Cryptorchidism Inguinal herniation

Evaluation of potential breeding soundness

Clinic for Large Animals

Desent of the testes

–Mid-gestation: bull, ram

–Last quarter of gestation: boar

– Just before or just after birth: stallion

–Mid-gestation: bull, ram

–Last quarter of gestation: boar

– Just before or just after birth: stallion

Testicular descent abnormalities Testicular descent abnormalities

•Cryptorchidism

• Inguinal herniation

Cryptorchidism• Failure to descend (crypt = hidden, concealed or not

visible to the naked eye; orchid = testis): a testis that is hidden from view

• Capable to produce testosterone →

Normal reproductive behavior

Inguinal herniation� Portion of the intestine in the vaginal cavity

� Treatment (boar: 1 in 200):

� Twisting the testicle (within the parietal vaginal tunic)

� Ligation of parietal and visceral vaginal tunics

Caudal view of a young boar with an inguinal hernia

SI: small intestine

PVT: parietal vaginal tunic

SC: spermatic cord

T: testicles

IC: inguinal canal


SI: small intestines

Position of the intestine with inguinal herniationPosition of the intestine with inguinal herniation FreemartinFreemartin• Free = sterile, martin = bovine

– Heifer calf: sterile

– Male calf: normal and fertile

• Fusing the chorion → sharing the same cotyledons →common blood supply

– Day 39 of gestation: testes → testosteron, anti-müllerian hormone → inhibiting the growth of Müllerian ducts

– Several more weeks: female

FreemartinFreemartin• Canalization of the tract: not complete

• Ovaries ceasing to grow and do not develop the appropriate complement of germ cells → incapable to produce estrogen and often produce testosterone and ansdrostenedione → behaves similarly to a male (asymptomatic to bullish behavior → estrus detection (+ exogenous androgens)

Basic components of the male RSBasic components of the male RSBasic components of the male RS

• Spermatic cord

• Scrotum

• Testis

• Excurrent duct system

• Accessory sex glands

• Penis and muscles for potrusion, erection and ejaculation

• Spermatic cord

• Scrotum

• Testis

• Excurrent duct system

• Accessory sex glands

• Penis and muscles for potrusion, erection and ejaculation

Evaluation of potential dreeding soundness

Breeding soundness Breeding soundness

evaluationevaluation1. History (general and reproductive history)

2. Semen evaluation (collect semen using an artificial vagina)

� Evaluation of sperm motility

� Evaluation of sperm morphology

� Evaluation of longevity of sperm motility

� Determination of total sperm number

Semen evaluation• Daily sperm output (DSO):

– refers to the total number of the sperm that a stallion can ejaculate on a daily basis following depletion of extragonadal sperm reserves (tail of epididymis): 3-4

– A reference point to allow estimation of the number of mares a stallion can breed on a daily basis during the breeding season

– Ejaculating the stallion once or twice daily for 5 to 7 days (semen evaluation)

Spermatogenic efficiencySpermatogenic efficiency• Measure the length, width and height of each testicle

• Testicular volume (cm3): 0.523 x length x width x height

• Total testicular volume (TTV)

• Expected DSO= 0,024 x TTV – 1.26

Spermatogenic efficiencySpermatogenic efficiency� 15-20 million sperm per gram of testicular

parenchyma

� Expected and actual DSO: earliest sign of testicular stress

3. Physical examination3. Physical examination• Overall physical condition (pain): body condition

• Physical examination

– Penis

– Scrotal content (manual/US)

– Accessory glands and ampullae: RP/US

– Terminal aorta

– Bladder

– Internal inguinal rings

Extirpated stallion reproductive tract

Senger, 1999

A: ampulla

UB: urinary bladder

U: ureters

DD: ductus deferens

PS: penile shaft

GP: glans penis

CM: cremaster muscle

SC: spermatic cord

T: testis

TE: tail of epididymis

VG: vesicular gland

P: prostate

BuG: bulbourethral gland

CP: crus penis

IcM: ischiocavernosus muscle

RPM: retractor penis muscle

BsM: bulbospongiosus muscle


DD: ductus deferens

T: testis


Dorsal view of the accessory sex glandsDorsal view of the accessory sex glands

DD: ductus defferens

UB: urinary bladder

A: ampulla

VG: vesicular gland

PG: prostate gland

UM: urethralis muscle


CS: colliculus seminalis

PU: pelvic urethra

Glans penisGlans penis

GP: glans penis

F: free end of penis

PF: prepucial fold

UP: urethral process

Testis in the stallion by US Testis in the stallion by US

3. Physical examination3. Physical examination� Accessory glands:

� Ampulla

� Vesicular glands (seminal vesicles)

