Cybercrime: The Morality of Social Networking and Beyond

Running head: CYBERCRIME 1

Cybercrime: The Morality of Social Networking and Beyond

Ngiam Ai Leng Alicia (SCSJ0007980)

Lasheena Kujalan (SCSJ0004257)

Shavinka Devi A/P Christopher Sithambaram (SCSJ0015810)

Kwan Pooi Leng (SCSJ0014158)

Peranath Chandran (SCSJ0014294)

MPW2153: Moral Studies

SEGi College Subang Jaya

Ms Nadia

Introduction

CYBERCRIME: SOCIAL NETWORKING AND BEYOND

The social media has greatly impacted the definition of

communication; it has as much influenced society in several areas. Such

areas of influence shall be defined as (Lievrouw & Livingston, 2002)

social, cultural, political, and even financial. Nevertheless, the morality of

actions and messages transmitted through the digital world is often

questioned. For instance, When it comes to the legal issues of catching a

partner red-handed—in the act there are cut-off points to attempting to—

cross legal boundaries and fight for your rights. According to Gruber

(2009), if the messages retrieved from a spouse is stored in a device that

is equally accessible by both parters, then the complaint may or may not

violate wiretapping laws. However, if that is not the case, then the

complaint will be heading towards direct accusation; (Gruber, 2009) one is

subject to criminal and civil penalties for retrieval through access of his

or her partner s online account. This is so because in committing the’crime, whether unintentionally or out of pure suspicion, the suspecting

spouse has intruded the privacy of the partner. In Malaysia, there exists

the Digital Forensics Department (DFD) that enables the nation to track

down (Talib, 2013) identity theft. Section 232 of the Communications

Multimedia Act 1998 imposes a penalty of nearly RM300, 000, three years’imprisonment, or both (Talib, 2013) in cases whereby communication and

multimedia services are registered with ill-intentions. The prupose of this

paper is for a clearer understanding of the morality of cybercrime

transmitted through social networking.

Keywords: social networking, cybercrime, morality

2


False Information on the Internet

Undoubtedly, there is a multitudinous load of information

from people all around the world that can be obtained through

computer. People share information and post their thoughts and

ideas over the internet in variety of ways, including Facebook,

Myspace, Twitter, forum and blog. Meanwhile, people receive

information through the same way. However, frankly speaking,

the degree of truth of information on the Internet is crucial

to be discerned—because false information could have a great

impact on us and our morality.

In order to win the attention of others, to meet the

"self-realization" psychological requirements, there are people

who exchange the main drift, use grandstanding, and even ignore

the moral that pollute network information. For instance, many

have shared their own feelings, thoughts, opinions, and even

false reports regarding the MH370 incident that happened

recently. Certainly, as citizens of our country, it is

justifiable for us to be concerned about things that happen in

our country. However, if we use false information to attract

others’ attention, this is definitely far beyond the

righteousness of morality. In fact, the freedom of information

3


on Internet has allowed every individual to express completely

anything that comes across their minds without realizing or

taking the responsibility of the consequences.

As a result, people who are deeply rely on Internet

information are easily distorted and corrupted by all this

false information. They are lacking of the awareness of

discerning the true and false, especially our young generation,

who are the major victims of this. For example, my cousin who

is only ten years old told firmly me that she is going to have

plastic surgery once she grows up. According to the

information that she obtained from the internet, beauty is

essentially important to a female. She believes that a girl

who is not good looking is

not worthy to be loved by others. With this in mind, she

claims that she will not make friends with those she considers

are not beautiful. Although I have tried my best to explain

the truth to her, the information she obtained from the

Internet seemed to be deeply rooted in her. It is because she

is young and lacks of the ability to discern the right and

4


wrong information on Internet. Indeed, I believe that we

desperately need to create awareness in today’s society, about

the trueness of the information on internet. In addition, it

is necessary to establish rules and limits in sharing

information through internet which is compatible the morality.

