Digital Storytelling

Digital Storytelling 1

Digital Storytelling

Writing and New Media M.A. Program Athabasca University

Carolyn Guertin 2013

Table of Contents:

Week 1: Story and Image Week 2: Visual Storytelling 1

Week 3: Memory Week 4: Voice

Week 5: Location Week 6: Audience

Week 7: Family Stories and the Family Album Week 8: Collaborative Authorship

Week 9: The Remix: Piracy or Authorship? Week 10: Case Study 1a: Visual Storytelling II ~ Comics Week 11: Case Study 1b: Image and Text in Narrative

Week 12: Case Study 2a: Games and Interactivity Week 13: Case Study 2b: Game Spaces and Reimagining the World


Week 1: Story and Image

“A word is worth a thousand pieces of gold.” ~ Chinese Proverb “One picture is worth ten thousand words.” ~ Chinese Proverb

Learning Objective By the end of this unit, you should have a firm grasp of what digital storytelling is and what forms it can take. You will understand the basic components of a story, and how images can be used to tell stories on their own and in conjunction with words. Comprehending the major steps involved in the creation of a digital story, you will be ready to undertake your own first attempt. This Week’s Readings Pink, Daniel H. “Story” in A Whole New Mind: Why Right-Brainers Will Rule the Future. (New York: Riverhead Books, 2005), 100-129. Shawcross, Nancy M. “Image—Memory—Text” in Phototextualities: Intersections of

Photography and Narrative. Alex Hughes and Andrea Noble, Eds. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2003), 89-102.

Commentary Storytelling is undergoing a renaissance. In the wake of the blogging or user-generated content revolution, everyone seems to have discovered their voice and wants to find a way to share their stories online. While blogs, wikis and online photo albums like Flickr have connected people, part of the happy fallout from this is a whole new emphasis on how to tell a story. Even Facebook, within its status update, asks you to “share a funny story or a happy memory.” It is not simply this new connectedness that has shifted our focus back onto the importance of stories, but also the fact that our lives move faster. We see more people and talk less. We increasingly engage with screens—from phones to cameras to computer monitors to televisions—rather than with people. As we have less time for real interactions and more time spent with data, we crave a way back into a perspective that unites both the small details of the everyday and the big picture viewpoint of the story. The shift in personal publishing that marks the Web 2.0 or social media boom is now allowing us to tell our own stories and to listen to others’ in new ways—and on a scale with an immediacy that book publishers never imagined. Before we think about digital storytelling, it makes sense, therefore, to think about how stories function and rise in any medium. What is a story? What are a story’s components? What makes a story memorable? Why do stories still matter in a digital age? I. Story A story is an event or series of events designed to instruct or entertain. Stories are frequently modular, having multiple components or elements, including characters, setting, plot, point of view, theme(s) and a complication. In the West, tales generally revolve around a conflict; in the East, especially in the fictional form known as manga, stories are told without conflict—instead they have a complication or twist followed by a reconciliation. Stories can occur in any medium—from a photograph to a photo album to a novel. They can be very simple, as in E.M. Forster’s “The king died, and the queen died”, or they can be elaborately plotted with


complications, as in the more sophisticated “The king died, and the queen died of grief.”i Circuitous, dogged and unpredictable, story is movement. It takes you places you have never been and never knew you wanted to go. Story is about self, memory, place, growing, laughing and being. Stories are mundane and profound and everything in between. They are networked as a part of our lives, plugging into our memories and hearts at multiple points and mapping, at their heart, the essence of what makes us human. Like so many other great thinkers before him, British anthropologist and linguist Gregory Bateson grappled with the nature of the human mind. In his book Mind and Nature, Bateson speculates that computers will truly have achieved human intelligence when they respond to a question with the answer, “That reminds me of a story…” In short, stories are everything that we are and every bit as complex. Daniel H. Pink thinks “stories are how we remember”, and the foundational atom of thought ii. Stories, Pink says, are “cognitive events” that “encapsulate information, knowledge, and emotion.”iii As a supplement to analytical thinking, stories allow us to explore our understanding of the world in concrete ways and to come to an understanding of who we are. We tell ourselves and others stories about our lives that determine who and what we are: perhaps you see yourself as a great father or a perfectionist or as a frustrated hockey player who was never given a chance to prove herself or as someone with bad luck. These stories determine, whether we like it or not, who and what we are. Some stories have warts and are hard to like; others have the elegant grace and style of a ballerina. There are stories about character or place, funny stories, stories told to help a person remember and stories that help one forget, adventure stories, coming of age stories, autobiographies, tales of healing, visual narratives, and the ever-popular love stories. Human ingenuity is practically endless when it comes to ways of recounting tales. Digital storytelling has both taken up the torch of storytelling and refashioned it as a new framework for stories. And that is our mission here over these next few weeks: to explore what storytelling is and has become in the digital age, and to try our hands at the medium itself. In practice, storytelling in a digital medium started out in the early days of the World Wide Web with two major forms. The first was multimedia, personal (often autobiographical), short (under five minutes) and combined video and/or still images with an audio track; these little video vignettes most resemble oral storytelling. You can see some fine examples at the Queensland University of Technology’s website: http://digitalstorytelling.ci.qut.edu.au/stories/ The second form was literary (in either poetry or prose); it foregrounded structural experiments and written language, and was hypertextual in nature—comprised of a series of interlinked screens. In the former, story was privileged over fact in the same manner that blogs have largely replaced ‘objective’ newscasting. In the latter, literary theory was explored and works were often metatextual, that is to say they were self-reflexive or concerned with their own writing. Many of these early hypertext works are still available for purchase through the publisher Eastgate Systems (like Michael Joyce’s Afternoon and Shelley Jackson’s Patchwork Girl, Or A Modern Monster) and many others are available free on the Web in literary journals or the Electronic Literature Organization’s online collections (to cite two examples by the aforementioned authors, Michael Joyce’s Twelve Blue or Shelley Jackson’s My Body: A Wunderkammer.). In the years since then, digital storytelling has become much more nuanced and complex. While the earliest forms persist, many texts are wildly innovative, exploring new interfaces and


