HorticultureDr.M.Gopi

Introduction

The term “Horticulture” is probably of recent origin and it first appeared in writings of 17th century. The word is derived from the Latin words “Hortus” meaning ‘garden’ and ‘Culture’ meaning cultivation. Modern Horticulture may be defined as the crop science which deals with the production, utilization and improvement of fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, spices and plantation crops including medicinal and aromatic plants. The term “agriculture” refers broadly the technology of raising plants and animals. Present day – Garden Crops. It includes fruits, vegetables, spices and plantation crop including medicinal and aromatic plants and ornamental crops.

Other Divisions of Horticulture Pomology (Fruit growing) Olericulture (Vegetable culture) Floriculture (i) Landscape architecture

(ii) Arboriculture(iii) Ornamental floriculture

(Laying out parks, gardens)(iv) Commercial floriculture

(Economic flowers, production of cut flowersand gift plants).

Spices, Plantation crops, aromatic and medicinal plants. Fruit nurseries Vegetable and production Flower seed production Fruit and vegetable preservation

1. Pomology – the study of fruit crops. Fruit crops are classified as woody plants and herbaceous plants. Woody plants may be trees, shrubs or vines. Herbaceous perennial plants may be further classified as those with prostrate growth / upright growth. Such plants coinciding with a particular season as (1) Spring (2) Summer (3) Autumn (4) Winter

Outline of fruit crops : I. Fruits borne on woody plants :

A. Tree fruits : -(1) Deciduous (Temperate)

a) Pome : Apple, Pears, Quinceb) Drupe (Stone fruits) : Peach, Plum, Apricot

(2) Evergreen a) sub – tropical : Mangosteen, Lichi, Acid limeb) tropical : Mango, Sapota, Guava

B. Small Fruits(1) Deciduous : Rasberry, Blackberry(2) Evergreen : West Indian cherry

II. Fruits borne on herbaceous perennial plants:A. Prostrate growth : StrawberryB. Upright growth : Banana, Pineapple

2. OlericultureIt refers to the study of vegetables. Vegetables in horticultural science is

an edible herbaceous plant / part thereof which is commonly used for culinary purposes / or as salads.

3. Floriculture – art of growing, selling, designing and arranging flowers and foliage plants. It includes following sub-divisions. (i) Commercial floriculture – cultivation of economic flowers like

Jasmine, Roses, Chrysanthemum, production of cut flowers and gift plants.

(ii) Arboriculture – growing of trees for aesthetic / scientific / educative purpose.

(iii) Landscape Gardening – planning and arrangement of home grounds, public area and business establishments. It involves not only the use and placement of horticultural plants but also placement of buildings and other accessories in an aesthetic manner.

(iv) Ornamental floriculture / gardening – it refers to the study of various groups of ornamental plants which are used to decorate indoor and outdoor gardens.

4. Spices, plantation crops, aromatic and medicinal plants – Spices are those plants, the products of which are made use of as food adjuncts to add aroma and flavour (e.g., pepper, cardamom, clove and nutmeg etc). Both spices and condiments contain essential oils which provide the flavour and taste. They are of little nutritive value. 5. Other branches of horticulture include fruit nurseries, vegetable and flower seed production and fruit and vegetable processing and marketing.

Importance of Horticulture1. Horticultural produces contribute to national wealth. They are the important

exportable commodities in many countries. In India, a few varieties of banana are exported to Middle East, Europe, Russia and Japan. Among the other horticultural crops, the following are the horticultural produces which are exported annually, earning foreign exchange to our country. In Malaysia, the main foreign exchange is from rubber and in USA., fruits though occupy only 1/4th of cultivable area they form leading export produce.

2. Nutritive value of fruits and vegetables - fruits and vegetables furnish 90 per cent of the Vitamin C and 60 per cent Vitamin A in the world.

3. Its social importance – it is part of civilization. Wherever civilization is highly advanced, horticulture is widely developed. Flowers are being used for worshiping Gods in temples. Every woman in India considers her adornment complete only after her hair style is decorated with aromatic and attractive colourful flowers. Orchid is a flower, which is presented to a girl by a boy friend, as a symbol of affection and love towards her in USA. Whenever friends, relatives / others visit hospital to see the patients, they are offered with flowers which bring them happiness.

4. Horticultural therapy – In some parts of USA the people who are unhappy and do not have mental power and balance are given horticultural therapy a treatment by means of which their attention is diverted to ornamental gardening , flower decoration etc, and thus are made free from their unhappy mood.

c) Dietary uses and value of fruits – Fruits have long been used and recognized by physicians and dieticians as an essential part of a healthful diet.

1. Mineral value – the principal mineral elements in fruits are Ca, P, K, Mg, S, and Fe, all of which are essential to growth and for the proper functioning of the body.

Easy availability – the iron content in meat is chiefly due to the blood remaining in small blood vessels with which meat is permeated. The iron compounds of the blood do not yield readily to the digestive ferments, as do those of fruits and vegetables, so that iron of the latter is better absorbed and becomes more available for nutrition than the iron of the meat.

2. Digestability – the apple is digested in short span of time, passing out of the stomach more quickly than any other food.3. Health value – An apple a day will keep the doctor away.4. Alkaline reaction – Fruits are valuable for their alkaline forming qualities. An important effect of eating fruit is introduction of an acid substance into the digestive tract which later yields an alkaline or basic substance in the blood and tissues. The acidity of fruits is largely due to acid potassium salts.5. Laxative value – Most headaches are due to intestinal toxemia, the result of inactivity of the colon. Apples and bananas at meals and at bed time serve in many cases as excellent laxatives. The mild laxative tendency of many fruits and vegetables to the digestive tract a sufficiently bulk residue (largely of cellulose and related substance) to stimulate mechanically and render effective peristaltic action and exert a mild laxative effect. The raw fruit is more laxative than cooked. In such cases astringent substances in the skin may counteract the laxative effect of the raw flesh of the fruit.

History of Garden in IndiaIt is believed that the gardening in India is as old as its culture. Five

to six thousand years before Christ, gardening was in vogue. It isunderstood that Indians were the first to choose gardening as the properatmosphere for meditation. Gardening has been mentioned in classicalliterature of India. Ashoka vana of Ramayana was believed to beestablished with trees, shrubs and ponds etc. The use of ‘Vrindavan’(landscaped city) and ‘Rajavanam’ (large park where kings go for hunting)did find very frequent mention in ancient literature. Many trees wereconsidered ‘sacred’ to Hinduism e.g. Ficus religiosa, Saraca indica, Aeglemarmelos and Mimosops elengi.

During Bhuddh’s period (about 563 BC) gardening received furtherencouragement. Gardening is considered as a source of peace andsolitude, limitation of nature and improvement over nature wereconsidered as a primary goal in these types of gardening.

King Ashoka could be considered as the Father of road side avenueplanting as he was the first king to order planting of road side avenue treesin India. From 6th to 10th century gardening received a great deal ofencouragement from Indian kings.

During the time of king Somadeva (11th centudry) andking Hamira (13th Century) gardening developed into a fineart. The ‘Vanas’ and ‘Ashrama’ gave way to gardensestablished by kings and nobles and gardening becamevirtually the monopoly of the feudals.

The period between the beginning of the 14th centuryto the end of 16th century showed sudden change in thestyle of gardening due to the influence of Moghul emperorswho ruled India during these centuries. King Feroze Shahand king, Baber brought with them the finest art ofgardening were their country and the moghul style gardenswere established in Delhi, Hyderabad, Agra. Kashmir Lahoreand Pinjore. Some of these gardens are still famous to thisday. E.g. 1. Garden at Fatepur Sikri (UP) by King Akbar2. Moghul garden at Pinjore (Punjab) by king Fadaikhan

3. Shalimer Bagh at Lahore – by Shah Jahan4. Taj Mahal Garden in Agara.

These Moghul gardens had a distinct style. They were laid out near rivers or rivulets, slope of a hill or river bank. The garden may be square or rectangular and paths running parallel to water courses. Running water is the life and soul of the garden and the water channels are paved with tiles of brilliant blue colour to reflect the sky give the impression of depth. On either side of the central channel or sheet of water were planted with flowering shrubs, trees, scented flowers like rose and jasmine. All the moghulgardens had a high wall surrounding them.

During the 1th century when British cam to India they introduced the styles of gardening of England and continental Europe. The first style developed by the British was the formal / symmetrical style of gardening. By 18th century, this style became monotonous and then informal style / natural gardens began to develop. The modern gardens, developed during 19th and 20th

centuries. Involved the combinations of the formal and informal styles. The important features in English gardens are lawn, rockery, mixed borders of herbaceous perennials, annuals and shrubs etc. Lal Bagh at Bangalore. Government Botanic Garden at Ooty. Sims park at Coonoor and Bryant Park at Kodaikannal are exmples of gardens established in British style.

Principles of Garden MakingAs garden is not merely a collection of plants. It is the skillful arrangement of the plants and other features which make a good garden. The following are important principles to be taken into consideration in lay out garden.

The gardener should be fully familiar with the habits of growth of the several ornamental plants. They should be allotted the right places in the garden design on their growth features to give the maximum pleasing effect.

The garden should be developed with reference to (a) the taste and judgement of the owner in the private gardens.