Sexting

According to Harney (2012) sexting is the act of sending

explicit messages, primarily between mobile phones or online

posts. The term was first popularized in the early 21st century

and is a meaning of sex and texting where the letter is meant

in the wide sense of sending a text possibly with images,

videos, or obscene and vulgar words. In the month of August

2012, for the first time in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate

Dictionary, the word sexting was listed. Sexting has been

described as taking place in the United States, United Kingdom,

Canada and Australia.

It is disappointing to know that many images end up

widely circulated or posted online , especially when

relationships end. The law calls these images ‘child abuse

material’ or child pornography. Child abuse material can

5


include (Anonymous) films, photos, digital images and videos

sent by SMS, email, in chat rooms or published on blogs. It

can even include pictures that have been photo-shopped to make

a young person look naked, or cartoons of young people having

sex. The maximum penalty for making, sending or having child

abuse material is 15 years in prison.

New South Wales child pornography laws only apply to

images of young people under the age of 16, but the

Commonwealth laws are broader. These laws even apply to images

of young people who look like they are under the age of 18.

Anyone who sends, receives or even asks for a naked or sexual

image of a person who is or appears to be under the age of 18

is at risk of committing a crime and of being charged.

Research from the UK has shown that while young people are

increasingly savvy at protecting themselves from so called

‘stranger danger’ they are having to face a new problem of

‘peer to peer’ approaches with boys (in particular) constantly

6


demanding sexual images. Sexting from peers worries young

people more than stranger danger.

There can also be serious legal consequences of sexting

for young people (2011) it is against the law to create,

transmit or possess a sexual image of a minor. Some young

people are therefore committing a crime through their actions,

perhaps without knowing. There have even been cases

(particularly in the US) of young people being prosecuted for

such activities. Talking about sexting and relationship,

sexting is a result of advances in technology enabling new

forms of social interaction. Messages with sexual content can

be exchanged from phones, emails, or social media website.

Sexting also occurs online on social media websites for the

public to view. Newer technology allows sending pictures, and

videos, which are intrinsically more explicit and have greater

impact, without the involvement of photo printing personnel, or

the need of a photo processing dark room at home (just like

using an instant camera, but even easier and less expensive).

Sexting as a phenomenon (Harvey, 2012) began primarily through

the extensive use of text messaging by young people; in fact,

7


young adults use the medium of the text message much more than

any other new media to transmit messages of a sexual nature.

Furthermore, text messaging use is related to sexting

behaviours or attitude. For example, those who send any type

of messages were more likely that they received a sexually

suggestive images or videos on their mobile gadgets. About 54%

of a study sample had sent sexually explicit pictures or videos

to their partners at least once, and 1/3 of their sample had

engaged in such activities occasionally, according to Maffly

(2012), showing that sexting is actually quite prevalent in

today's modern society. In the year 2013, it was found that

sexting is often used to enhance the relationship and sexual

satisfaction in a romantic partnership. According to Verna

Larsen (2012), "Once you put it out there, it's out there. You

do not have any control over it anymore."

Sexting thus can be considered a "behaviour that ties into

sexuality and the subsequent level of relationship satisfaction

experienced by both partners". Based on the interviews

conducted by Albury and Crawford, they discovered that sexting

8


is commonly used in positive aspects. According to Albury and

Crawford, sexting was not only an activity occurring in the

context of flirtation or sexual relationships, but also between

friends, as a joke or during a moment of bonding.” The study

had a small sample size, so more research needs to be done

surrounding sexting and motivation (Maffly, 2012), but it is

clear that sexting is a phenomenon that is not constrained to

simply unattached individuals looking for fun; it is used by

those in intimate relationships to increase feelings of

intimacy and closeness one's partner. Thus, instead of

increasing intimacy in these types of relationships, sexting

acts as a buffer for physical intimacy.

Social Networking

As technology became more universal and people are

becoming more keen to know new things that is happening around

them, sometimes they do not think about the consequences

that they are about to face because people tend to be ignorant

and naïve as well. Here the negative issues about social

networking shall be discussed. Normally people get into social

9


networks to meet new people, make new friends, share stories,

and learn new cultures and way of life from different people

around the world. Unfortunately, some take advantage of this

situation, causing negative impacts on social networkers.

