities (61.2 %). The university adopts corporate management style to motivate employees to work productively, so

as to enhance university sustainability/ survival operation (59.2 %). The university’s top-management micromanaging activities that demonstrate public

responsibilities carried out by the faculty members or student community (64.7%).The public responsibility is reflected through many academic and student activities planned by the university or faculty.

In general, academics believed that their university or faculty had a partial autonomy in management decisions and operations, i.e. the university or faculty sometimes had been subjected to certain policies and directives from the government. Table 6 shows the results pertaining to university autonomy in the area of human resource. The mean values all the items fall within the range 3.86 to 4.04, indicating the general propensity of respondents to ‘Agree’ with university autonomy in human resource.

Table 6: Frequency, Mean and Standard Deviation of Responses Regarding University Autonomy in Human Resource Management

Items in Human Resource Management Level of agreement Total

1 (n,%)

2 (n,%)

3 (n,%)

4 (n,%)

5 (n,%) Mean SD

AF3

Whenever necessary at some faculties, the university/faculty seeks the help of experts and consultants in the private sector to teach courses and conduct industrial training of students

4 (0.7)

33 (5.4)

153 (25.0)

273 (44.7)

148 (24.2) 3.86 0.866

AF4 The university determines and provides numerous courses and workshops for its staff development

3 (0.5)

11 (1.8)

121 (19.8)

295 (48.3)

181 (29.6) 4.05 0.781

AF5

The university autonomously provides scholarships to academic and management staff to pursue higher degrees in local or foreign universities

8 (1.3)

25 (4.1)

129 (21.1)

270 (44.2)

179 (29.3) 3.96 0.886

AF6 The university/faculty autonomously determine its own standards and criteria for staff promotion

9 (1.5)

17 (2.8)

110 (18.0)

280 (45.8)

195 (31.9) 4.04 0.862

AF7 The university autonomously gives rewards and incentives annually to staff with excellent performance

14 (2.3)

26 (4.3)

120 (19.6)

259 (42.4)

192 (31.4) 3.96 0.942

AF8 Departments/ faculties have their own autonomy in hiring temporary staff and research assistants

13 (2.1)

29 (4.7)

150 (24.5)

255 (41.7)

164 (26.8) 3.86 0.937



As before, the scores for ‘Agree’ (Scale 4) and ‘Strongly agree’ (Scale 5) were aggregated together and recoded as ‘Agree.’ From Table 6, 421 (68.9%) respondents agreed that, whenever necessary, some faculties sought experts and consultants in the private sector to teach courses and conduct industrial training for students. Thishighlights the university’s initiativeto seek cooperation fromexperts in the private sector. Cooperative linkages between public universities and the private sectors through collaboration is a hallmark of the current approach in human resource development. Also, a total of 476 (77.9 %) respondents agreed that their university provided numerous courses and workshops for staff development. This fact indicates that public universities are concerned with staff’s productivity and quality; thus management staff is required to improve their skills, knowledge, and performance through training and education. Other autonomous initiatives performed by universities include: The university autonomously provides scholarships to academic and management staff to pursue

higher degrees in local or foreign universities—449 (77.9%) respondents agreed. This implies that premier universities provide opportunities for staff’s career advancement.

The university or faculty autonomously determines its own performance standards and criteria for staff promotion—475 (77.7%)respondents agreed.

The university autonomously gives rewards and incentives annually to staff with excellent performance—451 (73.8%) respondents agreed.

Departments or faculties have their own autonomy in hiring temporary staff and research assistants—419(68.5%) respondents agreed. This implies that a department or faculty has the freedom to employ part-time staff for some programs and priority projects.

Table 7 shows the results pertaining to university autonomy in the area of finance. The values of the mean for all the items fall within the range 3.63 to 3.81, indicating that generally the respondents tended to ‘Agree’ with their university’s autonomy in finance.

Table 7: Frequency, Mean and Standard Deviation of Responses Regarding University Autonomy in Finance

Items in Finance Level of agreement Total

1 (n,%)

2 (n,%)

3 (n,%)

4 (n,%)

5 (n,%) Mean SD

AG2 The university commercializes the available expertise.

10 (1.6)

45 (7.4)

168 (27.5)

269 (44.0)

119 (19.5) 3.72 0.915

AG3 The university collaborates with the industries as a business partner

11 (1.8)

38 (6.2)

176 (28.8)

258 (42.2

128 (20.9) 3.74 0.919

AG4 The university rents out their facilities whenever available

6 (1.0)

40 (6.5)

168 (27.5)

245 (40.1)

152 (24.9) 3.81 0.917

AG5 The university promotes their professional staff /professionalism via internet

11 (1.8)

46 (7.5)

153 (25.0)

265 (43.4)

136 (22.3) 3.77 0.94

AG6 University puts in efforts to reduce the financial dependency on government

7 (1.1)

34 (5.6)

151 (24.7)

295 (48.3)

124 (20.3) 3.81 0.861

AG7 Efficient management of funds is practiced by the faculty or university all the time

14 (2.3)

42 (6.9)

195 (31.9)

266 (43.5)

94 (15.4) 3.63 0.904

Again as before, responses for ‘Agree’ and ‘Strongly agree’ were aggregated together. From the results in Table 7, 388 respondents (63.5%) agreed that their university commercialized available expertise in order to generate profit by providing consultancy services or conducting research projects for government agencies and private firms. This connotes one of the innovative ways associated with university autonomy in financial management. Other areas of financial autonomy include: The university collaborates with the industries as a business partner—386 (63.1 %) respondents

agreed. Nowadays, universities usually seek industrial partnerships because of the potential financial rewards of patents and licenses that result from the commercialization of academic research.



The university rents out their facilities (lecture halls, seminar rooms, and machines) whenever available and not in use by others—397 (65.7 %) respondents agreed. This initiative supports the university’s effort to generate income by maximizing the usage of existing facilities available in the university.

The university makes efforts to reduce financial dependency on the government by acquisition of funding from diversified sources—419 (68.6 %) respondents agreed. This connotes an important aspect of financial development driven by demands of a growing needs and rising costs.

Efficient management of funds is practiced by the faculty or university all the time, not just merely applicable to circumstances when the funds are limited—360 (58.9%) respondents agreed. This refers to the university’s autonomy to formulate guidelines to manage its funds efficiently and effectively at all the time. This plays a pivotal role in bolstering university financial strength by supporting the activities that are orientated towards development-focused agendas.

Table 8 shows the responses to items pertaining to university autonomy in the area of infrastructure and facilities. The mean values for all items fall within the range 3.76 to 4.17, indicating the general tendency to agree with statements concerning university autonomy in planning their infrastructure and facilities.

Table Frequency, Mean and Standard Deviation for Items in Infrastructure Facilities Domain

Items in Infrastructure Facilities


1 (n,%)

2 (n,%)

3 (n,%)

4 (n,%)

5 (n,%) Mean SD

AH2 University construct its own infrastructure and facilities, according to its own development plan

7 (1.1)

34 (5.6)

155 (25.4)

316 (51.7)

99 (16.2) 3.76 0.828

AH4 From time to time, the university sees the needs to improve the existing infrastructure facilities

8 (1.3)

30 (4.9)

134 (21.9)

299 (48.9)

140 (22.9) 3.87 0.865

AH5 University recognize the importance of ICT and therefore equips the faculties or university with ICT facilities

1 (0.2)

7 (1.1)

91 (14.9)

299 (48.9)

213 (34.9) 4.17 0.728

AH8

The university has its own rules and regulation to protect its operation and assets so that the infrastructure facilities can be utilized responsibly and prudently

1 (0.2)

8 (1.3)

127 (20.8)

312 (51.1)

163 (26.7) 4.03 0.736

Also, recoding “Agree’ and ‘Strongly agree’ together, results show that 415 (67.9%)respondents agree that their university constructs its own infrastructure and facilities, according to its own development plan. This refers to the university’s autonomy and power in formulatingits own infrastructural developmentpolicy. This is to develop their ownlong-term solutions to infrastructural problems and challenges. Apart from that, the university also has full autonomy in building up its ICT facilities for students, management staff, and academics in order to achieve organizational efficiency and effectiveness. Consequently, respondents also agreed that the university had its own rules and regulation to protect its operation and assets so that the infrastructure facilities could be utilized responsibly and prudently. This describes the university’s autonomy toconstruct its own regulatory policiesfor the purpose of infrastructure facilities operation and maintenance. Lastly, Table 9 shows the responses to items pertaining to university autonomy in the area of student affairs and development. The mean values of all items fell within the range 3.87 to 4.12, indicating that in general, the respondents tended to ‘Agree’ with the existence of university autonomy in students affairs and development.



Table 9: Frequency, Mean and Standard Deviation for Responses Regarding University Autonomy in Student Affairs and Development

Items in Students’ Affairs Level of agreement Total

1 (n,%)

2 (n,%)

3 (n,%)

4 (n,%)

5 (n,%) Mean SD

AI2 The university determines the activities carried out by students, according to the needs of the university

7 (1.1)

27 (4.4)

142 (23.2)

295 (48.3)

140 (22.9) 3.87 0.852

AI3 The faculty/university organizes various activities for students aimed to prepare the students for their future career

2 (0.3)

18 (2.9)

126 (20.6)

297 (48.6)

168 (27.5) 4.00 0.793

AI8

The university offers various co-curricular activities for students, which are treated as courses with the required number of credit hours.

3 (0.5)

17 (2.8)

98 (16.0)

276 (45.2)

217 (35.5) 4.12 0.81

Again, the responses for ‘Agree’ (Scale 4) and ‘Strongly agree’ (Scale 5) were aggregated and recoded as ‘Agree.’ Results showed that 435 (71.2 %) respondents agreed that the university determined the activities carried out by students, according to the needs of the university. This reflectsuniversity’s involvement in overseeing the administration of student life and student development within the campus. In general also more than two-third of respondents agreed that the university organized various activities for students’ future career. This statement implies that the university initiated many opportunities for students to engage in co-curricular activities and development programs to develop students’ personality and life skills.

DISCUSSION:

The original idea of the university is embedded in the philosophy of liberalism and empiricism, i.e. liberation of the mind based on true, empirical knowledge. European universities during medieval times upheld this philosophy, with the masters or academics giving tutelage to a small group of students of the elite class to become society leaders, men of letters, and learned men of the upper class (Veysey, 1965). University autonomy arises in this context as a form of sentiment and conscience to protect university academics from being influenced and corrupted by the interests and powers of other institutions in the society, thereby jeopardizing the pursuit of true facts, concepts, and knowledge. The more dependent a university on other institutions, the more it lacks autonomy, and the more questionable the integrity of knowledge generated. As of the early twentieth century, universities in Europe and the U.S.A. adopted the philosophy of pragmatism, i.e. universities should generate knowledge and technology for speeding up agricultural and industrial revolution. Science and engineering became the preferred areas of study which underscored national progress and development, thereby leading to the emergence of progressivism philosophy then (Sufean, 1995). Those philosophies are still prevalent today, and they have been alleged to cause the deterioration of university autonomy in terms of state and industrial interventions in research and academic affairs in universities. This study, however, has challenged the prevalent contention that public universities lack autonomy, due to the fact that they are government establishments and the university managers are appointed by political leaders in the government. This study found that if university autonomy was specifically conceptualized operationally into nine areas or sub-constructs, then university academics (the respondents) understood and regarded that public universities were largely autonomous institutions, with minor intervention and restriction by the government in certain areas. Henceforth, the hypothesis that public universities lack autonomy can be disputed and refuted. CONCLUSION:

For generations, academics have viewed with apprehension the encroachment of numerous interests into higher education institutions, particularly government and industrial linkages with academic and



research works. The surge of pragmatism has overwhelmed universities in many parts of the world since the early twentieth century, and today it is even more so due to globalization and market demands. Public universities have been held accountable to fulfill the ever changing needs and developments of the state, society, employers, industries, and institutions, so much so that universities have become the melting-pot of many interests from different stakeholders. The idealism of ivory tower with its neutrality of autonomy apparently is assumed to be a long foregone conclusion and a deteriorating paradigm. Whatever it is, this study has reassessed how far university autonomy forms part of academics’ conscience in contemporary context. This study has unveiled that if the conception of university autonomy was deconstructed into some specific dimensions, then academics realized that university autonomy was still largely in the university’s jurisdiction. Hence, the long-held perception that public universities lack autonomy has not been corroborated empirically. Discussions on university autonomy have been merely underscored with nostalgic sentiments. It is suggested here that similar studies should be replicated by fellow academics in other countries to verify the extent and variations of university autonomy in the context of different political systems and cultures. A large number of studies in this area would be able to broaden the knowledge on autonomy, philosophy, governance, management, and best practices of universities around the world. REFERENCES:

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GREEN MARKETING AND ITS RELATIONSHIP

TO THE PURCHASE DECISION: AN EMPIRICAL

STUDY ON STUDENTS FROM KING ABDUL

AZIZ UNIVERSITY IN JEDDAH

Ghada Mohiuddin Hello,

Department of Business Administration - Faculty of Economics and Management -

King Abdul Aziz University, Saudi Arabia.

