DIETARY USE OF WILD PLANT RESOURCES IN THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA~ INDIA 1

MANJU SUNDRIYAL, R . C. SUNDRIYAL, AND E . SHARMA

Sundriyal, Manju, R. C. Sundriyal, and E. Sharma (G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan En- vironment and Development, North East Unit, Vivek Vihar, Itanagar-791 11, Arunachal Pra- desh, India: e-mail: manjusundriyal@yahoo.co.in; sundriyalrc@yahoo.com). DIETARY USE OF WILD PLANT RESOURCES IN THE S1KKIM HIMALAYA, INDIA. Economic Botany 58(4):626438, 2004. The edible wild plants are greatly valued throughout the Himalayan region and serve as an important source of food for indigenous communities. This paper describes the botanical richness, elevational distribution and dietary use of the edible wild plant resources from the Sikkim Himalaya (Eastern Himalaya), many with promising potential. A total of 190 wild plant species have been screened from the Sikkim Himalaya, this derived from 143 genera and 78 families and accounting for nearly 15% of total edible wild plants resources of India. Of the total, 65% were edible for their fruits, 22%for leaves~shoots, 7% for flowers and 3%for roots/ rhizomes. Nearly 91 wild edible species were recorded from low-hills, 70 from mid-hills and 28 species from high-hill areas. Within Sikkim state, the North and East districts represent maximum diversity of edible wild plants due to the wilderness and inaccessibility to most of the habitats. An average rural family annually consumes nearly 8 types of edible wild plants, and a few species provide over five meals in a season. Selected plants also form a source of earning to a few families that sell them in local markets. It is suggested that the high diversity of edible plants needs to be conserved for future use. Some species may be grown in traditional agroforestry systems and on marginal lands of otherwise low agricultural value. Such measures may help protect wild plant resources in their natural habitats.

Key Words: Dietary uses; species richness; Sikkim Himalaya; traditional food dishes; wild edible plants.

The cultivation of world's food crops have centered around 103-odd plant species, although three main cereal crops, viz. wheat, rice and maize contributed the larger share (Allen and Allen 1990). There are about 35 million tribal people in the world, and they belong to over 550 communities of different ethnic groups, of which 162 major tribes live in India (Arora and Pandey 1996). Since the beginning of civiliza- tion, mankind has always been dependent on plants, and the search for empirical techniques and methods to use/eat particular species over the ages has made some distinct food systems, that vary with tribes and the environment (Jain 1990). Each tribal group is generally woven around forest; therefore, they are largely depen- dent on forest resources for various needs. Tribal people are also normally dependent upon a huge traditional knowledge base for the use and man- agement of their plant resources (Martin 1995),

1 Received 3 July 2003; accepted 15 July 2004.

including knowledge of edible plants, herbal medicine, fertility regulating drugs, skin and body treatments, natural insecticides and repel- lents, animal behavior, climatic and seasonal variability, soils, forest and savannah manage- ment. These examples attest to the diversity of the categories of knowledge that can contribute to new strategies of ecologically and socially sound sustained development (Gaur 1977; Gangwar and Ramakrishanan 1990; Pei Shengji 1995). A few attempts have been made to doc- ument this traditional knowledge base through- out the length and breadth of the globe (Uphof 1968; Tanaka 1976; IUCN 1989).

Because the world's population will rise by 3.7 billion in next 30-40 years, food production needs to be doubled. Nineteen percent of the world's populations (over 950 million people) live in under developed countries where mal-nu- trition is still a serious problem (World Bank 1992). For the last two decades, worldwide at- tention has focused on the problem of trying to

Economic Botany 58(4) pp. 626-638. 2004 �9 2004 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

2004] SUNDRIYAL ET AL.: DIETARY USE OF WILD PLANTS IN SIKKIM 627

understand the intimate relationships that exist between plants and human beings, especially with respect to medicinal and wild edible plants (Singh and Arora 1978; Martin 1995; Arora and Pandey 1996). Many wild herbs could be grown very easily under large-scale cultivation. Some would also be very suitable for traditional agri- cultural systems.

Nearly 80% of India's people live in villages and agriculture is their main occupation. Low food production has plagued India's agricultural practices. People in remote areas, therefore, sup- plement their food stocks by gathering wild ed- ible species from natural habitats. Despite the fact that a number of papers have appeared on this subject in the past two decades (Atal et al. 1980; Badhwar and Fernandes 1964; Bhujel et al. 1985; Doughtly 1979; Sundriyal and Sundri- yal 2001), there are still areas and locations that remain to be studied and assessed with regard to the potential of wild edible plant species (Raju and Krishna 1990; Singh 1995). With these thoughts in mind, a study was undertaken in 1993-98 to understand the wild edible plant spe- cies of the Sikkim Himalaya, with respect to their diversity, distribution, dietary use, struc- ture, regeneration, productivity, nutritive values, marketing, value addition and growth strategies (Sundriyal 1999). Information on useful plant resources, potential of wild edible plants, and nutritive value and propagation method of a few selected species were already available (Sundri- yal et al. 1998; Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2000, 2001a, b). Selected wild edible plants are also sold in the markets (Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2004).

