Defining Storytelling in Film Music: an Analysis of Michael Giacchino's work with Pixar Daniel...

Defining Storytelling in Film Music: an Analysis of Michael Giacchino’s work with Pixar Daniel Goldschmidt

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The sixth rule of Claudia Gorbman’s Seven Rules for Music’s Narrative Functions (1987)

states: “Unity: via repetition and variation of musical material and instrumentation, music aids in

the construction of formal and narrative unity” (p. 73). In my limited experience of the film

music genre, I have found one of the most exceptional purveyors of this rule is Michael

Giacchino, specifically in his work with Pixar (The Incredibles, Ratatouille, and Up, as well as

additional shorts). Through analysis of the extra-musical associations in his score for The

Incredibles, and through a topographical motivic analysis of the score for Ratatouille, I hope to

further comprehend and communicate this composer’s great accomplishments story telling

through music.

One system of analysis that was utilized for the research into these films was a neo-

Riemannian system presented by Dr. Scott Murphy in his paper (2012), “Transformational

Theory and the Analysis of Film Music.” In this system, one analyzes the modality of two triads

and the distance between each of them by semi-tone. It is presented in the form, “MnM” where

the first “m/M” reflects the mode of the tonicized triad, and the second “m/M” represents the

mode of the other triad. The “n” is replaced by the number of semitones between the root of the

‘tonic’ triad up to the root of the other triad. The first m/M is not necessarily the first sounding

triad, but the triad that is “most tonic.” Generally speaking, this analysis is more appropriate for

the undulation between two triads. However, I found it very helpful in analyzing commonalities

in non-diatonic chordal movements throughout the scores.

For example:


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Figure A The Incredibles "Incredikids Wake Up in the Forest" 01:21:55-01:22:04 (m4M)

This example begins with a B minor triad, and moves to a D Major triad, a total of four

semitones. As such, this figure is represented as: m4M.

Murphy goes on to identify common extra-musical associations with certain MnMs;

associations based on how they are most commonly used in the film repertoire, and are not

necessarily set in stone. Some important MnMs for the films analyzed include:

SLIDE (m11M, or M1m)

The SLIDE often represents the space between life and death in film music. This is

demonstrated in James Newton Howard’s scores for Outbreak and The Sixth Sense; these

films feature characters that are living, near death, dead, or “living” post-death (Murphy,

2012). The SLIDE is illustrated numerous times in “The Incredibles.” One specific example

of a SLIDE occurs directly following a scene in which a drone robot, upon failing to locate

the body of Mr. Incredible following an explosion, reports to Syndrome (the main

antagonist), “Life reading negative. Mr. Incredible: terminated.” (Figure B)

Figure B The Incredibles "Mr. Incredible Terminated" 00:53:53- 00:53:56 (SLIDE)


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This example features a G minor chord sliding into a Gb Major chord; this is identified as

a m11M. This example clearly follows along with the extra-musical association presented by

Murphy.

A more comic representation of the SLIDE in The Incredibles occurs when Helen,

donning a form-fitting suit for the first time after a long hiatus in hero-work, examines her

changed figure in a mirror. As the camera pans down, mimicking Helen’s gaze at her rear figure,

the SLIDE glides.

Figure C The Incredibles "The Death of Helen's Figure" 01:17:49-01:17:52 (SLIDE)

To further prove the connotation of the SLIDE representing death, or at the very least

some type of loss, this example shares two qualities with the first SLIDE example: the same

SLIDE type (m11M) as well as being the same two chords (G minor to Gb Major).

Figure D Ratatouille "Ego Enters" 01:18:05-01:18:10 (SLIDE) In one more example, a press conference is being held in which Linguini is being

interviewed about being the heir to Gusteau’s restaurant, as well as being interviewed on “his”

talents as a chef. With the aching creak of a door, Ratatouille’s grand antagonist, Anton Ego,

enters the conference to gasps, cries, and a SLIDE of eerie timbre (choir, organ, wind sounds,

possibly muted strings, etc.). (Figure D) The use of a SLIDE to represent Ego’s presence at

Gusteau’s restaurant is exceedingly appropriate; early in the film it is mentioned that Gusteau


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died not long after receiving Ego’s scathing review. Additionally, it is mentioned by Chef

Skinner that the addition of one more strike would cause the restaurant to lose another star (a

rating system on the quality and class of a restaurant) and they would have to go out of business.