Naill Mohammad Al Momani,

Department of Business Administration - Faculty of Economics and Management -

King Abdul Aziz University, Saudi Arabia.

ABSTRACT

Environmental crisis that our world faces, are the motive to many countries, institutions and individuals to support and innovate policies and programs which protect the environment, preserve and sustain it. Bad marketing practices are one of these crises that harmed the environment from one side and the costumer in another side. In response to these considerations, green marketing appeared in the beginning of nineties decade of the last century as a solution to this crisis. This research aims was informing consumers about green marketing, evaluating their environmental awareness, identifing factors affecting when making a purchase decision, and eliciating useful recommendations and proposals. Students of King AbdulAziz University at Jeddah were considered to determine if they considered green marketing when they made purchases. Of the 383 surveyed students, 46.6% became aware of green marketing through the distributed survey while 15.6% heared about it through television and15.6% through internet. When asked about the extent of awareness of green marketing (not aware, low awareness, medium awareness or high awareness), 40.7% replied that they have low awareness. Statistical tests showed that there was correlation between gender and level of study of consumer and green marketing awareness. It also showed that there was no correlation between age and income and green marketing awareness. The respondents had positive trend throw buying green products,the pollution of the environment and Rationalization of consumption. This implies businesses can use green marketing to promote their products. It also implies a bright future for green marketing if there were efforts to increase awareness. Keywords: Green marketing, environmental consumner behavior, environment purchase

decision.



GENERAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE RESEARCH: RESEARCH PROBLEM:

With the spread of globalization and the emergence of consumer protection associations and environmental awareness, organizations have sought to improve the marketing mix for their products and re-design of the product in line with the needs and desires of customers, through product development, the search for alternative materials and safe during the manufacturing process and the ability to recycle products after use in order to preserve the environment (Smadi, 2006). In spite of these developments regarding environmental awareness regionally and globally, but we note that most people continue on the consumption patterns of non-environmentally friendly that could have negative consequences caused by the inefficiency of manufacturing operations, such as buying some of the electrical and electronic appliances, which comes out electromagnetic radiation harmful to human health. Hence this study to measure consumer awareness of the concept of green marketing, and find out the extent of the impact of this concept on the consumer when making a purchase decision. Research Hypotheses:

1. There is no statistically significant relationship between the concept of green marketing when the consumer making a purchase.

2. There is no statistically significant relationship between the concept of green marketing and consumer genus.

3. There is no statistically significant relationship between the concept of green marketing and the age of the consumer.

4. There is no statistically significant relationship between the concept of green marketing and qualification of the consumer.

5. There is no statistically significant relationship between the concept of green marketing and consumer income.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:

1. To define consumer green marketing. 2. To evaluate environmental awareness among consumers when making a purchase decision process. 3. To identify the most important factors influencing the decision to buy green products.

THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH:

1. This research to shed light on an important concept in the new science of marketing is the concept of green marketing, which aims to protect the environment from pollution and consumers from fraud and deception.

2. This reserach try to identify the factors affecting the purchase decision of the consumer benefit organizations in the design of an appropriate marketing mix.

3. This reserach will reveal consumer research studies and a lot of the previous practices that are harmful to consumers, prompting increased interest in this kind of studies and research.

4. This reserach work in the field of environmental protection and natural resources with the concerted efforts of the Government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia direction of the environment.

RESEARCH BOUNDARIES:

1. Spatial boundaries: the study was restricted to students of King Abdul Aziz University in Jeddah branch of Sulaymaniyah.

2. Time boundaries: This research has been prepared within the framework of two consecutive semesters of the academic year 2012\2013.



3. Border Objectivity: The scope of this study is focused primarily on green marketing and knowledge of the factors affecting the purchase decision of the consumer, "students at the University of King Abdul Aziz."

THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: RESEARCH TERMS:

Green Marketing: Is the administrative process and the college, which is responsible for identifying and anticipate and satisfy the needs of consumers and society in a manner profitable and lead to the preservation of the environment in a true picture as well as to keep a permanent resource for future generations. This concept refers to the two-dimensional two grounds, namely: preservation of the environment, and the rational use of resources (Omar 0.2007). Green consumer: a customer or a consumer with deep environmental awareness, which deals mainly based on the values that he believes in and that you pay to avoid buying any products from company with questionable environmental orientation and not only non-consumption of goods harmful to the environment "(Bakri 0.2006). Product green "eco-friendly goods" or "green goods", it is a product that uses environmentally friendly materials which can be degradeable or recycled with the need to follow it through the stages of its life cycle to ensure that it remains within the environmental commitment (Bakri 0.2007).

GREEN MARKETING MIX:

The traditional marketing concept was centered mainly on increasing profits and focus on customer needs without taking into account environmental considerations and the amounts of loss that products or services could produce to our environment. The green marketing focuses mainly on the use of environmental concepts through all stages of decision-making in the organization as a whole. Unlike traditional marketing, social responsibility and environmental orientation plays an essential role in the concept of green marketing, taking into account the growth in profits ( Bakri 2006.256 ).Thus, the green marketing mix has expanded to include new dimensions to fit in with this concept and as follows (Peattie, 1992:105): THE EXTERNAL GREEN 7P'S:

The exterior of the marketing mix consists of a set of political and social variables that must be taken into account by companies that adopt green marketing. These variables include: Paying Customers: Who are the customers "greens" in a given society and what are the green products they want. Providers: What is the degree of environmental orientation has two processors offer ( raw materials, energy, equipment, machines, equipment) ? Politician: Is it possible to influence the decisions of government to pass legislation in line with the environmental trend? Or providing new standards? Pressure group: Who are these groups and how they should be adapted to the company's operations with having environmental trends? Problems: Is the company has been linked to any problem related to the environment or social responsibility previously? Predictions: What are the environmental problems that may be facing the company in the future? Could the research and development that offers solutions to these problems? Partners: Is that any of the existing partners have been linked to environmental or social problems previously?



THE INTERNAL GREEN 8P'S WHICH INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING VARIABLES:

Product: The mean green products, as the company to be responsive to customer sensitivity towards environmental and health issues relating to the product and processes required to produce it, as well as the need for follow-up during the various stages of products life. Cottmam, 1993 pointed out to the need to provide simplicity in green products offered to customers to facilitate the use of them. Price: The green products carry a price Add this may be because of the cost associated with the production process, especially cost of research and development where the increase due to the constant search for new raw materials are harmless or new energy sources. Place: Distributors and retailers may, benefit greatly from the application of the entrance of green marketing, by strengthening links with the manufacturer and customers because of the continuing relationship with the parties through the distribution system, two-way instead of the traditional system with a one-way. This means that consumers will be able to reuse materials such as cans, plastic, paper bags. Promotion: is a key element in the green marketing mix and through the movement of the company or its image orientations to customers with its mission of marketing for the products or services they offer. In the area of green marketing may take several forms, such as advertising, public relations, and environmental posters. Providing Information: The company that monitors the internal and external issues related to environmental performance. Processes: Reduction of energy used , and reduce damage and loss and pollution prevention. Policies: Implement policies to stimulate the private company and the monitoring and evaluation of environmental performance and to modify the overall strategy of the company, to conform to environmental vision. People: Eemploy the knowledge, abilities and skills possessed by individuals to apply environmental policy and innovation in the components of the product and to modify it in line with the environmental characteristics. The elements of the green marketing mix, whether internal or external focus on the use of the concept of environmental and social responsibility through all stages of decision-making. It can determine the differences between the green marketing mix between and traditional marketing mix. GREEN CONSUMER BEHAVIO:

According to Bakri and Al-Nouri (2007) green consumer behavior known as " a set of behaviors that drive the individual towards a preference for the product with environmental characteristics from the other, stemming from a combination of variables, particularly the ideas and opinions held by those individuals that are motivated towards that behavior." There are differences among reserachers in idetntfying factors that influencing consumer behavior in some aspects, but they agree on a number of these factors. The factors or personal effects (such as education, gender, income, job, etc. ) and the most important factors influencing consumer behavior are: Age: The individuals will change the goods and services that they purchased in their lives, taste in food or clothing or furniture and others are directly related to age. (Kottel & Armstrong, 1999: 14). Age is factor reduced to a set of internal factors and personal to the individual, because the stage of life experienced by everyone to give it the characteristics and habits of behavior in buying different from other stages. For instance, the young adolescent bying behavior differs from the older ones . As for green marketing (Skiziniskey: 2000) see that young people are more potential customers for green products, because they were brought up to respect nature and not wasteful use of energy, but this does not negate the possibility of orientation towards the older age category of these products . Gender: men, women, boys and girls have different needs and they are using different products (Keegan, et al 1995). Researchers are divided when they study of the effect of sex in the green



consumer behavior; however, evidnece showed that women by virtue of the composition of the psychological, emotional and family responsibilities are more environmentaly responsible. Income: Per capita income or economic status is one of the factors influencing the selection of the product.The income of the most controversial factors in the field of marketing in general. In the area of green marketing, income represents relative importance because green products most often are of the highest prices. Education: All societies consist of groups with different educational levels ranging from uneducated to people with learning primary, intermediate, and access to the university with graduate degrees. For example, people with advanced education may be interested in buying more green products more than others, degree is not the main influence, but what you learn through the individual receiving the certificate is the foundation. Many of the organizations realized that green marketing is an opportunity market that may give the organization a competitive advantage and perhaps sustainable one, especially with the growing environmental concerns with customers. One advantage of this approach is that the formal and informal strategic bodies promoting environmental trends naturally and continuously through various media, and therefore this will be the profitable tren, especially in the long term for organizations that adopt green marketing approach. ( Smadi , 2007 : 7) . Nouri, 2004 conducted a study to analyse consumer behavior in accordance with the green marketing perspective. The study provided a set of conclusions and recommendations stressed the importance of the subject of green marketing as an input marketing talk which is aimed at protecting the environment and natural resources and the need to study the subject in depth in order to achieve the possibility of the application of this approach in the local environment. In another study, Abdul Wahid et al., 2011 investiged green marketing tools' effect on consumers' purchase behavior in Penang, Malysia. The study relied on data collection questionnaire carried out on a sample size of 250 Chinese, Malaysian, Indian and other nationalities, which represents the population of the city of Penang. In this study, he found that there is a positive relationship between consumer confidence in the brand environment and the behavior of the actual purchasing. This study provided guidance to assist for the government to formulate green policies. Suplico, 2009 conducted a study to understand the impact of green marketing on the student's purchase behavior. The study focused on students enrolled in marketing class in the private university in Manila - Philippines. Research community where an estimated 239 students and adopted the study sample size of 216 students. The results were: - That 48.61% of the students identified the green marketing through television and 37.04% of them

recognized it through magazines. - The students aware of the average expansion of the scope of green marketing. This means that they

are aware of and buy environmentally friendly products. - Statistical tests showed that there was no relationship between sex and income and the main areas of

study and between the extent of awareness about green marketing. The sample agreed to buy the non-toxic and recyclable products, reuse and refill and analysis uncontaminated free of animal testing of ozone-friendly energy-efficient and least household waste. This means that enables companies to use green marketing to promote their products which also a bright future for green marketing. RESEARCH DESIGN:

The reserach depends on the descriptive approach based on the interpretation of the problem or phenomenon, and analysis of data, measured and interpreted. The research community in the college students in Saudi Arabia and that number reached 25 universities. However, due to the large research community under the restrictions of time, effort and money, "triangle-cost" will be limited to the study on students of King Abdulaziz University branch of Sulaymaniyah, located in the province of Jeddah - Saudi Saudi Arabia, because it is the fourth largest university in the Middle East with a total number of students more than 120,000 students.