This paper highlights botanical richness, dis- tribution and dietary use pattern of various edi- ble wild plant resources of the Sikkim Himalaya.

STUDY AREA A N D C L I M A T E

The Sikkim Himalaya comprises a part of the Eastern Himalaya. It includes the State of Sik- kim and the hills of North Bengal (Fig. 1). It is about 80 km in width with an elevational range of 300-8579 m above msl. Khangchengdjunga, the third highest peak of the world, also falls in the Sikkim Himalaya. Sikkim, with a population of 540 493, has a total area of 7096 sq km (or 0.02% of the total geographical area of the coun- try). Eighty-eight percent of the people live in villages. The state is of strategic importance, the north and north-east is surrounded by Tibet, the

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south-east by Bhutan, the west by Nepal and the southern side by the Darjeeling district of West Bengal (Fig. 1). Administratively, Sikkim is di- vided into four districts, North, East, West and South. The state is rich in cultural diversity. The main ethnic groups, Lepchas, Bhutias, Limbus and Nepalese, differ in their food habits, dress and living styles. In the valleys, people practice double cropping system, though it is limited to single cropping at higher elevations (Sundriyal et al. 1994a). Thirty-six percent of the area of the state is under forest, 15% is under agricul- ture, 10% is pasture and 25% is barren land. The state falls under the Eastern Himalayan "Hot Spot of Biodiversity and Endemism Zone," and

628 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 58

contains over 4000 flowering plants, which in- cludes over 600 species of orchids, 38 species of rhododendrons, and 100+ medicinal plants (Singh and Chauhan 1998). The state has sub- tropical, temperate and sub-alpine forests asso- ciated with different altitudinal ranges (Sundri- yal et al. 1994b; Sundriyal and Sharma 1996; Rai and Sundriyal 1997). Edible plants grow in all the forest stands and are very popular among local people. Many kinds of wild edibles are also brought to market (Sundriyal 1999). The climate of the area is typically monsoonal. Due to proximity to the Bay of Bengal, the area re- ceives high rainfall and has high humidity, and thus exhibits luxuriant vegetation. The average rainfall varies from 1200 mm (at 300 m eleva- tion) to 4500 mm (at 2000 m elevation), and over 80% of the rain comes during the monsoon season (June through September). The average maximum temperature varies from 21 ~ to 35~ while the minimum temperature ranges from 12 to 23~ The winter season (December-Febru- ary) is generally rain free and cold. The mini- mum temperature during this period varies from O ~ at higher elevation to 9 ~ in the valleys, while maximum temperature ranges between 13 to 28~ October to November is the autumn pe- riod, while March and April is spring season. Both seasons provide a pleasant climate.

METHODS The methods employed in this study were de-

signed for the collecting of information on the wild plant resources that are used locally by the people of Sikkim. The literature was thoroughly searched for references on the subject, and field data was collected from 1993 to 1998. As sug- gested by Jain (1989, 1990), and Martin (1995), extensive interviews were taken, and markets were surveyed with regard to the availability of wild edible plants. Three ecological zones were recognized as being important for the gathering of wild edible species: Low hills (up to 900 m elevation); mid-hills (900-2000 m); and, upper hills (>2000 m). A few species showed broader distribution, therefore zones like low-mid hills, mid-upper hills, and low-upper hills were also categorized. Species having distributions that encompassed areas outside our study region were identified with the help of published floras. Detailed market surveys were made at Gangtok (state capital), Namchi (South district headquar- ters) and Singtam (East district town), and ob-

servations were recorded on the wild plants and the products available, number of retailers sell- ing a particular species and quantity, and the av- erage price of the product. Cursory visits were made to some other towns, e.g., Jorethang (in South district) and Mangan (North district Head- quarters), by visiting weekly-market "Hats." All plant samples were collected and identified with the help of specialists and relevant published flo- ras.

In order to know the dietary use of wild edible plants by different tribal communities, a total of 100 households were formally interviewed in each district of Sikkim. During the interviews data were collected on recognition and use of the species, preferences of species, trade, tech- niques, time of collections, and mode of prepa- ration, storage, production and cultivation of dif- ferent wild edible plants (if any). To verify the data, frequent visits were made to markets, and interviews were done with vendors and retailers as well as people participating in the local mar- kets. Interviews were also made with regard to the total number of species collected from nat- ural habitats each year for food purposes, the average number of meals taken, and the quantity used for each species by an individual family (Sundriyal 1999).

Local residents use a few cultivated plants mixed with wild edible species for making some traditional, fermented food dishes. Surveys were done with regard to the most commonly pre- ferred local food dishes, their ways of prepara- tion, and the plant species used for such prepa- ration. Afterwards, villagers were asked to rank various traditional food dishes with reference to their liking, in a scale of 1 to 5 (least to most preferred) for easiness in cooking, fuel conser- vation, nutrition, appetizing appearance, and food color and flavor. The dishes that scored maximum points were considered better than others.