structures. These new kinds of stories may have a touch interface, incorporate comics, or even be geolocative narratives (stories tied to a particular location, accessed via a GPS-enabled device like a cell phone or iPad). The Canadian Film Centre’s New Media Lab initiated an early locative narrative experiment called Murmur, that created tours on cellphones (http://www.murmurtoronto.ca/). British comedian Stephen Fry situates his autobiography, myFry, in a colourful interactive mandala-like interface for the iPhone. In The Story of Jess and Russ, Jessica Hische and Russ Maschmeyer use the digital storytelling framework to tell the story of how they met and fell in love in their highly original online interactive wedding invitation: http://www.jessandruss.us/ The code is extremely elegant, resembling a waterfall with periodic toeholds to explore significant moments in their relationship. While the story is viewable to all, naturally you must be a wedding guest who possesses the code to truly interact by RSVPing. There’s even an iPhone app specifically devoted to digital storytelling called Storyrobe (http://www.storyrobe.com/storyrobe/Home.html). In the wake of the Web 2.0 revolution, more emphasis in digital forms of address has fallen onto social interaction or two-way conversations. Web 1.0 had been a point and click world. It was a site for shopping or information gathering, not for engagement or interactivity. The arrival of blogs, wikis, Flickr and YouTube changed all that as people started to talk back to their media. This second generation of the World Wide Web moves beyond the hyperlink to create spaces where users create the content. So the online version of the Encyclopedia Britannica was Web 1.0, but Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia which has content generated by its users, is 2.0. The blogging revolution changed the distribution model for news so that, instead of obtaining news from journalists who worked for mass media, citizen journalists began broadcasting their own opinions on a wide swath of topics using software that enabled readers to subscribe. Communities of blogs sprang up with bloggers promoting other bloggers. Other apparatuses sprang up around this user-generated aesthetic so that it is now possible to post ratings of books on Amazon or of hardware purchases at canadiantire.ca or tag someone else’s photos on Flickr or create a community of listeners on iTunes. Social media has four main organizing principles:iv

1. Web 2.0 is a platform rather than standalone software. A simple interface generally belies complex functionality.

2. Collaboration is data-driven, that is to say that these sites or “applications are centered around a significant database, often created, developed or vastly improved by its users.”v

3. Content is organized horizontally or nonhierarchically. This is data that can be shuffled and reorganized easily—often through tagging, a communal organizational structure.

4. Web 2.0 is communal. It is generated or built or improved upon by its users. As media became first social and then mobile, it intertwined with the activities of everyday life. Media started to become less a way to tell stories and more a way to communicate—and so dominant a form that some fear it threatens to supplant face-to-face communication. The mobile media revolution marked the invention of apps that could alert people to other people’s whereabouts or where their friends shopped or whether they were a member of the same dating pool. Web 2.0 also accelerated the embedding of photographies into every aspect of our lives.


Where Modernity had been signaled by the entry of photography into our cultural lives (like the photomontages of Max Ernst, John Heartfield or Hannah Höch), Western culture has ever since then become addicted to visual representations. As Nancy M. Shawcross mentions in her article “Image—Memory—Text”vi, photography has facilitated the externalization of memory and, more recently, its commodification in consumer culture. Photography is central to the social and cultural theories of memory and to how memory is constructed. Whole narratives of families were told in photo albums, changing how we understood families.

II. Photography and Memory Martin Hand argues in Ubiquitous Photography that photography is ceasing to be a medium for archiving and that instead it has become a communication medium: “Memory practices are embedded within historically specific cultural frameworks which are themselves made possible by objects, technologies and other devices”.vii The shift from the photo album to the home movie to the camera phone has been a speedy one, and it brings with it complexities in archiving, organization and mobile interfaces. Memory is contextual as well, being hardwired both in the neurons of our brains and in mnemonic technologies like writing and photographs. Memory is a social matrix that enacts a complex dialogic between subjective and collective motives. In How Societies Remember, Paul

Connerton sees the temporal dynamics of historical memory as a kind of hybrid network of complementary and

contradictory impulses. “Every recollection,” he says, however personal it may be, even that of events of which we alone were the witnesses, even that of thoughts and sentiments that remain unexpressed, exists in relationship with a whole ensemble of notions which many others possess… What binds together recent memories is not the fact that they are contiguous in time, but rather the fact that they form part of a whole ensemble of thoughts common to a group, to the groups with which we are in relationship at present or have been in some connection in the recent past.viii

Where the museum arose out of the impulse to establish a community of contextual links between art, culture and objects, collective memory is always already by definition culturally situated within a framework of connections and associations.ix This yearning for some kind of

Figure 1: "Da Dandy" (1919), Photomontage by Hannah Höch1 http://venetianred.net/2010/01/16/hannah-hoch-the-good-girl-with-big-scissors-part-i/


collective memory, whether real or fictional, whether in museum culture or anthropological studies of sacred cave paintings, is always an archival gesture:

It is to our social spaces—those which we occupy, which we frequently retrace with our steps, where we always have access, which at each moment we are capable of mentally reconstructing—that we must turn our attention, if our memories are to reappear. Our memories are located within the mental and material spaces of the group…x

like in those stories your family tells about you as a child (that you only remember from these tellings) or in a family photo album. An individual memory is impossible, Connerton argues, for it always exists within the discourse network that is our culture, and even social groupings themselves are closed systems being discourse networks—or at least they were until the advent of social media. Photography is an archival art—driven by the impulse to record or to inscribe—that is visual, collective, gendered, temporal and cultural. Digitization has, however, also made our cultural memory “malleable and ephemeral”.xi In ancient times before the invention of paper and back when Sumeria was a going concern, the cultural artifacts that were deemed worth preserving were fact-based—primarily censuses and inventories of grain and other food stuffs—and were carved into clay tablets that were baked. Cultural commodities like literature were inscribed on the soft clay tablets too, but they were designated only for short-term use, not for preservation. When the invading Babylonians torched the Library of Ninevah, they did humanity a favor. They inadvertently baked the great Sumerian epics, like The Story of Gilgamesh, into a durable form to be preserved down the centuries. It is unlikely that the snap you just took with your cell phone of your companion will have the same fate. Like the ancient Sumerians’ conception of popular culture, our recordings of everyday life are becoming ephemeral once again. Just as digital technologies are changing our brains, so our digital technologies are changing all of our memory systems. Not eroding our intelligence (as some critics of the digital maintain), so much as shifting our priorities for what needs to be remembered. Andrew Hoskins argues in Media and Memory for a dichotomy between archival and lived memory—between our old analog culture of storage and a digital-lived cultural presence of interactivity.xii This shift from album-based connections to the photo site of Flickr or the photo stream of Facebook promotes a school of photography that is “in motion” and that enhances “the temporariness of photos”.xiii The technology of user-generated tagging changes the nature of the online ‘album’ still further by decontextualizing the photo from its own setting and from its creator. Our connections to the original ‘story’ are thereby lost. If you search for ‘sunset’ or ‘moon’ or ‘baby’, you can pull up the work of a thousand different photographers all over the world at the same time; these many images with the same tag will not, however, tell you anything about the vacation you just took when you took that image. Metadata, the infamous tags of the Web 2.0 folksonomy, are:

a means for the image to escape its original context. Stripped of their interfaces, photo-sharing sites function as vast databases of indexed photographs which can be remixed and remapped online as mashups… the practices illustrate the way in


which the networked image is data, that is visual information to be analyzed and remapped to new contexts via algorithms.xiv

Cameras tag images too, making decisions about which photo to keep as they discard multiple exposures, eliminate red eyes, monitor ambient light so they choose to flash or not, and impose geotagged data. Conversely, the tagging that we see in social media is not embedded in the story of a specific image. Instead, it resituates or decontextualizes the image in a tag-based framework determined by search engines or machines, selectively remembering some attributes and forgetting others.xv Tags are used to create new classifications and to foster communities of anonymous strangers in tag clouds or data-rich visualizations. These shifts in the ordering of photos allow us to forget how family albums were once a narrative device that produced memories, genealogies, sentimental stories, and identities.xvi Monuments to the dead, albums were keepers of the stories of our past and of our constructs of collective identity. Now we ourselves are products of information overload, constructed in a thousand different ways in datastreams (like on Facebook) for different communities and as fading moments in time. Identity is now as malleable and ephemeral as the digital image itself. In the 20th century, photography emerged as an art form. Key moments in time came to be represented by a single image: a young man facing down a tank in Tiananmen Square (by Stuart Franklin) or Dorothea Lange’s “Migrant Mother” that gave a face to the American Depression in the 30s.xvii Is the power of these photos not in the narratives they tell? Is the power of photos not about their ability to tell stories? Stories are visual in nature like the photograph. Exploring the complexities of photographs, Shawcross discusses how sometimes photographs do not narrate and will not give up their stories. Photography is not as transparent as it seems and the photographer, like a writer or film director, can shape or direct events. “Photography is an uncertain art,” Roland Barthes says; it presents an “intractable reality” and “a message without code”.xviii Both truth and lies can be told in photographs. That message without a code can be the sin of omission as in photographic representations of historical times or power structures that leave women or minorities out of the picture altogether or images that tell different truths. Shawcross draws upon the books of several writers for whom the photograph is central to their work. Maxine Hong Kingston’s literary memoir Woman Warrior arises out of an excised history; it starts with the story of an aunt who has been deleted from the family album because she had a child out of wedlock. Kingston thereby foregrounds the authority of the word by challenging the gap in the visual narrative with her own imagined story. Carol Shields in The Stone Diaries provides photographs that do not tally with her tale, a fictionalized diary told from the perspective of the narrator’s own imagined old age. Shawcross argues that what the narrator, Daisy, is exploring is the power to narrate her own life, her own tale, but Shields’ mismatched photographs raise other questions. Is the whole of this fiction a lie? Whose stories do the images tell? Daisy says, “[T]he recounting of a life is a cheat, of course; I admit the truth of this; even our own stories are obscenely distorted; it is a wonder really that we keep faith with the simple container of our existence”.xix And so the issues of the nature of authorship, authenticity and self-representation clash with monolithic notions of Truth and master narratives. By contrast, look at how Virginia Woolf seamlessly wove images into her fanciful novel Orlando. Basing the titular character on her aristocratic lover Vita, Woolf chose a series of