Firstly, when you are active in your social networking, you

tend to share a lot of things with your social buddies. We

share such information as pictures, videos, music, and most of

all we share our views about issues happening around us such

as what you did for the day, what kind of people you met, how

bad was your day at work, and many more. This may seem to be

normal but unfortunately, some people perceive things in a very

different way and some values could be contradicting towards

the others, especially when your colleague comes across an

offensive status that you post on Facebook about your boss.

The chances of you losing your job is high.

On the other hand, cyber stalking, which means the

repetitive usage of electronic devices to go online and harass

someone is another matter to handle. For instance, there are

many ways which an individual seeks out and stalk others even

though they do not come from the same country. In doing do,

they may project emotional, physical, and psychological

10


consequences to the victim. As for a case that happened in

Washington, United States, a 12-year-old girl was sentenced to

probation for cyber-stalking her classmate’s Facebook account

and posting elicit sexual content. Riparbelli (2011) stated in

the headlines that:“The 12-year-old, who pleaded guilty and

whose name has not been released, was charged with

Cyberstalking and Computer Trespass First Degree. She was

sentenced to six months of probation and 20 hours of community

service, along with mandatory adult supervision of all computer

usage, according to the King County Prosecuting Attorney's

Office.”

A decrease in productivity is yet another negative impact.

Most people nowadays get carried away too fast, especially when

they are busy meeting new people, sharing new things and

chatting with people in social network such as Facebook or

Twitter especially on working hours. Such actions are not

considered productive at all. The time that a person should

spend on meeting new clients in the real world and creating

brand awareness to the society is all being wasted by killing

quality time doing something that is not so beneficial to the

11


company. Orrill (2014) cited a research study indicating that

“companies whose networks provided Facebook access experienced

a 1.5 percent drop in employee productivity. Peter Cohan

followed up on the study in a February 2012 piece for

Forbes.com, using statistics on Facebook's growth during the

interim to calculate that Facebook use within the workplace

could lead to a 9.4 percent productivity decrease in companies

throughout the U.S., a drop that could collectively cost

businesses as much as 1.4 trillion dollars.”

Although it is nice to meet new people especially when you

are going through a bad break-up or some people tend to be very

friendly, tending to add people around (people who they know

and may not know), which is a very concerning situation indeed.

The problem begins when people, especially teenagers and

students, tend to share too much of information in their social

profiles and unfortunately they are too ignorant to privatize

their profile, opening an advantage point for strangers to use

your profile information and photos to create a fake profile—

defined (Dr. Phil, n. d.) as catfishing.

Social media addiction, a danger which is getting quite

out of hand when people cannot stop posting things on Facebook,

12


having prolonged conversations about selfies in Instagram and

twitting non-stop. These are all symptoms of social media

addiction. There is even a term Facebook Addiction Disorder.

As crazy as it sounds, Bicchierai (2012) claims that

just the simple motivation of receiving and answering a

notification triggers the dopamine levels, a neurochemical,

which when is released from the brain, gives the same feeling

as when someone consumes drugs or is having sex. In certain

countries in Asia, “internet addiction disorder” is accepted as

a psychological diagnosis.

Cyber Threats and Cyber Security

Cyber threat may affect everyone, internally or externally

through the internet. The people from modern culture are very

reliant to technology such as computers and internet because it

provides essential information and services. Internet has

become a tool for communication among people and between

government and citizens (CACI, 2011). Over 10,000 cases of cyber

threat have been reported for each month until certain time

period, based on Malaysian cybersecurity (Thamby, 2014).

Furthermore, President of the United State, Mr. Barack Obama has

13


pointed out in one of his statement that they face economy and

national security challenges due to cyber threat in their country

(Protalinski, 2012). Cyber threat is a spiteful intention to

destroy or interrupt the cyberspace system (U.S Dictionary).

It includes a various kind of unkind or vicious activity that

could happen via the Internet (Hayden, 2013).