RESULTS

SPECIES RICHNESS, PLANT HABIT AND DISTRIBUTION

In the Sikkim Himalaya, a total of 190 wild species were determined as having some value for food. These belong to 143 genera and 78 families (see Appendix I). This represents nearly 15% of the total edible wild plant germplasm of the country. Various parts of the plant were con-

2004] SUNDRIYAL ET AL.: DIETARY USE OF WILD PLANTS IN SIKKIM 629

TABLE 1. BOTANICAL RICHNESS IN WILD EDIBLE PLANTS OF SIKKIM HIMALAYA, AND A COMPARISON

WITH INDIA.

Floristic richness Plant Species

Zone parts used Families Genera Species semidomesticated

Sikkim Himalaya*:

India**:

Fruits 49 82 111 10 Seed/nuts 10 12 15 - - Leafy vegetables 20 39 43 - - Root/tuber 4 5 6 1 Flower/bud 11 12 13 - - Miscellaneous 5 5 6 - - Fruits 112 357 647 107 Seed/nuts 53 91 118 25 Leafy vegetables 156 377 521 72 Root/tuber 42 98 145 33 Flower/bud 47 88 101 15

* Present study; ** After Arora and Pandey (1995).

sumed for food, including the fruits, seed, flow- ers and flower buds, leaves, shoots, roots or rhi- zomes, and pulp or pith. Some were eaten raw (mainly fruiting species), whereas others, as in the case of vegetables and flour, were boiled or baked. Still others were used for beverage pur- poses. Most of the wild edible species were an- giosperms, but a few were from the lower plant groups (e.g., Agaricus sp., and Diplazium escu- lentum (Retz.) Sw.). Fruiting plants represented the largest number of species (57%), followed by leafy vegetables (22%), seed and nuts (8%), flowers or flower buds (7%), and roots or tubers (3%). Fruit consumption was the most common use at all elevations, though the numbers of

Fig. 2. Elevational distribution of wild edible spe- cies and plant parts used in the Sikkim Himalaya (300-900 m = low hills; 300-1500 m = low-mid hills; 900-2000 m = mid hills; 1500-2500 m = mid- upper hills; >2000 m = upper hills; 300-2500 m = low-upper hills).

fruiting species decreased with elevation. A comparison of the floristic richness of the wild food plants of the Sikkim Himalaya with that of the entire country (Arora and Pandey 1996) is also presented in Table 1. This shows that in India as well as in Sikkim, the largest numbers of species were consumed for their fruits, fol- lowed by species bearing edible leaves, roots, tubers, seeds, nuts and flowers or flower buds.

The distribution of wild edible plant species is also correlated with elevation. The largest numbers of wild edible plant species are found in the low hills or sub-tropical zones (91 spe- cies). Fewer species (70) occur in the mid-hills (temperate zone), whereas only 29 species are found in the high hills (alpine zone) (Fig. 2). With regard to plant habit, trees were the most dominant life form, followed by herbs, shrubs, woody climbers, vines, woody grasses, epi- phytes and parasites, and tree-herbs or ferns.

CONSUMPTION PATI'ERN OF WILD PLANT RESOURCES

The most popular edible wild fruits were Spondias axillaris Roxb., Juglans regia L., Di- ploknema butyracea Roxb., Machilus edulis King., Castanopsis hystrix DC., Emblica officin- alis Gaertn., Eriolobus indica Schn., Mangifera sylvatica Roxb., Tamarindus indica L., Baccau- rea sapida Roxb., Elaeocarpus sikkimensis Mast., Ficus roxburghii Roxb., Citrullus colo- cynthis Schrad., Rhus semialata Murr., and Ter- minalia chebula Retz. The majority of the above fruits are available from September through De-

630 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 58

Fig. 3. Consumption of different wild edible plants parts in four districts (North, South, East and West districts) of Sikkim state.

cember. With regard to vegetables, the most common were Diplazium esculantum (Retz.) Sw., Nasturtium officinale Br., Urtica dioica L., Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Am., Agaricus sp., Dioscorea bulbifera Br. L., Girardiana palmate Gand., and Ficus benjamina L. Leafy vegetables were available from January through August.

The consumption pattern, quantity, and num- ber of wild edible species consumed annually varied from family to family. A total of 44 spe- cies were found to be most preferred. These were collected in large quantities, and often sold in the markets. Village surveys revealed that each rural family consumed at least 8-12 edible wild species (or varieties) on an annual basis with some species providing up to 5-10 meals a season. A large number of wild vegetables were collected when cultivated vegetables were not available, and household food stores were depleted. In the low and mid hills areas, most of the plants were collected mainly during the dry season, whereas in the upper hills, the majority of the species were gathered during the rainy season, and only 3 species were used during the dry season.

