Copyright © IOJPE - DergiPark


International

Online Journal of

Primary Education ISSN: 1300-915X

JUNE 2021

Volume 10 – Issue 1

Prof. Dr. Sinan OLKUN Editors in Chief

Prof.Dr. Mehmet Engin DENİZ

Prof. Dr. Şule AYCAN PhD. Arzu GÜNGÖR LEUSHUIS

Editors


Copyright © 2021 INTERNATIONAL ONLINE JOURNAL OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

All articles published in International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE) are licensed under

a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY).

IOJPE allows readers to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of its

articles and allow readers to use them for any other lawful purpose.

IOJPE does not charge authors an article processing fee (APF).

Published in TURKEY

Contact Address:

Prof. Dr. Sinan OLKUN

IOJPE Editor in Chief, İzmir-Turkey

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Message from the Editor,

I am very pleased to inform you that we have published the first issue in 2021. As an editor of

International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), this issue is the success of our authors,

very valuable reviewers who undertook the rigorous peer review of the manuscripts, and those of the

editorial board who devoted their valuable time through the review process. In this respect, I would

like to thank to all reviewers, researchers and the editorial board members. The articles should be

original, unpublished, and not in consideration for publication elsewhere at the time of submission to

International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE). For any suggestions and comments on

IOJPE, please do not hesitate to send me e-mail. The countries of the authors contributed to this issue

(in alphabetical order): Australia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Sweden, Turkey, United States, and United

Kingdom.

Prof. Dr. Sinan OLKUN

Editor in Chief


Editor in Chief

PhD. Sinan Olkun, (Final International University, North Cyprus)

Editors

PhD. Arzu Güngör Leushuis, (Florida State University, United States)

PhD. Mehmet Engin Deniz, (Yıldız Teknik University, Turkey)

PhD. Şule Aycan, (Muğla University, Turkey)

Linguistic Editors

PhD. Mehmet Ali Yavuz, (Cyprus International University, North Cyprus)

PhD. Uğur Altunay, (Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey)

Classroom Management

PhD. Hasan Şimşek, (Eastern Mediterranean University, North Cyprus)

PhD. Fahriye Altınay, (Near East University, North Cyprus)

Curriculum Development in Primary Education

PhD. Ali Ahmad Al-Barakat, (University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates)

PhD. Arzu Güngör Leushuis, (Florida State University, United States)

PhD. Asuman Seda Saracaloğlu, (Adnan Menderes University, Turkey)

Computer Education and Instructional Technologies

PhD. Aytekin İşman, (Sakarya University, Turkey)

Ph.D. Ersun İşçioğlu, (Eastern Mediterranean University, North Cyprus)

PhD. Halil İbrahim Yalın, (Cyprus International University, North Cyprus)

Ms Umut Tekgüç, (Bahçeşehir Cyprus University, North Cyprus)

PhD. Zehra Altınay, (Near East University, North Cyprus)

Educational Drama

PhD. Alev Önder, (Bahçeşehir University, Turkey)

Educational Psychology

PhD. Muhammad Sabil Farooq, (Nankai University Tianjin, P.R. China)

PhD. Rengin Karaca, (Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey)

PhD. Thanos Touloupis, (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece)

PhD. Yuan Tong KAI, (Nankai University Tianjin, P.R China)

Fine Arts Education

PhD. Ayfer Kocabaş, (Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey)

PhD. Bedri Karayağmurlar, (Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey)

Foreign Language Teaching

PhD. Nazife Aydınoğlu, (Final International University, North Cyprus)

PhD. İzzettin Kök, (Girne American University, North Cyprus)

PhD. Perihan Savaş, (Middle East Technical University Turkey)

Guidance and Counselling

PhD. Ferda Aysan, (Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey)

PhD. Mehmet Engin Deniz, (Yıldız Teknik University, Turkey)

PhD. Nergüz Bulut Serin, (European University of Lefke, North Cyprus)

Mathematics Education

PhD. Elizabeth Jakubowski, (Florida State University, United States)

PhD. Kakoma Luneta, (University of Johannesburg, South Africa)

PhD. Melih Turgut, (Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway)

PhD. Moritz Herzog, (University of Wuppertal, Germany)

PhD. Nazan Sezen Yüksel, (Hacettepe University, Turkey)

PhD. Osman Cankoy, (Atatürk Teachers Academy, North Cyprus)

PhD. Stefan Haesen, (Thomas More University, Belgium)


Measurement and Evaluation

PhD. Bayram Bıçak, (Akdeniz University, Turkey)

PhD. Emre Çetin, (Cyprus Social Sciences University, North Cyprus)

PhD. Gökhan İskifoğlu, (European University of Lefke, North Cyprus)

PhD. Selahattin Gelbal, (Hacettepe University, Turkey)

Music Education

PhD. Gulsen G. Erdal, (Kocaeli University, Turkey)

PhD. Sezen Özeke, (Uludağ University, Turkey)

PhD. Şirin Akbulut Demirci, (Uludağ University, Turkey)

Pre-School Education

PhD. Alev Önder, (Bahçeşehir University, Turkey)

PhD. Ilfa Zhulamanova, (University of Soutnern Indiana, United States)

PhD. Ithel Jones, (Florida State University, United States)

PhD. Rengin Zembat, (Marmara University, Turkey)

PhD. Şafak Öztürk Aynal, (Celal Bayar University, Turkey)

Science Education

PhD. Oguz Serin, (European University of Lefke, North Cyprus)

PhD. Salih Çepni, (Uludağ University, Turkey)

PhD. Şule Aycan, (Muğla University, Turkey)

PhD. Woldie Belachew Balea, (Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia)

Social Sciences Education

PhD. Erdal Aslan, (Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey)

PhD. Z. Nurdan Baysal, (Marmara University, Turkey)

Sports Education

PhD. Erkut Konter, (Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey)

PhD. Rana Varol, (Ege University, Turkey)

Special Education

PhD. Hakan Sarı, (Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey)

PhD. Hasan Avcıoğlu, (Cyprus International University, North Cyprus)

PhD. Muhammad Zaheer Asghar, (Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain)

PhD. Tevhide Kargın, (Hasan Kalyoncu University, Turkey)

Turkish Language Teaching

PhD. Ahmet Pehlivan, (Eastern Mediterranean University, North Cyprus)

PhD. Hülya Yeşil, (Cyprus International University, North Cyprus)

PhD. Yüksel Girgin (Adnan Menderes University, Turkey)

Journal Cover Designer

Eser Yıldızlar, (University of Sunderland, England)

ISSN: 1300-915X


Volume 10, Issue 1 (2021)

Table of Contents

Research Articles A LONGITUDINAL STUDY: EMERGENT BILINGUALS’ HERITAGE LANGUAGE USE AND

LEARNING OVER TIME

Chaehyun LEE

SPECIALISED CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: THE CONVENTION FOR NAMING ARRAYS AND

DESCRIBING EQUAL GROUPS’ PROBLEMS

Chris HURST, Derek HURRELL

AN EXPLORATION OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS’ MATHS ANXIETY USING

INTERPRETATIVE PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

Jane DOVE, Jane MONTAGUE, Thomas E. HUNT

THE EFFECT OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING ON PRE-SERVICE PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS'

CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING AND MISCONCEPTIONS

Çiğdem ŞENYİĞİT

TEACHERS’ EXPERIENCES WITH OVERCROWDED CLASSROOMS IN A BASIC SCHOOL IN GHANA

Joycelyn Adwoa OSAI, Kwaku Darko AMPONSAH, Ernest AMPADU, Priscilla COMMEY-MINTAH

THE CONCEPT OF ANGLE IN TURKISH AND SINGAPOREAN PRIMARY SCHOOL MATHEMATICS

TEXTBOOKS: DYNAMIC OR STATIC?