There are few types of cyber threats. Phishing is one of

the common cyber threats. Phishing is a scam where people

receive emails that may look genuine from official websites,

which the recipient might be keeping in touch with such as

PayPal, Yahoo and MSN. These websites are actually being

tricked by some phisher. A culprit would send messages to

certain recipients to gain personal information (“SECURE

LIST”). Spear phishing, similar to phishing, is an email sent

to the recipient from the hackers, pretending to be business

organizations or a person that the recipient might know. The

hacker’s intention is to get

14


personal information such as bank account number, PINs and

credit cards (Symantec, 2013).

Furthermore, malicious code is also a cyber-threat. It is

a program that could destroy the computer and system. It can

come in many types such as viruses, worms and Trojan horses.

Virus is a programme that tends to duplicate itself, hides in

another programme and even spread to another cyberspace.

Besides that, it can scrap information from other computer

system. Worms is a code that multiplies itself. Trojan horses

are other types of programs which release a dangerous system

which can erase the entire data of the computer when a computer

user downloads and opens up any files that contains music or

movies (Brain & Fenlon, n. d.).

There a lot of reasons why cyber threat or cybercrime

occurs. Wrinkle, NCSA’S director of technology (2013), stated

that computer hackers tend to force into systems and commit

crime because of the lack of supervision by their parents.

Parents do not condition their children and educate their

children that intruding into computer system is immoral. Thus

these children learn computer hacking through internet such as

blogs and chat line. Hacker’s ethics are developed to be

15


concern of one’s self in demonstrating accurate reason for

their particular actions. Furthermore, according hacker’s

morality, company which has poor security system is more

vulnerable to threats and cost might incur to investigate the

intrusion of a system in a company.

Hackers also feel it is alright to punish other industries

and people that they dislike and which this maybe disgraceful

for certain people. Others, stated it is totally acceptable to

cheat on people’s money and properties, if it is beneficial to

the hacker himself/herself (Wrinkler, 2013). Cyber threat

brings impact to individuals, private sectors, government and

international scales (CACI, 2011). Threats like phishing can

make one’s life miserable. As a result of this scam, one can

lose their life savings, fall on debts, and lose belongings and

transportations. In U.S, 3.6 million adults were cheated over

3.2 billion within a year (Cawley, 2010). Moreover, people

whom were a victim of the identity theft, like phishing, may go

through trauma and may face difficulties to get rid of the

trauma (LLCODE, n. d.).

16


Malicious codes such as virus cost a huge amount of losses

when they affect industries. Viruses by the name of ILOVEYOU

affect companies, governments, and private sectors. This

system has the capability of erasing almost all the information

that was stored. Besides that, it is able to gain entry into

chat rooms using the user’s address. It is able to travel

everywhere around the world within an hour; the impairment of

this code could cost around fifteen million dollars

(Anonymous).

A lot of intelligence organizations such as M15, M16 the

UK intelligence, held hands together with other government

sectors and industry to sort out the cyber threats (SSM15,

2014). According to Rouse (2010), cyber security emphasizes on

safeguarding the computer, networks, data and other programmes

from any unknown party accessing, damaging or causing an

attack. Cyber security is much important because there is a

need in protecting very confidential information that is being

stored, collected and transferred from one network to the other

via computers by certain government departments, hospital,

colleges and other businesses. Besides that, it is also useful

to protect the national security.

17


Cybersex

Cybersex poses an issue in technoculture (Green, 2002) that is

proliferating throughout the 21st century as technology becomes

increasingly accessible to a larger number of people. The easiness of

having a relationship over the Internet, i. e. a cyber-affair “ ”

(TanimoonwaFasugba-Idowu & Hassan, 2013) is attacking (Gruber &“ ”Hedrick, 2001) the glory of marriages. Not only that, such encounters

produce ill-effects in the society spanning across three different yet inter-

connected aspects. As long as there exists any instances of erotic chat“ ”(TanimoonwoFasugba-Idowu & Hassan, 2013), regardless of whether it is a

one-time or continuouus event, these activities are nevertheless classified

as forms of cybersex.