The position of the house / buildings relation to the ground surrounding it

The extend of the ground

Water supply , The shape and topography of the land

Availability of labour, The cost of making the garden

The capacity of the owner to maintain it in good condition

The garden should produce an attractive picture in the landscape with the house or the building as the central object

Scattered effects should be avoided

The building and the garden should merge into each other. The house / the building should be linked to the ground by ‘base plantina’. This refers to planting of shrubs and annuals along the foundation of the buildings ( shrubs like crotons and palms can be used). The plants should not obstruct the view from windows. The corners of the building s should the masked/ should be made less ugly by planting shrubs near the corners / by planting trees like Polyalthiia longifolia at a distance from the corner.

This would remove the ugliness of the angular corner. The clear profile of the roof against the sky is not also attractive. This should be obstructed by planting 2 / 3 trees behind the house. The house / the building should be framed by planting trees on either side, taking care to see that they do not shade and darken the rooms , obstruct the views from windows / send their root into the walls and drains and create cracks. All these measures will help to merge the building with the garden.

Along the boundaries (composed walls / fence line) trees, shrubs and flowers can be massed.

If lawns are established they should be centrally situated in front of the building. The lawns should not be cut across by paths. The flower beds should be placed along the perimeter of the lawns.

There should be no indiscriminate planting . All plants in a garden should have a proper place and a definite purpose.

It is better for designing a good garden, to have the house at least half of three quarters from the front boundary. There should be at least 30 ft clear space available on either side of the building / house.

The size of the various features of the garden should be in proportion to the size of the ground. The size of the building, the number of paths, the length and width of the borders, flowers beds etc. should all be in proposition to the extent of the garden. Similarly, the trees selected should be suited to the size of the building. A small low house should not be dominated by large, tall trees. A tall, storeyed building should not have small, short trees.

There should be ‘balance’ in the garden among the various features. This need not be strictly geometrical balance. In a ‘formal’ garden, symmetry can be easily attained by duplicating each features on either side of an imaginary central line running across the garden. But in doing so, monovariety is introduced in duplicating the features. In the ‘informal’ style, attaining the balance in difficult. But since exact geometrical balance is not necessary, by careful planning: balance can be achieved in informal styles. For examples, the building on one side can be balanced with a group of large shady trees on the other side. A mass of trees on one side can be balanced with a clump of shrubs.

It is necessary that there is a natural sequence of colour and beauty in a garden at intervals. Only in this way, one’s interest will be taken from one interest to another in a natural flowing way. This can be achieved by grouping plants according to varieties and by repeating colourful flowering plants and shrubs at well-chosen intervals. This will break the monotony. The arrangement should be progressively appropriate. The lawn should be merged into small , low flowering annuals. The latter should gradually merge into taller herbaceous perennials, latter into shrubs and then into trees etc.

The garden should also have utility i.e. should be useful to the people. It should have proper protection. It should have privacy. In private home gardens, there should be a secluded place on the side towards the back for the womenfolk to sit and relax. The front part of the garden (the part exposed to the public eyes should not be clustered up with ‘service’ things like laundry lines, dirt bins, lumber yards and rooms, junk heaps, compost pits, out-houses. There should be hidden path through which the ‘service’people (Vendors, deliverymen, newspaper boys, milk-vendors) can come and go. No living rooms / bed rooms window should open out to give a view of such things as dirt bins, water taps, laundry lines, washing yard etc. All these should be relegated to places where they will be hidden from view. It is also better to have a separate place, where possible for the children to play. Then they would not encroach upon the area of the garden where the adults can sit and relax.

Ornamental Garden & its partsThe various components parts that go to make a garden of any type are the

following: A Lawn – Usually this is placed in front of the house. A wealthy lawn helps to bring

about a feeling of spaciousness. The lawn should not be broken by flower beds, paths and too many trees and shrubs.

Trees – Trees are generally planted on the confines / boundaries of the garden / along the main roads. They help to produce the landscape effect and form the main frame work of the garden. Planted behind houses, they help to break the unattractive “silhouette” (outline of an object seen against light) of the roof of the house against the sky. Masses of trees / a shady tree in a corner will help to give long perspectives. A spreading tree will be a welcome feature for ‘picnic’ ground in large public parks. There are ‘foliage’ and ‘flowering ‘ trees.

Shrubs and shrubberies – Groups of shrubs planted at corners will be useful in natural designs. Shrubs borders of informal (allowed to grow without trimming) / formal (trimmed to a particular height) can connect main walks and paths. Shrubs can also be planted in groups / in single in the centre / around the lawn. Groups/ shrubs planted along the base line of building will help to link the building with the ground. Tall growing shrubs can be used to screen off the view of disagreeable object and backyard activities. Handsome shrubs (Croton, Aralia, Panax, Eranthemum, Bougainvillea) can make attractive ‘tub’ plants / pot planting for indoor and outdoor decorations. Shrubs are of two kinds: Foliage and Flowering.

Climbers and creepers – Climbers can be used in gardens in several ways. Light spreading climbers (Antigonon) can be grown on trellies or wire mesh to form

effective screens to hide potting shed, kitchen garden garden or tenclose the verandah. Light climbers on low trellies can also be made use of to border small paths.

Climbers like Bougainvilles and Bignonia used on arches, bowers and pergolas. Pergola is a line of double / single pillar connected at the top by wooden bars on which

climbers are trained. A pergola has a ‘walk’ / path underneath and can form a good approach to a formal garden / a lawn. A single line of pillars can be situated on one side of garden / to form a back – ground to other features like flower beds.

An arch is usually designed as a gateway (either at the entrance / inside) through which to approach different sections of a garden. Arches will be particularly useful at inter sections of paths. An arch can be square topped / curved. Curved, wooden ‘rustic’ arches will be attractive in informal gardens.

Climbers can also be used to grow over pillars (about a foot in girth with a covering of wire netting so that the climbers can grow up easily and then hang down), trees / on the walls of buildings. Pothos / Bougainvillea on trees can look very attractive.

Several climbers can be grown in pots / ‘baloons’ (Iron / round frame work). Some are very attractive in hanging pots / baskets. A climber grown on a large ‘baloon’ of iron can be a good display in the centre of a lawn. There are foliage and flowering climbers.

Flower beds and borders – Several flowering annuals and herbaceous perennials can be grown in beds and borders. Flower beds of simple designs can be laid out on the outskirts of lawn along the foundation of buildings, in the path leading to the entrance of the house and on sides of foot steps.

Borders are continuous beds of more length than width containing plants of a heterogeneous character as distinguished from flower beds which are composed of plants of one kind only. Borders are named as ‘shrub border’, herbaceous border / mixed border according to the plant materials used to fill them. These borders can be had on the sides of plants, walks, and drives / in front of shrubberies and trellises with climbers.

Ornamental hedges – A good live hedge is essential to enclose a garden (e.g. Thevetia nereifolia and Divi Divi etc.). Internal hedges can also be planted inside the garden with attractive foliage / flowering shrubs.

Edges / edgings – These are the materials of any description in gardens for dividing beds.

Drives, roads, walks and paths – All these should occupy minimum space and not be too many in number. They should serve to link one part with the other part. Paths may be made up of earth, brick, concrete / be paved. Paved paths are particularly effective in formal gardens. Paving can be done by flat stones or concrete slabs / bricks. Sometimes paving with irregularly sized stones to create an odd pattern will result in a ‘crazy path’. The inter spaces can be planted with ground spreads.

Rockery – This is intended to bring together in a short space an idea of a mountain / alpine garden with plants growing in the crevices of rocks. This is an elevated structure resembling a miniature mountain range / the slope of a hill with a few dominant peaks / valleys.

Carpet beds – In large public garden, close growing plants like Verbena / Alternanthera are used to from certain designs / letters of alphabet. Foliage are better suited than flowering plants as they stand severe clipping much better. Carpet beds are troublesome to maintain in good health. They require constant attention. The plants should be trimmed now and then, not allowing them to overgrow.

Topiary – Certain plants are often trimmed to shapes of animals, birds, seats etc. The shrubs which are amenable for bending and withstanding frequent trimming are suitable for developing ‘topiary’. Cupressus, Casuarina and Bougainvillea are suitable for topiary work.

Trophy – It refers to the arrangement of potted colourful foliage / flowering shrubs and flowering annuals / herbaceous perennials around a tree / any central object such as a ‘statue’. These potted plants are often arranged in tiers.

Conservatory / green house / fern house / fernery – There are certain ornamental plants with beautiful foliage / flowers / both which cannot thrive in the open, exposed to direct sun / wind. Such plants can be grown in conservatory / green house / fernery wherein required shade, humidity and coolth are provided. By having a small pool inside, the conservatory is rendered cool and humid. Shade is provided by growing a creeper over the roof which will not shut out light completely. Ferns, Anthurium, Dieffenbachia, Peoperomia are some of the examples of plants which are commonly grown inside the green house.

Sunken garden – This is formed taking advantage of a natural depression. The garden goes down through a series of terraces to a small pool or a fountain at the bottom. In the terraces, flower beds and strips of lawn are laid out. It breaks the monotomy of flat ground in a garden.

Garden adornments – There are several garden adornments and accessories such as fountains, statues, garden seats, ornamental posts and pillars, arches and pergolas, trellises, hanging baskets, tubs, vases and urns with plants which make the garden more enjoyable.

Playing of a fountain is an interesting feature in a garden and the water in the cistern should be kept clean. Garden seats made up of stones, concrete or metal are placed under the tree. Hand some tubs, vessels and urns are utilized to display plants in conspicuous places.

Arbours, arches, pergolas and trellises serve as support to several beautiful plants and to dispel monotomy in garden. Arbours are usually open on all sides. Very often a long wall or the end of a pergola leads to an arbour. Arches are generally erected over walks, usually at the entrance and are usually two meters in height. Pergolas are series of connected arches over a walk.