photographs of Vita and painted portraits of both genders from the Sackville-West hanging ‘album’ of historic oils that lined the walls of the family home. Each of the family portraits bears a distinct family resemblance to each other and to Vita, and supplements the story of a never-aging youth who wakes one morning to find himself a she. (The illustrations are listed with the following captions: “Orlando as a Boy”; “The Russian Princess as a Child”, photo; “The Archduchess Harriet”; “Orlando as Ambassador”; “Orlando on her return to England”, photo; Orlando about the year 1840, photo; Marmeduke Bonthrop Shelmerdine, Esquire; and “Orlando at the present Time”, photo). Under Woolf’s modernism, the photos serve a purely additive function, enhancing the story and including the reader in on the jokexx (for Vita Sackville-West is never named in the book, except in the dedication). Within a postmodern text, in Maxine Hong Kingston’s book, for example, the story is born in the absence of a photo. In Shields’ book, the images undermine veracity by adding different threads and highlighting alternative readings and a multiplicity of interpretations.

Figure 2: Where autobiography meet fantasy: "Orlando on her return to England."

Vita Sackville-West in Virginia Woolf's Orlando, 1928.

Where autobiography meets fantasy: “Orlando on her return to England.”

Vita Sackville-West in Virginia Woolf’s Orlando. 1928.

Shawcross discusses a scene in director Wayne Wang and writer Paul Auster’s film, Smoke. The cigar store owner Auggie (Harvey Keitel) reveals his secret passion, his album and art, to his customer and friend Paul (William Hurt). [The scene is included in the eLibrary for the course. Make sure that you watch the clip.] For more than a decade, Auggie has been photographing the same street corner in front of his shop at the same time each and every day. All of the photos are black and white and they are arranged chronologically in a photo album. Paul is baffled and does not understand why Auggie would keep taking the same picture every day. Auggie tells him to


look again: “You’ll never get it unless you slow down. … They’re all the same, but each one is different from every other one.” As Shawcross explains it, Auggie’s only variable is the element of time:

Auggie’s photograph albums serve as account books for the life transpiring outside his shop door. They are organized and bound and await their readership. They offer, however, an uncommon form of narrative: one that complicates customary expectations and limits the use of text to captions consisting of dates. Rather than rely predominantly on a written narrative that is enhanced or augmented by photographs, Auggie’s albums invert the pattern, making the text subservient to the image.xxi

Now, in a Web 2.0 world, we might read Auggie’s captions as tags or as metadata that provide an organizational structure to the images. As Paul learns to look and really sees the photos, he discovers something that brings him closer to his own past life too. (I do not want to spoil the surprise. You will find out what he sees when you watch the clip.) With his tightly confining criteria, Auggie is the author of these photos in the Foucauldian sense: he “is a certain functional principle by which” he “limits, excludes and chooses”.xxii By confining his camera to a particular place and time of day, Auggie is telling new stories every day. The setting may be the same, but the content of the image (the weather, the light, the people in the frame, etc.) is always different. By limiting his narrative framework to such a small window, he in fact becomes a kind of modern day Scheherazadexxiii, the legendary Persian storyteller. By the poetic nature of Auggie’s description of his photographs, we know he is not a documentarian or a historian. Instead he is Foucault’s author, an “ideological figure by which one marks the manner in which we fear the proliferation of meaning.”xxiv Auggie’s vision is infinite even within such tightly focused parameters and his lens sees deeply into the meaning of the world that surrounds him. He reinserts the human back into the urban landscape, onward into the text of his life, and the lives of those around him. Auggie makes the mundane blur of humanity going about its business into a personal and interesting story. Assignment First Assignment: Six Word Story intertwined or embedded in a minimum of 10 and a maximum of 20 still images (slideshow) Expanding on this unit’s discussion of how images tell stories and how those stories differ from text-only narratives, the purpose of this assignment is to teach students how to tell good stories in as few brushstrokes as possible. It is important that they understand how much can be conveyed in very few words, and how that story can be enhanced in a digital environment when enriched with images. The students are encouraged to think about stories and images as a fresh and exciting medium told from a right-brained perspective, rather than as something linear, logical and (god forbid) predictable. Are you ready?


Week 2: Visual Storytelling I Learning Objective You will come to understand what the basic components of a story are. You will also come to see how different stories can be told visually and what an important role perspective and point of view play in storytelling. This Week’s Readings Matt Madden, 99 Ways To Tell A Story. Italo Calvino, If On A Winter’s Night A Traveller, pp. 3-33. Digital Storytelling with Image and Text Brazilian writer Paul Coelho says that there are only two kinds of stories: stories of adventure where a hero goes out into the world, and interior or domestic tales where a stranger comes to town.xxv You can use those as starting points for thinking about how you will craft your six word story. Every story must have a purpose or a guiding theme as in The Wizard of Oz’s “There’s no place like home”—just as the stories that we tell ourselves determine who and what we become as we move through life. In Writing for Story, Jon Franklin says that plots follow the formula of complication, development, and resolution: the complication marks problems or troubles encountered by a person or people; developments are the snaky turns and twists of plot that result from answering or addressing the initial complication; and the resolution marks personal growth or a negative change in personality. In keeping with the general focus on life writing in traditional digital storytelling, Franklin argues for the essential nature of these approaches specifically in nonfiction and autobiographical tales. Christopher Brooker in his book Seven Basic Plots: How We Tell Stories provides a bit more complexity to both models in his study of well-crafted works from the Greek classics to modern film by providing a larger framework for storytelling. The seven plots are:

Overcoming the monster: (David and Goliath, Into the Wild) Rags to riches: (Cinderella, reality television) Quest: the world traveller, fighting evil or adversity (Odysseus, Ellen Ripley in Alien) Voyage and return: hero returns from abroad, renewed (Robinson Crusoe, Eat Pray Love) Comedy: confusion reigns, happy ending (A Midsummer Night's Dream, Pretty Woman) Tragedy: human overreaching, terrible consequences (Oedipus, Conrad Black) Rebirth: (Scrooge, the North American auto industry)

For a warm-up exercise, visit http://www.image-and-text.com/ . This site gives you a collection of photos with several different captions for each and then invites you to add your own (140 character or less) version. Try your hand at a few.


Your first assignment for this class is a bit more complex. You are going to write a six-word story that is interwined with between 10 and 20 images. The images should not be illustrations of your story, but should instead add to your text. The text can be embedded in images or play on separate screens (see, for example, Lawrence Lessig’s presentation style. He often uses one word or a phrase as a slide: http://www.ted.com/talks/larry_lessig_says_the_law_is_strangling_creativity.html). For your own story, you can start with an image or begin with the six words themselves. Think of how different Woolf’s novel Orlando is, with its interlaced Sackville-West family pictures, from Richard Power’s novel, Three Farmers On Their Way to A Dance—which Shawcross mentions in her article. Powers starts from the photo and develops a novel out of what might have become of those three young men. Your words can be placed within images or they can occupy separate screens, but the whole of your work should be woven together in a slide show at the end. You can use Powerpoint for this or Wix.com or another online photo site as long as it gives you the option for viewing the images as an automated slideshow. A program that gives you the option of a freestanding slideshow (that you can burn to a disk or save on a memory stick) is best. When you start writing your digital story, you might at first find yourself on unfamiliar ground. Start with an idea and work from there. The Digital Storytelling Cookbook published by the Center for Digital Storytelling recommends that you approach digital storytelling as a seven step process. First, find your story. Every storyteller is about the storyteller in some way. The authors say, “Finding and clarifying what a story is really about isn’t easy. It’s a journey in which a storyteller’s insight or wisdom can evolve, even revealing an unexpected outcome”.xxvi The second step is identifying the emotional impact of the story, so that you can share those deep feelings. Look for the pivotal moment in the story—what is usually called the climax; find the centre of the tale that everything revolves around and you will have found the suspenseful hook that will catch your reader or audience. The most affecting stories share your experience while transforming your audience by allowing them to find parallels in their own experiences. Use visual imagery and/or language to convey your story so that we can see it as well as you do. Supplement that language with implicit imagery. Further to our discussion of how illustration or explicit imagery will not necessarily advance your story, implicit imagery on the other hand adds metaphor and other layers of meaning to your tale. “The images you choose and the way you combine them will work to create additional layers of meaning. The placement of one image followed by another to create a new layer of meaning is called juxtaposition”.xxvii This is a familiar concept from television and narrative film. A character dies as another gives birth, driving home the cyclical nature of life to us. Juxtaposition does not have to be simply visual either; it can cross or unite disparate media forms. How many ever forget Stanley Kubrick’s rape scene in A Clockwork Orange that is juxtaposed with the song “Singin’ in the Rain”? The sociopathic nature of the attackers is driven home by the music like blunt force trauma to the viewers. Audiences ‘read’ the juxtaposition of visual images as having implicit meaning that goes beyond what a linked image explicitly means on its own. Advertising often uses visual juxtaposition—linking perhaps high art and fast food—to sell you a lifestyle that you do not want. Sometimes juxtaposition can be accidental producing unintended consequences, as in Margaret Bourke-White’s famous photograph of a billboard


advertising an American car and a happy family on the road under the caption “The World’s Highest Standard of Living. There’s No Way Like the American Way.” Her camera also captured, beneath the billboard, a long line of African-Americans lined up to receive government food rations, for this was 1937, the heart of the Depression and the Louisville flood left many destitute. The fifth step is learning to pay attention to how sound conveys meaning. New storytellers tend to want to fill up a story with sound. Once you are more experienced, you will see that less is more. Voice on its own can be tremendously affecting. Ambient sound can add a lot too, especially on a metaphorical level. The sixth step is finding the right structure to glue all of the elements of the story together. Like finding the climax, story structure is critical to whether the story conveys its meaning well or not. Structure enables suspense and other deep responses from an audience. Once we find the right structure for our stories, it often quickly becomes apparent what the best order for a story’s events are, what is extraneous material and what we can leave out. Complex structure also adds new layers to a story, making it richer and more interesting. The final step, of course, is sending your story out into the world. Digital storytelling is a communal process and it needs to be shared. Are you ready? Visual Storytelling In Wired for Story, Lisa Cron says that stories can be summed up by the simple phrase, “All is not as it seems.” The predictable is boring and what feeds us in stories, she says, is the unexpected:

When something is 100% predictable, it's 100% boring and we pay no attention to it. Why should we? We already have it figured out. When something isn't as it seems, we're wired to notice it, lest it be something that could harm us (or help us). Stories are about making sense of, and navigating, the unexpected. What lures us in is the desire to find out what's really going on. The sense of urgency we feel when our curiosity is piqued is actually a delicious dopamine rush that makes us pay attention.xxviii