Therefore, the life or death of the restaurant hangs on Ego’s critique.

M8M

The M8M often coincides with heroicism and the fantastic. As expected for such

connotations, it appears in The Incredibles many times; one of the first times it is presented

as “Incrediboy’s Theme” (Figure D)

Figure E The Incredibles "Incrediboy’s Theme" 00:04:02-00:04:07 (M8M)

The tonicized chord is G major, and it moves to Eb Major; two major triads separated by

8 semi-tones. The progression repeats multiple times, modulating to different keys while

maintaining its M8M motion within each new tonal center. It properly illustrates an air of a

fantastic youth, further established later in the film by an instance of the theme representing

Dash, who shares the same naiveté in his youthful heroism.

Figure F Ratatouille "Remy Flying Over the River" 01:14:48-01:14:58 (M8M)

Remy has the letter from Linguini’s mother naming him the heir to Gusteau’s restaurant,

and he is being chased by Chef Skinner through the city. Remy jumps over the river, the letter


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gains lift, and he achieves flight over the river, cuing the M8M. It undulates between the two

chords, Eb Major and Cb Major, eight times (four times each). This is a very strong example of

the M8M as it undulates many times between the two chords, and it is narrating the fantastic and

heroic; a rat achieving flight to escape from an antagonist.

Use of Mode

A common way to present a mood or character of a scene through music is through

careful consideration of mode. One of the most commonly occurring modes to represent feelings

of action, specifically when the protagonist is being challenged and/or put in danger is the use of

octatonic mode. Octatonic mode is the mode created from alternating half steps and whole steps,

creating an eight-note scale. This scale is commonly used in film to give feelings of uneasiness,

action, and tension. It can be found throughout the film music literature in such films as: Air

Force One, Toy Story 2, Babe, and many others.

In Ratatouille, there was a commonly occurring motive, based on the melody of the “Rat

Theme” used primarily to increase tension in dynamic scenes.

Figure G Ratatouille "Octatonic Motive"

This motive appears dozens, or even hundreds of times throughout the film. It

specifically highlights the previously mentioned chase-scene from 01:13:24-01:15:22; the

octatonic motive can even be heard during the M8M of flight.

Another common mode in the film repertoire is Lydian. Due to the raised 4th scale

degree, Lydian mode is characterized as being heroic, “brighter than bright”, and occasionally

comic in nature. Giacchino utilizes this lightheartedness in The Incredibles during the


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protagonist family’s return to their home metropolis (The Incredibles 01:34:37- 01:35:48) The

scene features Mr. Incredible steering an RV with frustration, the children appealing from the

back of the vehicle, “are we there yet?” to the response, “We’ll get there when we get there!” At

this point, Mr. Incredible opens up the driver-side window exposing Helen to the audience,

holding the vehicle onto a rocket. The vehicle is released onto the highway, Helen re-enters, and

the spouses argue upon which exit will take them to the city-destroying robot. Clearly, this scene

is casting wit upon the seemingly polar difference between the domestic and the incredible,

showing a super-hero family having petty arguments akin to a family road-trip while

apprehending an indestructible robot menace.

Use of Motives For Storytelling in Ratatouille

In my analysis of the three full-length Pixar films scored by Michael Giacchino, I found

that Ratatouille had the most fascinating and exciting use of motives. Many characters have their

own motives, multiple characters share some motives, and there are motives to represent

progress, hopes, and dreams.

Figure H "Chef Skinner Theme"

Chef Skinner’s theme (Figure H) is often played by low woodwinds, and is presented at every

appearance of the character. During the previously mentioned chase scene involving Remy and

the letter, Giacchino employs the “Chef Skinner” and “Hopes and Dreams” themes masterfully,

interplaying them in a musical parallel of the images on screen.

Another theme is:


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Figure I "Buddy Theme"

This theme has its first appearance after Linguini frees Remy from the jar, Remy escapes,

and returns upon seeing Linguini’s pain in his situation. It is the main theme for the montage

section in which Remy is training to control Linguini’s movements from under his hat.

Figure J "Ego's Theme"

Ego’s theme is very ominous, and appears very few times in the film. Any time Ego is

presented, so is his theme, and it is repeated for a few instances . The last two chords, E minor to

Ab minor, utilize the antagonistic m4m; the final chord to the first chord (during repeated

instances) is a m6m, which is also, according to Murphy (2012), “Quite at home accompanying

antagonism” (p. 25). The use of these specific Schritte in this order creates an extremely dark

color, and, due to its lack of diatonicism, has an unsettling effect for the viewer/listener,

regardless of musical background.