Propagation• Introduction – Plant propagation is the multiplication of perpetuation /

reproduction of the plant species.• Methods of propagating plants – there are two general classes.i) Sexual propagation ii) Asexual / vegetative

Sexual propagation is by means of seeds which result from the fusion of two gametes male and female. Seeds are fertilized ovules.Disadvantages of sexual / seed propagation : 1. The progenies are variable in characteristics due to segregation. They are not true to types and so they become inferior, because in the commercial orchards it is a necessity to have uniform quality, growth and yielding capacities. 2. There is no uniform growth, quality and yielding capacity. 3. There is no standardized quality in fruits. Eg. Papaya where, in one variety, there is lot of variations in fruits. 4. Uncertain crop yield. 5. Choice trees cannot be perpetuated. 6. If soil is unsuitable / if a variety is susceptible to a disease, it cannot be grown, as the characters in the seedlings will be there and cannot be changed / modified to our advantage, unless it is propagated by vegetative means. The above defect can be overcome by vegetative means. 7. Seeds lose viability in a short period which is a handicap for the fruit grower. Eg. Citrus seeds lose viability in a shorter period.

Advantages of seed / sexual propagation – 1. The trees raised by means of seeds are longer lived. Longevity is higher than the vegetatively propagated trees. 2. They are hard with deep root system. 3. There is possibility of the production of chance seedlings which may be superior than their parents / other varieties. For example, In mangoes, Chinnasuvarnarekha, Mundappa, Padiri. Hybrid from Kodur, Ko. 8, Ko. 11, Ko.22. 4. By means of seed propagation, polyembryonic seedlings from Citrus, Olour. Bappakai mangoes are obtained. These polyembryonic seedlings are true to type of their parents and variants of sexual seedlings can be easily eliminated. These polyembryonic seedlings are useful to get uniform rootstock material to reduce the variability. 5. Reputed varieties arose as chance seedlings / mutations which are not controlled by man. Some of them are in mango and banana.

Washington Naval Orange – This is a mutant. Some valuable varieties are produced by man through (i) hybridisation (ii)by inducing mutation (x – ray) and by inducing polyploidy. 6. Seed propagation is necessary when vegetative propagation is unsuccessful / difficult / expense.Clonal / Asexual / vegetative propagation – Asexual propagation / reproduction is the development of new individual plants without function of sex. This differs from seed propagation as the vegetative plant parts such as stems, roots, bulbs and leaves are used as propagating materials rather than the seeds. This is easily possible in many plants, detached vegetative parts have the capacity to reproduce / to regenerate a new individual of the same type of the parent without any variation except in cases of bud “sports” / bud variations.

Clone – This may be defined as “Genetically uniform materials derived from a single individual and propagated exclusively by vegetative means as cutting, division / grafts. Eg. 1. Bartlett pear – clone originated as a seedling in England by about 1770 and has been propagated ever since by vegetative means. 2. The Winesap apple: originated as a chance seedling 200 years ago and has been propagated asexaully ever since.

Advantage – 1. True to type – It is possible to perpetuate valuable varieties / individuals to get standardisedproducts. 2. Vegetative propagation is the only way where no seed is formed (Seedless fruits) / germination of seed is very slow / very poor / in the case of inability to produce viable seeds.

3. Useful for hardness – For frost resistance rootstocks (Poncirus trifoliata) of trifoliate orange for sweet orange are used. 4. Resistance to pests and diseases – Plants are also propagated by vegetative parts to increase their resistance / to develop immunity to a particular disease / insect. The root system of the European grape (Vitis vinifera) is seriously attacked by a root louse known as Phylloxera. But the American grape (V. labrusca) i9s resistant to this pest. When this is grafted on V. vinifera the resistance to this kind of pest is restored. 5. To secure vigorous trees – In Citrus rough lemon (Jamberi) is the rootstok mostly used for its vigour. 6. To secure dwarfing effects – Vegetatively propagated plants are generally lower in stature than the seedlings if it is desired to have may be employed. By employing dwarfing rootstocks, more number of trees can be accommodated and convenience in prunning, spraying and harvesting. E.g. 1. Pear on Quince. 2. Sathgudi on wood apple. 3. Sathgudi on Pummelo. 4. Sour orange on mandarin.

7. To obtain thornlessness in progenies – Thornless ness is more pronounced when it is vegetatively propagated particularly in Citrus, whereas in seedlings it is more. Eg. By means of budding thornlessness can be obtained. Coorg acid time is thornless which makes it easy to harvest or to handle the fruit without damaging or injury to the fruits due to thornlessness. Plants may be propagated asexually / vegetatively in order to perpetuate a particular form of the plant. The juvenile form of a variety of plants materials is marked by difference from the adult condition and is often desirable and possible to maintain the juvenile from by means of vegetative propagation. It is well known that many of the thronless clones of honey locust can be transmitted by budding. Buds selected from the thornless portions of the upward and outward growing shoots are placed in stocks producing trees that maintain this thornlessness condition throughout the normal growth phase.

8. To undertake top working for pollination – Vegetative propagation through grafting / budding to get pollination for fruit set by means of grafting / budding a few branches of a tree (top working) eg. The selfsterility in some varieties of plums can be overcome when top worked with pollinators for fruit set. 9. For correction of mistakes – this is the greatest value in cases where the fruit plants obtained are different due to wrong labelling / by the unscrupulous nurserymen. This cannot be detected untillafter several years. This can be revealed after the plants begin to bear. To remove / to replant these it will be expensive. These can be overcome by means of top-working. 10. To speed up increase in numbers – Many plants are propagated by vegetative parts because of the speed and case of increasing nursery plant numbers. A striking example in which speed is of prime importance is date palm, which can be grown to maturity from a large cutting, the size of which would require several years to produce from seeds. The Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, Asparagus and Jerusalem artichoke are the common vegetables that can be reproduced more quickly by vegetative means than by means of seeds.

11. Adaptative to habitat – in many instances the only reason for propagating plants by vegetative means is to increase the adaptability of the plant to a particular habit / location. The increase of plant adaptability to a diversity of soil conditions through the selection off various rootstock is common with many pomological fruits, particularly with citrus.

12. Vegetative propagation is necessary particularly in top working / frame working of trees. In cases of some of the tree trunks affected with diseases, it may be overcome by means of bridge grafting.

Seed germination and seed propagation – Seed propagation is necessary in the following cases: i) Where vegetative propagation in unsuccessful / difficult / expensive. ii) It is necessary for raising rootstocks for grafting and budding. Rootstocks are the plants on which the desired variety is propagated. Grafting and budding are the types of vegetative propagation in which the root system and the top of the new plant are of different species / varieties.Citrus aurantifolia (Lime) C. sinensis (Sweet orange)Annona squamosa (Custard apple) A. reticulata (Bull’s hearts)Achras sapota (Sapota) Manilhara hexandraGuava on guava and mango on mango – same kind. In all such cases rootstock plants have to be raised through seeds mostly. Some have to be raised through cuttings also eg. Wild fig. species of American grapes. Vegetativelypropagated rootstocks are useful to reduce variability. Therefore it is necessary to have the knowledge of seeds and sowing.

Seed formation and maturity – Seed develops along with the fruit and reaches full size and maturity when the fruit ripens. Hence seeds should be extracted only from ripe fruits. Seeds gathered from immature fruits may lose viability more quickly than fully mature seeds.Seed storing – seeds should be normally stored in relatively dry conditions at low temperature. Some seeds should be sown immediately after extraction (Citrus). Others must be kept for sometime depending upon the kind of plant. Seeds of most plants retain their viability longer when stored at a relatively low than at a high temperature. Hence store the seeds in dry, cool place. If exposed to damp atmosphere, even after thorough drying, seeds absorb moisture and rapidly deteriorate. Some seeds like those of apple, stone fruits lose viability if dried after harvest. They require to be kept moist and exposed to cold / freezing temperature, known as “Stratification” to after ripen dormant embryos and to modify seed coverings.

Cold stratification – Moist seeds are subjected to low temperatures for a specified length of time which is effective for prompt and uniform germination of seeds which have dormant embryos. Otherwise there will be slow and erratic germination / even failure of germination. In general seeds are exposed to abundant moisture, ample oxygen and a relatively cool temperature. Temperatures ranging fro 32° to 41°F for periods which vary between 1 to 4 months depending on the seeds, type, are in common use. For relatively small lots of seeds, shredded moist sphagnum moss is mixed with the seed to be stratified and the entire mixture is placed in a polythene bag in a refrigerator to maintain a temperature of approximately 41°F.Dormancy – It is a term used to describe a seed that will not germinate because of any condition associated either with the seed itself / with existing environmental factors such as temperature and moisture.

Some seeds may even germinate within the fruit. Eg. Jack, avocado, Chow-chow, papaya called as viviparous germination. Rest period –Some seeds will not germinate immediately after harvest even if conditions are favourable. The failure to germinate is due to physiolgical conditions. This is said to be that the seeds are in the rest period / they require after ripening period.

Some kind of seeds when exposed to conditions favourable to germination will not germinate because of the hard coats in the seeds. However, these can be artificially induced to germinate by means of : a) Dipping in concentrated sulphuric acid.b) Immersing in hot water 80° to 90°C for a few seconds. c) Shelling the outer seed coats of the seeds.d) Soaking in water for 2 / 3 days.

All the above treatments will facilitate easy permeability to promote absorption of water and also for gases. The initial step in the germination sequence is the intake of water which stimulates the swelling of the embryo and endosperm.