Cybersex that occurs between a man and a woman who are already

in a relationhip is by all means harmless as their sole intention is to

maintain the relationship depite the fact that they are geographically

distances apart. This is a proof that falsifies the perceptions people have

that as long as there is no physical sex, the two individuals (Gruber &

Hedrick, 2001) are not having an affair. Ronquillo (2008) clearly states

that cybersex, or cs, as he terms it, is in reality a sexual encounter in

itself. The activities can take on several forms; according to Ben-Ziev

(2004), there are four kinds of relationships that can possibly stem from

cybersex: (i) one-to-one or group communication, (ii) interacting with real

or fantasy people, (iii) engaging with either anonymous or identified

people, and (iv) communicating in synchronized or asynchronized formats.

18


According to TanimoonwoFasugba-Idowu and Hassan (2013), the three

main aspects that are deeply affected fall into the social, moral, and

religious dimensions. In the social dimension, the very first breakdown

accurs between the individual involved in the activity and the other

individual he or she is having sexual and emotional contact with. In fact,

it is a main cause of separation and divorce in the family unit; one of

the reasons is that such ill activities creates a higher expectations in

sexual activities, so obvious that partners in their actual real-life

relationships are able to notice the difference. In some cases, individuals

who become extremely obsessed with the images, audio, and videos

transmitted through the high-

speed digital communication that they require psychotherapy. After all, it

is classified as voyeurism if the participants become aroused by watching

others perform sexual acts. In the process, their views and perceptions

and wants of sex becomes painfully distorted.

In the moral dimensions, on the other hand, while different

communities have dissimilar standpoints to the morality of cybersex, the

idea is nevertheless clear: Cybersex leads to lies, deception, and

corruption. Families are torn apart due to the damages inflicted by social

and economical environments. Partners will have to deal with the

resources thatwill be put to huge waste; reversal, though not impossible,

creates a large hole in the ecnomic budgets of society.

The religious dimensions has Siddiqi (2004) asserting that zina, the

Islamic term for sex outside marriage, can be either pre-marital, extra-

marital, or even homosexual. It has been clearly stated that

(TanimoonwoFasugba-Idowu & Hassan, 2013) such activities are considered

sinful as it results in the participant(s) lust for things that lead to

19


adultery. A similar view is found in the Bible; (Tanimoonwo-Fasugba-

Idowu & Hassan, 2013) such online activities are outlawed.

Conclusion

Cybersex is a form of voyeurism in that participants prefer watching

others perform sex acts in orer to become sexually aroused themselves.

The entire morality of social networking through digital communication

revolves around the costs and benefits that have been weighed

equivalently. Obsession with the Internet can result in drastic

consequences, affecting the participants and their environment in several

ways in fact, rather whole-roundedly. It first influences the thoughts and—then the behavior and actions so much so that the individual becomes a

social ill.

References

Anonymous. (2011). Cyber threats to national security. In CACI.

Retrieved from

http://asymmetricthreat.net/docs/asymmetric_threat_5_paper.pdf.

Anonymous. (n. d.). Computer viruses and how they affect businesses.

Retrieved from

http://atlas.kennesaw.edu/~alancast/computervirus.htm.

Anonymous. (n. d.) NSPCC Weston House. Retrieved from

http://www.childline.org.uk/explore/onlinesafety/pages/sexting.aspx.

Anonymous. (n. d.). Cyber Smart-Cyber Issues. In Commonwealth of

Australia 2014.

20

http://www.childline.org.uk/explore/onlinesafety/pages/sexting.aspx

http://asymmetricthreat.net/docs/asymmetric_threat_5_paper.pdf


Retrieved from

http://www.cybersmart.gov.au/Parents/Cyber%20issues/Sexting.aspx.

Anonymous. (n. d.). The moral behind every identity theft stories. In

LLCODE.COM:lifelock code:preventing identity theft. Retrieved from

http://llcode.com/index.php.