Suphi Önder BÜTÜNER

SCIENCING ACTIVITIES AND SCIENTIFIC SKILLS OF CHILDREN AT PRE-PRIMARY LEVEL IN

NIGERIA

Eileen Oluwakemi AKINTEMI, Esther Abiola ODUOLOWU

PLAYFULNESS OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN IN TURKEY

Dondu Neslihan BAY

EFFECTS OF PERFORMANCE RANKING ON STUDENTS’ VOICE AND AGENCY IN THE

MATHEMATICS CLASSROOM

Samson Murithi NJIRU, Simon KARUKU

EFFECTS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHER PERSONALITY AND NETWORK INTENTIONS ON

CHANGE: MEDIATING ROLE OF PROFESSIONAL LEARNING

Emre ER

A RASCH MODEL ANALYSIS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING

LEVELS OF THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT

Hüseyin Cihan BOZDAĞ, Suat TÜRKOĞUZ

CLASSROOM TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON THE PHYSICAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS OF PRIMARY

SCHOOLS IN TURKEY

Mehmet GÜLTEKİN, Gözde ÖZENÇ İRA

INVESTIGATION OF THE VIEWS OF PRE-SERVICE TURKISH TEACHERS IN TERMS OF SPEED

READING

Hulusi GEÇGEL, Fatih KANA, İlknur YALÇIN AKKAŞ

EXAMINATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NATURALISTIC TEACHING EDUCATION PROGRAM

DEVELOPED FOR PRE-SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TURKEY

Seçil ÇELIK, İbrahim Halil DIKEN, Hasan GÜRGÜR

INVESTIGATION OF VERBS USED BY PRE-SERVICE PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN THE

CONTEXT OF HIERARCHY OF NEEDS WITH THE SOM-WARD METHOD

İlyas YAZAR, Dilek HAZAR, Cenk KEŞAN, Mehmet ÖZER

ISSN: 1300-915X

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org

International Online Journal of Primary Education 2021, volume 10, issue 1

Copyright © International Online Journal of Primary Education 1

A LONGITUDINAL STUDY: EMERGENT BILINGUALS’ HERITAGE

LANGUAGE USE AND LEARNING OVER TIME

Chaehyun LEE

Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Southeastern Oklahoma State University

Department of Educational Instruction and Leadership, United States

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4670-4519

[email protected]

Received: March 02, 2021 Accepted: April 15, 2021 Published: June 30, 2021

Suggested Citation:

Lee, C. (2021). A longitudinal study: Emergent bilinguals’ heritage language use and learning over time. International

Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 10(1), 1-18.

This is an open access article under the CC BY 4.0 license.

Abstract

This article discusses a comparison of the two focal primary school third-grade Korean bilingual students’ language use with

their previous language use when they were first-graders by examining their heritage language (HL) use at a Korean

language school. For children of immigrant families in the U.S., there has been a pervasive hypothesis that their heritage

language (HL) might be jeopardized due to their minimum exposure to it and its reduced status in the U.S., which can easily

lead them to experience HL shift or loss (Montrul, 2018; Valdes, 2014). However, the present study shows that the focal

third graders who were attending all-English schools during the week did not appear to lose their HL. Instead, the

comparison of findings indicated that they had developed a certain degree of oral proficiency in their HL, including

vocabulary knowledge, thanks to the parents’ involvement and practices towards their children’s HL learning as well as

other socio-cultural influences on the students’ HL language use and development over the years.

Keywords: Heritage language, Korean students, immigrant family, bilingualism, biliteracy.

INTRODUCTION

Since the Immigration Act of 1965, the number of immigrants to the United States has proliferated.

Throughout the 1980s, approximately 18 million immigrants resided in the U.S., and the number has

continued to increase (U.S. Census Bureau, 2018). Today, among approximately 44 million

immigrants in the U.S., the second-generation U.S.-born children of immigrants represent 38 million,

consisting of almost 15 percent of the population. The influx of immigrant children in the U.S. brings

scholars’ and researchers’ attention to heritage language (HL) maintenance and development.

However, research to date has paid more attention to immigrant children’s English development than

their HL learning (August & Shanahan, 2010; Goldenberg, 2011). For example, a number of

researchers investigated how immigrant children developed their English language proficiency and

literacy skills (e.g., Golberg, Paradis, & Crago, 2008; Rodriguez-Mojica, 2017; Yang, Fox, &

Jacewicz, 2015).

Yet, comparatively, little attention has been given to immigrant children’s language and literacy

development in their HL (Goldenberg, 2011; Seals & Peyton, 2017; Szilagyi & Szecsi, 2020).

Furthermore, the majority of HL studies have focused on adolescent or adult HL learners by

emphasizing the HL shift or loss phenomenon (Elabbas, Montrul, & Polinsky, 2013; Scontras, Fuchs,

& Polinsky, 2015; Valdes, 2014). Limited studies are devoted to the issue of HL maintenance and

development in early childhood; thus, we know less about second-generation immigrant children’s

HL learning trajectory. As Montrul (2018) suggested, investigating bilingual children’s longitudinal

language use and development can explain what is happening to their HL learning and bilingualism

during their school years.

Since HLs are regarded as minority and under-representative languages in the host country (U.S.),

they are less recognized, unacknowledged, or even unappreciated by the society of origin (Polinsky &

Kagan, 2007). Thus, HL maintenance is often endangered and threatened as the use of the dominant

http://www.iojpe.org/

mailto:[email protected]


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



language (English) is favored in mainstream society (Valdes, 2014). Several researchers reported that

when emergent bilingual children attended U.S. classrooms taught only in English, they often lost or

did not continue developing their HL (Montrul, 2018; Ro & Cheatham, 2009; Shin, 2005; Polinsky,

2011, 2018). Researchers in HL studies reported that HL shift or loss had largely occurred not only

with Latinx students (Beaudrie, Ducar, & Potowski, 2014; Gandara & Hopkins, 2010; Potowski,

2016) but also with Korean children in the U.S. (Lee & Wright, 2014; Shin & Lee, 2013).

In terms of Korean immigrant families in the U.S., Korean immigrant parents often decline bilingual

education services (Lee & Jeong, 2013; Shin, 2005) because many of them believe that their

children’s Korean literacy skills have little direct relevance to their U.S. school performance, while

the mastery of English directly impacts their children’s success in school (Shin, 2014). The parents’

desire for their children to have educational success and prestigious careers in the future leads them to

immerse their children in English-only instruction (Kim & Pyun, 2014; McCabe, 2016). Although

Korean parents may not support their children’s enrollment in bilingual education, they often hold

positive attitudes toward their children’s HL development and consider the role of HL schools to be

critical for their children’s HL learning (Lee & Jeong, 2013; Shin, 2005). Hence, many Korean

parents financially support Korean HL schools and send their child(ren) to the Korean HL, which

their children attend on weekends (Lee & Wright, 2014; Shin & Lee, 2013).

Despite the support by parents and community for Korean children’s HL learning, previous studies

reported that among Asian ethnic groups in the U.S., Korean children were less likely to maintain

their HL at home than other Asian ethnic groups (Kondo-Brown, 2011; Lopez, 1996). Murphy (2014)

correspondingly reported that Korean children’s HL loss is a natural process among Korean

immigrants in the U.S. because of the exposure to the English language in American schools and the

mainstream culture. Other studies further discovered that Korean immigrant children became more

resistant to acquiring their HLs and are more likely to experience the challenge of preserving their HL

as they get older because they were more likely to expose to the societal language (i.e., English) than

their HL (Cho, 2015; Shin, 2014).