There were many motives and melodies in this film; however a select few seemed to

define the movie, as well as Giacchino’s ability to be a storyteller, as a whole.


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Figure K “Rat Theme”

The “Rat Theme” (Figure A) is the first theme presented post-overture, to the image of

dark silhouettes, and the voice-over stating, “I’m a rat.” (Ratatouille, 00:02:07-00:02:17) This

theme is not used necessarily to represent rats; clearly, in a film in which the main protagonist is

a rat, this would become pervasive. The theme represents that which pertains to the negative

characteristics of rats (or, “rattiness”) throughout the film. It bears a great similarity to the

“Home theme” (Figure B), as it is in essence an octatonic (or diminished) version, both in

melody and meter. One may interpret this connection to represent the complex nature of that

which is home for Remy; as he looks down upon his roots of “rat-hood.” This theme presents

itself no fewer than eight times throughout the film, and occasionally in conjunction with other

motives.

Figure L "Home Theme"

As the opening narrative continues, the viewer is introduced to Remy’s family: his

brother Emile, and his father. Immediately upon being introduced to his father: “and this is my

dad” (Ratatouille, 00:02:36) we are introduced to what I have titled the “Home Theme” (Figure

B). This theme was specifically intriguing to me, as I later found that it is not solely

representative of Remy’s home (the rat colony, or his family), but it is utilized as a musical

representation of that which is home for three of the main characters: Remy, Linguini, and Anton

Ego (the antagonist).


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The home theme is used relatively few times in comparison to other motives in this film

(some motives appeared in quantities over 30), thereby making its association all the more

meaningful. (Table 1) Following the initial iterations of the “Home Theme” during the portion of

the film spent at Remy’s home, the theme appears no less than five additional occurrences, each

using interesting implications.

Table 1 "Occurances of the Home Theme"

Time Visual/Dialogue Notes 00:02:36 The introduction of Remy’s

Father, “This is my Dad.” The first instance of the “Home Theme.”

00:03:00-00:03:43

Remy’s induction as “poison checker” for the colony, continues through the family eating at the nest.

32:02-32:39

Entering Linguini’s apartment for the first time.

First use of the home theme for a character besides Remy, possibly representing this being Remy’s new home.

51:39-52:05

Remy is let out of the kitchen to get fresh air.

Musically pre-empting his being reunited with his brother in the following scene.

57:10-59:03

Remy has returned to the colony, and they celebrate with a band.

The house band is playing an upbeat version of home theme; it is now in 4/4 time.

01:11:42-01:12:20

Remy has decided to steal food for Emile, and the apparition of Gusteau scolds him for stealing

The “Rat Theme” occurs before and after this instance of the “Home Theme” showing the connection between his home (Emile) and the rat-like actions he utilizes to connect to it (stealing).

01:36:27-01:37:40

Ego has just taken a bite of the challenging dish, and is instantly brought back to his childhood: a young boy with an upset affect sniffles once, what the viewer may perceive as his mother offers him comfort through a dish, perceivably: ratatouille.

This iteration of the “Home Theme” is the first one to completely remove Remy from the visuals. Through this scene one can deduce that the theme represents more than Remy’s home, but the broader concept of home being one’s roots, one’s support, as well as one’s physical home, for anyone in the film.

The next iteration of the “Home Theme” plays upon first entrance to Linguini’s

apartment. This is the first use of the home theme for a character besides Remy, possibly

representing this being Remy’s new home, or an additional place to call home.

When Emile discovers Remy later in the film, they both go to visit the colony. In what

appears to be a celebration of Remy’s return (but could possibly just be a live band in a rat-


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restaurant) the band plays the home theme in an upbeat, jaunty 4/4 (compared to the original

slow 6/8).

Michael Giacchino is extremely talented not only in his music, but also in his seamless

application of themes in conjunction with one another to tell the story on screen. This is shown in

the next occurrence of the home theme: Remy is coerced by his brother to steal food from his

new workplace for his former rat colony; this scene utilizes the “Rat Theme” in conjunction with

the “Home Theme” to create a common subtext. The “Rat Theme” occurs before and after this

instance of the “Home Theme,” showing the connection between his home (Emile) and the rat-

like actions he utilizes to connect to it (stealing food).