Since all members of the research community are limited and known, the researcher will select the method of random sampling. As the members of the research community are distinct and homogenous due to differences in the number of students at each level of study "Diploma, Bachelor, Graduate," it will choose the type of stratified sample. As the research community and the limited number is 127 872 students, the researcher will adopt the use of statistical tables for the sample sizes required at 95% confidence level, and the sample size required when the error level of 5% will be 383 students. Data were collected for this study through a list of the questionnaire given that the questionnaire is a convenient tool for this kind of study because it hides personal participants in the study, resulting in the given complete freedom to answer. Questionnaire was developed based on the closed statement method whih has also been applied in similar study (Suplico, 2009), with some variations to suit the Saudi Arabia environment and some additions by the objectives and hypotheses of the study to set the researcher examined. The questionnaire consists of two main parts : Part I: Questions to measure the personal data of the study sample, such as sex, marital status, monthly income, age, grade, college, monthly income , describe the degree of awareness of green marketing, ways of hearing about shopping green. Part II: Questions to measure the green marketing trend and the investigator behavior, and consists of three axes: the eco-friendly products, and the effects of environmental pollution, and the rationalization of consumption. To check the credibility of the list of the questionnaire before it is used in the collection of data on this study, was presented to the counselors in the graduate unit, has also been presented to the five academics in different sections of the King Abdul Aziz University, "Department of Business Administration, Department of Arabic, Statistics Department". Good feedback has been received from all the academics and counselors which have been introduced to increase the credibility of the survey. In terms of the reliability of the study "Kronbak Alpha” factor has been calculated for the study factors. The researcher used the descriptive statistical technique represented in the calculation of redundancy and percentages for some variables in addition to the arithmetic mean. And tused Pearson coefficient test of correlation rank (Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient) and Eta coeficent.

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS:

In our reserach, we found that individuals’ awareness of green marketing is realtivly low with 40.7% of the study sample. Also, 46.6% of them had heard about green marketing through the questionnaire which has been distributed to them. While 48.61% of the students in Suplico (2009) study identified green marketing through television and 37.04% of them recognized it through magazines. Table (1); below show the distribution of our sample according to their source of information about green marketing.

Table 2: Distribution of the sample according to methods of hearing about green marketing.

% of Participants Number Methods 46.6 380 This questionair 15.6 127 Television 15.6 127 Internet 6.6 54 Lectures 4.3 35 Newspapers 4.2 34 Radio 4 33 Daily news

3.2 26 Books Students of King Abdulaziz University ave positive trend toward buying green products (This result agreed with the Suplico, 2009 study), and positive trend of knowing about pollution of the environment, and about the rationalization of consumption. This means that for students of King Abdulaziz University positive trend toward green marketing. Making buying decision is mainly



affected by differnt factors. In our stuy, we found that purchases are considerd accorgin product needs 78.3%, 69.7% price, 67% personal preferences, and personal budget 63.1%. HYPOTHSIS TEST: Hypothsis One: There is no statistically significant relationship between sex and green marketing consumer. Eta coefficient was used to verify the existence of a relationship between green marketing and sex. Results are shown in Table (2) below:

Table (2): The correlation coefficient between green marketing and Sex

Statistical Significance

Significance Level

Correlation Coefficient

Significant at 0.05 level 0.000 0.450 The relationship between the decision to buy

green products and gender Significant at

0.05 level 0.001 0.230 The relationship between the effects of environmental pollution and gender

Significant at 0.05 level 0.002 0.234 The relationship between consumption

rationalization and sex Significant at

0.05 level 0.021 0.286 The relationship between green marketing as a whole, and gender

From Table (2), above we conculed that there is a relationship between the decision to buy green products and sex in favor of males, where the value of the correlation coefficient Eta (0.450) and the level of significance (0.000) which is the significant value at the level (0.05). Also, we noticed an existence of a relationship between the effects of environmental pollution and in favor of the male sex, where the value of the correlation coefficient Eta (0.230) and the level of significance (0.001) which is the significant value at the level (0.05). There is a relationship between the rationalization of consumption and sex in favor of males, where the value of the correlation coefficient Eta (0.234) and the level of significance (0.002) which is the significant value at the level (0.05). Finally, we found that there is an existence of a relationship between green marketing as a whole and for the benefit of the male sex, where the value of the correlation coefficient ETA (0.286) and the level of significance (0.021) which is the significant value at the level (0.05). Thus, the sub hypothesis has been denied which states that there is no statistically significant relationship between the concept of green marketing, and the sex of the consumer. And prove the existence of a relationship between green marketing and consumer sex (male). This is contrary to the result of the study (Suplico, 2009), which found that there was no relationship between green marketing and consumer genus. Hypothesis Two: There is no statistically significant relationship between green marketing variable Age Table (3) shows correlation coefficient between green marketing and age. In this table there is presence of a weak inverse relationship between the decision to purchase green products and age where the value of the Pearson correlation coefficient (- 0.120) and the level of significance (0.019) which is the statistical significant value at the level (0.05). Also, there is no relationship between the effects of environmental pollution and age where the value of the Pearson correlation coefficient (0.012) and the level of significance (0.817), a value that is not significant. There is a lack of a relationship between the rationalization of consumption and age where the value of the Pearson correlation coefficient (-0.015) and the level of significance (0.765), a value that is not significant. Fainally, there is no relationship between green marketing as a whole and age where the value of the Pearson correlation coefficient (-0.074) and the level of significance (0.149).



And thereby prove the hypothesis that there is no statistically significant relationship between the concept of green marketing and the age of the consumer. This is consistent with the result of the study (Suplico, 2009), which found that there was no relationship between green marketing and the age of the consumer.

Table 3: Correlation coefficient between green marketing and age


Significance Level


Significant at 0.05 level 0.019 0.012 The relationship between the decision to buy

green products and age

Not Significant 0.817 0.012 The relationship between the effects of environmental pollution and age

Not Significant 0.765 0.015 The relationship between consumption rationalization and age

Not Significant 0.149 0.074 The relationship between green marketing as a whole, and age

Hypothesis Three: There is no statistically significant relationship between green marketing variable and education level There is a presence of a weak inverse relationship between the decision to purchase green products and educational level as shown in Table (4), where the value of the Pearson correlation coefficient ( - 0.199 ) and the level of significance ( 0.000 ) which is significant value of at the level ( 0.05). Also, there is existence of a strong positive relationship between the effects of environmental pollution and educational level, where the value of the Pearson correlation coefficient ( 0.845 ) and the level of significance ( 0.000 ) which is significant value of at the level ( 0.05). Moreover, there is existence of a positive relationship between the consumption rationalization and educational level, where the value of the Pearson correlation coefficient ( 0.428 ) and the level of significance ( 0.000 ) which is significant value of at the level ( 0.05). Finally,there is existence of a strong positive relationship between green marketing as a whole and the educational level, where the value of the Pearson correlation coefficient ( 0.791 ) and the level of significance ( 0.000 ) which is significant value of at the level ( 0.05). Thus, the hypothesis has been rejected, which states that there is no statistically significant relationship between the concept of green marketing and the educational level of the consumer. And prove the existence of a strong positive relationship between green marketing and the educational level of the consumer. This result is not consistent with the result of the study (Suplico, 2009), which found that there was no relationship between green marketing and the educational level to the consumer.

Table 4: Correlation coefficient between green marketing and education level


Significance Level


Significant at 0.05 level 0.000 -0.199 The relationship between the decision to buy

green products and education Significant at

0.05 level 0.000 0.845 The relationship between the effects of environmental pollution and education

Significant at 0.05 level 0.000 0.428 The relationship between consumption

rationalization and education Significant at

0.05 level 0.000 0.791 The relationship between green marketing as a whole, and education

Hypothesis four: There is no statistically significant relationship between green marketing variable and income As shown in Table (5), there is a lack of a relationship between the decision to buy green products and



income as the value of the Pearson correlation coefficient (- 0.053) and the level of significance (0.305), a value that is not significant at the level of (0.05). Also, there is no relationship between the effects of environmental pollution and income as the value of the Pearson correlation coefficient (0.022) and the level of significance (0.670), a value that is not significant at the level of (0.05). Additionally, there is no relationship between the rationalization of consumption and income, where the value of the Pearson correlation coefficient (-0.001) and the level of significance (0.987), a value that is not significant at the level of (0.05). There is no relationship between green marketing as a whole and where the value of the income Pearson correlation coefficient (-0.024) and the level of significance (0.643), a value that is not significant at the level of (0.05). In that way prove the hypothesis that sub-states that there is no statistically significant relationship between the concept of green marketing and consumer income. This result is consistent with the result of the study (Suplico, 2009), which also found that there was no relationship between green marketing and consumer income.

Table 5: Correlation coefficient between green marketing and income


Significance Level


Not Significant 0.305 - 0.053 The relationship between the decision to buy green

products and education Not

Significant 0.670 0.022 The relationship between the effects of environmental pollution and education

Not Significant 0.987 -0.001 The relationship between consumption

rationalization and education Not

Significant 0.643 -0.024 The relationship between green marketing as a whole, and education

CONCLUSION:

The term of green marketing is a realtivly new concept of which is unknown to many, but that its application on the ground is applied fairly well despite the failure in many aspects. We miss the green consumers in Saudi Arabia, but when they are found unforuntaly they don’t avoid buying from companies that have questionable environmental orientation. There is a lack of green products in abundance, and when exist there is the lack of clarity and inaccessibility makes the buyer is unaware of their locations. We found that byers are not willing to bear the increase in price if the product is the same quality and characteristics recognized with being environmentally sound. The social strata with higher level of education are often representing the most affinity group members to have orientation toward green products. It is important to note that Arab consumers environmentally conscious is growing, but has a weak culture of consumption in different areas, especially food which, because of the business organizations that are promoting the consumption patterns of unfriendly environmentally products and services which has significant impact of the promotion of consumption culture of the Arabic consumers. Finall, business organizations can adopt the concept of green marketing in raising the level of its products and services. RECOMMENDATIONS:

We recommend that more efforts of the various levels (individual, organizations, governments), are needed to raise awareness of the concept and meaning of green marketing to a degree it become a culture in the community. This could be achieved through campaigns guidance and educational programs. There should be more specialized studies and in-depth understanding of the nature of the products that are consistent with green marketing. Moreover, there is a need to include environmental subjects and its importance in the academic curriculum of at different educational level so that we have more percentage of green consumers in Saudi Arabia. For companies that sell green products, these products provide the care and attention to where and how to display so that they are clear and easy to



access. Additionaly, companies and organizations that produce green products need to do the proper research and use experts in order to reduce the costs of producing green products and then reduce their prices. Cosnumers with a high level of education could be a motive for changing the culture of consumption towards more environmental awareness so business organizations respond to this new culture and a shift towards the adoption of green marketing approach. Finally, there is a need for further studies specializing in consumer behavior to identify the most effective promotional methods to encourage them to adopt the values and culture of eco-friendly consumption, particularly in the areas of food products. REFERENCES:

[1] Alsmadi, Sami (2007), “Green Marketing and the Concern over the Environment: An Empirical Study to Measure Environmental Consciousness of Jordanian Consumers”, Journal of Promotional Management, Vol. 13, No. 3-4, pp. 339-361.

