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Anthropology Indian Anthropology Indian Village A Myth Or Reality

Paper No. : 04 Indian Anthropology

Module : 10 Indian village a myth or reality

Prof. Anup Kumar kapoor Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Development Team

Principal Investigator

Paper Coordinator

Content Writer

Content Reviewer

Prof. Anup Kumar kapoor Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Vineet Kumar Verma Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Prof. Subir Biswas Department of Anthropology, West Bengal State University

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Description of Module

Subject Name Anthropology

Paper Name Indian Anthropology

Module Name/Title Indian Villages A Myth Or Reality

Module Id 10

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Content of this unit

Introduction

1. Classification of Villages

Pura

Khas

Kalan

Khurd

Khera

Nangley

2. Rural settlement pattern

Rectangular or square pattern

Linear pattern

L - Shaped pattern

Circular pattern

3. Socio-Cultural Aspect of Villages

Family

Caste system

Religion

4. Class Structure of Rural Agrarian Society

5. Rural poverty

5.1Causes of Rural Poverty

Strategies for Alleviating Poverty in Rural Areas

Agrarian Reforms and its Impact on the Villages

Abolition of Intermediaries

Redistribution of Land

Bhoodan Movement

Green Revolution

6. Panchayati Raj Institution

7. Post Independence Transformation of Rural Society

8. Globalisation and Indian Village

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Summary

Learning objectives

To able to define Indian village

To determine the identity of the Rural lives in its villages

To be able to define and distinguish between several ways in which villages can be classified

To able to define the process of examining source of livelihood for village

To able to describe Rural settlement pattern

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Introduction

The father of the nation Mahatma Gandhi has rightly quoted: “India lives in its villages”. Villages are

the nerve centre of Indian civilisation since time immemorial. About 67% of total population in India

resides in the rural areas. The socio –economic fabric of villages depends mostly on agriculture,

handicrafts and other agricultural related activities. Agriculture is not just a source of livelihood for

village folks but it is also a way of life. Cultures and traditions have grown out of agriculture. With the

advent of modern means of communication, rural migration, education has brought about dynamic

changes to the social structure of villages. It is no longer viewed as isolated hamlets.

The impact of globalization has set foot on rural India making it more integrated to the outer world.

Indian village is no longer a myth; it is a reality reflecting wide panoramic view of society and culture

in India.

Classification of Villages

There are several ways in which villages can be classified but classification based on size, population

and area of land is the most accepted classification. Based on these criteria villages are classified as:

1. Pura. The place where habitats are in close settlement. The habitats are around or in nearby

areas. These habitats are thus being called nucleus of the area.

2. Khas. The main village or sadar is called as Khas. When the people of the main village settle at

some distance from the village and called this as their main village. With the growth of

population the word Khas is used for the villages from where people spread around.

3. Kalan. Large villages are called as Kalan. These villages have heterogeneous population of

varied caste and class.

4. Khurd. Small villages are called as Khurd.

5. Khera. Small colonies and also higher ground of villages are called as Khera. Khera has a great

social value for village community because social gathering and functions takes place in Khera.

6. Nangley. It comprises group of small villages where one village is surrounded by several satellite

villages

Rural settlement pattern

The layout of the streets and arrangements of building patterns in the villages gives out certain

settlement patterns. The most common patterns found in villages are rectangular or square, checker

board, elongated, linear, circular or semi-circular, L and T shape, triangular pattern.

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1. Rectangular or square pattern. This pattern is mostly found in areas of uniform topography.

The rectangular shape of the cultivated fields rise to this pattern. The main lanes of the villages

intersect at right angles at the centre. Smaller lanes go to the interior of the housing more or less

parallel to the former main lane. Such patterns are found in areas of Marwar plateau, Nirmar

upland and in Narmada valley.

2. Linear pattern. This type of pattern is typical of area where Main Street of the village runs

parallel to the railway lines, roads or water front. Such pattern are found in middle and lower

Ganga plain, parts of the Himalayan region and along the coast ,especially in Malabar and

Konkan.

3. L - Shaped pattern. The L- shaped pattern form where at the junction of main road two

rectangular blocks of houses meet to give a L-shaped pattern. In some villages, a smaller limb

extends towards the cultivated field giving the L-shaped pattern a T shaped pattern.