Our records indicate that the people of the flo- ristically rich North district of Sikkim state con- sume the maximum number of wild plants fol- lowed by those in the East district (Fig. 3). Local

inhabitants prepare and use a large number of traditional food dishes prepared from diverse plant species and have high preference for them (Table 2). Aside from the use of fresh bamboo shoots as 'Tama', a certain quantity is also made into 'Mesu' after fermentation. 'Chau' and 'sis- noo' are other popular vegetable dishes made from edible wild plants. 'Sinki', 'Gundruk' and 'Kinema' are popular local food dishes made by fermentation of radish roots, Brassica leaves, and soybean seeds, respectively (Table 2). Fer- mented food products of this sort may be kept for an extended period of time. Out of a total of 17 traditional food dishes that were scored for their popularity in this study, the fermented food dishes ranked 20-31; wild edible plants dishes 20-26; pickles 23-26; and, vegetables 18-22 (Table 2). The wild edible plant dishes were ranked high in terms of their nutritional quality, tastes, appetites and appearance. Among all the fermented foods dishes, radish roots (Sinki) re- ceived the highest score. Other high scores went to pickled bamboo shoots, vegetables from Di- plazium sp., and fermented soybean (Table 2).

The household survey revealed that among all the leaves and shoots used for vegetables, herbs contributed 55% of total consumption, followed by tree leaves 16%, shrubs 9% and vines 9%. Among the most outstanding species, Diplazium

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esculentum was consumed by 100% of the pop- ulation, Nasturtium officinale by 87%, Dendro- calamus hamiltonii 85%, Urtica dioica 85%, Agaricus 68%, Dioscorea bulbifera 63% and Girardiana palmata 53% (Fig. 4). Nearly all the respondents made regular use of these species for vegetables and over 45% claimed to con- sume them more than twice a month during their growing seasons. Young green leaves and tender shoots were used by households throughout the state. A few other species were restricted to spe- cific microclimate and ecological zones, and were virtually unknown to other zones. For ex- ample, consumption of Allium caesium and A. wallichii were restricted to alpine areas only, Phytolaca acinosa to mid elevations, and Cassia fistula to lower elevations only.

The largest category of wild foods was fruits and berries, as nearly 64% of the total wild ed- ible species were consumed for this purpose. The reported levels of consumption of plant foods relative to reported availability is illus- trated in Fig. 5. Consumption of Juglans regia was known to 94% of the total respondents, Castanopsis hystrix to 90%, Diploknema butyr- acea 84%, Spondias axillaries 83%, Emblica of- ficinalis 79%, and Machilus edulis was known to 70% population, and nearly 50% of total in- terviewee used them more than twice a month during growing seasons. Wild edible fruit col- lection and consumption was more common in the low-hills and mid-hills than in the high-hills.

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Fig. 5. Dietary use of edible wild fruits in the Sik- kim Himalaya (species number on x axis are: 1-- Spondias axillaris, 2 Jugtans regia, 3--Diptoknema butyracea, 4---Machilus edulis, 5--Castanopsis hys- trix, 6--Emblica officinalis, 7--Baccaurea sapida, 8--Eriolobus indica, 9--Ficus roxburghiL l O---Ci- trullus colocynthis, 11--Rhus semialata, 12--Prunus cerasoides, 13--Mangifera sylvatica, 14--Evodia fraxinifolia, 15--Pyrularia edulis, 16--Tamarindus indica, 17--Rubus ellipticus, 18 Elaeocarpus sikki- mensis, 19--Terminalia chebula, 20--Myrica gale, 21----~nthoxylum budranga, 22--Artocarpus luko- ocha, 23--Eugenia kurzii, 24--Terminalia belerica, 25--Ardisia macrocarpa, 26--Saurauia nepaulensis.

While fruits were highly appreciated by all the respondents, the reported frequency of consump- tion by adults was lower than that for children. The labour needed for the collection of wild vegetables was equally shared by men and wom- en, though the collection of fruits (particularly on large trees) was mainly done by men-folk. The branches of big trees were often lopped for the collection of fruits, which affects yield in subsequent years. The local State Government lacks programs for multiplication and conser- vation of edible wild plants in natural habitats.

DISCUSSION

In the Sikkim Himalaya local inhabitants har- bour huge knowledge about the uses of their plants and a large number of species are con- sumed for food, a few of which form important parts of their diets. A total of 190 wild edible species have been identified that have food value and 45 of them are used on a large scale. A majority of these plants are available in the low and mid-hills. About three-fourth were perennial life forms and the remaining one-fourth are an- nual species. Most of the species were edible for their fruits and seeds, followed by leaves, shoots, flowers, and roots or rhizomes. Similar ratios and trends of usage for different plant parts are reported for the country of India (Arora and Pandey 1996). Most of the wild edible

2004] SUNDRIYAL ET AL.: DIETARY USE OF WILD PLANTS IN SIKKIM 633

plants are consumed during the dry season, when other traditional vegetable crops are least available. Thus, the wild species are often used as a substitute for cultivated species during the lean period of the year. People collect various species from wild habitats and a select number are sold in the markets. Forest resources, there- fore, are helpful in alleviating a subsistence economy (Sundriyal 1999). Generally, most of the edible wild plants are available for short du- ration, and because of low keeping quality they are consumed immediately. A few species, how- ever, when processed into fermented foods, can be stored for use in a lean period. The fermen- tation process is thus important in conserving resources for the time when they may or may not be available (Tamang et al. 1988). Con- sumption of wild plants provides substantial nu- tritional and dietary benefits to tribal populations of remote areas. Some wild edible plants are rich in nutrient content, and may even be superior to cultivated ones in this respect (Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2001a). A varied diet of wild edible plants may also increase one's sense of food pal- atability, which in turn may lead to an increase in food intake (Sharpe 1987; Ogle 1990). Due to the inaccessibility of many regions, wild plants can serve as an important supplement to conventional, domesticated crops.