The most intriguing example of the “Home Theme” occurs directly after the film’s

darkest antagonist, the food critic Anton Ego, takes a bite of the food presented to him.

Throughout the film Ego has been presented as a heartless encumbrance to success in the food

world, especially for anyone associated with Gusteau. He challenges Linguini (acting as the

vehicle for Remy’s talent for cooking) to “hit me with your best shot!” in a near-future evening

in which he will dine at Gusteau’s restaurant. Remy decides to serve Ego ratatouille; the meal is

prepared, and placed in front of him. Upon his first bite he is drawn back to an image of his past;

a sniffling young boy in a lower-class home. A smiling woman (whom one can assume to be the

boy’s mother) prepares a meal for the boy, offering him comfort through a dish, perceivably:

ratatouille.

Figure M-1 "Hopes and Dreams Theme"


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The “Hopes and Dreams Theme” (Figure C) is extremely important to this film. It

appears no less than 13 times throughout the film, continuously representing the attainment (or

failure) of Remy’s hopes and dreams (Table 2), and is often represented solely by its

chromatically rising bass line. (Figure C-2)

Figure J-2 "Hopes and Dreams Theme" Second half with Bass line

Table 2 "Occurrences of the Hopes and Dreams Theme”

Time Visual/Dialogue Notes 00:04:09- 00:04:34

Remy: “There’s something about [humans], they discover! They create! Just look at what they do with food!” Then Gusteau speaks on television about food.

This is the first instance of this theme, and is presented in very ‘sweet’ timbres (high piano timbre, violin solo with much vibrato)

00:14:28-00:15:08

Remy has lost his family, he is in a sewer with Gusteau’s book, and an illustration gives him hope about going up and looking around.

This section features only the harmonies of the progression, with a solo cello filling in some of the melody in the final few measures.

00:17:06- 00:17:42

Remy climbs to the top of roof to a panoramic view of Paris: “Paris? This whole time I’ve been underneath Paris?!”

Large cinematic timbre, violin solo when Gusteau’s restaurant appears and speaks to Remy

32:39-33:06

Linguini is asleep on his couch, and the TV plays a romantic French film with a woman and man in conversation while Remy looks out of the window at the city “ (Woman) Are you…is this, a dream?” “(Man)The best kind of dream… one we can share” […] “What better place to dream than in Paris?”

51:04-51:28

To the excitement of the kitchen staff, the maître d' announces that the customer loved the soup, and there were many more orders.

Accordion has main melody; strings play harmony, electric bass for bass line.

52:51- Remy enjoys food outside of the restaurant Very laid back, basking in the


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53:07 following the success of the soup. success. 01:00:38-01:00:52

Remy’s dad has just shown him an exterminator’s window front to prove that humans will always be bad, and rats only have each other. “(Dad) You can’t change nature” “(Remy) *Change is nature dad, and it starts when we decide.” “Where you goin’?” “With luck, forward.” *Beginning of theme

Strings and a flute play the harmonic motive. It flourishes with Remy saying, “It starts when we decide”

01:06:00-01:06:02

Linguini and Collette share their first kiss, the camera zooms out in birds-eye view.

This is a very quick iteration of the three note descending melodic motive.

01:14:27-01:14:46

During the chase scene, Remy catches the letter proving Linguini the rightful heir to Gusteau’s business.

This scene has great interplay between Chef Skinner’s theme, the Octatonic motive, and the Hopes and Dreams theme.

01:22:52-01:23:56

Linguini has just excommunicated Remy from the restaurant for bringing the rats and for stealing food.

This version of the theme is very sparse, lacks the bass-line, and only key tones from the melody.

01:26:51-01:27:50, 01:27:53-01:28:16

Remy is trapped in a cage in the trunk of Chef Skinner’s car. Gusteau appears, and Remy yells that he does not need him, since he is a figment of his imagination.

Horn and oboe play melody and counterpoint. It is much more somber. It crescendos to the rats rescuing Remy, features an M8M, then continues to grow in heroicism with the theme rising.

01:38:53-01:40:50

Anton Ego’s review of the meal; through his experience at the restaurant he now truly believes the tenant of Gusteau, “Anyone can cook.”

Nostalgic in timbre.