[2] Bakri, Thamer Yasser Al-Nouri, Ahmad Nizar (2007), “Green Marketing”, Dar Yazori for Publishing and Distribution, Amman, Jordan, 2007.

[3] Elham Rahbar, Nabsiah Abdul Wahid (2011), "Investigation of green marketing tools' effect on consumers' purchases behavior", Business Strategy Series, Vol. 12 Iss: 2, pp.73 – 83.

[4] Nabsiah Abdul Wahid, Elham Rahbar and Tan Shwu Shyan ( 2011), “Factors Influencing the Green Purchase Behavior of Penang Environmental Volunteers”, International Business Management, Vol. 5, pp. 38-49.

[5] Nouri, Nizar Ahmad Jamil (2004), “Analysis of consumer behavior from green marketing perspectives”, Thesis of Masters in Business Administration, College of Management and Economics, University of Baghdad.

[6] Shammot Marwan M. (2011), "Green Marketing and Jordanian Consumer Behavior". Research Journal of International Studies, Vol. 20. pp.30.

[7] Suplico, Luz T. (2009),"Impact of Green Marketing on The Students' Purchase Behavior", International business research,Vol. 8 Iss:12.

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IDENTIFYING THE CHIEF TRADING EMPORIUMS

IN INDIAN OCEAN MARITIME TRADE c.1000-c.1500

Dr. Priyatosh Sharma,

Head of Department, PG Deptt. of History, Guru Nanak College, Killianwali (Distt. Muktsar), Punjab, India.

ABSTRACT

Sea-ports constituted an important part in Indian sea trade. Ports were instrumental in attracting sea traffic. Ports occupied cosmopolitan space owning to the confluence and presence of foreign and indigenous merchants. The state had to tread a cautious path because atrocities and misgovernment might result in exodus of merchants to a new place. No modern work has managed to study the chief characteristics of main ports (Trading emporiums), between c. 1000-c. 1500, which could be identified throughout India irrespective of time and space gap. Even the contemporary accounts of Ibn Battuta, Duarte Barbosa and Tome Pires distinctly recorded the emergence of trading emporiums. Security, Justice, availability of raw materials and mercantile autonomy resulted in enhanced socio-economic activities which necessitated gradual transformation of a simple port into a ‘Trading Emporium’. Prominent politico-economic regions of India like Sind, Gujarat, Konkan, Malabar, the Coromandel, Orissa and Bengal have been taken into account with help of both primary and secondary sources to identify main ports (Chief Trading Emporiums). The research paper also aims to study the basic principles which help these ports to attract such a large volume of sea traffic. Keywords: Indian Ocean, Sea Trade, Ports, Trading Emporium.



INTRODUCTION:

In the simplest of definitions, a port stands for a place alongside the navigable ocean, sea or river. It had provisions for the loading and unloading of cargoes. Merchandize was collected and distributed into the hinterlands from the ports. However, there were many factors at play in transforming a small town alongside navigable river or sea into a busy seaport. It was expected to have ample storage for merchandize. Better connectivity with hinterlands was an added advantage. Security from pirates and justice had to be firmly established if a town aspired to become an important port. Ports represented a cosmopolitan culture. Many foreigners visited these places to undertake commercial activities. The rulers were thus forced to ensure the neutrality of ports. Ruling elites even provided autonomy and protection to the foreign nationals to promote their harbours. Religious freedom was extended to the merchants. Rulers benefited a lot in return. Increased commercial activities at their ports brought revenues and filled their coffers. Nature has endowed India with a long coastline. With the Arabian Sea to its west, the Bay of Bengal to its east and the Indian Ocean to its south, it has been dotted with several ports since antiquity. But the point to remember is that all of these ports did not hold the same importance for the sea merchants. Some ports attracted more sea traffic than others for a long span of time. The same was true about the period between c.1000- c.1500. Some ports were successful in attracting a sizeable inflow of the mercantile trade, whereas others could only dream of such activity. For example, no port in Gujarat could rival the supremacy of Cambay, which remained a flourishing trade emporium till the sixteenth century. On his visit to Alexandria, Ibn Battuta remarked, “It has also the magnificent port, and among all the ports in the world I have seen none equal to it, except the ports of Kawlam (Quilon) and Qaliqut (Calicut) in India”(H.A.R. Gibb,I: 19). Thus, even the contemporary writers could identify ports that were suitable for maritime trade. These ports could easily be termed as trading emporiums, which were on the list of every merchant who operated in the Indian Ocean. Unfortunately no modern work right from R.K Mookerji, Indian Shipping: A History of Seaborne Trade and Maritime Activities of the Indian from the earliest Times (1912), Kenneth Mcpherson, The Indian Ocean : A History of People and the Sea (1973), K.N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the India Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750, (1985) and K.S Behra, ed., Maritime Heritage of India (1999) has attempted to underline the general characteristics which played an key role in transforming a simple port into ‘Trading and Emporium.’ Working on this hypothesis, the present paper would attempt to locate such trading emporiums in the Indian maritime trade. CHIEF TRADING EMPORIUM IN INDIAN MARITIME TRADE: SIND:

Sind was the first place of call for the ships entering into India from western Asia. In fact, it was directly associated with the Persian Gulf. Situated on the frontier of India, it witnessed flourishing mercantile trade since antiquity. It was an important centre of mercantile trade, but the invasion of the Arabs and the inclusion of Sind into the Islamic area of influence resulted in an unprecedented growth of maritime trade in this region. The Arabs and Persians had their colonies in Sind even prior to the emergence of Islam. Muhammad bin Qasim invaded Sind in 712 AD. The incursion was followed by a large migration of the Arabs into Sind. The Arabs not only settled around the coasts but, unlike other areas, they penetrated into the interiors also. Now the question remains why Sind, which was neither a good producer nor manufacturer, was preferred by the foreigners. Al Idrisi explains that Sind owed its prosperity to commerce because its land was arid and hence not suitable for agriculture. He further adds that the people of Sind had earned riches by playing the role of intermediaries. Al Idrisi writes that The merchants bought the entire cargo of ships and hoarded it till the things became dearer (Elliot and Dowson, I: 77). Nevertheless it still does not answer our question as to why was Sind visited by foreign vessels after all? Sind enjoyed a basic geographical advantage. It was well connected with the fertile plains of Punjab through river transportation. The proximity to important land routes passing through Multan also



enabled it to act as a suitable place of storage, from where the merchandize could be sent to Punjab and Afghanistan. This is the reason for Andre Wink to suggest that the invasion of Muhammad bin Qasim was prompted by a desire to secure the maritime route passing through Sind (Andre Wink, I: 51). This invasion was mainly directed against the pirates of Sind who plundered ships sent for the Caliph from Ceylon. When Dahir, the ruler of Sind, expressed his helplessness in controlling piratical activities, the Caliph had to intervene for securing sea routes to Malabar, Cambay and even China. With the conquest of Sind, Muhammad bin Qasim tried to secure the port of Daibul. He even launched campaigns to chastise the pirates Daibul, near modern Karachi, remained the most important port of Sind up to the thirteenth century. Located on the confluence of river Indus with the Arabian Sea, cargo could be procured\distributed easily from\into the hinterland of Daibul. It enjoyed close contacts not only with western Asia but also with Africa. Nkitin found it to be a very large place and ‘the great meeting place for all nations living along the coast of India and Ethopia’ (R.H. Major: 30).’ Daibul, however, faced a serious problem of silting which ultimately resulted in its downfall. Many other ports were also faced with the problem of silting. Duarte Barbosa writes that skilled pilots are required to navigate the ships to avoid stranding in mud (Longsworth Dames, I: 139). Lahari, referred to as a prosperous port town by Ibn Battuta, attracted the flow of trade when navigation became dangerous in Daibul. Continuous silting remained a constant threat to all the important ports of India. Not only Daibul but even Cambay and Satgaon suffered great setbacks due to silting in later times. When the port of Daibul went into decline due to silting, navigation became difficult and the ships found the alternative port of Lahari. When Ibn Battuta visited Sind, he noticed the prosperity of Lahari. This port was located near the confluence of the Indus. Traders from Persia, Yemen and other countries assembled in Lahari to trade. The annual revenues of Lahari had grown to the tune of ‘60 lacs’ (H.A.R Gibb, III: 602). The extension of Islamic area of influence into Gujarat under the armies of Alauddin Khalji would also have encouraged the migration of the foreigners settled in Sind to move towards the more promising lands. In the later half of the thirteenth century, Ghiasuddin Balban (1266-86 AD) sent his elder son to Sind, with an instruction to regulate the supply of the bahri (sea) horses (Simon Digby: 21). The migrants settled in Sind would have easily acquired horses of the best breed owing to their contacts in western Asia. When Duarte Barbosa arrived in India during the early sixteenth century, he found the presence of a large number of horses in Gujarat (Longsworth Dames, I: 118). The horse trade appears to have moved along with these foreign immigrants. Thus, the silting of Daibul and expansion of Islamic empire into Gujarat diverted sea trade to new destinations. GUJARAT:

Gujarat was the central zone of mercantile activities since antiquity. Bestowed with fertile arable land and a rich variety of products, it emerged both as a producer and manufacturer. Gujarat was well connected with the fertile plains of the Ganges from where cargo could be easily brought by the indigenous merchants. The rivers, though seasonal, also helped in bringing heavier merchandize to its coastal areas. Gujarat had its reference in the Periplus and its author noticed great oceanic trade around the gulf of Cambay (W. R. Schoff :24). Another important port was Lothal which belonged to the Harapan age. As discussed earlier, the emergence of Islam encouraged the mercantile trade to a considerable extent and Gujarat became its prime beneficiary. Even during Muslim invasions, Ibn Haukal finds that the Arabs merchants were warmly welcomed and offered a good deal in Gujarat (Elliot and Dowson, I: 38). Islamic religious practices were freely observed in Sind and Saimur (Elliot and Dowson, I: 38). The rulers and the governors in Gujarat always remained alive to the benefits that were derived from the sea. As a result, it remained home to vast treasures and thus lucrative for any ruler on the throne of Delhi. Aluauddin Khalji acquired much wealth from his invasion of Gujarat in 1298 AD. The ruler of Ahmedabad was called the ‘King of the seas.’ He also participated in an Afro-Asian alliance against the Portuguese in 1508-09 AD. Gujarat was a home to several ports. Lothal and Broach were important ports in ancient times. Around the tenth century, Al Qalaqashandi found Somanath to be was a rich port and it was touched by almost



all the ships bound for Aden (Muhammad Zaki: 73). The invasion and subsequent plunder of Somanath by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni resulted in its decline after 1024-25 AD. Romila Thapar argues that Somanath recovered quickly from this plunder. She finds the elite of the city working towards the revival of the port city. The Chaulakya king, Kumarpala, appointed a govenor at Somanath to check the piratical activities of local Abhira chief (Romila Thapar: 81). Still the menace continued. Bawarjis, the dreaded pirates of the sea, had access to Somanath and they came to worship the deity also (Romila Thapar: 39) The land grant to Nuruddin Firoz, a Persian sea-merchant, might have been an effort to revive the merchants’ confidence in the administration of Somanath. Still, its projection into the open sea appears to have encouraged its decline because the increasing troubles by local rulers and piratical activities (of Bawarjis) would have forced the merchants to look for safer harbours. Romila Thapar also suggests that the invasion of Somanath might have been an attempt of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni to destroy the western links of the port. Horses were coming to India through the sea. The phenomenon was not favourable to Ghazni which desired to play the beneficial role of intermediary in this horse trade through its land routes (Romla Thapar: 51). In that case, the invasion then this could be the long lasting impact of Sultan Mahmud’s invasion. After his invasion there are very few references of horses coming through Somanath. Balban sent his son to Sind to control the supply of bahri (sea) horses (Simon Digby: 21), whereas Duarte Barbosa finds Cambay having a good stock of horses in the sixteenth century (Longsworth Dames I :118). Surat did not come into the limelight till the fifteenth century, when Duarte Barbosa noticed that the governor of Surat earned handsome revenues from maritime trade (Longsworth Dames, I :149-150). Gogha, though visited by Ibn Battuta, could never compete with other important ports of Gujarat in its prosperity. So the question arises which was the port emporium for this geographical zone? The answer was loud and clear in the accounts of all the observers and travellers. Cambay remained a port par excellence during the period under study. The naval incursions and piratical activities forced the merchants to search for safe harbourage in Gujarat. The pursuit led them to Cambay, which was situated inside the gulf and could be secured during emergencies by lowering the chains across the mouth of the gulf or blocking it with stones. Cambay might have promoted by the Gurjara Partiharas to attract sea commerce from rival ports like Broach. Whatever may be the reason, Cambay emerged as the port emporium between eleventh to sixteenth century. Cambay is an ancient port which even existed in the Harapan times (S.J.D. Varaprasad and S.R Rao: 89). It, however, came to limelight only after the eleventh century. Ibn Battuta found Cambay inhabited by a large number of foreign merchants who constructed beautiful houses and resided in them. He even appreciates the design of a handsome mosque in Cambay (Mahdi Husain :172). Tome Pires remarks:

“ ….Cambay- the chief city of Milingobin- sail many ships to all parts to Aden, Ormuz, the kingdom of Deccan, Goa, Bhatkal, all over Malabar, Ceylon, Bengal, Pegu, Siam, Pedir, Pase and Malacca where they take quantities of merchandize, bringing other kinds back, thus making Cambay rich and important. Cambay chiefly stretches out two arms, with her right arm she reaches out towards Aden and with the other towards Malacca, as the most important places to sail to.” (Franciso Rodrigues, I: 42)

Cambay was so well connected with the Red Sea that even the annual pilgrimage to Mecca commenced from Cambay. The envoy (of the Fatimid caliph in Egypt), who brought a khilat for Muhammad bin Tughluq started his return journey to Egypt via Cambay. (H.A.R Gibb, III: 674). Alauddin Khalji acquired rich plunder from his invasion of Cambay in 1298 AD. The inclusion of Cambay in the Delhi sultanate further helped its expansion. As suggested earlier, the prosperity of Daibul might have suffered a setback with the expansion of the Islamic diasporas in Gujarat. Ghiasuddin Balban sent his son to Sind to secure the supply of the horses from western Asia, but Duarte Barbosa informs that horses were found in abundance in Gujarat. (Longsworth Dames, I: 118) It is probable that the same thing might have happened to the inflow of other merchandize from and to western Asia. The question remains why Cambay managed to dominate the mercantile trade of the Arabian Sea?



During the first half of fourteenth century, Cambay had beautiful buildings and ‘wonderful’ mosques, which were continuously built by the foreign merchants. This strengthens the argument that Cambay owed its prosperity to Islamic diasporas that followed Muslim conquerors to Gujarat. These Muslims traders must have had their roots in western Asia and, thus, stood in better position to attract the inflow of oceanic trade from the Persian Gulf and Red Sea. At the same time, Cambay was bestowed with some other crucial advantages. Situated on the Mahi estuary, this port provided security and better interconnectivity to the foreigners. The rulers were aware of the profits that accrued from the sea trade. Ufi narrates an incident in which some locals burnt the mosque and killed eighty Muslims. The local ruler, Rai Singh, acted swiftly and ordered the arrest of two ‘leading men from each class of infidels, Brahman, fire worshipper, and others’ to be punished. He also distributed money to enable the Muslims to rebuild their mosque and minarets (Elliot and Dowson, II: 164). This action was primarily taken to satisfy the aggrieved foreign merchants, lest they should leave the city en mass. Cambay was also a place of considerable manufacturing, where considerable work was done in ivory, gold, cloths and quilts, that “in this city the best workmen in every kind of work are found”( Elliot and Dowson, II: 142). By the sixteenth century, the gulf of Cambay began to face the problem of silting. The navigation became difficult. Duarte Barbosa writes:

“Sailing from these ports is very dangerous for keeled ships, because being at the top of the tide the water here runs out so far in the gulf that, in a very short space of time, four or five leagues are left bare….and when there is a flowing tide it flows so strong that they say a man running at full speed cannot escape it…many (ships) are left stranded on rocks where they are lost.” (Longsworth Dames, I: 139)

As the political balance shifted to Surat, the latter emerged as one of the richest ports after the sixteenth century. KONKAN:

Konkan was the next zone of Indian maritime trade. However, its mercantile character differed a lot from Sind and Gujarat. It presented a entirely different scenario, which was created by a peculiar set of ecological conditions and economic compulsions. Konkan is a hilly area and does not have a satisfactory cultivation. Life in general was hard. Its greatest asset was its location. It was favourably located enroute (via sea) to Gujarat and Malabar. Its favourable location encouraged its mercantile activities. In medieval times, it derived considerable profits from its role as an intermediary. The absence of good farm products was compensated by the availability of teak and pearls from the gulf of Sopara. It also exported a large quantity of cotton cloths, but this must have been more like a re-export than original products. The availability of sufficient quantity of teak proved to be a great allurement for the ships, especially dhows (sea-going ships), trading in the Arabian Sea. Bassein, Thana and Chaul emerged as centre of respectable shipbuilding industry. Apart from the construction of new ships, these might have served as a place of repair for the old ships. Konkan also followed the cruel policy of plundering the ships that did not make a call at its ports. Marco Polo informs us about a local ruler who even encouraged the pirates to rob the ocean going ships from his principality in return of horses (H. Yule, II: 395). As mentioned earlier, Konkan was famous for its teak. Though Bassein, Thana and Chaul developed as leading centres of shipbuilding, but Chaul outpaced others in attracting the inflow of sea traffic. First mentioned by Ptolemy as Symulla or Tamulla, several travellers observed a considerable mercantile activity in Chaul. Duarte Barbosa found Thana infested with pirates (Longsworth Dames, I: 153), whereas Chaul witnessed the great oceanic traffic during the winter months of December, January, February and March (Longsworth Dames,I: 159). Chaul benefited a lot from its location. Situated on the banks of the river Kundalika, it was visited both by the Arabs engaged in long distance trade and Banias (trading community among Hindus) from Gujarat doing coastal trading between Malabar and Gujarat. It seems that Chaul also promised better facilities and protection to the foreigners. The better connectivity of Chaul with Gujarat, Red Sea routes and the Persian Gulf, forced the Portuguese to pass



a royal charter to regulate the spice trade between Chaul and Red Sea. The Portuguese did not want that any spices should reach Europe through Alexandria and Venice (B. Ashok Rajeshirke: 109). This charter forced the Nizam of Chaul to join the league formed by the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt against the Portuguese. The presence of Arab merchants at Chaul also attracted the trade in good horses towards this port. It supplied horses to the Yadavas, Vijaynagara and other important principalities in south India. Copper was another important commodity that was exported from Chaul to other areas, specially Cambay, through coastal trading (B. Ashok Rajeshirke: 111) The Portuguese followed a systematic policy to destroy the commercial activities in Chaul. In their attempt to regulate the spice trade of India, they diverted horse trade from Chaul to Goa. They provided protection to merchants in return for Cartez (K.N. Chaudhuri: 384-385). With the establishment of their factory in Surat, they forbade the import of spices to Chaul. Around 1520 AD, they issued an order that anyone found carrying spices to Chaul would be condemned to death or given severe punishment. This proved to be a deadly blow to the prosperity of Chaul. The supremacy of Chaul was now replaced with the new capital of the Portuguese at Goa MALABAR:

Malabar was the most important zone in the oceanic trade. In touch with the outer world since antiquity, this zone became an eye sore for Pliny who complained that India was draining the Roman Empire of precious metals with her grass and roots. (A.H.M. Jones: 5) Malabar was traditionally known for its supply of spices, specially pepper. The prosperity of the Roman Empire and its insatiable demand for spices made Malabar a favourite destination of foreign merchants. An intense struggle to control the supplies of Malabar ensued between the Sassanids (Persians) and the Romans. The emergence of Islamic caliphate once again generated a huge demand for Indian spices in west Asia. Victories of the Islamic armies extended the influence of the caliphate in Asia and Africa. It heralded the era of Pan Islamica. It was represented by general prosperity and extension of trade. Muslim armies plundered huge treasures in Africa and Asia and brought them in circulation for the expanding Asian markets. Cities grew rapidly. Products of distant world were brought for the caliph and Muslim gentry. This ‘country of pepper’, as designated by the Arab geographers gained a lot from such a scenario. Al Qalaqashandi recorded that the ports of Malabar soon acquired a cosmopolitan character (Muhammad Zaki: 75). They attracted a big diaspora of foreign nationals professing different religions. Earlier it had come into contact with Christianity when Saint Thomas arrived in south India around the first century. After twelfth century, it gained more importance because it emerged as the single zone of trans-shipment for the vessels trading in the Indian Ocean. There is some evidence that sailing was done all the way from the Persian Gulf to China prior to the eleventh century, but sources point to the absence of such a phenomenon in the period under study. Junks sailed up to Quilon and Wassaf writes about their vastness (Elliot and Dowson, III: 32). Dhows were confined to the western sector of the Indian Ocean. This trend encouraged large settlement of traders in Malabar. Duarte Barbosa records the presence of the Gujaratis, Arabs, Persians and Dakhnis, known as Pardesis in Malabar. According to his testimony, the foreigners were provided with their own controllers and governors to regulate their affairs (Longsworth Dames, II: 76) Malabar was dotted with several small and big ports of national and international fame. Throughout medieval period, ports of Malabar nurtured internal rivalry for supremacy in attracting the inflow of maritime trade. The struggle to emerge as a single trading emporium was mainly confined to two important ports, namely Quilon and Calicut. The prosperity of these two constrained Ibn Battuta to compare them with the magnificent port of Alexandria (H.A.R Gibb, I: 19). We would therefore study the multi-dimensional trade of Malabar, with special reference to these two ports in order to locate its trading emporium. Ruled by a Hindu ruler, who was designated as Samuri, Calicut emerged as a rich, prosperous and populated port. It was extremely famous in the Indian Ocean trading world. In 1498 AD, the great sailor Ibn Majid brought the Portuguese, in search of Indian pepper, to Calicut. Increase in maritime activities after the eleventh century attracted considerable number of merchants to Malabar. Muslim



diasporas from Gujarat and western Asia moved towards Malabar. Arrival of these diasporas strengthened contacts of Calicut with other trading zones of the Indian Ocean. The Chinese also made Malabar their farthest destination in the Indian Ocean. They normally terminated their voyage in Calicut. Availability of the Chinese commodities, silk and porcelain in particular, was an added advantage. Porcelain and silk were in huge demand throughout India, western Asia and Africa. Trading activities in Calicut, however, remained in the hands of Muslim merchants. They almost monopolized its foreign trade. They even threatened the Samuri that they would leave the port if the Portuguese were allowed to trade in Calicut around 1498 AD. The threat was serious enough to force the Samuri to turn hostile towards the foreigners (the Portuguese). Duarte Barbosa informs us that the Gujaratis (Muslims) owned the best houses in Calicut (Longsworth Dames, II :73). Calicut developed with the active participation of the ruling class. As mentioned earlier, the rulers granted autonomy to merchants. They (merchants) had their own shahbandar who regulated their internal affairs. The merchants were promised security of their lives and goods. The duties were moderate. Abdur Razzaq records:

“Security and justice are so firmly established in this city (Calicut) that most wealthy merchants bring thither from maritime countries considerable cargoes, which they unload, and unhesitatingly send into the markets and bazaars, without thinking in the meantime of any necessity of checking the account or of keeping watch over the goods. The officers of the custom-house take upon themselves the charge of looking after the merchandise, over which they keep watch day and night. When a sale is effected, they levy a duty on the goods of one-fortieth part; if they are not sold, they make no charge on them whatsoever.”(R. H. Major: 14)

Ibn Battuta describes that in Malabar, it is a custom that whenever a ship was destroyed, whatsoever was saved from it went to the treasury. But, this practice was not followed in the town of Calicut (Mahdi Husain: 192). The merchandize went back to the true owner. With better deals to offer, the port of Calicut succeeded in attracting the maritime flow. It emerged not only as an exporter but also as an important intermediary. Precious commodities brought from all quarters of the world were available in Calicut. It fulfilled the demand of both the luxuries and staples. Even costly products from Abyssinia, Zirbad and Zanguebar were available here. Quilon was another important port of the Malabar. It was reputed for its supply of pepper. Tome Pires remarks that the ruler of Quilon used to receive forty elephants from Ceylon in earlier times (Franciso Rodrigues, I: 80). Elephants of Ceylon were greatly cherished in India for their warring skills. Ibn Battuta refers to the merchants of Quilon who possessed considerable wealth, so much so that one of them could buy the whole ship with its merchandize in one deal (Ibn Battuta (Mahdi Husain: 193) Duarte Barbosa also found Quilon populated with traders from several nations and religions. They possessed many ships and sailed in all directions (Longsworth Dames, II: 97). These merchants would have enabled the port to have favourable trading relations with western Asia. Quilon also acted as the first port of call for the ships sailing for southeast Asia. Quilon was in close commercial contacts with the Chinese merchants (Yule and Cordier, 30). Chinese mission to Muhammad bin Tughluq landed at Quilon. Ibn Battuta saw a big Chinese cock for the first time in Quilon (Yule and Cordier: 110) It seemed that the big junks made Quilon their last port of call. Jews and Christians also participated in the maritime trade of Quilon. Contemporary sources even point towards Jews owning large chunks of pepper land (gardens) in Quilon. In short, ships from Quilon sailed to all directions loaded with the goods of diverse varieties (Longsworth Dames, II: 97) THE COROMANDEL:

The Coromandel, famous for its clothes and pearls, emerged as a commercial destination with the rise of the Cholas. The eleventh century witnessed the Chola navy marching upto Srivijaya (1025 AD) to further its mercantile interests. The Cholas had already invaded Ceylon to monopolize maritime trade on the advice of merchants from Tamil areas. Various guilds like the Nandesi, Manigramam and Ayyavole started recording their presence in the Coromandel. These maritime activities were not new



to Tamil areas. Sangam literature alludes to big ships entering the port of Puhar (Kaveripattinam) without lowering their sails (K. V. Raman: 114) Joseph Needham records Roman Syrian settlements in Virapattinam (around modern Pondicherry) during the first century (J. Needham, I: 178-179). The Tamil merchants helped in Hindu colonization of southeast Asia. The eleventh century witnessed a great impetus to these maritime activities. The Cholas and Pandayas contributed a lot towards these developments. Islamic influx into the Coromandel under Muslim armies brought Tamilnadu into the Islamic area of influence. However, it benefited the most with the Chinese participation in the Indian Ocean after the eleventh century. Historically, the eastern coasts of India remained more inclined towards southeast Asia and China. Wassaf observes that the big ships, floating like mountains in the sea, started arriving in Ma’abar (Elliot and Dowson, III: 32) The Coromandel and Tamil areas faced one major disadvantage, which was the lack of good and deep harbourage. Kayal, Hinawar and Tochi were recorded as the main ports, but they could not be compared with Daibul, Cambay, Calicut and Quilon in their grandeur. Hence one can find reference to the inscriptions encouraging the traders to come to these ports. One such inscription in Motupalli (1358 AD) is worth mentioning. It converted Motupalli into a safe haven for sea merchants and remitted many taxes. It also promised to extend autonomy to them in their internal affairs (P. R. Srinivasan: no. 635) An important feature in the composition of these ports was their concentration in the southern zone. Kayal, Kaveripattinam and Nagapattinam went on to emerge as important ports in southern Coromandel. The reason could be their proximity nearer to the marked international trading routes. Ships destined for China from Malabar hesitated to steer deep into the Bay of Bengal. Ports of southern coasts, on the other hand, could be touched without deviating from the marked routes. This phenomenon resulted in the concentration of all the major mercantile activities in the ports situated in the southern Coromandel. They also served as the ports of trans-shipment for the ports located in the interior of the Bay of Bengal. Ships brought merchandize from northern areas to do trading in the southern ports. The sixteenth century traveller, Duarte Barbosa writes, “Cael has a great haven whither every year sail many ships from Charamandel and Benguala, so that….there is a great traffic in goods of many kinds coming from other regions.”(Longsworth Dames, II: 123) Kayal was a prominent port. It survived throughout the medieval period and received a regular supply of horses from western Asia. Marco Polo records that Kayal was in touch with the ships coming from the west. Ships arrived from Hormuz, Arabia, Kish and Aden bringing a large supply of war-horses. It witnessed brisk mercantile activities (H. Yule, II: 370). Both Chettis and Lubbais were found trading in Kayal, yet it did not emerge as the trading emporium of Coromandel (H. Yule, II: 370-374) Which port can be designated as the trading emporium in the Coromandel? The claim to greatness was contested between two major ports of Tamilnadu. Kaveripattinam was an important port of Tamilnadu. It had its reference even in the Sangam literature. Ships sailed to the port of Kaveripattinam without slacking their sails and brought precious metals from Malaya, Ceylon and Arabia (K.V. Raman: 114) Developed under the patronage of Pandayas, Kaveripattinam attracted a huge volume of sea traffic. The Pandayan attempt to attract horse trade to Kaveripattinam also brought prominence to it. However, the decline of Pandayas and the subsequent revival of Chola power shifted the centre of south Indian political and economic activities towards Chola areas. The Cholas patronized the port of Nagapattinam and it soon surpassed Kaveripattinam in its grandeur and extent of mercantile trade Nagapattinam, developed under the patronage of the Cholas, witnessed a tremendous rush of sea traffic and remained an important port throughout early medieval period. The Portuguese, on their arrival in the area, marked Nagapattinam as their chief city in the Coromandel (Longsworth Dames, II: 123-124). Expansion of the Chola influence, which extended upto Bengal and Malabar, provided large and secured hinterlands. They patronized and attracted the inflow of commercial traffic to their areas. The Cholas were fully aware of the benefits of maritime trade and vigorously attracted itinerant and sea merchants, who were provided security and freedom to govern their internal matters. The Cholas sent embassies to different countries. In order to attract the Buddhist merchants of southeast Asia, They even permitted the construction of a Buddhist sanctuary in Nagapattinam. A large volume of porcelain



related to that period has been excavated at Nagapattinam. Chinese works of twelfth and thirteenth century testify the greatness of Nagapattinam. Zhuavo Ragua in Zufan Zhi (1290 AD) and Wang Dayaun in Daryio Zhiva (1305 AD) refer to this large city (K.V. Raman: 114) Availability of porcelain was important as it was in considerable demand all over Indian Ocean trading world. The merchants would prefer to visit a port that promised Chinese porcelain and rarities. The improved links with China and southeast Asia enabled Nagapattinam to ensure supply of porcelain and silk from China and spices of southeast Asia. The Cholas also monopolized the supply of pearls. Their missions to China carried pearls and other costly finished products with a view to signify their control over these routes to the Chinese emperor. However, it perhaps went into decline in the first half of fifteenth century. Famous Chinese commander Cheng Ho did not arrive in Nagapattinam during his seven expeditions of the Indian Ocean in the mid fifteenth century. Nevertheless, it recovered soon. It was a flourishing port when the Portuguese arrived. Realizing its strategic importance, the Portuguese made it their headquarters in the Coromandel. ORISSA:

Orissa was known all over the Indian subcontinent for the breeding of elephants. It generated some amount of shipping from Chilka and Puri. Khalkatapatna, eleven kilometers east of Konark, witnessed maritime traffic during the reign of the Ganga dynasty. Chinese celadon, porcelain with blue floral design on white background, and glazed chocolate ware of Arabian origins have been excavated at this place. Chinese copper coins of the fourteenth century with peculiar motifs constituted another important find from this site.(S. R. Rao :230) Still there was certainly no such port as to claim the prestigious position of a trading emporium. Perhaps Bengal and Tamil areas continued to attract products from Orissa via land routes. Coastal trading between the Coromandel and Bengal would have brought ships to these ports of Orissa. BENGAL:

Bengal was known for the production of cotton, sugarcane, ginger and slaves. It was a prosperous and important zone in the Indian Ocean trading world. It remained in contact with southeast Asia since antiquity. First Chinese traveller in India, Fahien embarked on a ship from Bengal enroute to China. The Bengalis played a leading role in colonizing southeast Asia (Franciso Rodrigues, I: 143)

Bengal remained closely aligned to north Indian politics. Control of Bengal was important for any ruler in Delhi because it ensured an outlet to the sea through the Ganges. It is the only river that covered almost all the major cities of central India. The Yamuna in the vicinity of Delhi also merged in the Ganges near Allahabad. In the absence of suitable land transportation, a considerable volume of merchandize could be brought to the sea through the river. This phenomenon of better linkage of ports with hinterlands, through the rivers, resulted in the emergence of Bengal as an important zone of maritime trade. It enjoyed close ties not only with southeast Asia but also with western Asia. Both junks (suitable for the eastern sector of the Indian Ocean) and dhows (suitable for the Arabian sea) were constructed here. The result was the availability of vast range of merchadize. Bengal had hot and humid weather. It was also infested with dacoits who plundered the merchants. Numerous battles further complicated the situation; still the incentives were so huge that merchants could not avoid the place. Ibn Battuta calls Bengal Duzakhast bur ni’amat (‘A Hell full of Good Things’) (Yule and Cordier: 5). Tome Pires remarks that in Bengal goods were highly taxed, but still merchants received good profits if they landed at the harbours of Bengal (Franciso Rodrigues, I: 93) Thus, a visit to Bengal was sure to bring immense profits to sailing vessels. Expansion of Islamic area of influence resulted in corresponding expansion of mercantile activities in Bengal. Interestingly, Duarte Barbosa found Muslims living in the coastal areas (Longsworth Dames, II :135). Merchants from Bengal extended their areas of operation. Ibn Battuta found Bengali merchants living in separate quarters in Sumatra (Mahdi Husain: 242 fn. 2). Ships sailed to all directions from Bengal. Ibn Battuta boarded a junk from Bengal on his journey to China (Yule and Cordier: 92.) Duarte Barbosa noticed both dhows and junks



in Bengal (Longsworth Dames, II :142-145). Simon Digby believes that Bengalis constructed their own junks and this technique might have filtered down to Bengal after such a long era of commercial intercourse with China (Simon Digby, I: 131) Junks were built in Bengal even when the Chinese withdrew from the Indian Ocean trade around fifteenth century. Now the question arises which was chief trading emporium of Bengal? This question has been hotly debated. Contemporary travelogues refer to two important ports, with different characteristics. The first port Satgaon or Chitgaon was located near the shores and witnessed a large volume of sea traffic till 1623 AD when Hooghly was made the royal port by the Portuguese (Yule and Cordier: 82). Satgaon was loosely controlled by many governors till the arrival of the Mughal armies. It witnessed continuous conflicts. Why was it visited by maritime traders after all? The answer lies in its location. Outside the delta of the Ganges, Satgaon offered ships a passage into Bengal. The merchants unloaded cargoes from the big vessels into smaller vessels before steering into river Meghna. During rainy seasons, big ships would have sailed into river Meghna from Satgaon. Ibn Battuta boarded a junk from Satgaon for southeast Asia (Yule and Cordier: 92). Sunargaon was, strictly speaking, not a port. It was not situated near the sea. It was located in the interiors on river Meghna. But, if the volume of commodities and the number of merchants contributed to the emergence of a chief trading emporium, then certainly Sunargaon was not lagging behind. Ships brought immense merchandize from the distant countries of the Indian Ocean trading world to Sunargaon. The ships sailed to Satgaon to find their way to Sunargaon. It was well fortified city and big bazaars were held in it. It also remained the seat of the governors of east Bengal from 1351 AD to 1608 AD (Yule and Cordier: 93). The presence of nobility would have created a zone of considerable demand for both luxuries and staples. As a terminus to the Grand Trunk road, it witnessed a great inflow of merchandize both from land and sea routes. Decca, an important centre of textiles, was just 15 miles away from it. Better interconnectivity between land (through the Grand Trunk road) and sea (through river Meghna) routes placed Sunargaon in an advantageous position. Though Bengal was infested with robbers and pirates, the presence of the governors and fortifications ensured better protection to merchants and their cargoes in Sunargaon. The merchants were offered security and fair deal. Things were available at cheap rates in the markets. Ibn Battuta provides the following price list of some commodities (Yule and Cordier: 81-82):