Throughout the Sikkim Himalaya, forests are suffering increased disturbance due to high bi- otic pressures (Sundriyal et al. 1994b; Sundriyal and Sharma 1996). The population of the state is increasing at a rate of 2.7% per annum, and it is expected that it will remain at nearly the same level in the near future as well. Although fuel, fodder and timber are major forest resourc- es, the removable of trees may cause a large number of other useful species to be adversely affected. It is expected that a growing population will eventually lead to a greater demand for food and other necessities; therefore, the existing bi- otic pressures may be increased several times in the near future. Wild stocks of various edible species sometimes face destructive harvesting practices by locals, including the lopping of branches in order to collect fruits in as short of time as possible (Sundriyal 1999). Similarly poor forest management practices are known from other regions as well (Philips 1993; Dhyani and Khali 1993) and, if allowed to continue, may eventually lead to the depletion of valuable forest resources from natural stands. There is an

urgent need to multiply some priority species, which bear maximum pressure in forests, and can be conserved by ex situ cultivation in farm- lands. Interviews with villagers suggest that there is definite need for the deliberate cultiva- tion (i.e., domestication) of a few widely used wild species. Significantly, some farmers have already asked for planting material of Spondias axillaris, Eleagnus latifolia, Baccaurea sapida, Diploknema butyracea, Eriolobus indica, Em- blica officinalis and Machilus edulis. Such re- quests by farmers should be given due encour- agement. Although wild edible plants currently play an important role in the subsistence econ- omy of the Sikkim Himalayan region, there is a need to assess their nutritional quality and their potential market value, as this can help in the formulation of future agricultural, forestry and nutritional strategies. In summary, the consump- tion of wild food plants can play an important role in supplementing our domesticated dietary staples, especially during off seasons or during periods of scarcity (Sims and Peterkins 1987; Neog and Mohan 1994). The continued use of such plants by isolated rural populations, there- fore, is highly recommended.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank the Director of the G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development for providing facilities. Thanks are also due to Botanical Survey of India, Gangtuk Circle, for help in the identification of plants species, and Mr. L. K. Rai for his help. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Government of India, New Delhi, funded this study (Grant no. 38(886)95-ERR-II).

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Singh, P., and A. S. Chauhan. 1998. An overview of the plant diversity in Sikkim state. Pages 219-232 in S. C. Rai, R. C. Sundriyal, and E. Sharma, eds., Sikkim: Perspectives for planning and develop- ment. Sikkim Science Society, Bishan Singh Mah- endra Pal Singh Pvt. Ltd., Dehradun, India.

Singh, V. 1995. Lesser known wild edibles of Sikkim Himalaya. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany 19:385-390.

Sundriyal, Manju, 1999. Distribution, propagation and nutritive value of some wild edible plants in the Sikkim Himalaya. D.Phil. (unpublished) sub- mitted to H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar, Ga- rhwal, U.R, India.

, and R. C. Sundriyal. 2000. Potential of wild edible plants in the Sikkim Himalaya: Conservation concerns. Journal of Non-timber Forest Produce 7(3/4):253-262.

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- - , E. Sharma, and A. N. Purohit. 1998. Wild edibles and other useful plants of the Sikkim Himalaya, India. Oecologia Montana 7:43- 54.

Sundriyal, R. C., and E. Sharma. 1996. Anthropo- genie pressure on tree structure and biomass in the temperate forest of Mamlay watershed in Silddm. Forest Ecology and Management 81:113-134.

, S. C. Rai, E. Sharma, and Y. K. Rai. 1994a. Hill agroforestry systems in south Sikkim, India. Agroforestry Systems 26:215-235.

, E. Sharma, L. K. Rai, and S. C. Rai. 1994b. Tree structure, regeneration and woody biomass re- moval in a sub-tropical forest of Mamlay watershed in the Sikkim Himalaya. Vegetatio 113:53-63.

Tamang, J. P., P. K. Sarkar, and Clifford W. Hes- seltine. 1988. Traditional fermented foods and bev- erages of Derjeeling and Sikkim: A review. Journal of Science of Food and Agriculture 44:375-385.

Tanaka, T. 1976. Cyclopedia of Edible Plants of the World. Keigaku Publishing Co., Tokyo, Japan.

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2004] SUNDRIYAL ET AL.: DIETARY USE OF WILD PLANTS IN SIKKIM

APPENDIX I. EDIBLE WILD PLANTS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA.