Matt Madden plays with this concept of the unpredictable in 99 tellings of the same simple story in his book 99 Ways To Tell A Story. The book does just that. It takes a very simple tale and tears it apart, telling it and retelling it in 99 different ways. The stories work because he never fails to dazzle our expectations. In fact, Madden dazzles us so much because the story is so simple. Just when we think we’ve seen it all, he mines it over and over again, consistently finding new paths through the events. The story starts from a template. A man is sitting at his desk working on his computer. He stands and walks through the doorway on the way downstairs. His partner calls from upstairs “What time is it?” He looks at his watch, and tells her, “It’s 1:15.” She says “Thanks” as he opens the refrigerator door. He stands staring into the fridge and then in the final frame he thinks to himself, “What the hell was I looking for, anyway?!” That’s it. That’s the simple story that Madden tells repeatedly. Look at how much the comic changes as Madden plays with point of view as in the comics for “Monologue”, “Refrigerator with a View” and “Voyeur”. In


“Monologue”, the images are different and the narrator is resituated to a table with a coffee cup; he narrates the events that we saw in the “Template”, explaining what happened in the original. In “Refrigerator with a View”, we hear and see events from the refrigerator’s perspective. Finally, in “Voyeur”, we see the events transpire through binoculars from across the courtyard. What other experiments with points of view are undertaken? Madden also plays with different genres, as in “High Noon”, “Political Cartoon”, “Superhero” and “Manga”. In “High Noon”, he transposes the situation to the classic setting of the old Western film. The story is made into an allegory of labor and material weather in “Political Cartoon” and reversed into the traditional style of Japanese Manga, complete with its sharp camera angels, silhouettes and Japanese text. In “Superhero”, the Refrigerator becomes an arch rival and the existential mystery is a trap that the villain set for the hero. Other approaches that he offers variations on are in framing (the equivalent of camera angles in the world of comics) and in spatialized narratives. For spatial undertakings, he translates the story into a “Map”, a “Storyboard” and a “Graph”, among others. Being a writer involves not just being able to tell a good story, but to tell a good story in unexpected ways. Part of that, as Madden demonstrates, is an understanding of the machinery and mechanics of a narrative. Although you have only been given the first three chapters of If On A Winter’s Night A Traveller to read, it is easy to see how Italian novelist Italo Calvino also plays with framing in his story over and over again. It is the story of the reading of a novel. Not by coincidence is that novel called If On A Winter’s Night A Traveller by Italo Calvino. The novel is composed of ten story fragments or first chapters. As we read, we learn of the misprint that results in the multiple copies of the same signature being bound between the book’s covers. We therefore, like the fictional reader, return to the bookstore, anxious to continue reading the book we thought we had started. After learning that the book we thought we were reading was interlaced with another book, the Reader seeks the other book, only to start the cycle all over again when that book proves to be a different story. Entwined with the reading of the book is the experience of reading the book itself. Each new first chapter is punctuated with reflections on reading, writing and the Other Reader—a woman named Ludmilla that the narrator meets in the bookstore. She has experienced the same capsizing of her reading experience. Each chapter requires that we think about where we are situated in relation to the fictional tale and what our point of view is. The novel keeps starting over and interrupting itself. In fact, the novel may well be a book of beginnings: a book composed of the first chapters of ten novels, plus a reader’s commentary on each. Calvino’s book begins by exploring the physical book and the nature of the reading experience, and then discusses the fiction before it turns back to the experience of the reader, the other reader, and reading, again and again. In “Beginning in the Middle: The Story of Reading in Calvino’s If on a winter’s night a traveller…”, Marilyn Orr says that the readers themselves (in the fiction) cannot find the beginning of either their story or the books’. “Either ‘everything had already begun before…outside the book’ or ‘the real story’ has yet to begin… Both of them are part of a larger ‘constant plot.’”xxix As an omnibus of the theme of beginning, she says:

“The ten narrators whose stories the Readers begin are all concerned with the urgent question of their origin and end. Each of them begins a story, only to find


that he cannot begin but only become involved (or not) in the story that has already begun before he arrived. In each case the writing is an attempt to articulate a beginning, only to find itself enclosed in a network of lines that enlace and intersect, articulating the narrator’s entrapment as character in another story rather than his authority as teller of his own. […] They [the narrators] are all obsessed with wanting to ‘erase’ and begin again, knowing that their end is implicit in their beginning.”xxx

By toying with our expectations for fiction, the novel can only come to a close once the Reader reads, or more specifically takes possession of and tells his own story. The Reader declines to turn out the light because he/you has “almost finished” Calvino’s book. This is, by design, a book that is simultaneously created by the Reader inserting him/herself into the story and so, therefore, finishing it is as much about writing the work as it is about reading it. We could also read the book as an exploration of the nature of the social network that develops around a text and between readers. It is a network composed out of the stands that the writer reads and the Reader chooses whether or not to pick them up. Calvino creates what we can now read as a virtual world or game space for the novel and characters to play out. Critic Nella C. Cotrupi sees this as a world with three layers: the spaces of the ten stories, the frame of the storytellers/readers, and the connections between the stories and the self-reflexive narrative that hold them simultaneously together and apart.xxxi In this way, Calvino makes visible the invisible or virtual stuctures of our reading (and writing) that existed in the novel—and in any well-told story—all along. How will these elements play out in your own stories? Study Questions

1. Identify which of the comics in 99 Ways to Tell A Story use different frames to tell their story. How do they alter the original image?