Seed viability and longevity – Vitality means the presence of life in the seeds. Longevity refers to the length of time that seeds will retain their viability / vitality. Some seeds are short lived (Citrus).Seed testing – This is necessary to determine the viability of the seeds. Vitality can be tested by ordinary germination tests. Techniques of seed propagation a. Testing purity – i)It is necessary to discover whether the

seed is true to name. ii) Whether it is adulterated with inert material / foreign seeds / to detect the presence of abnoxious / other weed seeds. So a careful purity test is necessary to detect adulterants, weed seeds and inert matters and a germination test to discover the percentage of vitality is very important.

b. Testing viability – For this (i) germination test (ii) excised embryo test (iii) tetrazolium test can be conducted to ascertain the viability.

c. Pre-treatment of seeds – Seeds of many plants often fail to germinate even when conditions appear to be favourable. Special treatment is necessary to induce germination before sowing seeds.

1. Mechanical scarification – In this process the seed coats are scrachedwith abrasives by means of which the impermeable seed coats are made permeable to water and their germination is improved by scarifying. The seeds of legume are mostly subjected to scarification by means of machines. This can also be done easily by a revolving drum lined with sand paper which will serve the above purpose.

2. Soaking in water – The improvement / hastening of germination by soaking is usually attributed to the softening of the seed coat and to wash many inhibitors found in the seed coats. Generally seeds will be soaked in hot water for a few seconds and then soaked for a long time (24 to 48 hrs.) in cold water which make the seeds to swell and will hasten the germination.

3. Acid treatment – Soaking the seeds for a few minutes (15 – 60 minutes) in concentrated hydrochloric acid is highly effective with many species.

4. Chlorine water treatment – Few drops of cholrinesolution to water in which the seeds are added and kept them in sun for a few minutes will hasten the germination. Chlorine has a decomposing effect in breaking water in to oxygen and hydrogen. The rapid germination is due to the action of the nascent oxygen liberated by the chlorine. Ammonia and soda in highly dilute solutions also aid germination.5. Seed treatment for prevention and control of disease – In this class the seed treatments may be classified into two groups. i) Seed disinfectants ii) Seed protecterants.

The most commonly used seed disinfectants are bichloride of mercury, organic mercury compounds, formaldehyde and hot water. The seed protecterants are copper compounds, zinc oxides and organic mercury compounds.

6. Dry storage – The object is to after ripen certain seeds which are dormant when freshly harvested. Freshly harvested seeds of many annuals and perennial herbaceous plants (vegetable and flower seeds) fail to germinate until after a period of dry storage. Drying for 3 days at 104°F. or 5 days at 99°F stimulates germinates if they have to be germinated immediately.7. Light – It stimulates germination of some freshly harvested dormant seeds. Seeds requiring light for germination are generally sown in shallow manner. The stimulus of light becomes effective after the seeds have imbibed moisture.Seed Germination – For raising rootstocks seeds are sown in raised beds – raised beds are preferable – beds must be in open soil in the beds must be porous and light – a suitable medium is essential, which consists of one part of loamy soil one part of sand and two parts of finely shifted cattle manure. Seed pans – Shallow earthen ware pots 4ʺ height. 1́ˊ- 1 ½ ˊ diameter.Seed boxes – 1 ½ ˊlong - 4ʺdeep, 6 – 8 holes at the bottom, Crocks cover the holes.

Depth of sowing of seeds will vary. Having the seed beds in a fairly pulverisedcondition and then pressing the soil down over the seed helps in greatly increasing the contact between the seed and soil and this increases the rate of absorption of moisture.Seed spacing – Spacing too close is not only wasteful but will result in poor growth –competition for moisture and nutrients when thickly sown, thinning is necessary. Water supply – Adequate and continuous water supply is necessary. Slow germination is in dry soils. Young germinating seedlings are very susceptible for drought injury.

High level of moisture is necessary but irrigations should not be copious since soil washing and dislodging of seedlings will occur. ShadingPottingFilling up of the pots

Vegetative Propagation Methods – Vegetative propagation with seed plants is the production of a complete plant from a bud. This definition includes all asexual methods (layerage, division, separation and graftage).

There are several methods and can be divided into three groups. They are (i) division / separation, (ii) rootage, (iii) graftage.

i) Division / Separation – It is the process of removing from the parent plant of a part which would grow into a complete new individual without the man’s intervention the parts will have their own root system.

Eg. Slips – Chrysanthemum Runners – Strawberry

Suckers – Banana Stolon - Raspberry

Corms – Amorphophallus Bulbs – Onion

ii) Rootage is a method of propagation of trees on their own roots. It is a method in which a complete plant is grown from one part such as stem, leaf / root.

a) Cutting - Root/Stem/Leaf cuttings

b) Layerage - Ground / Air Layering /

Marcottage / Gooteeing

In layerage the new plants take root while they remain attached to the parent plant upon which they depend for food until they can care for themselves.

iii) Graftage – Graftage is the process and is an operation of inserting a part of one plant into another in such a way that a union will be formed and the combination will cointinue growth. Any method that permits cambial contact between plant parts is a means of grafting. This includes grafting and budding.Separation and division - A number of vegetative structures which separate naturally from the parent plant / may be readily separated from it and they are commonly used for the propagation of many horticultural plants, which include stolons, runners, crowns, offsets, bulbs, bulblets, rhizomes, tubers /corms. The formulation of new individuals by separation and division consists essentially of separating / dividing parent plant parts which in turn produce new individuals. Separation consists of removing natural vegetative entities such as bulbs / corms. Division consists of cutting / dividing fleshy storage organs chiefly rizhomes / tubers.

These specialized bulbs / stem structures are many times larger than the seeds of the same plants and they contain greater amount of stored food. When these structures are placed under favourableconditions for growth, they are able to produce large, strong, vigorous plants in much less time than would be reputed for seeds. These are generally used in the case of ornamental plants.

i) Bulb – It is a short thickened, fleshy stem / bud surrounded by a group of fleshy scales / basal leaves. Eg. Onion, Lily.

ii) Corm – The corm consists of a short, broad, solid, swollen stem containing nodes and internodes. Roots are produced from the lower cancave surface. Eg. Yam, Amorphophallus.

iii) Tubers – It is an underground stem with several nodes and internodes. Eg.Potato

iv) Fleshy Roots - These can be distinguished from tubers in that they are without nodes. Eg. Sweet potato.

v) Runners / Stolons – It is a horizontal stem extending along the surface of the ground. Eg. Strawberry.

vi) Rhizome – They are more / less cylindrical branches growing laterally through the soil. Eg. Banana, Canna.

vii) Suckers / Slips – Shoots which grow in the axils of leaves either above / below soil – pineapple,

Banana – Sucker from the parent plant, Slips – Chrysanthemum. Root sucker – Bread fruit, guava. If the roots wounded / injured – produce suckers – which can be transplanted afterwards.

Cuttage – Cuttage may be described as a method of propagation of plants by the use of detached vegetative plant parts which when placed under conditions favourable for rejuvenation will develop into a complete plant, similar in all characteristics to the parent from which it was taken.

Root cuttings – It may be made from the true roots of any plant species. Their use is limited to plants with roots capable of producing shoots / shoot primordia. The shoots may develop latent buds laid down during the initial period of growth, or from adventious buds formed after the root cutting has been collected. Eg. Thorn less Young berry.

Stem cuttings – stem cuttings are of three general classes a) Softwood cuttings

b)Semi hardwood cuttings c) Hardwood cuttings

Softwood cuttings / herbaceous cuttings – A softwood cutting is defined as a portion of a soft, succulent seed plant which does not develop woody tissue, used for the purpose of reproduction. Eg. Geranium, Coleus, Tomato, Chrysanthemum. Semi-hardwood cutting – This type of cutting differ from the softwood cutting only in the degree of maturity. Eg. Many ornamental shrubs, crotons.Hardwood cuttings – Most of the fruit plants are propagated by hardwood cuttings. Cuttings taken during the dormant season / from the previous season’s growth are preferred. Callus is the undifferentiated irregular mass of parenchymatous tissue, usually produced at the point where it is wounded / injured.

Types of cuttings – There are three types of cuttings.

i) The Mallet – an entire section of branch of older wood is retained.

ii) The Heel – a small piece of older wood is retained the base.

iii) Straight cuttings – do not include any of the older wood.

Leaf and leaf bud cuttings – leaf and closely related parts are used to propagate a great many of the common green house plants. Eg. Rex begonia.

Sansivieria – The long tapering leaf is cut into section of 2’ to 3’ long. The leaf pieces are inserted for ¾ of their length in sand and after a period of time, a new forms Eg. Sansivieria, Echeveria peacooki.

Leaf bud cutting – This type of cutting consists of leaf blade, petiole and a short piece of stem with the attached axillary buds. Eg. Black berry, Camellia, Rhododendron, Tea.

Layering – Layering is the development of roots on a stem while it is still attached to the parent plant. The layer is supported by the parent until it develops its own root system. Advantages of layering1. It is very easy to perform.2. Cutting / clones which will not easily root by stem cuttings.3. When cuttings fail to root.4. Desired size of plants can be obtained (big/small).Disadvantages 1. Layering is limited to certain types of plants alone exhibiting the production of

low lying branches.2. Does not lend itself for the production of large number of plants – entirely

depends upon the availability of suitable shoots on the plants.3. Although the operation is simple, after care of them is essential which

requires daily watering – to maintain a very good growth. Media are essential.

4. If the branches/shoots at high level are to be layered, special platforms have to be erected and special provisions have to be made fro constant watering of the layered shoots.