01:41:07-01:42:52

The epilogue of the film; Remy has his own restaurant with Linguini and Collette, Ego is an investor and happy patron.

Initially orchestral, moves into the voice track “La Festin”

The “Hopes and Dreams” theme is first presented with Remy’s inner monologue stating:

“There’s something about [humans], they discover! They create! Just look at what they do with

food!” (00:04:09- 00:04:34) This is the viewer’s first allusion to learn of Remy’s greatest hope

and dream: to be a chef. The theme is not reiterated until, after he loses his entire colony during

an evacuation, he sits alone with Gusteau’s cookbook in a sewer drain; the timbre solely the

harmonic progression with an eventual solo cello playing fragments of the melody. An image of


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Gusteau in the cookbook communicates to Remy that he “should go up and explore,” and see

where it takes him. At this point, the “Progress Theme/Progression” (Figure I) endeavors to tell

the story as Remy climbs and scurries through various walls and buildings, eventually leading

him to the panoramic view over the city. Remy exclaims, “Paris? This whole time I’ve been

underneath Paris?!” (00:17:06- 00:17:42) Remy turns his head and sees Gusteau’s restaurant; the

timbre of the theme changes to a sweet solo violin as Gusteau speaks to Remy about his being

led to Paris which, according to the film’s introduction is the “home of the finest food in the

world.”

Another scene that is important to mention featuring the “Hopes and Dreams” theme:

Remy’s dad has just shown him an exterminator’s window front, featuring dozens of dead rats on

display, to prove that humans will always be a threat, and rats only have each other:

(Dad) “You can’t change nature” (Remy) “*Change is nature dad, and it starts when we decide.” (Dad) “Where you goin’?” (Remy) “With luck: forward.” *Marks the beginning of the motive (01:00:38-01:00:52)

The idea of hopes and dreams is being presented textually, which is enhanced by the

theme’s harmonic progression playing underneath. This is a very effective use of the motive; it

subtly enhances the dialogue with the extra-musical association of Remy’s aspirations.

A unique example of the “Hopes and Dreams” motive plays when Linguini has just

excommunicated Remy from the restaurant. Remy, angry at Linguini for being treated negatively

in a situation involving Collette, invites the rat colony to the kitchen in order to steal food.

Linguini arrives and, unaware of the rat colony’s presence, gives a sincere apology to Remy. At

this point Linguini becomes aware of the rats and their motive to steal food; he angrily expels

Remy and the colony. Ashamed of his actions, Remy walks away from the restaurant to a new


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version of the “Hopes and Dreams” theme. This version of the theme is very sparse, lacks the

bass-line, and only key tones from the melody. Given the mentioned importance of the bass line,

I believe that this motive clearly reflects the situation at hand: the dream is still alive, but the

ability to progress, or rise up, has been removed; the disappointment reflected in the melancholy

timbre.

Figure N "Progress Theme/Progression"

Another integral theme is the “Progress Theme/Progression.” A chromatically descending

bass line, occasionally used independent of the melody, characterizes this progression.

Table 3 Occurences of the "Progress Theme/Progression"

Time Visual/Dialogue Notes 00:05:48-00:06:35

Remy inspects Emile's mushroom, and starts finding spices with which to flavor it.

Not the complete melodic motive, but does contain the harmonic motive.

7:00-7:27

After Remy and Emile have been struck by lightning, Remy takes a bite of the mushroom and speaks with excitement on what to name the flavor.

7:59-8:06 Remy is finding spices in Granny's kitchen, and Emile asks "Who's Gusteau?"

15:13-15:32

Remy comes out of the sewers and runs through walls and ceilings.

This is the first instance of another dimension of this theme besides the melody and rhythm: the acceleration.

15:49-16:10

Gusteau telling Remy not to steal food he has found Woodwind duet, mostly just the bass line

16:13-17:07 More running through the walls Increases acceleration


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21:18-21:36 Escaping from the kitchen

Becomes more frantic, occasionally using octatonic versions of the theme.

24:06-24:52

Remy fixes the soup that was ruined by Linguini.

Begins with classical guitar, moves to xylophone, then to accordion

55:07-55:53 Remy explains flavors to Emile

begins with only the bass line, the orchestration becomes more complex with the increasing complexity of the flavors being experienced.