� Prostate

� Bulbourethral glands

Accumulation of sperm in the ampullae Accumulation of sperm in the ampullae

� Partial or complete blockage of one or both ampullae

� Common early in the breeding season

� Irreversible-fertility limiting condition

� 20-70 billion immotile sperm + detached heads (body temperature) or azoospermia

� Treatment: Per rectum massage

� oxytocin

Seminal vesiculitisSeminal vesiculitis� Uncommon

� Uni- or bilateral

� PMN cells and blood (trace to large)

� Commonly misdiagnosed if bacteria originating from the surface of the penis ( Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aureginosa)

� Treatment:

� Antibiotic therapy (locally)

Fertility targetFertility target� 75% PR bred naturally to 40 mares

� 90% PR bred artificially to 120 mares

Noninfectious causes of infertility• Physical trauma

• Hemospermia

• Dermatologic condition

• Urinary tract obstruction

• Inability to mount and copulate

• Psychological trauma

• Urospermia

• Endocrine abnormalities

Physical traumaPhysical trauma

� Trauma of the penis and sheath

� Stall confinement

� Replace the penis into the sheath + compression bandage

� If not, support the penis with a sling

� Cold hydrotherapy for 20-30 min x 2-4 x

� Diuretics, glucocorticoids, NSAID, antibiotics

Physical traumaPhysical trauma

� Trauma of the scrotum and testes

� Agressive therapy

� Antisperm antibody production → subfertility/ sterility

HemospermiaHemospermia• Red blood cells in the ejaculate

– External lesions: mare’s genitalia, stallion

– Internal lesions: urethral ulceration (endoscope)

• Treatment (conservative or surgery):

– Local medication via a perineal urethrostomy

– Sexual rest

– Systemic antibiotics

– Acidification of the urine

– Laser surgery (ulcers)

Dermatologic conditionsDermatologic conditions• Invasive dermatologic conditions: habronemiasis

(Habronema larvae): ulcers on the urethral process, glans or prepuce

• Treatment:– Sexual rest

– Topical medication

– Systemic anthelmintics

– Glucocorticoids

– Or cautery of the lesion

Dermatologic conditionDermatologic condition� Superficial neoplastic lesion: granuloma and ulcers

(biopsy)

� Squamous carcinoma and sarcoid (external genital tumors)

� Seminoma (testis)

Urinary tract obstruction� Urinary calculi

� Scarring (injury)

� Accumulation of dry smegma („bean”) in the urethral diverticulum

Inability to mount and copulateInability to mount and copulate� Lamness (rear limb)

� Neurologic diseases

� Protozoal myoencephalitis

� Equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy

� Cervical vertebral intsability

� Penile paralysis (phenothiazine-derivate tranquilizers)

Psychological trauma Psychological trauma � Physical trauma may cause abnormal breeding

behavior

UrospermiaUrospermia� Urination during ejaculation

� Psychological abnormality

� Organic disease

Endocrine abnormalitiesEndocrine abnormalities• Periodic endocrine screening to diagnose the onset of

testicular degeneration is recommended

– Testosterone

– Total estrogens

– Tyroxine and tri-iodothyronine

– Cortisol

– Inhibin

– Insulin

– FSH and LH

Hormonal testing of subfertile and infertile Hormonal testing of subfertile and infertile

stallionsstallions

� Evaluation of breeding records

� General physical examination

� Complete breeding soundness evalaution

� Testicular biopsy (?)

� Hormonal status (season, day: before 9 a.m.)