635

Plant Availability Family Species name Local name part used season

Acanthaceae mceraceae

Actinidiaceae

Amaranthaceae Anacardiaceae

Apiaceae

Araliaceae

Arecaceae

Basidiomycetes Begoniaceae

Berberidaceae

Bignoniaceae Bombacaceae Brassicaceae Burseraceae Burseraceae Caesalpiniaceae

Chenopodiaceae Combretaceae

Cornaceae Corylaceae Cucurbitaceae

Cycadaceae Dilleniaceae

Dioscoreaceae

Phlogacanthus thyrsifloum Nees. Chua Aeer caudatus Wall. Kapashe

Actinidia callosa Hook. Thekiphal Aetinidia strigosa Hook. Taksingrik Camellia kissi Wall. Kissi

Celosia sp. L, Mangifera sylvatica Roxb. Rhus semialata Murr. Spondias axillaris Roxb. Eryngium foetidum L. Heracleum wallichii DC. Pentapanax leschenaultii Seem

Calamus ereetus Roxb. Calamus flagellum Griff. Caryota urens L. Phoenix acaulis Roxb. Phoenix rupicola T. Anders. Wallichia disticha T. Anders. Agaricus spp. Begonia hatacoa Buch-Ham-D.Don

Lalisag Chuche anp Bhakimlo Lapsi Brahmadhania Chimphing Chindey

Betphal Betgainra Rangbhang Thakul, Schap Schap Thakal Chayo (4 varie.)

Berberis chitoia DC. Chutro Berberis asiatica Roxb. Kissu Decaisnea insignis Hk. f. & T. Bherasingh Holboellia latifolia Wall. Gufla, Kuolrik Mahonia sikkimensis T a k e d a . Chutro/Keshri Podophyllum emodi Wall. Papri Oroxylum indicum Totla Bombax ceiba L. Semal Cardamine griffithii Hk. f. & T. Canarium bengalense Roxb. Marockpa Garuga pinnata Roxb. Dabdabe Cassia fistula L. Rajbriksh Tamarindus indica L. Titri Bauhinia Purpurea L. Tanki Bauhinia vahlii Wt. & Am Bhorla Bauhinia variegata L. Koiralo

Chenopodium album L. Lattey sag Terminalia belerica Roxb. Barra Terminalia chebula Retz. Harra Comus capitata Wall. Corylus ferox Wall. Thekiphal Citrullus colocynthis Schrad. Indrani Hodgsonia macrocarpa (B1) Cogn. Darsani Momordica eochinchinensis Spreng. Bon-karela Cycas pectinata Griff. Thakal Dillenia indica L. Panchpal Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. Tautri Dioscorea bulbifera Br. L. Bantarul Dioscorea oppositifolia Linn. Githa

Flower Jan-Mar Sweet sap is rel- Jan-Dec

ished Fruit Nov-Dec Fruit Oct-Nov Leaves tea substi- Jan-Dec

tute Leaves Jan-Jun Fruit Jul-Oct Fruit as pickle Oct-Dec Fruit Oct-Dec Leaves as pickle Jan-Dec Fruit in pickle Oct New shoot as Mar-May

pickle Fruit Mar New bud/kernels Mar-Apr Fruit Jan Fruit a betel nuts Mar-May Pith of stem Jan-Dec Pith as sago Jan-Dec Fruiting body Jun-Aug Young leaves/pet- Apr-May

iole Berries Oct-Nov Berries Sep-Oct Fruit Oct Fruit Oct-Nov Berries Mar-Apr Fruit Jun-Jul F1. Buds, leaves Jan-Dec Seed Apr-Jun Plant Jun-Aug Fruit Jan Fruit Aug-Sep Pulp/fruit Apr-May Fruit Mar Pod/seed Feb-Apr Pod Jan-Feb Leaves, flower Mar-Apr

bud Plant Jul-Aug Fruit as medicine Dec-Jan Fruit-rind Dec-Jan Pulp is relished Sep-Oct Fruit Jul-Nov Roasted seeds Sep-Oct Seed oil Jun-Nov Fruit Jun-Jul Fruit Dec-Jan Fruit Mar-Apr Fruit Apr-Jun Tuber Nov-Apr Tuberous root Dec-Mar

636 ECONOMIC BOTANY

APPENDIX I. CONTINUED.

[VOL. 58

Plant Availability Family Species name Local name part used season

Dipterocarpaceae Elaeagnaceae

Elaeocarpaceae

Ericaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Fabaceae

Filices

Flacourtiaceae Garciniaceae Gentianaceae

Illicaceae

Juglandaceae Juglandaceae Lauraceae

Liliaceae

Loranthaceae Magnoliaceae Magnoliaceae Meliaceae Meliaceae Mimosaceae

Moraceae

Shorea robusta Roxb. Elaeagnus latifolia L. Hippophae rhamnoides Linn. Elaeocarpus sikkimensis Mast. Elaeocarpus lancifolia Roxb. Gaultheria fragrantissima Wall. Rheum spiciforme Royle Rhododendron arboreum Sm.

Antidesma acuminatum Wall. Baccaurea sapida Roxb. Emblica gamblei Kruz Emblica officinalis Gaertn Indigofera hamiltonii Duthie lndigofera cassioides Rottl Castanopsis purpurella Balakr. Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm) Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm. Cyathea brunoniana CBC& Baker Gynocardia odorata R.Br. Garcinia unitoria (DC) Wt Swertia chirata (Roxb.) Karst

llex insignis Hk. f. llex sikkimensis Hk. f. Juglans regia L. Myrica gale L. Cinnamomum impressinervium

Meissn. Cinnamomum tamala Nees.