2. In 99 Ways to Tell A Story, identify which comics are told in the style of particular cartoonists or period genres. How does Madden apply these styles to tell his story?

3. What is a metafiction? How does it function?


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(2006). Woolf, Virginia. Orlando, (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1928). Further Reading Best Powerpoint Presentations in the World, (07 May 07), Digital Inspiration: Tech à la Carte: http://labnol.blogspot.com/2007/05/best-powerpoint-presentations-in-world.html Cron, Lisa, Wired For Story: The Writer's Guide to Using Brain Science to Hook Readers from

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New York: Continuum International Publishers, 2012. Horrocks, Dylan. “Inventing Comics: Scott McCloud’s Definition of Comics.” (first published in the Comics Journal #234, June 2001: http://www.hicksville.co.nz/Inventing%20Comics%205.htm) Kalow, Nancy, Visual Storytelling: The Digital Video Documentary, (Durham, NC: Center for

Documentary Studies at Duke University, 2011). PDF. http://documentarystudies.duke.edu/uploads/media_items/visual-storytelling-the-digital- video-documentary.original.pdf

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Steinman, Louise. The Knowing Body: The Artist As Storyteller in Contemporary Performance. (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1995). Endnotes i What E.M. Forster says is if we write “The king died, and the queen died,” we have a narrative, but if we write, instead, “The king died, and the queen died of grief,” then we have a plot.


ii Pink, Daniel H. “Story,” in A Whole New Mind, (New York: Riverhead Books, 2005), 101. iii Pink, A Whole New Mind, 103. iv Bleicher, Paul, “Web 2.0 Revolution: Power to the People” in Actmagazine.com. (August 2006), 36. https://wiki.umn.edu/pub/TELGrantCohortA/.../revolution.pdf v Bleicher, 36. vi Shawcross, Nancy M. “Image—Memory—Text,” in Phototextualities: Intersections of Photography and Narrative, Alex Hughes and Andrea Noble, Eds., (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2003). vii Hand, Martin, Ubiquitous Photography, (London: Polity Press, 2012). 146. viii Connerton, Paul, How Societies Remember, (Cambridge: U of Cambridge P, 1989). 36. ix Connerton, 37. x Connerton, 37. xi Hand, 148. xii Hoskins, Andrew, Media and Memory, (London: Routledge, 2008), 402. xiii Hand, 144. xiv Qtd Hand 171; Rubenstein and Sluis 2008: 21-2. xv Hand, 170. xvi Hand, 153. xvii For a collection of iconic photographs, visit “35 Powerful Photographs that Tell A Story”: http://www.noupe.com/photography/35-powerful-photos-that-each-tells-a-story.html xviii Qtd in Shawcross, 91. xix Qtd in Shawcross, 98. xx Now it is a well-known fact that Woolf and Sackville-West were lovers. In their own day, of course, this was something known only to their circle of friends. xxi Shawcross, 89-90. xxii Foucault, Michel, qtd in Shawcross, 91. xxiii A woman of great accomplishment and learning, Scheherazade pitted her intellect against King Shahryar, who married a virgin every day and had her beheaded the next. (There is a long backstory about him being a jealous husband who had been betrayed and so therefore sought vengeance from all women.) To save her sister who was wed to the King as his thousandth bride, Scheherazade asked to spend a night with them so that she might tell her sister and him a story. She spun a yarn so compelling that the King was on the edge of his seat until sunrise interrupted her tale. He invited her to come back the next night (staying his new bride’s execution for another day) to finish the story. She returned, finished that story, and left another even more compelling narrative unfinished by the next dawn. So she continued for 1,001 nights until she ran out of stories and won the King’s heart and hand, becoming his Queen. xxiv Qtd in Shawcross, 91. xxv Handler, Richard. “A Stranger Comes to Town.” cbc.ca, (19 May 2009), http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2009/05/19/f-vp-handler.html xxvi Lambert, Joe. Digital Storytelling Cookbook, 10. xxvii Lambert, 17. xxviii Free-Range Thinking, May 2012, http://www.agoodmanonline.com/pdf/free_range_2012_05.pdf xxix Orr, Marilyn, “Beginning in the Middle: The Story of Reading in Calvino’s If on a winter’s night a traveller,” Papers on Language & Literature. (Spring 85, Vol. 21 Issue 2): p. 215.


xxx Orr, Marilyn, p. 214. xxxi Cotrupi says,

“we may discern in both the theory and praxis of If On A Winter’s Night A Traveller the contrivance of a three-tiered fictional universe consisting of (a) the incomplete, semantically heterogenous fictional worlds of the ten story fragments; (b) the metafictionally allegorical world of the narrative frame involving agents who invent, read, and otherwise manipulate these fragments; and (c) the hypermetafictional orbit that encases these two levels and is constituted by an invented author cum narrator and his symbiotic partner, the tacit, invented reader.”xxxi