Auburn, K. B. NY. Sexting: Know the Facts. Retrieved from

http://www.teenink.com/opinion/pop_culture_trends/article/131108/Sexti

ng-Know-the-

Facts/.

Biccchierai, F. L. (2012, November 3). How is Facebook Addiction

Affecting Our Minds?

Mashable. Retrieved from http://mashable.com/2012/11/03/facebook-

addiction/.

Brain, M. & Fenlon, W. (n. d.). How computer viruses work. In How

stuff works.

Retrieved from http://computer.howstuffworks.com/virus.htm.

Cawley, C. (2010, April 3). The critical effects of phishing scams. In

Bright hub. Retrieved

from

http://www.brighthub.com/computing/smb-security/articles/64476.aspx.

Dr. Phil. (n. d.). Online dating red flags: warning signs of a catfish.

In Dr. Phil. Retrieved

from http://www.drphil.com/articles/article/720.

Gercke, Prof. Dr. M. (2012, September). 1. Introduction. In

Understanding cybercrime:

phenomena, challenges, and legal response. Retrieved from

www.itu.int/ITU-D/cyb/cybersecurity/docs/Cybercrime

legislationEV6.pdf.

21

http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/cyb/cybersecurity/docs/Cybercrime

http://www.teenink.com/opinion/pop_culture_trends/article/131108/Sexting-Know-the-

http://www.teenink.com/opinion/pop_culture_trends/article/131108/Sexting-Know-the-


Gruber, M. (2009, December 1). Cybersex and divorce, wiretapping and

interseption of your

spouse s electronic communication. In the Lee P. A. S.’Foundation. Retrieved from

theleepasfoundation.org/modules/article/view.article.php?204.

Howerton, J. (2013, June 7). Another leaked document reveals Obama

ordered U.S. to draft

potential target list for cyber-attacks. In The Blaze. Retrieved from

http://www.theblaze.com/stories/2013/06/07/another-leaked-document-

reveals-obama-

ordered-u-s-to-draft-potential-target-list-for-cyber-attacks/.

Maffly, B. (2012, June 18). Sexting prevalents among high-schoolers,

study finds. (2012).

Retrieved from http://www.sltrib.com/sltrib/news/54324965-78/explicit-

messages-nearly-

onlinetoday.html.csp.

National ICT Security and Emergency Response Center (NISER). (n. d.).

Is cybercrime

reigning on no man s land. Retrieved from ’ www.cybersecurity.my/data/content_files/13/134.pdf.

Norton Symantec. (n. d.). Spear phishing: scam, not sport. In Norton.

Retrieved from

http://us.norton.com/spear-phishing-scam-not-sport/article.

Orrill, J. (2014). Loss of Productivity Due to Facebook. In Azcentral.

Retrieved from

http://yourbusiness.azcentral.com/loss-productivity-due-facebook-

5468.html#.

22

http://www.cybersecurity.my/data/content_files/13/134.pdf

http://www.sltrib.com/sltrib/news/54324965-78/explicit-messages-nearly-

http://www.sltrib.com/sltrib/news/54324965-78/explicit-messages-nearly-

http://www.theblaze.com/stories/2013/06/07/another-leaked-document-reveals-obama-

http://www.theblaze.com/stories/2013/06/07/another-leaked-document-reveals-obama-


Protalinski, E. (2012, July 21). Obama: cyber attack serious threat to

economy, national

security. In Zd net. Retrieved from

http://www.zdnet.com/obama-cyber-attack-serious-

threat-to-economy-national-security-7000001324/.

Riparbelli, L. (2011, July 14). 12-Year-Old Sentenced for Cyberstalking

Classmate.

abcNEWS. Retrieved from

http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/12-year-sentenced-

washington-cyberstalking-case/story?id=14072315.

Rouse, M. (n. d.). What is cybersecurity. Definition from WhatIs.com.

Retrieved from

http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/cybersecurity.

Siddiqi, M. (2004). Cybersex and zina. In fatwa management system.

Retrieved from

www.einfod.my/FMS_en/index.php?

option=com_fatwa&task=viewlink&link_id=

793*Itemid=59.