Litsaea citrata BI. Machilus edulis King Allium caesium Allium wallichii Kunth. Arisaema utile Hook. f. Smilacina oleracea Hk. f. & T. Theropogon pallidus Maxim. Tupistra nutans Wall. Viscum articulatum Burro. Kadsura heteroclita T. ex Benth. Schizandra grandiflora Hk. f. & T. Aglaia edulis A. Gray Melia composita Willd. Entada purseatha Benth.

Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. Ficus bengalensis Linn. Ficus benjamina L. Ficus glomerata Roxb. Ficus hirta Vahl Ficus hispida Linn. Ficus hookerii Corner Ficus roxburghii Roxb.

Sakuwa Seed oil May-Jun Goeli, Muslendi Fruit Mar-May Chuma/Durchuk Fruit Mar-Apt Bhadrasey Fruit Jul Bhadrasey Fruit Sep Machino Fruit Sep-Oct Lachu Root Aug Gurans Flowers as Mar-Apr

beverage Kalo Bilaune Fruit Dec-Jan Kabum Fruit Apr-Jul Patiamala Foliage Jan-Dec Amala Fruit Oct-Mar - - Pod Jan-Feb - - Pod Jan-Apr Katus Nut Nov-Dec Patle-katns Nut Oct-Dec - - Rhizome Jan-Dec Pashien Stem pith Jan-Dec Bandre, Gante Pulp Nov-Jan Chunyel Fruit Mar-Apr Chirauto Whole plant as May-Oct

medicine Lise Fruit Oct Lise Fruit Sep-Oct Okhar Fruit Sep-Nov Kaphal Fruit Feb-Apr Sissi Leaves/bark as Jan-Dec

spices Tejpat, Sinkoli Leaves/bark Jan-Dec

spices Siltimur Fruit as pickle Mar-May Kawlo, Pumsi Fruit Jan-Mar

- - Plant Jul-Aug Dung-dunge Whole plant Jun-Jul Banko Root tuber Jul-Aug

- - Whole plant Jun-Aug - - Root bulb Jul-Aug

- - Whole plant Sep Harchur Plant as medicine Jan-Dec Saladorik Fruit Aug-Sep

- - Fruit Jun-Oct Sanulahsune Fruit Mar-Jun Lapsi/Silotkung Fruit Jan Pangra Soaked/boiled Oct-Jan

seeds Badar Fruit Jun-Aug Bar Fruit Mar-May Kabra Fruit Mar-Apr Dumri Fruit May-Jun Khasreto Fruit Aug Koksa Fruit Aug Nebara Fruit Nov Nebara Fruit Apr-May

2004] SUNDRIYAL ET AL.: DIETARY USE OF WILD PLANTS IN SIKKIM

APPENDIX I. CONTINUED.

637

Plant Availability Family Species name Local name part used season

Musaceae Myficaceae Myficinaceae

Myristicaceae Myrtaceae

Pandanaceae Phytolaccaceae Piperaceae

Poaceae

Polygonaceae

Polypodiaceae Ranunculaceae Rhamnaceae Rosaceae

Rubiaceae

Rutaceae

Ficus semicordata Buch-Ham Khaniu Ficus virens Ait Kabra Morus australis Poir. Sanu-kimbu Morus laevigata Wall. Kimbu Musa balbisiana Colla. Bankera Nasturtium officinale Br Simrayo Ardisia crispa (Thunb.) DC. Cham Ardisia macrocarpa Wall. Damaigera Maesa chisia D. Don Bilaune Horsfieldia kingii Warb. Runchepat Syzygium claviflorum Wall. Harejamun Syzygium kurzii (Duthie) Balakr . Ambakey Syzygium tetragonum Wall. Chamlane Pandanus nepalensis Tarika Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. Jaringo Hottuynia cordata Wall. Hiley-jhar Piper nepalense Miq. Khorsani Arundinaria sp. Gamble Malingo Cephalostachyum capitatum Munro Tama bans Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Arn. Tamba Aconogonum polystrachyum Amldandi/Chuchi Bistorta vivipara Linn. Maslun Oxyria digyna Hill Amlu Persicaria barbata Persicaria macrophylla D. Don Persicaria runcinata Ham. Polygomum molle D. Don Thothne Polygomum plebium Bethe Rheum nobile Hk. f. & Rhoms Tohuka Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Halhale Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) SW. Niguro Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royal Bhuma madrya Hovenia dulcis Thunb. Bangikath Eriolobus indica Schn. Mehel Fragaria vesca L. Bhui aselu Laurocerasus undulata Roem. Lekh arupate Malus sikkimensis Aiphal Prunus cerasoides D. Don Paiyun Prunus nepalensis Koch. Arupate Pyrus pashia D. Don Naspati Rosa macrophylla Lindl. Bangulab Rubus calycinus Wall. Bin-Aselu Rubus elllipticus Smith Aselu Rubus niveus Thunb. Kalo aselu Sorbus cupsidata Hedl. Tenga Sorbus hedlundi Tengra Prinsepia utilis Royal Phekrey Chassalia ophioxyloides (Wall) Craib - - Mussaenda roxburghii Roxb. Dobiphul Clausena dentata Burm. Evodia trichotoma (Lour) Planch Khanakpa Fagera oxyphylla Edgew. Timur