Baseline plasma or serum Baseline plasma or serum

concentrationsconcentrations

• FSH, LH, estradiol, testosterone, inhibin

– each morning (3 consecutive days)

– 6-8 samples 30-minute intervals

• Poor fertility: high FSH, low estradiol and inhibin, normal to low LH and testosterone

• Monitoring baseline hormone concentration on a yearly basis

SingleSingle--pulse GnRH challenge testpulse GnRH challenge testTesticular and pituitary response to GnRH

•-60 min, - 30 min, 0 (25 ug GnRH IV), 30 min, 60 min, 90 min, 120 min

•Testosterone and LH

•Subfertile and infertile stallion: lower LH and testosterone than normal stallion

•Indicating a primary pituitary or a testicular problem: can not differentiate

LowLow--dose threedose three--pulse GnRH challange testpulse GnRH challange test

� -60 min, -30 min, 0 (5 ug GnRH), 10 min, 20 min, 30 min, 40 min, 50 min, 60 min (5 ug GnRH), ……, 120 min (5 ug GnRH),….. 180 min

� More useful in assessing the pituitary responsiveness to GnRH

� Subfertile, infertile stallion: low LH and testosterone response

hCG stimulation test hCG stimulation test � -60 min, -30 min, 0 (10000 IU hCG IV), after

treatment, 30 min, 60 min, 90 min, 120 min, 150 min, 180 min

� Testosterone and estrogen: lower response

Hormonal treatmentHormonal treatment• GnRH, hCG, FSH: ???

• Progestagen treatment : altrenogest 0.044 mg/kg for 30 days– Minimal effect on stallion behaviour

– No effect of spematozoal characteristics

– No FSH, sign. low LH, testosterone, estrogens, inhibin

– Testosterone: continued to suppress after 60 days

• 0.088 mg kg for 57 days:– Sexual aggressiveness, sperm output, testosterone: sign.

Decrease

– Long term effect ???

ImmunocastrationImmunocastration• GnRH vaccine:

– Sign. reduce sperm production

– and sexually aggressive behaviour

– Promising results however considerable variations

and reversibility may occur

Infectious diseasesInfectious diseases• Systemic infections → compromise of the

thermoregulatory mechanism: 60-70 days

– Pyrexia

– Reproductive tract inflammation

– Toxins, chemicals, or other substances → decrease or eliminate libido

• Complete semen evaluation:

– Immediately after the resolution of the problem

– 60 days later: poor semen quality →

– 15-day interval further examination

Infectious diseasesInfectious diseases• Bacteria:

– External genitalia: not sterile– Normal flora (many bacteria)– be of concern if

• Pseudomonas aureginosa• Klebsiella pneumoniae• Streptococcus zooepidemicus• Taylorella equigenitalis

– May be transmitted venereally to susceptible mares or exist in the stallion without being transmitted to mares

– Internal or external reproductive organs: overt clinical signs• ASSESSMENT OF BREEDING RESULTS (reduced PR, EM↑)• culture

Infectious diseasesInfectious diseases• Suspicions of subfertility

– Semen collection and evaluation

– Culture:

• external genitalia rinsing with clear warm water → to remove debris and smegma

• Dry with a clean cloth or paper towel

• Scrubbing with soap, detergent or disinfectant must be avoided

• Swabs from fossa glandis, shaft of the penis, urethra following teasing, urethra following ejaculation, raw ejaculate

• Transport medium

Infectious diseasesInfectious diseases• Suspicions of subfertility (cont.)

– Stained smears of the ejaculate: inflammatory cells

– Accessory sex glands: swelling with discharge of purulent exudates into the ejaculate

• Rectal palpation

• US

• Urethroscopy

• Stained smear

• Selective culture

Infectious diseasesInfectious diseases� If accessory sex glands are involved

� Systemic antibiotic therapy ???

� AI: semen extender containing antibiotics: 30 min waiting

� Natural breeding: semen extender (antibiotics) intrauterine

� Lavage of the uterus 4 to 8 h after breeding

Infectious diseasesInfectious diseases� Stallion can be infected

� Infected mare (T. equigenitalis: clitoral fossa, - sinuses) → stallion: assymptomatic carrier

� Overzealous scubbing with soap or detergents

� Equipment

Infectious diseasesInfectious diseasesVirus infection

–Equine arteritis virus

• Scrotal oedema → temporary infertility

• Asymptomatic carriers and shed the virus in the ejaculate

• Shedding from a few weeks to more than 3 years

Virus infection (cont.)• Coital exanthema (Equine herpex virus III.):

external genital infection (most common)