5. Invariably layered shoots produce shallow roots.6. Not possible to introduce the desired root stock influence.

Principle underlying in layering – The cambium is exposed. The downward flow of nutrients in phloem is checked. Accumulation of carbohydrates occurs in the region where roots are produced, callus is formed where cambium is exposed. Methods – (i) Ground layering (a) Etiolation method /trench layering Growing in darkness – when a branch

is covered for its entire length to produce plants from all nodes / buds, where in roots will strike, the method is knownas the etiolation method. The covering

should be shallow not exceeding 2́ˊ - 5ˊ. The continuous covered layer possesses the advantage of producing many plantsper branch. Eg. Cherry, plum, apple stocks.

b) Tip layering – In this method, the apical ends/tips of current season’s shoots are burried in the soil. The tip of the shoot grows downward into the ground. Eg. Black berry, Raspberry, Logan berry. c) Simple layering – This consists of bending down shoot and burrying a part of it in the soil, so that the tip in the air. The burried portion is sometimes wounded by single stroke upwards on the underside of theShoot to be burried. The upwardbending in the burrying process opens the cut and entry of soil prevents the cut surfaces growing together. The layered branches are held firmly in position by pegs / a large stone. Roots are formed at the burried portion where the cut is made. Eg. Rose, Jasmine, Guava.

d) Mound layering / stooling

It is a modification of etiolation

method of layering. This is the

simplest method of layering.

The parent plant having first

become established is cut down

to the ground and resulting

growths from the stub/stool are

covered up. Eg. East Malling

rootstocks of apple, Cinchona,

quince rootstocks for pears.

Stool beds maintained by planting

rooted layer in small trenches.

e) Continuous / multiple layering – Branches that are flexible may be covered with soil at definite intervals at nodes where roots are formed. Then they are separated and planted. Eg. Jasmine.f) Compound / serpentine layering – Branches that are flexible may be covered with soil in several places so that they are alternately covered and exposed over their entire length. This is known as compound / serpentine layering. Roots are armed usually at or in close proximity to the nodes that are covered and develop new shoots that are exposed. When a good root system has developed at each covered portion, the new plants may be severed from the parent plant. Eg. American grape, ornamental vines such as Clematis, Muscadinegrapes. Generally the stem is injured / girdled at the lower parts and covered in the same manner as is done in simple layering.

g) Tongue layering – A simple tongue like cut is made in the shoot on the underside towards the growing point. At the cut portion a pebble / tooth pick is placed to avoid the fusion of tissues. This is completely covered with soil. After two months in the cut portion the roots will develop. ii) Air layering (Gootee / Marcottage)- In this method of propagation, (i) the plants that do not stool or sucker readily, (ii) the plants have branches/ stems so large that bending is impracticable, (iii) have stems so mature that latent buds at or near the base will be employed for this kind of propagation. Shoots high upon the tree are layered. The stem is usually wounded or girded 1/2ˊ to 1ˊremoval of bark at the nodal region). Instead of bringing the stem or shoot to the soil, soil is taken to the layered shoot. The practice is to place a part of soil/ a ball of Sphagnum moss / similar material around the stem at the desired rooting point. Rooting will take place in the medium provided. The medium must be kept moist at all times. This method is generally known as chinese layerage, pot layerage, circumposition, gootee/ marcottage.

Air layering with plastic films – there are several handy devices for facilitating pot layering such as a pot with a niche in the side to receive the stem, half pots which may be used to enclose the stem and cover made from water proof paper.

Grafting and Budding – It is the process of operation of inserting a part of one plant into another / placing it upon another in such a way that a union will be formed and the combination will continue to grow as one plant. The upper portion is termed as ‘Scion’ and the lower portion / root is termed as ‘root-stock’ / under stock/

just the stock.

Stocks – connection with propagation

Stock plants – grown to serve as a source of propagation materials such as cuttings, layers and sometimes buds / grafts.

Root stock – is a plant that supply root system. It is commonly grown from seeds, cuttings and rarely from leaves.

Seedlings : sapota, mango

Cuttings : grapes, apples

Seedling : Plants that are grown from seeds. When the seedlings are employed for budding / grafting, they become known as seedling rootstock and not root stock seedling.

Scion is the short piece of shoot containing several dormant buds employed for uniting with the rootstock. Those scions which are to be used for grafting are known as graft-wood, and the shoots that are to be used as a source of buds for budding are called as budwood.

Graftage – it is the process of operation of inserting a part of one plant into another or placing it upon another in such a way that a union will be formed and the combination will continue growth as one plant.

Stion – It is the combination of a stock and scion growing as one plant. This term composed of the first two letter of STOCK and with the last three latters of SCION to mean a plant composed of a stock and scion growing in combination regardless of the method of propagation.

Stionic – This pertains to a stion and may speak of stionic effect / stionic relation / stionics.

Root stocks – also influence the growth and productivity of scion. Rootstocks can be divided into two groups.1. Seedlings rootstocks – Variation among seedlings

can possibly make them undesirable as rootstocks, variability in root-stock seedlings may cause variability in the growth and performance of the grafted tree. Seedlings of ½ to 2 years old with pencil thickness are considered optimum. In Tamil Nadu, seedling rootstocks are employed for mango, plums and peaches.

2. Clonal rootstock – To avoid variation in rootstocks, thus to impart uniformity in the scion, often rootstocks are also propagated by cuttings / layers. Such root stocks which are perpetuated asexually are termed as clonal rootstocks.

Methods for production of new plants1. Inarching / approach grafting – This method is extensively practiced in the propagation of mango

and sapota in Tamil Nadu. In this method, the scion remains attached to the mother plant while the rootstocks grown separately in pots are brought closer to the mother trees for grafting. At the time of inarching the seedling stock should have a thickness of a lead pencil. From the stock 22 cm above ground level 5 to 8 cm long slice of bark and wood is removed. This cut removes about one third of the thickness of the stem and tapers gently towards the tip and bottom. A corresponding cut is made on the scion shoot so that two cuts fit in perfectly without leaving a chink. Two cuts are placed face to face and tied firmly with banana fiber and then with twine over it. The union is then covered with a mixture of cow dung and mud in equal parts. After union (6 to 8 weeks after grafting) the top of the rootstock is removed above the graft point and the base of the scion shoot is removed below the graft point. Removal is done in

stages by giving a half cut first and an another half

cut is given after an interval of 10 days. If scion are

high up, special devices such as grafting pot stands,

bamboo clefts, platforms have to be employed to

accommodate the rootstocks. In recent days, to

avoid this expensive proposition, the mother trees

are trained to produce low spreading branches in the

initial stages itself so that the pots containing the

rootstock can be kept on ground itself.

2. Side grafting - In this method, scion is prepared from the terminal shoots of the past season’s growth and used when they are not in active growth. Precuring of scion has to be done when it is still on the tree. Precuring of scion consists of removal of all the leaves retaining their petiole intact excepting 10 cm at the top. Buds swell in axils subsequently and these precured scion will be cut and used as scion after a week.

Scion is inserted into the side of the root stock which is larger than the scion and also the top of the rootstock is not removed. In the stock a slanting cut of 20 - 25°. After insertion of the scion begin to grow. When they grow to 7.5 to 9 cm long, the root stock stem above the joint is removed. This method is useful in mango, sapota, fig and mangosteen.

3. Whip / splice grafting – This is simple and extensively employed in apples and pears. The scion shoot is given a slanting cut 7.5 to 9 cm long at the basal end. A corresponding cut is made on the rootstock. The cut surfaces are placed together and secured tightly in position by proper tieing / sometimes sealed with grafting wax. A tongue shape cut is often given both in the cut surface of scion and rootstock which helps in holding the stock and scion more intimately together. This method is known as whip and tongue-grafting (e.g. Apples and Pears). It heals quickly and makes a strong union because of more close contact between the cambial region.

4. Cleft grafting – The base of the scion is prepared in the form of a wedge. The rootstock is split in which the scion is inserted. For this method, the root-stock and scion shoots need not be of same thickness. Usually this is done on thick stocks of 2 to 8 cm in diameter. The stock is given a smooth cut and then it is split at the centre and two scions are inserted at the ends in such a way that the cambial layers should be in contact. Hence scions are not inserted in the middle but done one either side. After the successful graft union. Only the better developed on of these two will be allowed.

5. Epicotyl / stone grafting – This type of grafting has been recently standardized in fruity crops like mango and cashew and this holds great promise for multiplying plants in large number and in lesser time. The seeds are placed on a sand bed and covered with 5 – 7.5 cm thick layer of leaf mould for germination. Germinated seedlings of 8 to 15 days age are taken out and grafted indoor by beheading the seedlings of about 5 cm above the seed and inserting the wedge shaped scion in the vertical split in the beheaded stock. Polythene tape of 200 gauge thickness is utilized for typing the graft. Immediately thereafter, the grafts are planted in polythene bags filled with soil and farm yard manure mixture (1:1). The grafts are watered and kept in semi-shade condition to avoid damaging effects of sun and rain.

Budding – is the art of inserting a bud on the rootstock plant in such a manner that both will unite and continue to grow as a single individual plant. The special advantage of budding over grafting is the economy in the use of scion materials.Methods of budding 1. Shield budding / ‘T’ budding – In this method a ‘T’ / inverted ‘T’ shaped incision is made on the rootstock stem. A transverse cut of 1 to 1.5 cm length is made first and then either below / above to this a vertical cut of 2.5 cm to 3 cm length is made and connected to the transverse cut. Then the bark is lifted by using the ivory edge of the budding knife. The scion bud is removed in the form of a shield with / without a piece of wood. The bark is raised and then the bud is inserted into the ‘T’ cut surface of the rootstocks. Then it is secured in position by proper bandaging. Eg. Sweet oranges, roses, plums and peaches.