Fruit May-Jul Young leaves Sep-Oct Fruit Apr-May Fruit May-Jun Fruit Jan-Dec Shoot Jan-Dec Flower Nov-Dec Berries Oct-Apr Fruit Apr-Aug Fruit Jan-Apr Fruit Aug-Oct Fruit Mar-Apr Fruit May-Jun Fruit Jun-Aug New leaves/twigs May Plant Jul-Aug Fruit Oct New s h o o t s Apr-Aug New shoots Jun-Oct Shoot Jun-Sep Leaves, new shoot Jun Whole plant Jul-Aug Leaf Jun-Aug Leaf May-Jun Tender shoot Jul Shoot Jun-Jul Whole plant Mar-Apr Tender shoot Mar-May Leaves, petiole Jul-Aug Shoot Jan-Dec Young leaves Mar-Jun Shoot Sep Fruit Jun-Feb Fruit Jan-Feb Fruit Sep-Oct Fruit Oct Fruit Oct Fruit Apr-May Fruit Aug-Sep Fruit Nov-Dec Fruit Jul-Oct Fruit Jul-Nov Fruit Apr-Jun Fruit Jun-Oct Fruit Nov-Dec Fruit Dec Seed oil Mar-Apr Foliage Mar-Jul Bud Jun-Aug Fruit May-Jun Fruit Oct-Nov Foliage Oct-Jan

638 ECONOMIC BOTANY

APPENDIX I. C O N T I N U E D .

[VOL. 58

Plant Availability Family Species name Local name part used season

Samydaceae Santalaceae Sapindaceae Sapotaceae Saurauiaceae

Saxi~agaceae Staphyleaceae Sterculiaceae

Taxaceae Theaceae

Tiliaceae

U~icaceae

Vacciniaceae

Vitaceae

Murraya koenigii Spreng. Zanthoxylum rhetza (Roxb.) DC Zanthoxylum nitidum (Roxb.) DC Clausena willdenowii Wi & Am. Casearia glomerata Roxb. Pyrularia edulis A. DC. Sapindus detergens Wall. Diploknema butyracea Roxb. Saurauia napaulensis DC. Saurauia punduana Wall. Saurauia roxburghii Wall. Bergenia ciliata (Har.) Stenb. Turpinia nepalensis Wall. ex W&A Abroma augusta L.

Sterculia hamiltonii (Kuntze) Adele Sterculia roxburghii Wall. Sterculia fulgens Wall. Sterculia pallens (Wall.) Stern Taxus baccata L. Eurya acuminata DC

Grewia elastica Roxb. Grewia sapida Roxb. Grewia vestita Roxb. Debregeasia wallichiana Wedd. Girardinia palmata Gand. Urtica dioica L. Agapetes serpens (W) Sleumr Vaccinium vacciniaceum Callicarpa arborea Roxb. Ampelocissus lancifolius Planch. Cissus adnata Roxb. Cissus repens Lamk. Cissus repanda Vahl. Leea macrophylla Roxb. Leea sambucina Willd Parthennocissus himalayana Planch. Tetrastigma bracteolatum Planch. Tetrastigma rumicispermum Planch. Cayratia carnos (Wall) Gagnep. Leoregeasia wallichiana Wedd

Mechia sag Leaves in curries Jan-Dec Boketimur Fruit as pickle Jul-Aug Parpartimur Fruit Jan Sidemyok Fruit Jul Barkunle Foliage Apr-May Amphi Fruit Jul-Oct Ritha Endosperm Jan Churl Fruit May-Jun Gogun Fruit Oct-Dec Safa Fruit Oct-Dec Dangsipha Fruit Feb Pakhanbhed Leaf Nov-Dec Thali, Nagpat Fruit Sep-Dec Chuit Roasted seed/seed Oct-Jan

oil Chiuripat Fruit May-Jul Churipat Seed May-Jun Labshi Fruit Jan-Dec

- - Seed May-Jun Cheongbu Fleshy axil Sep-Nov Jhingini Flower/leaves as Jan-Dec

beverage Kunsung Fruit Feb-May Kuail Fruit Feb-Apr Syalphusrey Flower bud Apr-May Bahuni lahara Fruit Jul-Aug Bhangre sisnoo Young shoot Mar-Jun Patle sishnu New leaves Jan-Dec Harchur Flower Mar Cham Flower May Guyenylo Fruit Nov - - Fruit Jul-Aug Charchare Berries/Leaves Feb Pureni Berries Sep-Oct Panilahera Plant Jun-Sep Bulyettra Berries Oct-Nov Galene Berries Aug-Oct Charchare Fruit Sep Toludorrik Fruit Dec-Jan Toludorrik Fruit Oct-Nov Amarbel Berries Sep-Dec - - Fruit Sep