4. Circular pattern. The settlement takes a circular pattern when the habitats are situated along the

bank of a pond or lake. Such settlements are found in Upper Ganga-Yamuna doab. Settlements

along the meandering bend of the river takes horse shoe pattern.

Village Hut with Roof made of Grass

Source: http://www.youthconnect.in

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Socio-Cultural Aspect of Villages

Agriculture being the main stays occupation of villages; they have close relationship with nature. The

social ethos of village life depends on close ties of kinship and friendship. They lay stress on customs,

traditions, consensus and informality. Caste and class structure do take special place in social fabric.

Family

Family is the indispensible part of rural life. The bonding of familial ties plays a vital role in various

aspect of village life. It’s the pyramid of psychological support structure. Joint family structure is

dominant in villages. With the coming of globalisation and market economy nuclear families has

sprouted but still there is emotional attachment with the greater family. Rural family is far more

homogenous organically interlinked. The ties between family members are strong and last longer than

their urban counterparts. The economy of families is mainly agriculture and the whole family forms a

single economic entity, cooperate with one another and hold property in common. This

interdependence among members helps develop a collective consciousness among the village folk. The

centrifugal forces of modernity and globalization has eroded the base of social life of villages, yet the

family as an institution has stood the test of time.

Caste system

Caste as an institution plays a major role in social arrangement pattern in Indian sub-continent. Varna

and Jati refers to two broad institutional arrangements within Indian caste system. Varna is the four

fold division of society into Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The caste system in villages

was rigid once upon a time. The coming of market economy, communication, education, rural- urban

migration has dissolve the caste hierarchy and made the self -contained castes into mobile classes. The

power structure and land holding in villages are determined by caste. The monetary economy of village

was also determined by caste lines.

The effect of globalization has diluted the caste and class structure has gain prominence. Traditional

crafts previously determine according to caste are no longer perform by the certain specialized caste.

Education has given the social mobility to castes. Certain caste has lose its dominance and submerged

to the lowest class group whereas previously held lower caste have moved upwards in the social ladder

armed with education and economic stronghold. Religious life of rural people which was rigorously

determined by caste is no longer affected by it.

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Economic necessity and knowledge economy is the determinant of the new type of social relationship.

The age old system of caste has lost its foot hold in today’s society. The laissez- faire system of

economy has produced class within caste system. The constitution of India has guaranteed equality of

all citizens under the democratic set up of society. In such a democratic establishment equality and

fraternity among the citizens should drive the society forward. This is the core principle of the

founding fathers of our constitution.

Religion

Agriculture dominates the basic mode of livelihood in villages. Before the advent of modern irrigation

and agricultural techniques; most of the rural farmer depends on Indra (God of Rain) for their harvest.

The dependence on the forces of nature like rains, natural calamities and displeasure of gods points the

basic nature of religious belief prevalent in rural society. The dependence on the natural forces and

lack of proper reasoning and scientific outlook give rise to various superstitious beliefs among the

people. Education and rational outlook can be a panacea for such ills. The religious beliefs dominate

the intellectual and practical life of village people. Religion has permeated onto the cultural norms of

the society. Religious beliefs also have influenced the folk songs, paintings, marriage customs and

social festivals. Rituals provide sanctity to the religious codes and dominate the life of rural people.

The specific sets of rituals are codified for particular caste.

Worship of Tree Basic Nature of Religious Belief Prevalent in Rural Society

Source: http://themindunleashed.org

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Temples are religious and social institution in villages. The primary function of temples is offering

prayers to various gods and deities. It also serve as centre for various social causes such as organizing

cultural activities, social gathering, education, social welfare work, political gathering, propagating

ethical values, dispensing judgement by village elders and so on. The same functions are also

performed by the monasteries situated in various parts of Indian villages.

The propagation of modern scientific outlook and education has change the way religion has been

perceived. Secular and liberal democratic philosophy has been able to break the yoke of orthodox

belief system associated with religion. Present day religion is more integrating and has superseded the

caste traditions to form a more egalitarian society.