Given the HL attrition phenomenon among Korean children of immigrants in the U.S., the current

study investigates two third-grade Korean emergent bilingual students’ longitudinal language use. By

comparing the focal students’ current language use to their previous language use when they were

younger, the study explores whether and to what extent the Korean bilingual learners experience any

HL attrition, or they were able to develop their HL as they become older. To further identify the

elements for the students’ HL shift or maintenance, the study also examines the parents’ practices and

involvement in their children’s HL learning and the role of socio-cultural influences on the students’

bilingual language use over the years.

Theoretical Framework

Sociocultural perspective on language use and learning Many literacy scholars’ work reflects sociocultural perspectives (Gee, 2012; Halliday, 1985; Street,

2001). By emphasizing the social environment, Halliday (1985) claimed that language is not

independent of the social world. According to him, language occurs within a cultural context; thus,

culture is generated through language. Halliday viewed children’s language development as a function

of their participation in a social world because language could not be separated from the culture.

Hence, Halliday considered language and communication to be social semiotics and multiple-meaning

systems that involved varied modes of representation or multimodality, such as oral and written

language, gestures, drawings, signs, and symbols. Researchers who studied Halliday’s systemic

functional linguistics reported that he was interested in the functions or purposes of humans’ use of

semiotic resources to interact with each other and create oral and written texts (Moro, Mortimer, &

Tiberghien, 2019). Similarly, Gee’s (2012) Discourses (with the capital “D”) as an “identity kit” also

illustrated how language is connected with social and cultural contexts. According to Gee’s notion of


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



language, language instantiates culture because the speaker’s language use varies according to social

and cultural contexts.

Street (2001) pointed out that to understand literacy practices, researchers need “detailed, in-depth

accounts of actual practice in different cultural settings” (p. 430). According to him, a sociocultural

view of literacy emphasizes literacies that are situated in and created by participants. Street argued

that literacy emerges from social and cultural practices because it involves “thinking about, doing, and

reading in cultural contexts” (p. 11). Street (1984, p. 1) employed the phrase “literacy practices” by

focusing on “the social practices and conceptions of reading and writing” to emphasize the social

models of literacy in which participants negotiate and make meanings when they read and write in

specific cultural contexts. Street (1984) distinguished between an autonomous model and an

ideological model of literacy. The autonomous model of literacy is a traditional psychological

approach, which views literacy as a mental or cognitive phenomenon; thus, reading and writing are

treated as things people do inside their heads as technical skills. In opposition to the autonomous

model of literacy, Street proposed an ideological model. The ideological model of literacy challenges

the traditional model since it offers a more culturally sensitive view of literacy practices by insisting

that people engage in literacy practices in society, not just inside their heads.

Since the present study is conducted in classroom settings, where the participants negotiate and make

meanings during their literacy practices in certain cultural contexts, the study is consistent with

Street’s social view of literacies. Considering Street’s argument that literacy should be studied in an

integrated way by looking at social, cultural, and historical aspects beyond cognitive facets, I

considered the cultural contexts and social practices when investigating the participating students’

language use, performance, and development.

Literature Review

Understanding the phenomenon of HL attrition in the U.S.

According to Montrul (2010), HL loss occurs when an individual’s primary language shifts to a new

language or second language (L2) when the individual lives in an L2 environment as a result of

immigration (Tse, 2001). Schmid (2010) pointed out that immigrant children are susceptible to losing

their HLs if they have not fully mastered their HLs before being exposed to a new language. Most

young immigrant children in the U.S. are identified as potential linguistic emigrants (Veltman, 1983)

who could lose their HLs when surrounded by the English language rather than their HLs. Several

researchers pointed out that when immigrant children want to be accepted into the mainstream culture

(Murphy, 2014), they are more likely to engage in English practices, which consequently leads them

to experience a language shift from HL to English and/or language loss in their HLs (Polinsky &

Kagan, 2007; Valdes, 2014).

It is important to note that language shift and loss are related to power relations between languages.

When people immigrate to a new country, the language used in the country is regarded as a dominant

language, which has privilege and supremacy, and the immigrants' HLs are often regarded as minority

or less privileged languages (Schmid, 2010; Veltman, 1983). For this reason, some immigrants want

to assimilate into the majority culture by actively participating in the majority language group using

the majority language only (Shin, 2005). Veltman (1983) explained this phenomenon as linguistic

emigration. It applies to language minority groups who immigrate to a country where the majority

language is considered a high prestige language since they are more likely to assimilate to the

majority culture by losing their HLs and ceasing to participate in the communities of origin.

Veltman (1983) considered language minority children in the U.S. as potential linguistic emigrants

who have the potential to lose their HLs. Many of them are not only massively expose to and

frequently use the societal language (English in the U.S.) but also want to be accepted into the

mainstream culture to avoid alienation (Murphy, 2014; Tse, 2001). These practices are likely to lead

them to shift their dominant language from HL to English and eventually experience HL attrition or

loss (Polinsky, 2011; Valdes, 2014). Researchers reported that language minority students in the U.S.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



often undergo a language shift by mainly interacting with interlocutors of the majority language

(English), which results in them failing to gain native-like proficiency in their HLs (Carreira &

Kagan, 2017; Seals & Peyton, 2017).

Immigrant parents’ practices and involvement in their children’s HL development

Since HL education is given less attention and support than the societal language (English in the U.S.)

outside the home, immigrant parents’ role prominently plays a pivotal role in their children’s HL

learning and development in the home context. A number of researchers reported that immigrant

parents’ practices and involvement were the most significant factor in sustaining their children’s HL

and that parents’ support was a critical element in the children’s HL development (Guardado, 2010;

Liang, 2018; Lü & Koda, 2011; McCabe, 2016). For example, in their quantitative literacy assessment

studies with 37 first- and second-grade Chinese-English bilingual children, Lü and Koda (2011)

showed that Chinese immigrant parents’ HL use and literacy support at home influenced their

children’s language and literacy skills in Chinese (i.e., oral vocabulary knowledge, phonological

awareness, and decoding skill). Similarly, in his case study involving Hispanic families in Canada,

Guardado (2010) revealed the importance of parental involvement in their children’s HL development

by showing that the children who advanced their HL had received positive support of learning HL

from their parents. The studies discovered that the parents’ home literacy practices facilitated their

children’s HL development in the long term.

Multiple studies showed how “family language policy (FLP)” that forces the use of HL exclusively at

home (Spolsky, 2012) played an instrumental role in children’s HL learning and development in

immigrant households (e.g., Fogle & King, 2013; Guardado & Becker, 2015; Yazan & Ali, 2018). For

example, in a study with an Arabic-speaking Muslim family, Yazan and Ali (2018) showed that the

parents’ language ideologies and policy regarding their daughter's maintenance of Arabic in the U.S.

influenced the emergence and enactment of the daughter's Arabic HL development. The major

findings in the FLP studies indicate that the exclusive and consistent use of HLs by immigrant

families encouraged the children to not only practice their HLs but also construct their cultural

identity since heritage language-only rules at home are “tied to the families’ and individuals’ sense of

belonging” (Hua & Wei, 2016: 65).

A considerable number of studies explored HL maintenance or loss among immigrant families from

different ethnic origins. The previous studies suggested that family context, including parents’

attitudes, perceptions, and home practices, played an instrumental role in their children’s HL

maintenance and fundamentally influenced their children’s HL outcomes (Liang, 2018). The findings

indicate that immigrant parents should provide adequate support for their children to develop their HL

in the home setting to raise them as bilingual. The following research questions guided the inquiry:

How did the two focal third-grade emergent bilingual students’ oral language use differ from

their earlier use as first graders?