COMMODITY QUANTITY / PRICE Milch cow ---------------------- Three silver dinar Fine cotton cloth -------------------- Thirty cubits in length for two dinars A beautiful girl -------------------- A dinar of gold (Marriageable age)

Ibn Battuta bought a young slave girl Ashura for one dinar and his comrades bought a slave called Lulu for two dinars. Both luxuries and staples were available in plenty. Merchants could divide their risks fairly between costly and cheap products. Thus, Sunargaon was the chief trading emporium of Bengal. CONCLUSION:

From the preceding discussion, it becomes evident why certain ports surpassed others to emerge as trading emporiums? Trade in medieval period, like any other time, was based on one consideration: profits. Merchants crossed seas and undertook tremendous risk to earn profits. If they were promised better facilities by a certain port, they could be easily lured into it. Better facilities could easily double their returns with low risks. Their visit was determined by multiple factors. These factors existed right from Aden to Canton during the period of our study. Political patronage was an essential priority in developing a trading emporium. Security and neutrality of the ports could only be ensured by the ruling elites. Sea merchants shunned oppressive and cruel rulers. We have a ruler of the fourteenth century Ceylon named Chakarvati. He was despised by the sea merchants. On the other hand, the port of Quilon was a favourite



destination of sea merchants. Here taxes were low and the ruler, like other princes, did not rob the merchants. We have reference of the Balharas (the Rashtrkutas) who were very considerate towards the Arab merchants. Indian rulers always maintained a distinction between the invaders and traders. Muslim merchants were always welcomed. In the first half of thirteenth century, Rai Jai Singh of Cambay personally intervened to dispense justice to Muslims when local miscreants burnt their houses and mosque. Only the rulers could ensure the neutrality of ports, giving it a true cosmopolitan character. It was the first step towards becoming a chief trading emporium. Geographic suitability was the next factor. The chief trading emporium should be ideally located. It must promise deep harbours. Navigation should not be a dangerous enterprise. It must be well connected with its hinterlands. Aden provided security from the dangerous reefs of the Red Sea. Hormuz replaced Basra because it provided shelter from the delta of Euphrates and Tigris into the Persian Gulf. Cambay replaced Somanath because it provided protection from piratical activities. Malacca was blessed because of its location between the ends of two different circles of monsoons. Availability of profitable markets was another characteristic of chief trading emporiums. Foreign merchants were bound with the monsoon circle. They had limited time at hand. They preferred to visit ports specializing in a vast range of products. Ports that were well connected with their hinterlands thus had an added advantage. K.N. Chaudhuri in his work, Trade and Civilisation in the India Ocean (1985), finds the trade of Aden ‘multi dimensional,’ (but this characteristic was common to all chief trading emporiums). Merchants could procure both staples and luxuries there. This helped them to spread their risks. Strong and autonomous mercantile organizations were also important. Merchants preferred to visit ports where mercantile organizations were offered autonomy. Presence of commercial organizations promised security and better deal in local markets. There were fanduqs/mohallas (residential places) in every trading emporium. Merchants were tied to their clans. Nationalities and, more importantly, religion formed strong ties among sea merchants. Ibn Battuta tells us about an Iraqi merchant who was ready to visit India, but afterwards moved towards China in the company of his native fellow merchants (H.A.R. Gibb, III: 548). No doubt, that Iraqi merchant was not a sea merchant, but merchants in general were guided by almost similar considerations. It is thus beyond doubt that sea traders, irrespective of their nation and religion, looked for similar circumstances to ensure their voyage a success. They favoured the ports promising autonomy, profits, security and better commercial transactions. Almost all the chief trading emporiums of the Indian Ocean displayed similar characteristics contributing to their success not only in India but also in Asia. REFERENCES:

[1] Gibb, H.A.R.(1999). The Travel of Ibn Battuta AD 1325-1354. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. [2] Elliot, H.M. & Dowson, J.(1964). The History of India as Told by its Own Historians. 8 Vols.

Allahabad: Kitab Mahal. [3] Wink, Andre (1999). Al Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World. Vol. I. Delhi: Oxford

University Press. [4] Major, R.H. (1974). India in the Fifteenth Century. Deep Publications: New Delhi. [5] Dames, Longsworth(1989). The Book of Duarte Barbosa: An Account of the Countries Bordering

on the Indian Ocean and Their Inhabitants. 2 Vols. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. [6] Digby, Simon(1971). War-Horse and Elephant in the Dehli Sultanate: A Study of Military

Supplies. Karachi: Oxford University Press. [7] Schoff, W. R.(1912). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Bombay: Longmans, Green and Co. [8] Zaki, Muhammad(1981). Arab Accounts of India During the Fourteenth Century. Delhi: Idarah-

i Adabiyāt-i Delli. [9] Thapar, Romila(2004). Somanatha: The Many Voices of a History. New Delhi: Penguins.



[10] Varaprasad, S.J.D. & Rao, S.R.(1988). Rise in Sea Level – A Case Study of Some Ancient Port Towns in the Gulf of Cambay. Rao, S.R. (Ed.). Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries. Goa: Marine Institute of Oceanography. 89-90.

[11] Husain, Mahdi(1976). The Rehla of Ibn Battuta. Baroda: Oriental Institute. [12] Yule, H.(1998). The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian, Concerning the Kingdoms and

Marvels of the East. 2 Vols. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. [13] Rajeshirke, B. Ashok(1988). Portuguese Trade in India and Its Impact on Chaul. Rao, S. R.(Ed.).

Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries. Goa: Marine Institute of Oceanography. 109-111.

[14] Chauduri, K.N.(1982). European Trade with India. Raychaudhuri, Tapan & Habib, Irfan (Eds.). The Cambridge Economic History of India, Vol. I, New Delhi: Orient Longman. 382-407.

[15] Jones, A. H. M.(1970). Asian Trade in Antiquity. Richards, D.S. (Ed.). Trade, Islam and the Trade of Asia: A Colloquium. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 1-10.

[16] Rodrigues, Franciso (1990). Suma Oriental of Tome Pires. 2 Vols. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services.

[17] Yule, H & Cordier, H.(1998). Cathay and the Way Thither. Vol. IV. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.

[18] Raman, K. V.(1998). Port Towns of Tamilnadu- Some Field Data and the Prospects of Marine Archaeology. Rao, S.R.(Ed.). Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries: Goa: Marine Institute of Oceanography, 114-118.

[19] Needham, J. (1954), Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[20] Srinivasan, P. R.(1990), South Indian Inscriptions, XXVI. no. 635. New Delhi, Archeological Survey of India.

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TONI MORRISON’S PROJECTION OF BLACK

WOMANHOOD THROUGH PECOLA AND SETHE IN THE

BLUEST EYE AND BELOVED

Prasanta Kumar Padhi,

Department of English Orissa Engineering College, India.

ABSTRACT

Before the civil war in America, the black African people were treated as chattels and were subjected to all kind of injustice and discrimination. Slavery and discrimination, for instance, have brought severe miseries to Afro-Americans such as being treated as animals, losing their human rights, and subjecting to violence. But the real victims were the black African women, as these women had no position in society and were living the most pathetic and humiliating life. These women were ill treated first by their own male members in their own homes and secondly they were subjugated to all kinds of humiliation by the white people. They had no honor or any sense of right as they were kept in complete ignorance and darkness for a long time. Since times of slavery, black womanhood has been destroyed, distorted, dismantled and abused with racial, sexual and inhuman practices by black men and white men and women. In the process, they have lost their genuine "self", and have developed a complexity in themselves. This has ultimately been responsible for the destruction of their self-confidence and the feeling of being human. The paper deals chiefly with Toni Morrison’s portrayal of Pecola and Sethe, which chiefly celebrate the black womanhood. The central theme of the paper deals with the black women characters who are raised from their poor, down trodden and most humiliating position to a new sense of awareness of freedom, liberty and equality in their society. They are filled with new desires, aspirations and ambitions and thereby are made conscious of social honor and dignity. Keywords: womanhood, struggle, victimization, discrimination, awareness



Toni Morrison is among the pioneer of the contemporary black writers who have redefined African-American writing in many ways. Black women in America being black, female and poor have been victimized by racism, sexism, and classism, not only from the white world, but also from their own men. These women have faced the problems of race, class and gender, which have pushed them towards a margin. They are separated from the society. They have to endure all the violence and racist behaviors of both white men and women. In addition to these, a colored women not only struggle against racist society, but also she has to suffer at the hands of black men. Being aware of these facts, Toni Morrison aim to portray the experiences of black women in her novels. Morrison expresses her knowledge about black life creating fictional characters. “Morrison’s strengthening of definitions and focusing of perception is reflected in the novels’ narrative structures” (Birch, 151). The black woman is the main concern when Morrison plans her characters. She tries her best to depict different women experience in her novels and each female character has some specific features which are interesting to discuss. Adolescent girls often appear as characters in Morrison’s stories. Unlike common young people, those girls have no choice but to accept some trauma instead of possessing the happiness of their youth. The author wants to make some issues clear by making her characters special in some way. One of the features of Morrison’s adolescent girls is that they get hurt and enter the adult world early. Her first novel The Bluest Eye examines the consequences of black womanhood in an oppressive white world. The reader witnesses the psychological disintegration of Pecola Breedlove, an adolescent girl whose blackness is shame to a society in which blue eyes are valued above all others. The Bluest Eye is the story of Pecola Breedlove, a young black girl in Ohio. It deals with the great range of black feminine voice into the artificial mould of stereotype. It allows us to get a deep look into the black woman’s dilemma, oppressions and trials symbolized by the tragic life of Pecola, who is driven insane by the pressure of having absolute physical beauty, the beauty of a white woman, by having fair skin, blond hair and blue eyes. This was the definition of beauty in the society, which was impossible for Pecola to meet them. The sense of “unsetting emptiness” and the “enemy within” drive Pecola to the need of a man who could make her happy. The emotionally deprived life of Pecola’s parents forces her to a state of schizophrenia. Her mother Pauline is troubled by the feeling of motherhood in her life. The daily need of her children seem to her troublesome, as she is totally disappointed in her personal life. Even the life of Pecola’s father Clolly is an instance of negligence, frustration and quest for identity. Without parental affection and care, he feels himself alienated from his family. Pecola thus becomes the victim of her parent’s bitter dissatisfaction with life; dissatisfaction is greatly connected to the various forms of discrimination with which blacks have to live within white American society. She is trapped in a world of taunts, threats but yearns for love and protection. But neither Pauline nor Cholly can provide her with any emotional or moral support since they themselves are without roots and are emotionally and spiritually depraved. Pecola desires to have blue eyes, she wants in fact to be white, and like her mother Pauline she wants to identify herself with the white women. Pecola and her family members all accept the expression of the people around them. “The community senses the Breedloves self-hatred and encourages it by agreeing that the Breedloves are ugly” (Kubitschek, 34). Thus, Pecola herself knows the truth that she is a colored person and ugly. As a member of black race “Pecola, suffering from a sense of self-loathing and false identity…” (Peach, 27) wants God to give her bluest eyes that are seen the mark of beauty in the community. In The Bluest Eye, the superiority of white people is displayed by standards of beauty. Therefore, Pecola cannot live the happiness of being different and treated in a different way in white society. As the narrator of the novel, states the problem is not Pecola’s and her family’s “…ugliness, but their “conviction” of their ugliness that makes the difference” (Bloom, 13). Not only Pecola, but also the members of her family accept the state of ugliness and this acceptation causes them to experience nearly all evil racial and interracial acts of people. The novel The Bluest Eye, begins with Morrison’s comments “…on the movement’s assertions of racial beauty” (The Bluest Eye, 2). The political movements assertions of 1960s and 1970s, demonstrate that in fact the colored ones are beautiful. Likewise, Morrison aims to imply this thought by the help of her