Class Structure of Rural Agrarian Society

The division of class structure in villages is basically divided into landowner, tenants and peasant. The

economy of agriculture provides the basic class stratification. The villages also contain local artisans,

uneconomic holders of land. The caste structure in present day may be ordained as class structure

because large land holding may be previously with upper castes. Present day market economy has

provided economic mobility to erstwhile lower caste who may be the present day land owner. In

today’s world economy is the prime mover of class structure in village although the hereditary caste

structure cannot be together rooted out.

The land owner derives his primary agriculture income from property rights in the soil i.e., from the

share of produce that grows on his soil. The benefits can be reaped as cash or in kind. The proprietor of

land may lease his lands to tenets and may hire labourers to cultivate. The tenets may be temporary

land holders who may possess the land on rent or in lease. The tenet can be a working peasant who has

small land holding. The labourers are landless villagers who earn their livelihood by working as daily

wage worker. Such landless peasants work as migrant labours when they are not working on the fields.

It has often been observed that the landless labourers or small tenets are dragged into the cycle of

poverty. Due to absence of formal credit structure, financial literacy and crop insurances the peasants

depends on money lenders for their credit. Money is required for various functions such as for buying

new crops, irrigation, health, marriage, social functions and so on. The failure of harvest may lead to

debt cycle due to exorbitant credit. Such instances may lead to rural migration, farmer’s suicide. These

are detrimental to the social fabric of village society.

A paradigm shift in policy implementation is required to solve the rural distress. Vocational training

institutes, skill development training, rural handicrafts and artisan’s centres can absorb large number of

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rural folks into its fold. Also a proper market linkage for village crafts produce is required. Education

can go a long way in solving rural crisis. Crop insurance and weather smart farming methods should be

applied to mitigate the low agriculture yield.

Rural poverty

Villages are the life line of India but poverty has plagued the lives of rural folk. The unequal

distribution of rural assets such as land along with failure in crops due to erratic rainfall and floods are

causes of poverty in the country side. Lack of skills and education along with distress migration has

been other causes of poverty. Poverty has its effects on overall human development. The poor are

deprived of basic human necessity of nutrition, sanitation, health. Such situation has negative

repercussion in the overall economy of the nation; also a major demography cannot be harness to its

optimum potential.

Causes of Rural Poverty

1) The anti -poverty and development programmes has not percolated to the real beneficiary.

2) The problem of disguised labour is prevalent in agriculture.

3) Lack of other employment avenues due lack of requisite skills and technical education.

4) Irrigational facilities are not available in major areas. Dependence on rainfall and groundwater

extraction has cause a detrimental effect on agricultural practices

5) Low agricultural poverty due to dependence on traditional methods of farming techniques.

6) Proper institutional credit facilities are lacking, non-availability of crop insurance, financial

literacy is absent among the rural folks.

7) Poor quality of livestock.

8) The connectivity networks are poor; markets are not properly established leading to poor market

linkages and dominance of middle in agricultural business.

9) Poor quality of education and lack of skill development.

10) Absence of dynamic community leadership.

11) Failure of village co-operatives to functions in a creative way.

12) Women are not properly included in developmental and decision making processes.

13) Presence of feudalism, patriarchy and inter-caste rivalry.

14) Presence of liquor and unwanted expansive social spending on rituals, customs etc.

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Models presenting causes of Rural Poverty (Society in India, Ram Ahuja)

Resources barrier Supportive barrier Social system barrier Market barriers

Nature of soil Low and erratic

rainfall

Inaccessibility to credit

facilities

Non-feasibility of

increases in prices of

agricultural products

Non-exploration/or

poor quality of

minerals

Inadequate irrigation People’s illiteracy and

unwillingness to deviate

from established social

expenses

Denial of periodic increase

in wages of agricultural

labourers

Inadequate capital for

industrial investment

Poor quality of

livestock

Not ensuring required

resources (electricity, raw

material etc.) to small

entrepreneurs

Unapproachable roads to

reach markets or non-

availability of marketing

facility for selling products

Lack of common

property resources

Absence of industries Failure in monitoring

poverty alleviation

programmes

Non lucrative profit

margins on products

Inadequate credit system

Strategies for Alleviating Poverty in Rural Areas

1) The formal credit institution should be properly strengthened.

2) Targeted use of power supply and fertilizer for agricultural purposes.