What was the role of parents’ practices and sociocultural influences on the two emergent

bilingual students’ longitudinal language use?

METHOD

I employed qualitative discourse analysis (Gee, 2012) methodology to document, analyze, and

interpret what the selected Korean American students used languages within specific events (Bloome,

Carter, Christian, Otto, & Shuart-Faris, 2004) by analyzing their ways of thinking, interacting, and

speaking in the HL classroom. The study aims to examine two focal HL learners’ bilingual language

use over the years by comparing their current language performance to when they were in first grade.

Thus, I employed a constant comparative analysis method (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) to identify

patterns and functions of consistencies and differences in the focal students’ language use and

performance.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Research Context This study primarily took place in a Korean HL school in a university town in the Midwest where

200,000 people reside. Approximately, 63% of the town population identified as non-Latinx white,

13% as Asian, and 15% as foreign-born. There were no Korean-English bilingual education programs

in the local school districts. Korean parents who wanted to develop their children’s HL in the town

funded the Korean HL school. Thus, the school was private and designed for Korean students in the

town to help their HL learning by providing formal instruction in Korean at each grade level. Most of

the enrolled students were second-generation Korean Americans who were born in the U.S. after their

parents had immigrated to the U.S. The school provided classes for Korean students in preschool-

grade 5. The classes at all grade levels met three hours per week on Saturdays, from 10:20 a.m. to

1:20 p.m. The data collection for this article occurred during the spring semester in first-grade class in

2014 and third-grade class in 2016 at the Korean HL school.

Participants

This paper focused on two focal third graders who attended the third-grade HL class at the Korean HL

school. The two students (Toni and Suji – pseudonyms are used) were purposely selected as the focal

participants for this article since they were former participants as first graders in the pilot study

conducted in the first-grade classroom in the same Korean HL school in Spring 2014. Both Toni and

Suji were born in the U.S. and attended all-English schools during the school week and the Korean

HL school on Saturdays. They had attended the Korean HL school since kindergarten. The students

reported that they used English during the school week and Korean with their parents at home. Both

Toni and Julie spent one month each year visiting relatives in Korea with their families.

The parents of the students participated in this study. They were first-generation Korean immigrants

who came to the U.S. during their twenties. The two mothers of students agreed to participate in

interviews with me and to keep journals about their children’s language use at home. The third-grade

teacher (Mrs. Joen) participated in the study. Mrs. Joen was a female native Korean speaker. She

came to the U.S. three years before the data collection of this study with her husband. It was her

second year as a third-grade teacher at the HL school. I was the first-grade teacher in the same Korean

HL school during the data collection of the pilot study when Toni and Julie enrolled as first graders in

2014, and it was my fourth year of teaching as a first-grade teacher. I referred to myself Ms. Lee in

this paper when I analyzed the findings.

Data Collection Sources and Procedures

Instruction and language use in the first- and third-grade classrooms

Instruction in both the first- and third-grade classrooms was divided into three parts. For the first 50

minutes, the teachers (Mrs. Joen and me) in each grade focused on teaching speaking and listening

comprehension of the Korean language using a government-designated Korean textbook, entitled

Kuk-uh [the Korean language]. Then, the students in each class participated in Korean book reading

and in-class writing for 50 minutes each. During the reading sessions each week, both teachers

brought a Korean picture book (e.g., folktale, fables). The teachers did a picture walk by showing and

discussing book illustrations before reading a book, had the class take turns reading the book aloud,

and then held a book discussion as a whole group. The primary language of instruction was Korean in

both first- and third-grade classrooms. Although the teachers mainly spoke Korean in their

classrooms, the students in both grades were allowed to use English when they raised questions or

communicated with their peers.

Audio-recording of students’ talk

The audio recordings of Toni and Julies’ spoken language use when they were in the first-grade

classroom had previously been collected for the pilot study. I had audio-recorded the students’ talk

when they participated in class discussions based on the books that the class had read together.

Similarly, the audio-recordings of Toni’s and Julies’ current oral language use in Mrs. Joen’s class

occurred during Korean book reading time for 30-40 minutes each week for 14 weeks, resulting in


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



about 500 minutes of audio-recording from each classroom. Then, I purposefully selected Toni’s and

Julie’s oral language use when they provided their responses and engaged in the book discussions.

Student interviews

The interviews with the two students took place twice after school at the beginning and end of the

Spring semester. For the first interview, I asked approximately ten interview questions about their

language use at home (with parents, siblings, peers, etc.), language preferences in different contexts

(e.g., at home, school, other public places), and different language domains (e.g., reading, speaking,

writing). For the second interview, both Toni and Julie received interview questions based on his/her

language use from the audio recordings in a retrospective way. In other words, I used a preliminary

analysis of their classroom language use data to discuss their language use and choice at that time of

speaking. During the interviews, the students were allowed to provide their responses either in

English or Korean based on their preference.

Mothers’ interviews and journals

The mothers of Toni and Julie participated in a semi-structured and open-ended interview with me.

The interview with each mother was conducted after I completed analyzing the students’ first- and

third-grade language use data. For the interviews with the mothers, I brought the analysis of their

children’s first-grade oral language use. I then shared with them their children’s third-grade language

use data to show any shift in their language use over the years and to discuss their HL learning

trajectory. By sharing the longitudinal data during the interviews, I was able to further learn about the

mothers’ perspectives and philosophies on their children’s Korean language and literacy learning

while living in the U.S. The mothers kept their journals on two to three different days per week to

record their child’s language use at home when s/he participated in activities with his/her family

members. I gave the mothers several examples of events/activities that could capture the child’s

Korean language use (e.g., when their child talked with their grandparents in Korea via Skype, when

they watched Korean TV programs or movies with their child, or when their child invited their

Korean friends to their house). I collected the mothers’ journals at the end of the semester and had 30

journal entries from each mother.

Data Analysis The transcripts of audio recordings were the main resources for this qualitative study to examine the

students’ oral language use over the years. The transcripts of the mothers’ interviews and their

journals were analyzed to corroborate the students’ language use findings and to further learn about

the parents’ practices and attitudes toward their children’s HL learning.

To seek the answer for Research Question 1 – the comparison of the two focal third-graders’ oral

language use to their earlier use as first graders – the transcripts of their oral discourses during book

discussions both from first- and third-grade class were analyzed. The students’ oral language use was

examined based on whether they used Korean, English, or “translanguaging,” which describes

bilingual learners’ strategy to utilize their integrated and entire language repertoires (García, 2009).

Then, their language data when they were in my first-grade class was analyzed and compared to their

current language use as third graders to document the pattern of their HL use over time. Comparing

their language use in the past to their current language use as a longitudinal study helped me explore

any observed different language use patterns over time.

For Research Question 2 – the parents’ practices and sociocultural influences on the students’

longitudinal language use – the mothers’ interviews and their journals were analyzed to identify any

regular practices that the parents performed at home with their children. The interview results

provided additional information about the families’ home language use and relevant language and

literacy practices that could influence their children’s longitudinal language use.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



RESULTS

Comparison of Focal Students’ Oral Language Use between First and Third Grade

Table 1 compares Toni and Julie’s language use during classroom interactions when they were first

and third graders. The table displays how often Toni and Julie used Korean, English, and

translanguaging when they spoke in both grades.