– Vesicles on the penis and prepuce

– Rupture

– Pustules with ulcers (pain, haemorrhage) beneath crusts

• Systemic signs: dullness, anorexia, fever

• Reinfection: common

• Asymptomatic carrier for a long period of time

www.youtube.com/watch?v=vq-ecA1IeHU&feature=related

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qtRsxX2gv4M

BullBull• In addition to freedom from disease, a bull requires

the following attributes to be fertile:

– Good libido

– Physical soundness

– Good semen quality

Libido and serving capacityLibido and serving capacity� Serving capacity describes the number of matings a

bull is willing and able to perform in a test situation.

� Yearling (do not provide reliable results)

� and 2-year-old bulls

� 20-minute test: the most practical and of sufficient

1. Methods of testing libido and serving 1. Methods of testing libido and serving

capacitycapacity

� Estrous strong cow (30 ml of a sterile lubricated jelly)

� 10 min of sexual stimulation (watching another bull)

� Serving capacity

� of 0 to 1: low

� of 2 to 3: medium

� of 4 or more: high

2. Physical examination2. Physical examination• General health (attitude, general appearance, BC,

faecal characteristics)

– Examination of the eyes: squamous cell carcinoma (heritability) or corneal opacity (pinkeye): common

• Musculoskeletal system:

– Foot and leg problems (heritability): corkscrew claw defect, interdigital fibroma /corns/, weak pasterns, post-leggedness, sickle hocks

2. Physical examination2. Physical examination� Examination of the scrotum and testes:

� Restraining

� Semen collection first

� Palpation (US)

Extirpated bull reproductive tract

Senger, 1999

A: ampulla

DD: ductus deferens


PS: penile shaft

GP: glans penis

T: testis



SC: spermatic cord

UB: urinary bladder

VG: vesicular gland

BP: body of prostate gland



CP: crus penis

SF: sigmoid flexure


Infrared thermogram of bull

scrotum

LL: left leg

Excised testicleExcised testicle

DD: ductus deferens



EB: epididymal body

ET: epididymal tail

T: testis

Dorsal view of the accessory sex glands


UB: urinary bladder

A: ampulla

VG: vesicular gland

PG: prostate gland



BP: base of penis


CS: colliculus seminalis

PU: pelvic urethra


GP: glans penis


PF: prepucial fold


2. Physical examination2. Physical examination• Scrotum:

– Shape of the scrotum: countercurrent heat exchange): scrotal neck

– Abnormal shape: • short caudal fraenulum of the scrotum, unilateral testicular

hypoplasia, orchitis, scrotal hernia, rotation of the testis, displacement of the cauda epididymidis, or rotation of the scrotum

– Thickness of the scrotal wall

– Amount of the fat in the neck

– Lesions

2. Physical examination2. Physical examination� Testicular cords:

� Abscesses, variceles, or scrotal hernia

� Caput epididymidis: enlargement due to inflammation or sperm granulomas

� Corpus epididymidis: problems are extremely rare

� Cauda epididymidis: turgid and prominent

� Segmental aplasia (inherited condition)

2. Physical examination2. Physical examination� Testes: moving freely

� Abscesses, tumors, hematoceles, or calcification

� Soft: testicular degeneration (semen analysis)

2. Physical examination2. Physical examination� Scrotal circumference (SC): moderately to highly

heritable: better correlation than age or weight: > 32 cm

� SC measurements:

� highly correlated with paired testis weight

� Directly and highly correlated with daily sperm production

� and with high semen quality traits

2. Physical examination2. Physical examination� Scrotal circumference (SC):

� Affected by breed, body weight and age at the onset of puberty

� High-energy diet with adequate protein, vitamins and minerals: hasten the onset of puberty

� Excessive energy intake may cause abnormal foot growth and conformation because of laminitis and possible epiphysitis. ↑risk of rumenitis and liver abscesses →vesicular adenitis and epididymitis

2. Physical examination2. Physical examinationScrotal circumference (SC)

•Effect of breed: 1 g → 17 million sperm per day

– Faster-gaining breeds of lager mature size: greater weight

– Slower-gaining breeds of smaller size: lower weight

2. Physical examination2. Physical examinationScrotal circumference (SC)

•Measurement of SC:

– Positioned firmly into the lower part of the scrotum

– Loop tape measure around the greatest diameter of the testes: firmly pulled

SC measurementsSC measurements 2. Physical examination2. Physical examinationTransrectal internal examination:

•Vesicular glands: lobular structure, 8 to 15 cm long, 3 to 5 cm wide, and 1 to 2 cm thick

– Congenital defects: aplasia, hypoplasia, cysts, or duplication of the gland

•Bulbourethral glands: in the urethralis muscle →cannot palpate

•Urethra: firm tubular structure: pulsatile

2. Physical examination2. Physical examinationTransrectal internal examination:

•Prostate glands: transverse smooth band

•Ampullae: 10 to 15 cm long, 5 to 8 mm in diameter

•Inguinal rings: 15 to 20 cm ventral to the pelvic brim, 5 to 15 cm lateral to the midline


•Most common abnormal finding:

– enlargement, excessive firmness, or loss of lobulation ofthe vesicular glands

– Vesicular adenitis: 2 to 4 % (1-2 y), 1 % older bull

• Up to 49%

• Uni- or bilateral

• Long standing case: adhesions, abscessation, fistula (rectum), peritonitis

• Neutrophils in the semen (1 or more NG per 3 fields: severe inflammation (superficial injury of the penis and prepuce!!!)


•Most common abnormal finding:

– Culture and antibiotic sensitivity: A. pyogenes

3. Semen quality3. Semen quality• Methods of semen collection:

– Electroejaculation

– Massage

– Artificial vagina

• Evaluation of semen quality

– Semen density and volume

– Sperm motility

• Gross motility

• Individual motility

– Sperm morphology

Breeding soundness classification• Satisfactory

• Questionable

• Decision deferred

• Unsatisfactory

�http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yqpGGUEPGN8&feature=related

Diseases of the reproductive system in the Diseases of the reproductive system in the

bullbull

Common penile problems:

•Penile fibropapillomatosis: warts (viral aetiology) –single or multiple

– Young bulls and only on the penis

– Bleeding

– Reluctance to mate

– Phimosis or paraphimosis because of the large wart

– Treatment: surgical removal, vaccine (???)

Fibropapilloma (Fibropapilloma (‘‘wartwart’’))

Blowey and Weaver, 2003

Friesian bull: 2-year-old

Highly vascular ulcerated masses

Treatment:

• removal with ligation

• smaller tumors regress over time

Fibropapilloma (Fibropapilloma (‘‘wartwart’’))


Friesian bull: 2-year-old

• 4 months later

• used for service

• some case: scarring and distorsion of

the penile tunic


bullbull


•Persistent penile frenulum (congenital bend)

– Surgical correction (terminal sires)

Persistent penile preputial frenulumPersistent penile preputial frenulum

Congenital anomaly:

persistence of or incomplete

separation of the penis and

prepuce along the ventral

raphé during the first year

A: longitudinal band of

connective tissue


Diseases of accessory sex glands� Vesiculitis: < 2 y or > 9 y old

� B. abortus, A. pyogenes, Haemophilus somnus

� IBR and enteroviruses

� Pneumonia, liver abscesses, navel ill ↔ vesiculitis

� Enlarged, painful and firm. Loss of lobulation. Adhesions, uni- or bilateral, PMN cells↑, sperm motility ↓,

� Long term antibiotic treatment (?)

� Surgical removal : ventral pararectal approach (?)

Seminal vesiculitis

Right SV: normal

Right ampulla: exposed

Left SV: cystic, hemorrhagic and mild

inflammatory changes

Left ampulla: missing

Purulent preputial discharge after service:

• A. pyogenes, Brucella, E.coli

Diagnosis: RP (firmness, pain, lack of

symmetry) and semen evaluation


Epididymal diseasesEpididymal diseases� Epididymitis

� Unilateral and tail

� Alone or associated with vesiculitis or orchitis

� A. pyogenes and B. abortus: most common

� Hot, swollen and painful → chronic case: small, hard and misshapen

� Treatment: little value

Epididymal diseasesEpididymal diseases� Congenital absence

� Unilateral

� Segmental aplasia

� Culling


bullbull


•Inflammation of the penis and prepuce:• BHV-1: necrosis, ulcers, adhesions

•Hair rings: young bulls

Posthitis and balanoposthitis

BHV 1 (genital IBR infection):