Staff. (n. d.). How is M15 tackling the cyber threat. In M15 security

service. Retrieved

from https://www.mi5.gov.uk/home/the-threats/cyber/how-is-mi5-

tackling-the-cyber-

threat.html.

Starr, L. (2011). Tools for teaching cyber ethics. In Education world.

Retrieved from

www.educationworld.com/a_tech/tech/tech055.shtml.

Talib, M. Z. A. (2013). Identity fraud: platform for cybercrime. In

Cyber Security

Malaysia. Retrieved from

23

https://www.mi5.gov.uk/home/the-threats/cyber/how-is-mi5-tackling-the-cyber-

https://www.mi5.gov.uk/home/the-threats/cyber/how-is-mi5-tackling-the-cyber-

http://www.einfod.my/FMS_en/index.php?option=com_fatwa&task=viewlink&link_id

http://www.einfod.my/FMS_en/index.php?option=com_fatwa&task=viewlink&link_id

http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/12-year-sentenced-%20washington-

http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/12-year-sentenced-%20washington-

http://www.zdnet.com/obama-cyber-attack-serious-%20threat-to-

http://www.zdnet.com/obama-cyber-attack-serious-%20threat-to-


www.ilkap.gov.my/nlc2013/download/Nota/D2PlenarySession2.pdf.

Thamby, K. T. (2014, June 12). Staying ahead of cyber threats. In

Business circle.

Retrieved from http://www.businesscircle.com.my/staying-ahead-of-

cyber-threats/.

Wrinkler, I. (n. d.). Why hackers do the things they do. Retrieved

from

http://dl.packetstormsecurity.net/docs/hack/ethics/why.hackers.do.the.thi

ngs.they.do.html.

Journals:

Campbell, M. A. (2005). Cyberbullying: An Old Problem in a New

Guise. Australian

Journal of Guidance and Counseling, 15 (1) , pp. 68-76. Retrieved from

http://eprints.qut.edu.au/1925/1/1925.pdf.

Gruber, M. & Hedrick, L. K. (2001). Cybersex and divorce: interception

of and access to e-

mail and other electronic communications in the marital home.

Journal of the american

academy of matrimonal lawyers. Retrieved from

http://www.aaml.org/sites/default/files/cybersex%20and%20divorce-17-

1.pdf.

24


TanimoonwoFasugba-Idowu, G. & Hassan, S. A. (2013, July). Cybersex:

advantages and

disadvantages. Journal of humanities and social sciences, 14 (3), pp. 60 –

65. Retrieved

from

https://www.academia.edu/4815137/Cybersex_Advantages_And_Disadvantages

_1.

Books:

Green, L. (2002). Gender and power. Communication, techniology, and

society, pp. 180 –

181. SAGE publications. Retrieved from books.google.com.my/books?

id.

Herhalt, J. (2011, July). Cybercrime a growing challenge for –governments. Issue monitor,

8. Retrieved from

https://www.kpmg.com/Global/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/

Documents

/cyber-crime.pdf.

Lievrouw, L. A. & Livingston, S. (2002). Handbook of new media:

social shaping and

consequences of ICTs (Google eBook). Retrieved from

http://books.google.com.my/books?hl=en&lr=&id=VwJ4xsYHboYC&oi=fnd

25

http://books.google.com.my/books?hl=en&lr=&id=VwJ4xsYHboYC&oi=fnd

https://www.academia.edu/4815137/Cybersex_Advantages_And_Disadvantages_1

https://www.academia.edu/4815137/Cybersex_Advantages_And_Disadvantages_1


&pg=PP1&dq=social+networking+ICT+boundaries&ots=bqvvssxn5E&sig=RnTyP

J

gpUX6XrjegHEWgqMHpibM#v=onepage&q=social%20networking%20ICT

%20

boundaries&f=false.

26

Cybercrime: The Morality of Social Networking and Beyond

Documents

Transcript of Cybercrime: The Morality of Social Networking and Beyond