Table 1. Comparison of Toni and Julie’s oral language use between first and third grade

Only

Korean

Only

English

Word-level

translanguaging a

(English words in

Korean speech)

Word-level

translanguaging b

(Korean words in

English speech)

Frequency of TL at

sentence-level c

(Korean to English and vice

versa)

1st grade

(Spring 2014)

Toni 36

(12%)

122

(41%)

138

(46%)

4

(1%)

91 times

Julie 41

(13%)

98

(32%)

163

(53%)

6

(2%)

87 times

3rd grade

(Spring 2016)

Toni 182

(51%)

32

(9%)

138

(38%)

8

(2%)

30 times

Julie 196

(49%)

38

(8%)

170

(41%)

9

(2%)

26 times

Note. a Intra-sentential switching within a single utterance when the students inserted English words as they spoke in Korean. b Intra-sentential switching within a single utterance when the students inserted Korean words as they spoke in English.

c Inter-sentential switching between the utterances (Korean to English and vice versa).

Increased use of Korean when speaking in third grade

As shown in Table 1, when Toni and Julie were in first grade, they both spoke more in English than in

Korean (41% in English vs. 12% in Korean for Toni; 32% in English vs. 13% in Korean for Julie).

Conversely, their third-grade language use revealed that they spoke more in Korean than in English

(51% in Korean vs. 9% in English for Toni; 49% in Korean vs. 8% in English for Julie). Both Toni

and Julie still engaged in word-level translanguaging when they were in third grade, but the frequency

of inserting English words when they spoke in Korean decreased (from 46% to 38% for Toni; from

53% to 41% for Julie). The frequency of their sentence-level switching (from Korean to English and

vice-versa) was also less observed in their third-grade classroom (from 91 to 30 times for Toni; from

87 to 26 times for Julie). In other words, there was increased use of Korean and a decrease in their use

of English when they were in third grade compared to when they were in first grade.

Development of vocabulary knowledge in Korean

The focal students’ increased vocabulary knowledge in Korean appeared to play a role in their

increased use of Korean as third graders. Comparing Toni’s language use in Figure 1 (in first grade)

and Figure 2 (in third grade) shows evidence of his vocabulary gain in Korean. As shown in Figure 1,

Toni (first grader) translanguaged into English for the words “favorite part” (turn 2) when he

responded to my question about the book that the class read. When Toni was asked how to say the

words in Korean, he stated that he knew how to say “like” but did not know the word “favorite” in

Korean. In other words, Toni (as a first grader) translanguaged into English for unknown words to

complete his response, which performed as a communicative purpose. (English translations are

provided within the brackets. Translanguaged words are underlined in the English translation.)

1. Ms. Lee: 너네 은혜 반 친구들이 이름이 담긴 병 만든 거 기억해?

[Do you all remember the part when the classmates created the name jar for Unhei?]

2. Toni: 네, 그거 내 favorite part 에요.

[Yes, that was my favorite part.]

Figure 1. Toni’s (first grade) translanguaging for unknown Korean words


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Analysis of Toni’s third-grade language use in Figure 2 demonstrated that he had acquired the word

(“favorite”) in Korean. Toni’s response to Julie’s question included the Korean word (the bold and

italicized Korean word; turn 2) for “favorite” (turn 2). Yet, Toni later incorporated the word “favorite”

in English in his Korean utterance (turn 4). It seemed that Toni spoke the word in English

instinctively (turn 4) as he responded to Julie’s praise (turn 3). In the interview, Toni explained that he

sometimes used English because speaking in English is natural behavior as a bilingual. He stated that

“I used English because sometimes I naturally spoke in English without knowing or realizing because

I speak both Korean and English when talking to other bilinguals.” Toni’s third-grade language use

example indicates that he had developed his Korean vocabulary knowledge but drew from his dual

lexicon (bilingual vocabulary) to communicate with his bilingual audience. Toni’s third-grade

language use example displays not only his Korean vocabulary gain but also his flexible use of dual

lexicon through translanguaging as a bilingual speaker’s communicative strategy.

1. Julie: 누가 이거 할래?

[Who wants to do this game?]

2. Toni: 나 할래. 이거 내가 제일 좋아하는 게임이야.

[I will do it. That is my favorite game.]

3. Julie: 엄청 잘한다

[You are so good at this.]

4. Toni: 내가 말했지? 내 favorite이라고!

[I told you that it was my favorite!]

Figure 2. Toni’s (third grade) demonstration of Korean vocabulary gain and flexible use of dual

lexicon

Figure 3 shows a similar pattern when comparing Julie’s language use between the first and third

grades. In Figure 3, Julie translanguaged into English for the words “shy” and “nervous” (turn 2)

when responding to my question (turn 1). When she was asked how to say the words in Korean, she

described the characteristics of being shy and nervous by using the English words (“face red” and

“heartbeat” for the word “shy” and “worry” for the word “nervous”). However, she stated that she did

not know the corresponding words in Korean (turn 4). Julie’s response in turn 4 indicates that she

could explain the definitions of the unknown Korean words using English. In other words, Julie

employed the vocabulary knowledge from English for the unknown Korean words to complete her

response.

1. Ms. Lee: 처음 미국학교 갔을 때 어땠어?

[How did you feel when you went to the school for the first time?]

2. Julie: 저 학교 처음 갔을 때 많이 shy 하고 nervous 했어요.

[When I went to the school for the first time, I was very shy and nervous.]

3. Ms. Lee: shy랑 nervous 한 거 어떻게 한국말로 할 수 있지?

[How can you describe being shy and nervous in Korean?]

4. Julie: shy 는 face red 하는 거고, nervous 는 heart beat돼요

왜냐면 worry 많이 해서. Korean으로는 잘 몰라요.

[Being shy is when someone’s face becomes red, and if you feel nervous,

your heart is beating because you worry a lot. I do not know them in Korean.]

Figure 3. Julie’s (first grade) translanguaging to sustain communication


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Contrariwise, Julie’s third-grade language use in Figure 4 demonstrated that she had acquired the

Korean words that she had not known in first grade. Julie’s answer to Mrs. Joen’s question included

the Korean words for “shy” and “nervous” (the bold and italicized Korean words; turn 2). However,

although Julie demonstrated her vocabulary gain in Korean, she still incorporated the English word

“nervous” in her Korean discourse (turn 4). Close analysis revealed that she uttered the word in

Korean first and then translanguaged to repeat the word in English. In the interview, Julie explained

that she repeated the word in English to emphasize its meaning in her response. Julie stated, “I said

the word “nervous” again in English because I wanted to emphasize how much Erevan (the character

in the book) was nervous.” Her translanguaging in this example was to emphasize her intended

meaning by repeating the word in English. Julie’s translanguaging is similar to the concept of

bilingual re-voicing. Similar to what Toni did in the earlier excerpt, Julie as a bilingual speaker was

able to move across the languages flexibly by selecting her dual lexicon from her bilingual resources.

1. Julie: 에르반이 부끄러워서 귀가 빨개졌어요. 떨리고 겁이 났어요 실수할까봐

[Erevan’s ears became red because he was shy. And he felt nervous and anxious.]

2. Julie: 왜냐면 수학문제 푸는데 실수할까봐 떨렸어요 nervous 했어요.

[Erevan was nervous nervous (repeated the word); he was afraid of making mistakes

when he solved the mathematics problem.]

Figure 4. Julie’s (third grade) employment of translanguaging to emphasize

Parents’ Practices and Socio-cultural Influences on the Focal Students’ HL Development

Home language policy in the family

When Toni and Julie were first graders, they stated that they were more likely to use English than

Korean at home, even when interacting with their parents. Although their parents asked them

questions in Korean, Toni and Julie mostly replied in English. In other words, when Toni and Julie

were first graders, their primary language at home was English, according to their first-grade

interview results.

Nevertheless, it was interesting to find that their language use at home in third grade had shifted.

Toni, as a third grader, stated that he was required to speak in Korean at home upon his father’s

request, explaining:

I have to speak in Korean with my parents. My dad gets mad when I reply in English during

our conversation. He really wants me to use Korean all the time at home. When my dad is not

at home, I can use English for my mom. But when there is my dad, I always have to use

Korean.