2. Patch budding - A rectangular patch of bark of about 3 cm length and 1.5 cm width is removed from the stem of the rootstock. Similar patch of bud is removed from the bud wood the bud in the centre. Then it is placed in the rootstock and wrapped. This method is practised in Citrus, Mango, Rubber and Annona.

3. Flap / Forket Budding – A transverse incision is made in the bark of the rootstock and then the bark is peeled off carefully to a length of 5 cm. The bud shield removed from the scion is pushed under the flap till the exposed edges of rootstocks meet. Flap is then cut to half and is brought to cover the bud shield partially and is then wrapped.

4. Ring budding – the bud is prepared taking a ring of bark 3 cm in length with the bud in the centre. In the rootstock, two circular cuts. 1.5 cm apart are made and these are connected with a vertical cut and ring of bark is removed. The prepared scion bud with the ring of bark is removed. The prepared scion bud with the ring of bark is fitted in the exposed portion of the rootstock and tied as usual. Eg. Cinchona.

5. Flute budding – exactly same as ring budding, the difference being that the ringed bark can be removed easily in the form of a flute. The stock plant is topped off at 25 cm height and at the top about 2.5 to 3 cm of bark is removed leaving the wood exposed. The bud in the form of a flute is then fitted in the rootstock. It is essential that the diameter of the rootstock and scion should exactly be same, otherwise the contact between them will not be proper.

6. Chip budding – In one side of the rootstock a slanting cut of 2.5 cm in length going to a depth of half of the thickness of the stock is made. A notch is given at the bottom end of the cut. A similar cut is made in the scion shoot and a bud with a large piece of wood is removed. The scion bud is exactly fitted into the cut made in the rootstock and tied. Eg. Grapes. In any of the above methods, the union will take place in 3 – 5 weeks. After the union is complete, the top of the rootstock is removed in gradual stages, 7 to 8 cm above the bud union.

HydroponicsIntensive and profitable cropping in a garden

house condition is possible after the advent of a technique known as ‘Hydroponics’.

The term ‘hydroponics’ was derived from two Greek words hydro (Water) and ponos (labor) literally meaning ‘water working’. It can be defined as the science of growing plants without the use of soil, but use of an inert medium such as gravel sand, peat, vermiculite or saw dust, to which is added a nutrient solution containing all the essential elements needed by the plant for its normal growth and development. Since many hydroponics methods employ some type of medium, it is often termed as ‘soilless culture’.

This technique was first developed on commercial scale by W.F. Greicke of the University of california as early as in 1930. He grew root crops, such as beets, radishes, carrots and potatoes and cereals crops, fruits and ornamentals and flowers. With the development of plastics, hydroponics has become a reality for green house growers in virtually all climate areas and in developed countries, hydroponics green houses are established with 10 to even 100 acres under a single stretch. In India, hydroponics did not reach until 1946. Research conducted at Kalimpong, Darjeeling District led to the development of a a novel method of hydroponics, known as Hydroponics – the Bengal system which has the advantage of being inexpensive to install, simple to maintain and economical to operate.

Advantages of hydroponics

1. Much higher yields than those grown on soil.

2. It can be used in places where ordinary agriculture or gardening is impossible.

3. Quality of the product is always superior.

4. Freedom from soil diseases and weed.

5. Less cost of management

Essentially there are three methods by means of which plants may be grown without soil – water culture, drip culture and gravel culture.

Water culture – It involves growing of plants with their roots in solutions, no inert medium being used for support. Nutrients are supplied in the solution in which the roots are immersed. The solution is kept in a bottle or a tank, the top is covered with a wire netting and above that is placed material such as peat moss or saw dust or rice husks to give support to the seedlings. The water level in the tank should be increased with increase in the age of the plants since more air will be required. The great drawback in this system is the lack of suitable aeration to roots.

Drip culture – This method is also known as sand culture. In this method, plants are kept in sand medium and are watered with a nutrient solution.Gravel culture – An important over the above two methods is gravel culture and it is one of the most widely used hydroponic techniques. A gravel culture technique should have the following accessories.a) Nutrient tank – They must be water proof acid resistant

and of sufficient size to hold about 40 per cent of the total volume of the benches that they fill. These tanks may be made of concrete, wood or metal.

b) Benches – Gentle sloping benches made of concrete or wood may be preferred and it should have a ‘V’ bottom. The surfaces of the benches may be coated with an emulsified asphalt to prevent any possible leakage. PVC pipes of 75 mm are held in position with the holes or cuts facing downward.

c) Medium – Crushed granite of irregular shape free of fine particles less than 1/40 cm in diameter and coarse particles more than 1 – 5 cm in diameter are selected. The particles should not be of calcareous material in order to avoid pH shifts.d) Solutions – Many different formulae have been advocated but the following formula has proved satisfactory on many crops. Chemicals per 1000 litres of water

Sodium nitrate 0.5 kgPotassium chloride 0.5 kgAmmonium sulphate 0.1 kgMagnesium sulphate 4.5 kgMonocalcium phosphate 2.5 kgCalcium sulphate 0.5 kg

The chemicals should be weighted out individually and mixed in the tank. This solution is suitable for all crops for the first month and when the plants have become well established, usually 3 to 6 weeks, the concentration should be doubled, which means the twice the amount of chemicals per 1000 litres of water. The pH of the solution should be checked twice a week and it should be maintained at 6.5 for most crops. To raise the pH, a stock solution of 12.5 g of sodium / potassium hydroxide to one litre of water should be used. To lower the pH, a stock solution of 6.25 g of either concentration sulphuric / phosphoric acid per litre of water should be used.The nutrient solution is pumped into the medium 3 to 4 times in a day. The plants are spaced in gravel as in soil and set in along with the ball of soil.

Recently improvement in soil less cultures are Nutrient Film Technique (NFT). Tube culture and Aeroponics. Nutrient Film Technique is a water culture technique in which the plants are grown with their root systems contained in a plastic film (trough) through which nutrient solution is continuously circulated. Tube culture is a modification of the NFT and water culture. The nutrient solution is pumped through PVC drain pipes of 10 cm thick covered with black polyethenefilm. Holes are cut in the top of the polyethylene film through which the seedlings are set into the nutrient solution flowing along the bottom of the PVC pipes. Aeroponics on the other hand is growing of plants in an opaque trough / supporting container in which the roots are suspended and bathed in a nutrient bath mist rather than a nutrient solution.

Lawn Making – A lawn has a charm all its own. It serves to enhance the beauty of a garden, be it large / small. It enhances the beauty of surrounding objects, whether they are trees, shrubs or flower beds.

Grass, being one of the most hardiest perennial herb it is not difficult to keep a lawn in good condition provided one takes good care of it. The view of the lawn from the verandah and the windows of the house should be free and uninterrupted.

A spacious lawn may be provided with beds of flowering plants a group of shrubs / trees of attractive form / specimen shrubs as Thuja orientalis / travellers palm / large succulents may be planted here and there in pockets made in the lawn to form colonies of themselves and bear their beautiful flowers.

In making a lawn, it is essential that the ground be prepared propertly, the surface being thoroughly dug and uniformly levelled, coarse stones, roots and other obstacles being removed and surface made smooth.

Provision for drainage of excess rain water should be made if the ground is not slopy. Let the ground settle down during the first showers. Remove any weed that may come up. Methods of Lawn making – After the ground has been prepared, lay out the lawn by adopting one of the following methods. a) From seed – In our country, lawn is seldom made by sowing seeds. A lawn from seed is thought of only when grass roots are not available. About 30 kg of seeds may be necessary for an hectare. The soil should be reduced to fine tilth and given a light rolling. The seeds should be sown on a windless day, evenly and thinly and covered with fine light soils. The ground should be rolled again and watered liberally with the rose of a water can / with hose pipe fitted with nozzle. The seeds take about 5 weeks for germination. For the first few times, cut the grass with a scythe. Lawn mower may be used when the roots have established and are spreading.

b) By turfing – Turfs are pieces of earth with compact grass on them. These turbs should be cut uniformly thick in squares from a place where the grass is short, compact and free from weeds. They should be spread upon the prepared ground side by side and beaten down flat with a turb-beater. Any cavities in between should be filled with fine soil. Then the entire turfed area should be rolled and watered liberally. This is the most expenditious way of making a lawn.

c) By turf blastering – The roots should be cut into bits, 2 to 4 cm. long. In a pit, a mixture consisting of two parts of these roots and a part each of well decomposed horse or cow manure, fresh cowdung and red earth / loam should be made and rendered into a paste by stirring it with required quantity of water. Spread the paste evenly over the prepared ground which has previously been watered. Covered the ground with a litter or layer of coarse manure to minimise evaporation and protect the roots from the heat of the sun. If there is no rain for the next two days, water liberally. Grass will shoot up in a fortnight. Cut with the scythe to start with and after three months, use the mower. d) By dibbling roots – This is the cheapest but slowest method. Small roots should be dibbled about 15 cm. apart into the prepared spread and grow underground in the coarse of six months, making a fairly compact lawn by frequent mowing, rolling and watering.