Aspects of this theme first appear about six minutes into the film, the first instance of

Remy practicing culinary arts: Emile has found a mushroom, and Remy excitedly finds spices

with which to flavor it. Remy uses smoke from the roof of the house in order to create more

flavor, and the pair are struck by lightning. The first instance of the full “Progress” theme

appears after the team has landed in the grass, burnt from the lightning strike, Remy takes a bite

of the mushroom and speaks with great excitement on what to name the flavor.

Following Remy’s escape from the sewers, the “Progress Theme/Progression” receives

its greatest iteration. As Remy journeys through the walls and ceilings of various buildings,

catching glimpses into the lives of many different people, he eventually makes his way to the

rooftops, to a magnificently cinematic iteration of the “Hopes and Dreams” theme.


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Further Interpretation of the “Hopes and Dreams” and “Progress” Themes

Given that one considers these themes to be 8-measure sentences1, the presentation of the

“Progress Theme” (Figure K) consists of a repeating three-note ascending [023]t motive, the bass

line a descending four-note chromatic line. Alternately, the presentation of the “Hopes and

Dreams” (Figure J-1) melody consists of a descending [024]ti motive; the continuation (Figure J-

2) contains a rising five-note chromatic bass line. The descending chromatic line of the “Progress

Theme/Progression”, paired to connect with the ascending chromatic line of the “Hopes and

Dreams” theme, create a perfect 5th: an interval of perfect unity. The two melodies ([024] and

[023]) come together to create a 5-note major scale, again scaling a perfect 5th.

The parallels between these two themes, though they are simple, are contextually

striking; and are directly connected to the relationship of Remy and Linguini. This film, in its

most basic essence, is the story of two characters that cannot succeed on their own synergizing to

become the greatest chef(s) in France. Remy has the dreams and aspirations, the knowledge and

drive, to be a great chef. Linguini is the vehicle; a kind and virtuous individual who lacks some

of the facilities to make progress in love, his career, and his self. In the same vein, these two

main melodies, the “Progress” and “Hopes and Dreams” themes respectively, represent these

same ideals: one represents the vehicle to reach one’s goals, the other provides the drive, and

they must synergize with one another in order for either to succeed. Moreover, chronologically in

the film, the “Progress Theme/Progression” ceases to appear following the unity of Remy and

Linguini, with the exception of one subtle instance: during the scene in which Remy is helping

Emile understand flavor by walking him through his discoveries early in the film. Again, this

theme is signifying a level of teamwork.

1 “A simple theme consisting of a presentation phrase and a continuation phrase” Caplan, William E. "Glossary." Classical Form. Oxford UP, 1998. Print.


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This premise is further confirmed in a curious presentation of the “Hopes and Dreams

Theme.” It is very deliberate in its message, yet still somehow subtle: Remy and Linguini have

returned to Linguini’s home after their first meeting. Linguini is asleep on his couch, the TV is

playing a romantic French film featuring a woman and man in conversation. The dialogue

continues as Remy looks out of the window at the city:

Woman: Are you…is this, a dream?” Man: The best kind of dream… one we can share” Woman: But why here? Why now? Man: Why not here? Why not now? What better place to dream than in Paris?

I simply do not believe that this dialogue was random or romanticized: the “Hopes and

Dreams” theme is portrayed as part of the soundtrack for the French film (it shares the same

“gritty” quality as the dialogue playing out of the old television’s speakers), and it perfectly

narrates the point of this theme: Remy and Linguini share the dream of becoming something

greater than they previously were, but can only do so through synergy with one another; Remy’s

dream was to be in Paris, and the dialogue concludes, “What better place to dream than in

Paris?”

Together, as illustrated by the music, Remy and Linguini were able to live their dreams

of becoming something greater than their roots would allow. During the uncomfortable

ambiguity following Ego’s challenge, the resolution of the film relies upon what is presented in

his review. The “Hopes and Dreams” theme plays as Ego narrates: through his enjoyment of the

meal, and from his experience meeting Remy at the restaurant, Ego has been “shaken to [his]

core.” Through the phenomenon of Linguini and Remy’s combined action, not only has he had

an enjoyable meal, he now truly believes the key tenant of the late Gusteau:

“Anyone can cook.”


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Bibliography Caplan, William E. "Glossary." Classical Form. Oxford UP, 1998. Print. Gorbman, Claudia. Unheard Melodies: Narrative Film Music. Bloomington: Indiana Univ., 1987. Print. Murphy, Scott B. Transformational Theory and the Analysis of Film Music. 2012.

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