Toni’s mother provided a more concrete answer to explain why her husband became strict about

Toni’s language use. The mother indicated that they (her and her husband) were generous about

Toni’s English use at home when he was in first grade. However, when they observed that Toni

exclusively used English with them, the father began to force Toni to use Korean when speaking to

them:

When Toni was in the first grade, we did not push him to use Korean at home because we

believed that it was a transition time for him from using more Korean to more English. But,

after a certain period, we witnessed that Toni used English predominantly even with us at

home. Thus, my husband strictly told Toni that he had to speak in Korean whenever he says

something to us.

Similarly, Julie stated that it was acceptable for her to use English at home when she was a first

grader, but by the time she became a third grader, her parents made a Korean-speaking only rule at

home. She shared:


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Korean is the language that my family has to use at home. It was okay to use English when I

was younger, and I used English all the time. But nowadays my parents keep asking me to

speak Korean only at home. We have a Korean-speaking only rule at home.

Julie’s mother shared that Julie used to be outgoing and talkative when she interacted with others in

Korean, which had led her to learn Korean quickly. Yet, once Julie entered kindergarten, she had

difficulty interacting with peers in her American school because of her limited English proficiency.

Therefore, her parents considered learning English to be an essential issue for Julie at that time. Her

mother explained:

When we saw that Julie often felt depressed, we thought that teaching English should be the

first step for Julie so that she would feel confident in her American school. That is why there

had been a time when we provided educational resources more in English than in Korean. For

instance, we provided English songs, videos, and books at home.

As Julie became proficient enough in English, the parents observed that she tended to speak only in

English and rarely used Korean. The mother explained that this was the reason why they initiated a

Korean-only rule at home, stating, “We were concerned about Julie not using Korean, so we decided

to make a Korean-language-only rule at home.”

Parents’ instructional focus on reading in Koran

Both the mothers’ interview results and journal reports showed that they spent Korean book reading

time with their children on a regular basis at home. The mothers indicated that they were concerned

about their children’s literacy development in Korean because of the limited opportunities and

resources for HL literacy learning. Thus, both Toni and Julie’s parents had engaged in their children’s

literacy learning regularly by providing instruction for Korean reading at home.

Julie’s mother pointed out that she felt Julie was a slow reader when she read Korean books,

compared to when she read English books in first grade. Once the mother noticed that Julie was a

slower reader in Korean than in English, she had held a Korean book reading time with Julie every

day until now. She asked Julie to read a Korean picture book aloud every night, and the mother helped

her with difficult Korean words or phrases, along with their pronunciations and meanings. According

to the mother, although Julie sometimes asked her mother for help when she found unknown Korean

words, she became an independent reader when reading Korean books by the time she became a third

grader.

In Toni’s case, his mother stated that Toni was an avid reader in the fantasy fiction genre. According

to the mother, Toni began to read the Harry Potter series in English in second grade. When Toni’s

grandparents from Korea visited his home during the summer break between second and third grade,

they brought the Harry Potter series written in Korean. Toni began to read the Korean version of the

books independently in third grade. Toni often told his mother that there were many unknown Korean

words, which she usually explained by providing synonyms or example sentences. The mother

believed that this practice (his independent reading with her assistance) had helped Toni improve his

oral and reading fluency in Korean and develop his Korean vocabulary.

Both mothers acknowledged that they had focused on their children’s Korean reading comprehension

beyond their decoding skills in Korean. Toni’s mother stated that although Toni read Korean books

relatively fast, he sometimes did not understand the books he read. The mother reported that she

usually checked Toni’s reading comprehension by asking Toni to retell the stories when he finished

reading Korean books, explaining:

Whenever Toni told me he was done reading Korean books, I asked him to retell the story of

the books, but he often did not remember the plot or story of the book in detail; thus, I usually

provided a few guiding questions about the character or scene so that he could tell me about

the story.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Similarly, Julie’s mother mentioned that she often asked Julie to retell the story of Korean books that

she had finished reading. According to the mother, Julie sometimes provided the retelling of Korean

storybooks using English, but her English retelling indicated that she comprehended the stories

accurately. The mother shared that she usually asked Julie to retell the story in Korean again, which

might have helped Julie improve her oral speech in Korean by making up her own sentences using

Korean. She explained:

Julie sometimes told me her retelling story in English although she read the book in Korean.

But I was able to see that she understood the story from the book. After she told the story in

English, I encouraged her to retell the story in Korean again.

The influence of relatives

The focal mothers’ journals showed that their relatives also had influenced their children’s Korean

language learning. In Toni’s case, his grandparents from Korea visited Toni’s home in the U.S. and

stayed with them for a month during the data collection. Because Toni’s grandparents did not speak

any English, Toni had to use Korean, which eventually resulted in Toni practicing more Korean. One

of the mother’s journal reports indicated that Toni had learned how to play a Korean traditional game

“Yutnori” from his grandparents. The mother believed that learning a traditional game from the

grandparents had not only provided a good opportunity for Toni to learn about the Korean culture

from the traditional game but also helped him improve his listening and speaking in Korean because

Korean is the only language that Toni could use with his grandparents. The mother observed that Toni

always paid close attention to his grandparents to understand what they said, explaining:

When we explained something to Toni in Korean, but he did not get it, he often asked us to

repeat it in English because he knew that we could speak in English. However, during the

conversation with his grandparents, Toni tried to understand their Korean without asking

them to restate what they said because he knew that his grandparents spoke Korean only.

Thus, we believe that the grandparents’ visits had played a significant role in Toni’s Korean

language use and learning.

Toni’s mother further stated that having a regular conversation with his grandparents during phone

calls or via Skype had helped Toni acquire Korean words and expressions. She stated:

When Toni heard Korean words or expressions that he did not know from his grandparents

over the phone or via Skype, he often asked me the equivalent words in English or the

meaning of those unfamiliar expressions. I believe that the regular practice of communicating

with his grandparents helped Toni acquire many Korean words and expressions that are not

commonly used in the U.S. context.

Similarly, the journal entries by Julie’s mother also showed the influence of Korean relatives on

Julie’s language use and learning. During the data collection of the study, Julie’s aunt, who lived in

Korea and barely understood English, visited Julie’s house. Julie’s mother observed that Julie spoke

Korean exclusively when she talked to her aunt. The mother once recorded Julie’s language use when

the family played the board game “monopoly.” Julie was familiar with instructions of the game in

English but tried to explain to her aunt how to play it using Korean only as she knew that her aunt

would not understand if the rules were explained in English. Julie’s mother believed that the presence

of Julie’s aunt provided a good opportunity for Julie to be immersed in Korean as she tried to use

Korean all the time with her aunt, who only spoke Korean:

I noticed that when Julie explained the instructions to her aunt, her speech was a little bit

clumsy and awkward since she explained everything in Korean. I know that she could have

explained more fluently if she used English, but I saw that she stayed in Korean because Julie

knew that her aunt would not understand if she used English. Also, since her aunt knew

Julie’s imperfect Korean language proficiency as a Korean American child, her aunt did not


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



concern or criticize Julie’s somewhat limited Korean expressions or awkward pronunciations.

I think this led Julie to freely use her Korean without hesitation or reluctance.

The mothers’ interviews and journal reports showed that both Toni and Julie’s language use with their

relatives promoted their Korean language use and learning. Toni’s and Julie’s language use examples

illustrate that they flexibly chose their languages according to their interlocutors’ language use and

proficiencies.

The influence of media

Korean media also seemed to play a pivotal role in Toni and Julie’s Korean language learning. The

journal entries kept by Toni’s mother reported that Toni watched one of his favorite Korean television

programs, “Running Man,” on every Sunday evening with his father. In this program, there were

many Korean entertainers, and they were engaged in diverse activities that included funny episodes.