After careAfter making a lawn; roiling, mowing. watering and restoration ofpatchy places should receive regular attention.1. Weed should be pulled out as soon as they appear otherwisethey soon spread, seed multiply and overpower the grass. Fill upthe gaps occupied by the weeds with grass roots and fine soil.2. In the absence of rain, water it regularly at 10 days interval.3. Mowing should be done at brief intervals and never allowed toproduce seed stalks.4. Heavy roller should be used frequently but not when theground is either too wet or dry. A mower should not be employeduntil a firm green sword has been formed. The grass is first cutwith a sickle and the surface is then rolled.5. To have a perfectly green lawn, feed it once a month with aliquid manure prepared by dissolving 45 gm of ammoniumsulphate in 5 litres of water,

6. Once in a year rake before the rain, top Tress the soil with rich mixture of welldecomposed manure and sand. This will stimulate the grass with a new vigorousgrowth.A spacious lawn though beautiful will often be monotonous. So. to break themonotony, some beautiful tree or shrub is recommended as single specimen inthe lawn.Plants suitable for Planting in lawns as single specimen Trees:1) Amherstia nobilis 2) CallistemOn lanceolatus3) IViagnolia grandiflora 4) Cupressus5) Pinus longifolia 6) Thuja orientails7) -Araucaria excelsaShrubs and creepers1) Agave americana 2) Furcraea3) Muse sunerba 4) Bougainvilleas5) Cestrum nocturnum 6) Dombeya spectabilis7) Hibiscus sp.

Sometimes mounds are created in the spacious lawn to break the feeling ofmonotony. Monotony is also over come by planting flowering or foliage shrubson the fringes of the lawn or by having flower beds or borders on the selectedarea inside the lawn.

S. No. Scientific name Common name Texture Situation

1. Cynodon intermedius Hariyali Medium fine

Open sunny location, drought resistant

2. Stenotaphrumsecundatum

Buffaloe grass Coarse texture

Shady situation, requires frequent watering

3. Sporobolus tremulus chain grass Fine Saline, open sunny situation

4. Poe annua Blue grass Medium fine

Loving soil fine acidity, higher elevations

5. Pennisetumclandestinum

Kikuyu grass Rough Acid soil conditions, higher elevations

6. Zoisia japonida Japan grass coarse grass. slow in growth

Poor sandy soil, open sunny situation

7. Cyanodon sp, Bermuda grass or Hydera bad grass

Fine texture

Open sunny situation, needs mowing

8. Cyanodon sp Dwarf Bermuda Dwarf open sunny situation no mowing

Flower arrangement and Dry Decoration

Flower Arrangement – Flower arranging is one of the arts in horticulture. There are basically two styles in flower arrangements viz. occidental and oriental styles. The occidental or western style or british style involves mainly massing of flowers and the beauty in this type of flower arrangement is mainly from massing .

The oriental or eastern style involves mainly line arrangement with foliage and flowers. Historicalyspeaking it involved religious symbolism and Zen Buddhism is practised in Japan, is the sprit behind this kind of art. The origin of this style is traceable to 9th / 10th century. This style is called as ‘ikabana’, a japanese word.

Irrespective of the

styles each flower

arrangement contains the

following three components.

1. Containers – The containers / vases for flower arrangement differ in size, shape and material. It may be made up of procelain, ceramic, brass, bell metals, bamboo, drift wood etc. Glass containers are not generally preferred as vases. The size of the containers vary from tall vases to flat saucers. Symmetrically or asymmetrically shaped containers are preferred depending upon the type of flower arrangement. The colour of the containers should not be bright as such containers will detract the beauty of the blossoms.

Besides the above containers, split bamboos / pieces of bamboo with two or three internodes having holes can be also employed as natural containers especially for line arrangement. Sometimes drift wood (pieces of any lignified woody stem) with a depression on its top portion may be also used as containers for line arrangement.

2. Mechanism – It refers to the physical mechanism by which flowers are held in position in containers, pin-holders, clay balls or a crushed wire mesh are all commonly used in containers to hold the flowers in position. Deep containers generally do not require a mechanism. However, it is a must for flat and shallow containers. In some cases, the flowers have long and weak stalks. In such cases the mechanism alone will not suffice to keep the flowers in position. A thin g.i. wire can be pushed inside the stalks to retain in position. Mechanism of flower arrangement should be such that all the stalks of the cut flowers must originate from a point. The exposed stalk of the cut flowers as far as possible must be 1 ½ times the height of containers.

3. Flowers – The term ‘flowers’ in flower arrangement include real flowers, foliage, dried twig, fruits (fresh /dry). Dry and fresh flowers may be combined or arranged separately. Colour compination adopted in a flower arrangement is highly based on individual taste and preferences.

In massing or grouping flowers care must be taken to have proper balance and proprtion between the container and the flowers. When different flowers are combined orange coloured flowers may be combined with red flowers or blue flowers with violet coloured flowers. It is always attractive to combine all right colours or all bright colours in a vase.

In line arrangement one can have opposing line, parallel line / straight line arrangements. The three flowers are usually kept in line arrangements at different heights to signify heaven, man and earth.

Shapes of flower arrangement – Flower arrangements are generally more pleasing to the eye when their outline creates a geometric pattern. The outline of the arrangement is the frame work from which the floral composition is constructed. The most commonly formed shapes are circular, triangular, radiating, crescent, horizontal, hogarithan curve.

Harvesting, Marketing & Storage of Fruits

One of the most important periods in the life of fruits is from the time it is picked until it is disposed to the consumer. Monetary returns of the fruit grower and the reputation of his fruit produce will depend on the following factors:

i) Storage and picking of fruits

ii) Packing methods

iii) Storing and transporting

iv) Processing and delivery to the consumer in the form and at the time, the consumer desires to have the fruits.

Picking – picking refers to the harvesting of fruits from the trees at the right time. The time of picking depends upon the following factors.i) Variety – certain varieties will ripen only in trees

and certain others will ripen even when they are harvested ¾ maturity stage.

ii) Purpose for which it is meant, for example, tomatoes meant for table purposes can be harvested at red ripe stage whereas for distant market they may be harvested during breaker’s stage (colour changing)

iii) Distance to market – the closer is the market ripe fruits may be picked and distant is the market, mature green stage may be harvested so that when the fruits reach the point of consumer, it will be ripe.

1. Maturity tests

a) Colour changes

b) Increase in size

c) Sofening of the tissues of the fruits Eg. Figs and grapes.

d) Ease of detachment from the stalk Eg. Sapota & Annona

e) Shrivelling of fruit stalk – water melon

f) Time elapsed from the date of flowering to picking maturity

g) Sound by tapping – jack and watermelon when ripe produce hollow and dull sound on tapping but produce metallic sound if unripe.

2. Accurate testsa) Colour chartsb) Penetrometer – Instrument which indicates / measures the softening

of tissues as an index of maturity. Chiefly in determining when fruits are too soft and ripe for storage rather than when picking should begin.

c) Sugar acid / Brix acid ratio Handling – includes all processes from picking to delivery or disposal at the consumer point. This includes the treatments given for getting the fruit ready to the market viz., packaging and wrapping, ripening and storage.

Important treatment is dipping the fruits in antiseptic solutions like 1 – 2 per cent caustic soda to remove the dust and infestation of scale insects and wahsing with 1 – 1.5 percent of Hydrochloric acid to remove any spray residue and to improve the appearance. Grading – refers to the assortment of the fruits into different groups based on certain characters This include colour, condition to firmness and soundness and free from blemishes and also site of the fruit. Grading is a good market practice which improves the mutual confidence of salesman and consumer.

Wrapping – Covering the fruits after harvest with any material in order to improve its post harvest life is known as wrapping. The materials commonly employed as wrappers are tissue papers, waxed paper, pliofilm, cellophane paper, aluminium foils and alkathane paper etc. Wrapping has the following advantages.Waxing - reducing moisture lossPackaging and packing Storage of fruits Factors influencing the storage1. Temperature 2. Humidity3. Storage atmosphereMethods of storage1. Air cooled storage2. Air cooled storage – refrigerated with ice3. Treating with wax emulsions4. Refrigerated storage5. Controlled atmospheric storage (CAS storage)6. Preservation by irradiation

Orchard CultivationCareful management of the orchard soil in such a way that the soil is maintained in a good condition suitable to the needs of the tree with least expenses. 1. Clean culture – regular ploughing & removal of

weeds.2. Clean culture with cover crops – raising green

manure.3. Mulching – crop residues spread in the tree basins

and in inter spaces between trees.4. Sod – permanent cover of grass is raised in the

orchard.5. Sod mulch – similar to sod. Only difference is that

the vegetation is cut frequently and the cut material is allowed to remain on the ground.

Manures and Manuring - Manures are substances of organic / inorganic nature which are capable of supplying the various plant nutrients when applied to the soil. Manures are usually divided into two groups, viz, organic and inorganic manures. Organic natural manures includes excreta of animal, animal matter such as blood, bones, flesh, wool, horn etc., and decomposed vegetation. They usually contain all the essential nutrients in various proportions. The inorganic manures usually supply one essential plant nutrient and hence are also called ‘relative manures’. They supply either nitrogen, phosphorus / potassium.

A. Important organic manures 1. Cattle manure / farm yard manures – The manures

produced by horse, cattles / other animals are included in this category. It takes a long time to decompose, nearly a year before it becomes usable. It is more suited to light than heavy soils. They contain 0.6 % of Nitrogen, 0.35% phosphorous and 0.6 % potash, however the percentage of these nutrients may vary depending upon the substances the animal feed, age of the animals, conditions of animals and storage and handling including the kind of litter used. The manure is applied as a basal dressing by broadcast and immediately incorporated into the soil by ploughing.