• balanoposthtis with multiple pale

vesicles, confluent vesicles (some)

Treatment: local medical one

Posthtis = inflammation of the prepuce; Balanoposthitis: inf. of both prepuce

and testis


Posthitis and balanoposthitis

Piedmontese bull:

• central prepuce: posthitis

• distal part: tight band around the

penis

• pink penis: congested and enlarged

Treatment: conservative

Posthitis = inflammation of the prepuce; Balanoposthitis: inf. of both prepuce

and testis


Testicular diseasesTesticular diseases

� Orchitis:

� Unilateral

� Painful, hot, oedematous

� B. abortus, A. pyogenes

� Treatment: antibiotics (?), cold water hydrotherapy, surgical removal

Orchitis

Simmental bull: 4-year-old

Enlargement of right testis:

• painful and sensitive

•Unilateral

Traumatic

Bacterial: B. abortus, Mycobacterium bovis,

A. pyogenes


Acute Brucella orchitis

Severe periorchitis (pale area: A):

inflammation of tunics and epididymis

Testicular enlargement and compression by

The tunica albuginea

Testicular necrosis

B: subcutaneously edematous fluid


Testicular diseasesTesticular diseases� Testicular hypoplasia

� Small testis

� congenital

� Uni-, bilateral

� Diagnosis: SC (< 30 cm) and semen analysis

� Treatment: culling

Testicular hypoplasia with cryptorchidismTesticular hypoplasia with cryptorchidism


Holstein Friesian calf:

Left testicle: normal size

Right testicle: small, incopletely descended

in the scrotal neck

Testicular diseasesTesticular diseases� Cryptorchidism

� Unilateral

� Rare

� Culling

CryptorchidismCryptorchidism


Hereford cross calf: 4-week-old

• Right testicle: normal

•Left testicle: inguinal position (A)

Testicular diseasesTesticular diseases� Testicular degeneration:

� Uni- or bilateral

� Terporary or permanent

� Fever, high environmental temperature, inflammation of the scrotal skin, excessive scrotal fat, orchitis, testicular trauma

� Diagnosis: SC, semen analysis, US

Spiral deviation of penis Spiral deviation of penis

((‘‘corkscrew peniscorkscrew penis’’))


Charolais: 2-year-old

• 90o ventral curvature

Spiral deviation of penis Spiral deviation of penis

((‘‘corkscrew peniscorkscrew penis’’))

Spiral deviation

difficult intromission


Penile and parapenile hematomaPenile and parapenile hematoma

((‘‘fracture of penisfracture of penis’’, , ‘‘broken penisbroken penis’’))


Hereford bull:

• prescrotal hematoma and edema

due to ruptured tunical albuginea

•secondary prolapse of the penis

Differencial diagnosis:

•Parapenile abscess

Penile and parapenile hematomaPenile and parapenile hematoma

((‘‘fracture of penisfracture of penis’’, , ‘‘broken penisbroken penis’’))


Postmortem specimen:

• Ruprured corpus cavernosum penis

Prolapsed prepuceProlapsed prepuce


Brahman bull (Bos indicus): 6-year-old

• breed characteristic

• partial prepucial prolapse

Treatment:

• conservative treatment: cleansing,

disinfection, replacement, retention by a

purse-string suture

• surgical resection

• severe case: before pressure-bandage

Preputial and penile abscessPreputial and penile abscess


Hereford bull: 5-year-old

Prognosis: poor

Scrotal herniaScrotal hernia

Hereford bulll: 6-year-old

•Soft, painless, partially reducible

swelling in the left scrotal neck

• rare

• traumatic injury

• seldom results in intestinal

strangulation


Scrotal hematoma

Friesian bull:

• trauma

• large scrotum, relatively painless

Differencial diagnosis: orchitis, scrotal hernia

Treatment: spontaneous recovery


Inguinal herniaInguinal hernia

Suxxes bull:

•Soft, reducible swelling in the inguinal region

(omentum, or/and small intestine loops)

Differencial diagnosis:

• fat deposits

• abscess

Treatment:

• culling


Scrotal necrosis and gangrene

Friesian bull:

Faulty application of a bloodless castrator

(Burdizzo)


Scrotal necrosis and gangrene

Friesian bull: 2-month-old

Rubber castration ring (after 1 week is

too late):

•Dark, necrotic diastal part

•Swelling proximal to the ring


Scirrhous cordScirrhous cord

Friesian bull: 4-month-old

Enlarged spermatic cord after castration

Dry blood clot

Treatment:

• drainage,

• clinsing,

• systemic antibiotics (5 to 7 days)

Prevention


Scrotal frostbiteScrotal frostbite

Simmental bull: 2-year-old:

•Moderate frostbite (-30oC, 2-8 weeks

previously)

•Poor semen: < 10 % live cells

•Normal semen: within 2-3 months


Breeding soundness examinationBreeding soundness examination1. Free from Brucella ovis:

�Primary cause of low fertility

�Contagious venereal disease: epididymidis

� mucus membrane → blood → reproductive organs

�Enlargement and fibrosis of epididymidis

�Some case only the secondary sex glands: microscopic examination of semen, semen culture, or serology

�Treatment: immediate culling

Breeding soundness examinationBreeding soundness examination2. Libido: inadequate libido → culling

3. Physical examination: � Restraining

� Standing position

� Structural soundness examination� Feet, legs and teeth

� Physical soundness examination� BC (2,5 to 3.5),free: from foot rote, lip and leg ulcerations,

pizzle rot which can be transmitted to the ewe: if cannot be corrected: culling

Glans penis

GP: glans penis


PF: prepucial fold


Breeding soundness examination4. Examinations of reproductive organs

�Testes and epididymides

� Palpation:

� testicular tone and symmetry: pathologic problem: swelling, atrophy, lack of tone and symmetry

� Caput, corpus and cauda epididymides can be palpated : enlargement due to inflammation and fibrosis

� B. ovis: mature ram

� Histophilus spp., or Actinobacillus spp.: young ram

� Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis



� Scrotal circumference: scrotal tape

� > 30 cm (>150 lb)

� > 36 cm (> 250 lb)

� yearling ram (12-18 months): > 33 cm

� Turgid testes: soft, flaccid testes → poor semen quality



� Prepuce

� free of any raw or ulcerative lesions (pizzle rot /sheath rot, ulcerative posthitis/, lip and leg ulceration or phimosis

� Penis: can be extended

� Cannot: previous injury or disease → adhesions

Breeding soundness examinationBreeding soundness examination5. Semen evaluation

�Semen quality

�Microscopic evaluation

� Motility

� White blood cells

� Morphology

Breeding soundness examinationClassification:

� free from B. ovis

�good libido

�passed structural and physical examination

Breeding soundness examinationBreeding soundness examination1. Free from congenital diseases:

�Intersexes: abnormal sexual differentiation

� True hermaphrodite: carries both gonads

� Pseudo-hermaphrodite: carries one or the other type of gonads (male PH: testes, female PH: ovaries)

Breeding soundness examinationBreeding soundness examination1. Libido

2. Physical examination� General examination: health, hind limb

� Foot rot, foot abscesses (regular trimming: important)

3. Examination of the reproductive tract

�Testes: size, form, symmetry, consistency

�Penis: urethral process: 2-3 cm: urinary calculi: removing

Breeding soundness examinationBreeding soundness examination4. Semen evaluation

� volume

�Colour

�Motility

�Concentration

�Morphology

ClassificationClassification• Excellent

• Satisfactory

• Questionable

• Unsatisfactory

Diseases of the reproductive organsDiseases of the reproductive organs

Testicular and epididymal abnormalities:�Testicular degeneration and mineralization:

hyperechoic (US)� TD or atrophy: systemic disease, epididymitis, debility due to

poor nutrition, parasitism, aging, higher or lower environmental temperature

�Testicular hypoplasia: (atrophy: difficult to distinguish)� Severe malnutrition, intersexes

� Hypothyroidism and severe zinc deficiency → reduced feed intake → decreased weight of testes and epididymis → ↓

spermatogenesis → ↓ degenerative changes of the repr. organs


Testicular and epididymal abnormalities:

�Cryptorchidism:

� One or both testes fail to descend

� Leyding cells are not affected: libido normal

�Orchitis and epididymitis

� Testes: hot swollen and painful, systemic signs: pyrexia, depressed appetite, loss of libido, inability to walk long distances

� Chronic orchitis: fibrous adhesions: loss of testicular motilitywithin the scrotum, atrophy: indurated and fibrous testes

� Coliform, Pseudomonas



�Sperm ganulomas: culling

� Heritable

� Corpus epididymis: efferent ductules with blindly ends →distended tubules → rupture → sperm into the stroma →severe inflammatory reaction → granuloma formation which may calcify (US: fluid filled structures) → back pressure →degeneration of testes and mineralization

� Normal libido, but sterile



�Scrotal hernia: surgery + bilateral castration

� Described only sheep


Penile and prepucial abnormalities

�Hypospadias and failure of prepucial closure: intersex condition

�Posthitis (pizzle rot): scabs and ulcers of the skin and mucosa:

� high protein diet and Corynebacterium renale

� Herpex virus: pustules and ulcers


Penile and prepucial abnormalities

�Urinary calculosis:

� Urolithiasis occasionally, more frequently in castrated bucks

� Typical signs: straining and attempts to urinate

� If at the urethral process: urethrostomy

Diseases transmitted by semenDiseases transmitted by semen� Foot and mouth disease virus, bluetongue virus,

leptospiras, mycoplasmas, toxoplasmas

� Probably transmitted: Brucella melitensis, Mycobacterium paratuberculosis

Breeding soundness examinationBreeding soundness examination� Clinical examination

Extirpated boar reproductive tractExtirpated boar reproductive tract

Senger, 1999

UB: urinary bladder

DD: ductus deferens


SC: spermatic cord

PS: penile shaft

GP: glans penis

T: testis

VG: vesicular gland

PG: prostate gland




CP: crus penis




BE: body of epididymis

HE: head of epididymis

Excised testicle

DD: ductus deferens

PP: pampiniform plexus

EH: epididymal head

EB: epididymal body

ET: epididymal tail


Dorsal view of the accessory sex glandsDorsal view of the accessory sex glands


UB: urinary bladder

VG: vesicular gland

PG: prostate gland





GP: glans penis


PF: prepucial fold



• Infectious causes

– Inflammation of the testicular parenchyma:

• Brucella

• Chlamydia

• Japanese B encephalitis virus

• Rubulavirus


• Infectious causes

– Systemic illness:

• Swine influenza virus

• Mycoplasma

• Erysipelas


� Infectious causes

� Diseasas transmitted by semen

� Swine fever

� Leptospira

� Aujeszky’s disease (Pseudorabies virus)

� Parvovirus

� Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrom (PRRS) virus


� Non-infectious causes

� Ambient temperature > 27 C and 50% relative humidity or heat stress: sperm motility ↓, morphologically abnormal sperm ↑ and total sperm number ↓

� Changes: 2 weeks after initial stress exposure and can last for up to 5 to 8 weeks or more



� Vaccination: PRRS, SIV, PRV

� Negative effect on spermiogram: 20.3 days

� Recovery: 5.5 weeks

Diseases of the reproductive organs


� Nutritional imbalances:

� Excess feed: overweight: foot and leg problems

� Restricted energy

� Selenium deficiency: ↓ sperm production and motility

� Zink deficiency: retard testicular development

� Mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1, vomitoxin, zearalenone): mold inhibitors and binding agents

Numbers of females per maleNumbers of females per maleSpecies Mating system Overall ratio

(female/male)

Spontaneously cyclic

Oestrus synchronized (OS)

In hand

Bull 20-40 10 4-12 40-80

Ram 40-80 OS in season10-20

OS out of season5-10

80-120

Boar Synchronized by weaning2 group

In hand

1-4

20-30

Roberts, 1986

Accessory sex glandsAccessory sex glands

Species Ampulla Vesicular gland

Prostate Bulbourethral gland

Stallion ++ ++ ++ +

Bull (+) +++ ++ +

Ram (+) +++ ++ +

Boar ++ + +++

(+) Ampullae are present but are not anatomically prominent

Cryptorchidism Inguinal herniation

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