According to the mother’s journal, Toni knew the entertainers’ names, the nicknames they used in the

program, and their hilarious characteristics. However, because many of the conversations among the

entertainers were not always straightforward (e.g., using exaggerated expressions to make jokes,

adding humorous language with jargon), it was difficult for Toni to understand the conversation

completely. His mother observed that Toni sometimes asked his father about words or expressions

that the characters used in certain situations. Although Toni did not know the meanings of every

word, the mother believed that he mostly appeared to grasp the intended messages in certain situations

because he knew the overall context and circumstances. Toni’s mother stated:

Although Toni could not get all the dialogues among the entertainers, he seemed to

understand what was going on in certain situations. I think Toni’s incomplete Korean

communicative skills did not hinder him from understanding or enjoying watching the

program; rather, the exposure to the Korean program accelerated Toni’s Korean

communicative skills.

The journal entries by Julie’s mother also showed how Korean media positively influenced Julie’s

Korean learning. According to the mother’s journal, Julie watched a Korean program in which many

famous Korean singers appeared in a competition to select a top singer. The mother often recorded

when Julie repeated the Korean songs as she listened to them. During the mother’s interview, it was

revealed that Julie knew many Korean singers and memorized their songs by listening to them

repeatedly. The mother shared that Julie occasionally asked her mother to print out the lyrics of her

favorite Korean songs so that she could sing them by looking at the lyrics. This eventually led her to

memorize the lyrics although sometimes she did not know all the meanings of the phrases. The

mother believed that listening to Korean songs and reading the Korean lyrics had assisted Julie to gain

Korean vocabulary and to improve her Korean pronunciation:

I have seen Julie singing Korean songs many times at home. I think singing Korean songs

helped Julie learn Korean easily since it provided Julie a good opportunity to learn about

Korean vocabulary in context and acquire more native-like pronunciation.

Developed courtesy manners appropriate for their heritage culture During the data collection of this study, Toni’s and Julie’s nonverbal performances along with their

verbal communication were observed, which demonstrated their understanding of Korean courtesy

and manners. The comparison of their spoken and behavioral performances between first and third

grades showed that they had developed how to use polite speech patterns in Korean (i.e., honorifics)

and learned the required body gesture when greeting (i.e., bowing) to older Korean people.

Appropriate use of Korean honorifics

A comparison of Toni and Julie’s oral language use between first and third grade showed that their

use of honorifics (a polite form of speaking) has been firmly established. It is important to note that

using honorifics is a required practice in the Korean language, which is a formal and humble form of

speaking in Korean. This indicates that hierarchical social status of speakers plays an essential role in


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



social interaction as it conveys esteem, courtesy, or respect when addressing or referring to a person

(Brown, 2011). Although young Korean children seldom use it with their parents in the home setting

to express intimacy and affection, most Korean parents teach their children how to properly conjugate

Korean honorifics when communicating with others in the polite form.

When Toni and Julie were in first-grade, Julie was the student who did not use honorifics when

communicating with me (her first-grade teacher). On the other hand, analysis of the students’ oral

language use in third grade showed that Julie used honorifics appropriately whenever she responded

to Mrs. Joen. In addition, Julie also appropriately used honorifics during the interviews with me

during the data collection of this study as well as when she met other Korean teachers in the school

building. According to Julie’s mother, her parents had not asked her to use honorifics when speaking

to them. However, when Julie was in second grade, there was an occasion when her mother saw Julie

not using honorifics when she met a Korean adult neighbor. Since then, the mother had tried to teach

Julie how to use honorifics to other Korean adults in a proper manner.

For Toni’s case, although he was more likely to use Korean honorifics to address me in his first-grade

class, he did not always use them properly. There are different levels of Korean honorifics depending

on the level of politeness. For instance, to make honorifics, Korean speakers not only have to add a

suffix to the end of verbs but also switch the verbs to suppletive forms to connote being humble. In

first grade, Toni often correctly added suffixes to the end of verbs but rarely used the polite form of

verbs. However, his third-grade speech displayed that he had learned how to use appropriate

honorifics during the conversation with Mrs. Joen and me. According to Toni’s mother, when he

became a second grader, his father constantly asked him to use honorifics to address his parents. The

mother also said that Toni had a lot of opportunities to practice Korean honorifics when his family

visited Korea every summer. Thanks to the parents’ lesson on the humble and polite form of using

honorifics, both Toni and Julie appeared to use Korean honorifics appropriately throughout their

third-grade language use data.

Bowing when greeting

When Koreans greet older people, they use not only honorifics (Brown, 2011) but also a specified

body gesture (i.e., bowing). Bowing is the act of lowering the torso and head as a social gesture

towards older people (Brown & Winter, 2018). Since I was not the teacher for Toni and Julie when

they were third graders, the students did not regularly see me in the classroom. However, I met them

occasionally in the hallway in the school building during the semester of data collection. Whenever

the students greeted me, they bowed to me while using honorifics (the formal form of “hi” in Korean).

Their actions indicated that they had learned how to bow when greeting an adult.

During the interview with Toni’s mother, the mother revealed that she and her husband had taught

Toni how to greet his grandparents politely by bowing. The mother stated that since Toni regularly

saw his grandparents, he often practiced bowing when greeting them, which led him to use the body

gesture when he met other Korean adults. In Julie’s case, her mother shared that when Julie visited

Korea once a year, she and her husband showed Julie how others bowed when they greeted adults and

taught her the proper way to greet older people. After that, the mother observed that Julie began to

bow when she greeted older Korean people.

DISCUSSION and CONCLUSION

This article presented two focal third-grade Korean bilingual students’ language use over time by

examining different patterns between their first- and third-grade spoken language use. For the Korean

students in the U.S., like Toni and Julie, there has been a pervasive hypothesis that their Korean might

be jeopardized due to their minimum exposure to Korean and its reduced status in the U.S. as well as

their rapid increase in English usage (Carreira & Kagan, 2017; Murphy, 2014; Polinsky, 2018).

Indeed, previous literature revealed that when emergent bilinguals attended all-English schools taught

only in English, the students tended to experience HL shift or loss because they did not have much


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



exposure and opportunity to develop their HL (Montrul, 2018; Shin, 2014). However, the present

study showed that the focal third graders who were attending all-English schools during the week did

not lose their HL since they continued to use their HL at home and improved Korean proficiency by

interacting with other Korean speakers at the Korean HL school.

The comparison of findings indicated an increase in Korean and a decrease in English in the students’

oral language use over the two years. It was further revealed that the patterns and functions of their

translanguaging when speaking in the two grades were different. As first graders, Toni and Julie

frequently employed oral translanguaging into English because they did not know the corresponding

words in Korean. That is, their translanguaging in first grade was often found when they borrowed

their language repertoires from English for the unknown or unsure Korean words, which consequently

helped them complete their talk.

In third grade, however, it displays that the students had learned about most of the Korean words that

they had not known in first grade. In other words, Toni’s and Julie’s translanguaging in third grade

occurred not because they did not know the correspondences in Korean but because they were flexibly

employing their bilingual resources from both languages. Their translanguaging in third grade implies

that they were sociolinguistic competent in both languages. In other words, although Toni and Julie

engaged in translanguaging as a bilingual’s natural practice in both first and third grades, their

translanguaging practices in third grade appeared to be more strategic and purposeful (e.g., to

highlight) than in first grade. In the same sense, analysis of their language use in third grade displayed

that they decisively and intuitively translanguaged (e.g., bilingual re-voicing; Gort & Sembiante,

2015), which suggests that their translanguaging practices in third grade met a metalinguistic function.