2. Night soil – It is a powerful manure rich in Nitrogen. The chief objection to its use is based on sand sentimental grounds.

3. Guana – It is well known manure contains Phosphorus. The pure form of guana is practically exhausted now. Guana may be mixed with about six times its weight of soil.

4. Bones – They are rich in Phosphoric acid and lime. Steamed bone meal contains not less than 3.5 per cent of nitrogen and 23 per cent phosphoric acid. Bones are especially beneficial to soil deficient in lime.

5. Oil Cakes – They are residues left after the oils is extracted from the seeds of grounnut, castor, gingelly, pongamia etc., and they contain 3 to 5 % of nitrogen and 1.5 to 2 per cent of phosphorus. They are best applied to potted plants in the form of liquid manure.

6. Leaf mould – withered and dry leaves and garden sweepings are thrown into a pit in a shady corner in the garden and covered over with earth and watered copiously once / twice in summer to assist decomposition.

1. To build up soil organic matter and maintain fertility. 2. To improve physico-chemical and biological properties of the soil. 3. To have residual effect. 4. To control pest and diseases. 5. To improve the quality of the crop. 6. To act as a chelating agent. The soil organic matter can be increased by the addition of 'synthetic farmyard manure' which is popularly called 'compost". It may be defined as thematerial resulting from the decomposition of plant residues under theaction of bacteria and fungi. The final product is usually dark brown incolour and when correctly made. resembles ordinary farm yard manureboth in its properties and appea-rance. By regulating the temperature andmoisture and by introducing the required amount of nitrogen. phosphorus,potassium and calcium, the speed of decomposition and the nature of theproduct can be decided. A well prepared compost contains 0.75 to 1.00 percent N, 0,60 to 0.75 per cent P20, and 1.00 to 1.50 per cent K2O.

Sometimes, green manure or green - leaf manures are ploughed into thesoil for the purpose of incorporating organic matter, thus supplying humusas well as nutrients contained in them. The green manure crops aregenerally leguminous plants, planted for the sole purpose of serving asmanure.

The following are the commonly grown green manure legumes in India. 1. Sunnhemp (Crotolaria pincea) 2. Daincha (Sesbania aculeata) 3. Pillipesara (Phaseolus trilobus) 4. Sesbania (Sesbania speciosa) Green leaf manuring refers to the incorpo-ration of the green leaves and other tender parts of the plants collected from the shrubs and trees grown outside the field and also collected from the waste lands and nearby forests into the soil. The popular plants are: 1. Gliricidia (Gliricidia maculate) 2. Sesbania (Sesbania speciosa) 3. Pungam (Pungamia pinnate) The green manuring is generally recommended in orchard to build up the humus status of the soil.

B. Important Inorganic Fertilizers – The following are the important chemical fertilizers with which the farmers may be familiar. Nitrogenous fertilizers N2 content (percent) Form of N2

1. Sodium nitrate 16 Nitrate

2. Potassium nitrate 12.5 – 13.5 Nitrate

3. Ammonium sulphate 20.6 Ammonical

4. Ammophos – A 11 Ammonical

5. Ammophos – B 16 Ammonical

6. Ammonium nitrate 33 Ammonical = Nitrate

7. Ammonium sulphate nitrate 25.6 Ammonical 19+Nitrate 6.6

8. Urea 46 Amide

9. Calcium cyanamide 20.6 Amide

(* Most popular among farmers in India )

Ammonium sulphate is a fine crystalline salt containing no moisture and also it absorbs no moisture from the atmosphere. It is readily soluble in water and is retained in soil without any loss. Urea is cheaper per kg of nitrogen than any other solid nitrogenous fertilizer, available in India. Commercial urea is relatively pure. White and crystalline. It is readily and completely soluble in water. This is suitable for all crops in all types of soil. The nitrogen present in it is converted to ammonical and nitrate forms which are suitable for absorption by crop plants.

Phosphatic fertilizers – The commonly available phosphatic fertilizers are :

1. Superphosphate – This is the most extensively used one popularly referred as ‘Super’. It contains 16 to 18 per cent of water soluble phosphate.

2. Basic slag – It is a by – product in the manufacture of steel, a black finely divided powder contains 8 to 18 % of phosphoric acid which becomes available to plants slowly.

3. Rock phosphate – It contains 30 to 40 per cent of P2O5 3- 4% flourine and varying amounts of lime. It is beat suited to acid soils when compared to neutral / alkaline soils. They are suitable source for reinforcing the compost / farm yard manure.

Potassic fertilizers – The commonly used potassicfertilizers are muriate of potash (Potassium chloride) and potassium sulphate. Potassium chloride contains 48 to 62 % K2O and 35 to 47 % chlorine. Certain fruits and vegetables are sensitive to high chlorine content. In such cases, potassium sulphate may be preferred. It contains about 48 % K20.

Mixed Fertilizers – It is a mixture of more than one straight fertilizers which can supply more than one plant nutrient elements.

The advantages of mixed fertilizers are :

1. Saving in time and labour in application.

2. Saving from cartage of too many straight fertilizers from too many places.

The disadvantages of mixed fertilizers overstraight fertilizers are:

1, Specific needs of crops and individual nutrientelement cannot be satisfied.

2. Unit cost of the various nutrients contained inthe mixed fertilizer will always be higher to theunit cost of nutrients contained in the straightfertilizers.

Mixed fertilizers are now available for importanthorticultural crops. The contents of these mayvary depending upon the crops requirement.

Time and method of application of fertilizers and manures The crops are manured or fertilized in order to supply the nutrient elements which are not present in sufficient quantities in the soil. Their application results in higher yield only when they are applied at the proper time and at the proper place. The following are the broad principles that decide the time of application of fertilizers and manures after choosing the fertilizers to be used. 1. The nutrient nitrogen is required through out the crop growth and all plants a;-e found to absorb the nitrogen continuously from the soil throughout the entire growth phase, Their requirement may however be low at the initial and final stages. Besides. all the nitrogenous fertilizers are readily soluble in water and more loss is found to occur. Therefore, it is advisable to supply nitrogen-ous ieftilizers in splits does instead of applyingthe entire quantity at one time. The fertilizers can be applied as basal dressing or top dressing when-ever and wherever required. 2. Phosphorus is required in large amounts in the early stages of growth. Moreover all the phosphatic fertilizers are found to be slow acting or and sometimes the available phosphorus becomes unavailable due to fixation. Therefore, it is generally recommended that the entire quantity of phosphatic fertilizers should be applied before planting of sowing the crop. 3. Potassium is required throughout the crop growth, but the release of this nutrient in the soil is very slow. Therefore, it is desirable to apply the entire quantity of potassicfertilisers before sowing or planting the crop. Methods of application: Solid manures and fertilizers are commonly applied to crop plants by the following methods.

I. Broadcasting as a basal dressing The fertilizer is applied uniformly over the entire cultivated surface of the land. It may or may not be incorporated into the soil. The broadcasting can be done just before this last ploughing or planting or sowing depending upon the nature of mate-rials and crops grown. Concentrated organic manures. bulky organic manures like cattle manure. various ammonical fertilizers and potassic fertilizers are applied as basal broadcast. 2. Broadcasting as top dressing This refers to the application of fertilizers by broadcasting when the crop is in the field. This is done to meet the immediate demands of the growing crops. Only nitrogenous fertilizers are usually used for top dressing. Liquid fertilizers may be applied by the following methods. I. Starter solution Solutions made up of water- soluble nitro-genous, phosphatic and potassic fertilizers in small quantities are used in the place of irrigation water for the establishment of young plants. This solution is called starter solution. At the time of transplanting in the field. the root of young plants are dipped in this solution. This results in quicker and more establishment of seedlings (e.g., tomato). One great advantage here is that the nutrients reach all the plant roots. 2. Foliar application Many nutrient elements can be absorbed through the leaves of the plants with very great rapidity and efficiency. Many of the nitrogenous fertilizers. some complete fertilizers and carriers of trace elements are recommended as foliar application. When compared to soil application, plants require less quantity of nutrients if supplied through foliar application. To be more effective, two or three spray applications at shorter intervals of time may be needed. Two or more trace elements may be combined and given as a single spray and sometime these maybe also combined with fungicidal or pestici-dal spray solutions. Foliar sprays employing urea to supply nitrogen have been successfully used for many crops (e.g.. Brinjal. Bhendi, etc.) One precaution to be observed with foliar spray is the use of correct concentrations of nutrients otherwise higher concentration results in many problems to the crop plants

The Soil – The soil acts as a substratum which provides nutrients and water necessary for plant growth. The kind of soil, its fertility status, soil reaction and drainage influence the productivity of the horticultural crops.Kinds of soil – soils are classified on the basis of particle size, the relative amounts of the various content of organic and inorganic matter. Inorganic soils generally have less than 10 per cent of organic matter in the surface layer. The inorganic portion consists of varying amounts of sand, slit and clay. Sandy soils are coarse textured and have large pore-spaces. They have poor water-holding capacity and low nutrient retaining ability. This type of soil is suitable for vegetables to obtain early crops and rapid root growth. It is the most common medium for propagating cuttings. Horticultural crops on sand need to be supplied with considerable quantities of nutrients for best production.Loamy soil Clay soil

Soil fertility – capacity of soil to nourish and sustain plant growth

Chemical composition of soil – acid, alkaline / neutral reaction of a soil is expressed on the pH scale.

Drainage – depends on the nature of sub soil.

Biological properties of soil – soil is populated with life of a microscopic organism. More than 2000 millions of microbes are estimated to be contained in a tea spoonful of soil.