Cotrupi, C. Nella, “Hypermetafiction: Italo Calvino’s If on a Winter’s Night A Traveller, Style, (Summer 91, Vol. 25, Issue 2): p. 7. xxxii Kear, Jon, “In the Spiral of Time: Memory, Temporality and Subjectivity in Chris Marker’s La Jetée,” in Phototextualities, p. 219. xxxiii Kear, p. 219. xxxiv Marker, Chris, La Jetée, 1962. xxxv Marker, 1962. xxxvi Kear, p. 219. xxxvii Kear, p. 220. xxxviii Marker, 1962. xxxix Marker, 1962. xl Marker, 1962. xli Marker, 1962. xlii Kear, p. 232. xliii Hypertext is a linked form of born-digital information dissemination or storytelling commonly found on the web. For further reading, see an exploration of the first software that made hyperlinked narration possible, hypercard, in “25 Years of Hypercard—The Missing Link to the Web” by Matthew Lasar: http://arstechnica.com/apple/2012/05/25-years-of-hypercard-the-missing-link-to-the-web/. xliv Ibid. xlv Wenders, Wim and Peter Handke. Wings of Desire. 1987 xlvi Wenders and Handke. xlvii Wenders and Handke. xlviii Jorma Puranen, “Foreword,” Imaginary Homecoming (Oulu, Finland: Pohjoinen, 1999), 11. xlix Meek, p. 33. l Presner, Hypermedia Berlin. li Wenders and Handke. lii Walter Benjamin, qtd in Presner, Hypermedia Berlin. liii Harnesberger, p. 29. liv Harnesberger, p. 2. lv Harnesberger, p. 3. lvi Quoted in Harnesberger, p. 3. lvii Harnesberger, p. 5. lviii Harnesberger, p. 5. lix Harnesberger, pp. 4-5.


lx Wenders and Handke. lxi Quoted in Davidov, p. 41. lxii Quoted in Davidov, p. 41. lxiii McLuhan, Marshall, Understanding Media: Extensions of Man. (New York: Signet, 1964), p. 99. lxiv Thielman, Tristan. “Locative Media and Mediated Localities: An Introduction to Media Geography.” Aether: The Journal of Media Geography. Vol. V.A. 1-17, (March 2010), p. 5. lxv Tuters, Marc and Karys Varnelis. “Beyond Locative Media.” Leonardo, Volume 39, Issue 4 (2006), p. 357. lxvi Tuters and Varnelis, p. 358. lxvii Tuters and Varnelis, p. 359. lxviii Guy Debord, Society of the Spectacle, trans. Ken Knabb. (London: Rebel Press, 1983 [1967]), p. 99. lxix Coco Fusco quoted in Mitew, Teodor. “Repopulating the Map: Why Subjects and Things are Never Alone.” Fibreculture 13. Eds. Caroline Bassett, Maren Hartmann, Kate O'Riordan. (10 Dec 08), p. 5. lxx Quoted in Mitew, p. 2. See also: November, Valérie, Eduardo Camacho-Hübner, and Bruno Latour. “Entering A Risky Territory: Space in the Age of Digital Navigation.” http://www.bruno-latour.fr/articles/article/117-MAP-FINAL.pdf lxxi Mitew, p. 4. lxxii Mitew, p. 4. lxxiii Ingold, quoted in Mitew, p. 8. lxxiv Davidov, p. 50. lxxv Lachlan MacDowell, “The Graffiti Archive and the Digital City”, Place: Local Knowledge and New Media Practice. Eds. Danny Butt, Jon Bywater and Nova Paul, (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2008), p.138. lxxvi MacDowall, p. 139. lxxvii Homi Bhabha quoted in Butt, Danny. “Local Knowledge: Place and New Media Practice.” Place: Local Knowledge and New Media Practice. Eds. Danny Butt, Jon Bywater and Nova Paul. (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2008), p. 4. lxxviii Jeff Rice, “Detroit Tagging.” C Theory: Theory, Technology and Culture Web site. (28:1-2. Article 156. no: 6. July 2005), http://www.ctheory.net/articles.aspx?id=484 lxxix Faye Ginsberg qtd in Meek, Allen. “Indigenous Virtualities.” Place: Local Knowledge and New Media Practice, Eds. Danny Butt, Jon Bywater and Nova Paul, (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2008), p. 21. lxxx lxxxi Judith Fryer Davidov, “Narratives of Place: History and Memory and the Evidential Force of Photography in Work by Meridel Rubenstein and Joan Myers.” Phototextualies. lxxxii Homi Bhabha quoted in Butt, Danny. “Local Knowledge: Place and New Media Practice.” Place: Local Knowledge and New Media Practice. Eds. Danny Butt, Jon Bywater and Nova Paul. (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2008), p. 4. lxxxiii Butt, p. 3. lxxxiv Butt, p. 3. lxxxv Duarte, p. 8. lxxxvi Duarte, p. 8.


lxxxvii Quoted in Duarte, p. 12. lxxxviii Quoted in Duarte, p. 16. lxxxix Duarte, pp. 37. xc Quoted in Davidov, p. 41. xci Davidov, p. 41. xcii Louise Steinman, The Knowing Body: The Artist As Storyteller In Contemporary Performance. (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1995), p. 118. xciii James Hillman quoted in Steinman, pp. 120-121. xciv Steinman, p. 121. xcv Tang Di, “Screen Icon,” Asia Times, (17 March 1997). xcvi Allison Arieff. “Cultural Collisions: Identity and History in the Work of Hung Liu.” Reclaiming Female Agency: Feminist Art History After Postmodernism. Eds. Norma Broude and Mary D. Garrard. Berkley: U of California P, 2005. 441. xcvii Arieff, p. 440. xcviii Arieff, p. 441. xcix Arieff, p. 441. c Maya Angelou interview, “Journey Home”, Bill Moyers, Creativity, 1972. ci Horrocks, Dylan. “Inventing Comics: Scott McCloud’s Definition of Comics.” (first published in the Comics Journal #234, June 2001: http://www.hicksville.co.nz/Inventing%20Comics%205.htm

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