3) Co-operative societies should be renewed for selling products of house hold industries.

4) Poverty alleviation programmes should be properly targeted so the benefits reach the needy ones.

5) Focus should be given on integrated approach of human development by focussing on health,

nutrition, sanitation and skill development.

6) Creating social awareness to arrest increasing debt growth among the poor.

7) Financial literacy must be propagated and banking facilities must be introduce with right earnest.

8) Diversifying farming activities to animal husbandry, poultry, fishing and dairy farming.

9) Panchayats role must be creatively crafted to focus on more need based integrated development

approach of villages. Focus should be given on education programme, road construction, water

conservation and maintaining tree plantations.

10) Steps should be taken to empower women by skill training, education, handicraft, financial

training so that they can be part of the developmental process.

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Indian Farmers Plough a Field in Preparation for Sowing Seeds

Source: http://news.nationalpost.com

Agrarian Reforms and its Impact on the Villages

Agriculture being the core of rural economy and livelihood depends on agricultural income,

comprehensive programme of land reform was enacted after independence in India. Keeping in view of

the goal of a welfare state policy and to provide security to the marginal and landless farmers various

reform policies were enacted.

Abolition of Intermediaries

The post-independence India has seen a major overhaul in land reforms among which is the abolition

of intermediary tenures-known as Zamindaris, Jagirs, and Inams etc. This reform brought about the

occupancy tenants into direct relationship with the state. This measures help raised rural income. The

management and control of village land resources were passed to the Panchayats.

Redistribution of Land

There was a high degree of inequality in the distribution of land in the villages. It was necessary to

follow up abolition of intermediaries with redistribution of land. The second stage of reforms consist

of, (1) land ceiling (2) redistributing the surplus land among the landless and small land holders. The

policies were mainly distributive in nature which helps in redistribution of rural income to tillers of the

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land. But the policy did not prove to be a success due to benami transfer. Under the benami transfer

system land holders transfer their surplus lands to their relatives, friends and other acquaintances. It is

called benami because even though land is transferred to the person, he is not the actual cultivator.

Bhoodan Movement

Bhoodan movement pioneered by AcharyaVinoba Bhave was an alternative method of redistribution of

land. The basic motto of this movement was to provide land to the landless peasants, which will bring

about a sense of equality and dignity among the poor farmers. It was an appeal to the large land owners

to donate one – sixth of their land holding so that one acre of each land can be distributed among the

landless peasants. It was seen that much of the land donated were rocky, barren and unproductive lands

which were of inferior quality for agriculture. The movement could not achieved its desired ends due

to certain drawbacks.

Green Revolution

Green revolution was introduced in India in 1966 to enhance the food grain productivity through high

yielding variety of seeds of wheat and rice. It was first initiated in the areas of assured irrigation and

then to other areas except dry lands. The green revolution was successful in Punjab, Haryana, western

U.P, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The enhancement of agricultural yield was mainly beneficial to

large land owners; it didn’t benefited small and marginal farmers much. There was growth of wealth

among rich farmers due to proper market linkages to sell their yields; also they could spend on the

inputs such as fertilizer, electricity, storage, transportation etc. Thus there was a sharp class and caste

inequality, exploitative labour relationship. The commercialisation of agriculture enriched the large

landholder on one hand and increased the number of landless labourers most of whom are low caste

and untouchables

Panchayati Raj Institution

Keeping in consonance with the Gandhian philosophy of Gram Swaraj and also enshrined in the

constitution as Directive Principle of State Policy, Panchayati raj institution were set up in India by

73rd

Constitutional Amendment act, 1992. The act was initiated to devolve power to village level

institution so that participatory democracy can be ensured at the grass root level. The paradigm shift in

development dynamics took place so that village folks can take part in socio economic development

and distributive social justice system. The function of the Panchayati raj institution is to administer

local public affairs, raise required local finances and locate man power resources.