story. In the novel, “The self-hatred is often focused on the body as the most obvious indicator of race; hair and color, for example, are recurrent concerns” (Peach, 28). The real cause of the discrimination is color of people’s skin in The Bluest Eye. “The poignancy of Pecola’s victimization arises not only from the racism and resulting interracial conflicts…but also from the intraracial conflicts related to color …”(Bloom, 12) In the novel the concept of black “…is a construct partly of the characters own making but mostly social, based on white definitions of blackness which associate it with violence, poverty, dirt and lack of education…” (Peach, 26–27) Morrison states that the black females are only seen as housemaid or slaves at the hands of white race. Even, the white little children order something and they act as if they have no wish. The white people “…use to despise African Americans” (Kubitschek, 34). The colored women are always viewed as a person who should endure violence and hardness even they are at home. The black women should “…combat the waywardness of their husbands and children and the racism of whites” (McKay, 70). In Morrison’s novel The Bluest Eye, the first act of violence seen through bad behavior of Claudia MacTeer. When a white baby doll is given her as a Christmas present, she wants to break it. Her family states their puzzlement “Now-you-got-it-up-what’s-the-matter-with-you?” (The Bluest Eye, 21) Claudia accepts his violent behavior indicating “I destroyed white baby dolls” (The Bluest Eye, 22). In fact, Claudia wants to learn the secret of beauty of white people. “Claudia’s acts are motivated in the main by a need to locate the source of white beauty that is not immediately apparent to her” (McKay, 61). Even though she tears the white babies to pieces, she cannot adopt the superiority of white race. “But dismembering of dolls was not the true horror. The truly horrifying thing was the transference of the same impulse to little white girls” (The Bluest Eye, 22). This terrifying instance of Claudia is the result of this fact “…Claudia is envious of Shirley Temple…” (Bjork, 35) who is a little white girl. The violent manners are also seen by means of Pecola’s father, Cholly. He not only beats her daughter, but also rapes her, that is the signifier of incest occurring in a black family. Toni Morrison displays “…the emotional violence heaped, upon children by parents as a special concern” (Bloom, 13). Pecola is the representative of both psychologically and physically abused girl.”The Bluest Eye delineates how Pecola is repeatedly exposed to psychological violation, and how physical violation completes the psychological destruction” (Kubitschek, 30). Pecola’s only concern is not having the bluest eye; she also wants to get rid of the racist behaviors of white people. Therefore, Morrison’s novel The Bluest Eye, “…bears witness not only to the trauma of the incest and rape that Pecola experiences, but to the trauma of pervasive racism” (Matus, 47). Being Toni Morrison’s fifth novel, Beloved is a prominent work awarded Pulitzer Prize. It is a story about “…a powerful account of mother love, murder, and the legacy of slavery…” Like Morrison’s previous novels, Beloved focuses on “motherhood” (Kubitschek, 6). Beloved tells the story of a mother, Sethe who is a black slave female formerly. She suffers from slavery, racism, violence and rape. Morrison’s novel Beloved “… is lovely based on the story of Mary Garner, a slave who killed her child and attempted to kill herself rather than return to slavery” (Peach, 93). Likewise, the protagonist of the novel Sethe kills her child and this murder does not become distant, each time it comes closer. In “Beloved” one can comprehend how difficult it is to be a slave woman at the hands of a slave-holder. This cannot be denied that the reasons behind Sethe’s murder of her own baby girl emerge due to the brutal sides of slavery. The violent act of Sethe has “…relation to slavery” (Kubitschek, 115). When “a cruel man called school-teacher becomes the master, the slaves attempt a group escapes” (Kubitschek, 116). During this flight some of the slaves die. “Sethe is stopped after she cuts two-year-old Beloved’s throat with a hand saw. The child dies” (Kubitschek, 117). Sethe doesn’t want “…her children to be taken back into slavery…” (Matus, 104) The memory of past, takes Sethe to the cruel white man during slavery. “Schoolteacher’s nephews brutally abuse Sethe sexually, sucking milk from her breasts and whipping her back bloody” (Kubitschek, 116). This incident affects Sethe deeply and she always remembers the viciousness of white man and the murder of her own child. She cannot endure to see her daughter nat the hands of this brutality. Therefore, she decides to kill her. “I got a tree on my back and a haunt in my house, and nothing in between but the daughter I am holding in my arms” (Beloved, 18).



Sethe dares to kill her child that influences her motherhood in a baddish way. “…Morrison indicates Sethe’s response to the trauma of motherhood under slavery and in particular, Beloved’s death” (Matus, 108). In addition to this, Morrison manages to demonstrate how the “…maternal loss…” (Bjork, 157) can be the ruin of a black female. “Sethe was powerless to keep her children from enslavement except by killing them” (Birch, 179). Portraying Sethe and her experiences of slavery, Morrison “…emphasizes both the enormity of slavery and the powerlessness of the black slave woman” (Birch, 179). In Beloved, at first, blacks are at the hands of white people and they are slave. They have not only “…been abused by white men…” (Matus, 119), but also they begin to lose their humanity. Even, the black people aren’t given permission to learn writing and reading. It is clear that “…if blacks could write they should not be treated as animals” (Rice, 103). The female characters in the novel, especially Baby Suggs is brave to mention the inhuman acts of white race in her community. “Those white things have taken all I had or dreamt, “she said, “and broke my heartstrings, too. There is no bad luck in the world but white folks” (Beloved, 104-105). Baby Suggs utterances help one to visualize the hardness of the black life in a racist surrounding. In most parts of the novel, the racist thoughts and attitudes are displayed vividly. Knowing the truth that Sethe has killed her own baby daughter, Paul D insists to look over the newspaper pages. “Stamp Paid reluctantly shows Paul D the clipping from the newspaper concerning Sethe’s crime. Even so, the very fact that he has kept the clipping is significant” (Rice, 110). Both of these characters know that if a black’s face is seen on papers, there should be an unusual event, since black race is ignored even in newspapers. To white people, Sethe’s act is seen as a “…private story” (Rice, 111). In addition to this, there is a mystery meaning under this news. “The newspaper is the product of white society” (Rice, 111). There is also an implication that the reason of Sethe’s behavior is white race. In Morrison’s novel Beloved, at first violence is seen with the scene that shows the white men’s attacking. The nephew of Schoolteacher attacks Sethe when her husband isn’t at home. Especially, “…violence against women” (Kubitschek, 28-29) is the focus of Beloved. White nephews of Schoolteacher “…abuse Sethe sexually, sucking milk from her breasts and whipping her back bloody” (Kubitschek,116). Sethe expresses this brutality by saying “And they took my milk” (Beloved, 20). It is an undeniable fact that “…slavery is brutal…” (Rice, 106) As Sethe also a slave woman, she experiences the evil of white race. She is also exposed to “…a whipping which almost kills her...” (Peach, 94) The horrors of slavery lead her “…to commit an act of violence against their child” (96). Although most of the black community sees this act as an unreasonable choice that is decided by a mother, Sethe explains that she should do it. As a mother, “…Sethe makes it quite clear that in her eyes she has done the only thing that she possibly can do” (Rice, 106). The fear of her race leads her to commit a crime. To Sethe, she didn’t do “…anything wrong” (Kubitschek, 117). In Beloved, not only the violence acts of white race and Sethe are seen, but also her dead daughter’s presence has caused too much violent acts. At first, the baby girl who has been killed, appears as, “…a ghost in the house, that much we know; it is a ghost that shatters mirrors, that puts its “tiny hand prints in the cake…” (Bjork, 141) At the beginning of the novel, Baby Suggs states “We lucky this ghost is a baby” (Beloved, 6). On the contrary, in time the ghost’s anger causes to come their house as a grown-up girl. Thereafter, she starts to show her rage towards Sethe. She always asks questions about past and wants Sethe to feel pain in her heart. In the novel, “…the final vision of Beloved is grotesque-pregnant, inflated, swelling, and insatiable. She is in the process of feeding off and consuming Sethe’s life…” (Matus, 119) It is apparent that “…the spirit is covertly attacking Sethe” (Kubitschek, 118). Soon, Denver realizes that “Beloved is trying to kill Sethe” (Kubitschek, 124). She attempts “…to kill her so that they will be dead together” (Kubitschek, 125). CONCLUSION:

Written with the impacts of experience of slave life, the social movements emerged in the United States during 1950s and 1960s and the violent racial forces, the novels of Toni Morrison The Bluest Eye and Beloved succeed in displaying the sufferings of colored women. The black characters in these novels



try to endure gender discrimination, violence, racial attitudes and sexual abuse. Toni Morrison focuses on the sufferings of black females in a white society in The Bluest Eye. This novel “…shows racism’s damaging effects on the black community at large and on black families” (Kubitschek, 27). In The Bluest Eye, a black girl Pecola Breedlove realizes the supremacy of white society and longs to have the features of white females. She starts his desires by praying to have the bluest eye in the world. The superlative form of this word is used to demonstrate the willingness to have even more superior features than white race. Morrison’s other significant novel Beloved is very successful in displaying the most painful part of the African American heritage, slavery. The protagonist of the novel, Sethe remembers the cruel times of slavery. The ghost of her baby girl does not leave her and her daughter, Denver. The spirit of her dead daughter changes into a grown girl and begins to disturb her life after so many years. She goes the place where she is killed by her own mother, Sethe. She always reminds her mother the brutality of slavery and the scene of murder. It is obvious that these two novels of Toni Morrison portray the sufferings of black women like violence, rape, motherhood and the most important reason that causes this is racism, that is their color. They are discriminated by the white society because of their God-given colors. They are seen as the objects that do not have any feelings. In novels of Morrison, some black female have the opportunity to find their identity and survive in the hard atmosphere of racial society. Her novels are meant to celebrate a sense of black womanhood and to create awareness for the honor and dignity of Black women in the society.

REFERENCES:

[1] Birch, Eva Lennox. (1994). Black American Women’s Writing, New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf. [2] Bjork, Patrick Bryce. (1992). The Novels of Toni Morrison, New York: Peter Lang. [3] Bloom, Harold. (1990). Toni Morrison, New York: Chelsea House. [4] Kubitschek, Missy Denn. (1998). Toni Morrison, London: Geenwood Press. [5] Matus, Jill. (1998). Toni Morrison, Manchester: Manchester University. [6] Mckay, Nellie Y. (1988). Critical Essays on Toni Morrison, Boston: G.K. Hall & Co. [7] Morrison, Toni. (1970). The Bluest Eye, USA: Plume. [8] Morrison, Toni. (2004). Beloved, New York: Vintage. [9] Peach, Linden. (1995). Toni Morrison, London: MacMillan Press. [10] Rice, Herbert William. (1996). Toni Morrison and the American Tradition, New York: Peter Lang. [11] Guthrie Taylor, Danille. (1994). Conversations with Toni Morrison, Jackson: University

Press of Mississippi.

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