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The devolution of power to the grass root has not been transformative because of bureaucratic

highhandedness, lack of funds, lack of faith on elected representatives, lack of clear demarcation of

functions, overlapping function of rural agencies. District Rural Development Agency runs the

poverty alleviation programmes. The relationship between Panchayats and DRDA is not clearly

defined. The philosophy of participative democracy, where every men matter is the cornerstone of

development dynamics in today’s evolving village society. The engine of rural development can be

accelerated if people’s resources are properly channelized and they are prompted to take part in the

decision making process that affects their lives and livelihood. The current predicament has stifled the

dynamics of rural growth. Allocation of funds are not properly utilized, oppression of the powerful,

denying rights to women, inter caste rivalry, presence of patriarchy and subversion of election are

pathologically pervasive in the countryside. Judicious and proper utilization of funds, a aware citizens

can make Panchayati raj institution a fruitful developmental paradigm.

Post Independence Transformation of Rural Society

The post -independence period has shown a dynamic shift in rural society especially in regions

undergoing Green Revolution. The increase use of agricultural labour, shift in mode of payment from

kind to cash and presence of free wage laborers were evident in these areas. The commercialisation of

agriculture has brought about a capitalistic mode of production to this sector. The labourers were used

as a mere means of production. As farm sector growth took place the rural society was integrated to the

market economy. The flow of capital led to diversification of business and employment opportunities.

The transformation of rural society began during colonial period but it gain momentum during post-

independence period due to intervention of government policies. Development of irrigation, rural

infrastructure, input fertilizers; formal credit mechanism through banks and co-operatives for

agricultural growth prompted these changes. These policies not only transform the rural economy but

also rural social system.

The developmental dynamics of post green revolution brought about a new entrepreneurial class. The

dominant farmers gain from rich agricultural yields. The capital was invested in new business ventures;

also migration from rural to urban areas took place. A form of new elite class was formed from these

farming classes. The growth of technical and professional education benefited the children of these

elites-many of them joined professional and white collar jobs, further expanding the middle class.

The transformation of rural society was regionally imbalanced and varied across India. States like

Punjab, Haryana, Western U.P and Gujarat reaped the benefits of growth whereas regions of Bihar and

Eastern U.P were lacking behind. The lack of effective land reforms, political mobilisation and

redistributive measures stifled the development process in these regions. In state like Kerala the

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development dynamics has been different, here political mobilisation, redistributive measures, human

development and linkage to external economy has brought about a substantial transformation to the

country side. Economy in Kerala is of mixed type, agriculture along with services sector due to rich

human resources and remittances from abroad are the prime mover of rural economy.

Globalisation and Indian Village

India opened its economy to the global market during 1990’s heralding the dawn of globalization and

liberalisation. The policy of liberalization entails India to join WTO, which leads to opening its market

to global commodity and removing preferential trading barriers. The agriculture is opened up to the

international challenge. The agricultural sector was integrated to the global market directly affecting

the rural farmers. The multinational companies got into contract farming with the farmers to produce

for processing or export. The MNC provided technical know- how, seeds, fertilizer, credit facilities.

The market for the produce is assured by the companies which benefitted the farmers. Contract farming

provides security to the rural farmers. The contract farming is not without its evil: farmers are

dependent on MNC’s, mono cropping, use of genetically modified crops, dwindling of traditional

knowledge of farming, diversion of land from food crops to cash crops. It may not be ecologically

sustainable due to excess use of fertilizer.

The impact of globalization had its impact on social customs and traditions; the westernization of

culture has led to erosion of traditional values and customs. The impact of global media has brought

about a tectonic shift in the culture and thought process of Indian villages. The globalization process

has brought about a aspiration changes in the mind of rural people. The employment is no longer fixed

to agricultural sector. The village youth has shifted to various employment avenues armed with

education and skill development. The age old traditional customs are question by logical rational

outlook.

Summary

Villages in India reflect the wider kaleidoscopic nature of rural society, which in one hand is rooted in

ancient traditions whereas on the other hand forces of modernization are working in tandem. The rural

villages are organically interlinked society which has evolved through times. It is a reality that mirrors

the very heart of India. Villages are the centres of self-sufficiency, embodiment of collectivism.

Though society is still rooted in age old customs of caste, feudalism and patriarchy the process of

modern participative democracy has ensured the principle of equality. The effectiveness of

participative institution provides the basis of redistribution and egalitarianism which is the feature of a

democratic society. Villages are the epitaph on which the foundation of democracy is written.

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