The parents’ Korean-language-only rule at home appears to play a pivotal role in the students’

longitudinal language use between first and third grades. It was discovered that the parents focused on

their children’s literacy learning in Korean at home by providing Korean book reading time, which

assisted their children to improve their Korean communicative skills. Frequent communication with

their Korean relatives helped Toni and Julie practice Korean as much as possible by considering their

interlocutors’ different language preferences/proficiencies. In addition, exposure to Korean media

(television programs and songs) also seemed to influence their increased Korean language use over

the years. Overall, the findings showed that the focal third graders did not experience HL shift or loss;

rather, they were able to improve their communicative skills gradually and becoming competent

Korean speakers both sociolinguistically and socioculturally as they have developed Korean courtesy

manners in their heritage culture, such as appropriate use of formal Korean (i.e., honorifics) and

required body gestures (e.g., bowing). Accordingly, their third-grade Korean language use further

demonstrates their understanding and knowledge of cultural values and manners beyond their

sociolinguistic competence in their HL.

Implications and directions for future research When researchers pay close attention to bilingual children’s complex and rich linguistic experiences

and resources at home as well as immigrant families’ efforts to support their children’s HL

development, they can advocate and empower bilingual families’ and their children’s linguistic and

cultural resources as valuable assets (Cummins & Persad, 2014; Shin & Viruru, 2021). By focusing

on how bilingual children participate in the home- and community-based discourses, researchers can

contribute to constructing the practices and pedagogies to expand emergent bilingual children’s

language and literacy repertoires for their HL development. These directions for future research will

help us understand how to support HL bilingual children’s overall language learning and

development.

Given the socio-political contexts surrounding HL and bilingual education (Leija & Franquiz, 2021;

Melo-Pfeifer, 2015), teachers of bilingual learners of HL need to realize that pedagogies based on

language separation could easily marginalize students’ HLs. As shown in this study, although the

language of instruction was primarily in Korean both in the first and third-grade classrooms, the


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



students utilized their entire language resources through translanguaging when needed to engage in

class discussions. This finding suggests that HL teachers should allow bilingual learners of HL to

engage in translanguaging practices by utilizing their entire language repertoires flexibly when they

verbally communicate. By doing so, teachers of HL learners can motivate their students to actively

learn and participate in the classroom, and the classroom can become a vibrant bilingual space where

the students and teachers can display dynamic bilingualism while developing their HLs.

Immigrant parents whose children are emergent bilinguals of HL learners should acknowledge that

they play a vital role in their children’s HL maintenance and development (Lee, 2021; Liang, 2018;

Yazan & Ali, 2018). This study showed that parental involvement and practices at home helped their

children’s HL use and learning over the years. Hence, parents of emergent bilingual children should

encourage the use of HL at home and provide diverse opportunities for their children to make use of

it. As shown from the findings, immigrant parents should understand that communicating with other

family relatives can provide an opportunity for their children to learn and practice their HL. Parents

can also promote their children’s literacy skills in HL by providing various reading materials and

spending reading time with their children together. In addition, as the study exhibited the positive

impact of media in HL learning, parents can provide songs, television programs, or video resources in

HL so that their children are more likely to be motivated in developing HL from their positive

learning experiences.

The limitations of the research

This study had a number of limitations. First of all, although it was a longitudinal study, the focal

student sample size (n=2) was still small. Secondly, since I was the teacher in the first-grade

classroom but was not the teacher for the third-grade students, it was difficult to capture data on their

inner speech from the audio-recordings of their class interactions. Thus, there was a limited number of

third-graders’ translanguaging findings that served as their sociolinguistic and metalinguistic

functions in their oral language use. Although I asked Mrs. Joen (the third-grade teacher) to audio-

record the student talk in the third-grade classroom, I (as a researcher) was not present in the research

setting; thus, I might not be familiar with the classroom context in detail, and I might not have

understood some of the data accurately. For instance, I was able to hear the students’ voices but could

not see their non-verbal language (e.g., body gestures, facial expressions), which might have led to a

more precise analysis. Thirdly, I hold positions as an insider (the classroom teacher) and an outsider

(the researcher in this study). My dual role and positionality in this study might impact the study’s

credibility. For example, the mothers might have considered me as their child’s teacher rather than a

researcher during the interviews; thus, their answers might have been overly influenced by my own

stance and viewpoint (i.e., valuing HL learning and supporting bilingualism rather than favoring of

English-only education and monolingualism).

REFERENCES

August, D., & Shanahan, T. (2010). Response to a review and update on “Developing literacy in second-language learners:

Report of the national literacy panel on language minority children and youth.” Journal of Literacy Research,

42(3), 341-348.

Beaudrie, S., Ducar, C., & Potowski, K. (2014). Heritage language teaching: Research and practices. McGraw-Hill

Education Create.

Bloome, D., Carter, S. P., Christian, B. M., Otto, S., & Shuart-Faris, N. (2004). Discourse analysis and the study of

classroom language and literacy events: A microethnographic perspective. New York, NY: Routledge.

Brown, L. (2011). Korean honorifics and politeness in second language learning. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Brown, L., & Winter, B. (2018). Multimodal indexicality in Korean: “doing deference” and “performing intimacy” through

nonverbal behavior. Journal of Politeness Research, 15(1), 25–54

Carreira, M., & Kagan, O. (2017). Heritage language education: A proposal for the next 50 years. Foreign Language

Annals, 51(1), 152-168.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Cho, G. (2015). Perspectives vs. reality of heritage language development: Voices from second-generation Korean-

American high school students. Multicultural Education, 22(2), 30-38.

Cummins, J., & Persad, R. (2014). Teaching through a Multilingual Lens: The Evolution of EAL Policy and Practice in

Canada. Education Matters, 2, 3-40.

Elabbas, B., Montrul, S., & Polinsky, M. (2013). Heritage languages and their speakers: opportunities and challenges for

linguistics. Theoretical Linguistics, 39(3-4) 129– 181.

Fogle, L., & King, K. (2013). Child agency and language policy in transnational families. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 19,

1-25.

García, O. (2009). Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective. West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

Gandara, P., & Hopkin, M. (2010). Forbidden language: English learners and restrictive language policies. New York,

NY: Teachers College Press.

Gee, J. P. (2012). Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses (4th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Golberg, H., Paradis, J., & Crago, M. (2008). Lexical acquisition over time in minority L1 children learning English as a

L2. Applied Psycholinguistics, 29, 1–25.

Goldenberg, C. (2011). Reading instruction for English language learners. In M. Kamil, P. D. Pearson, E. B. Moje, & P.

Afflerbach (Eds.), The handbook of reading research (Vol. 4, pp. 684–710). New York, NY: Routledge.

Gort, M., & Sembiante, S. (2015). Navigating hybridized language learning spaces through translanguaging pedagogy:

Dual language preschool teachers’ languaging practices in support of emergent bilingual children’s performance of

academic discourse. International Multilingual Research Journal, 9, 7–25.

Guardado, M. (2010). Heritage language development: Preserving a mythic past or envisioning the future of Canadian

identity? Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 9(5), 329-346.

Guardado, M. & Becker, A. (2015). ‘Glued to the family’ the role of familism in heritage language development.

Language, Culture and Curriculum, 27(2), 163-181.

Halliday, M. A. K. (1985). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (1st ed.). London: Edward Arnold.

Hua, Z., & Wei, L. (2016). “Where are you really from?”: Nationality and Ethnicity Talk (NET) in everyday interactions.

In Z. Hua & C. Kramsch (Eds.), Symbolic power and conversational inequality in intercultural communication,

Applied Linguistics Review, 7(4), 449-470.

Kim, C., & Pyun, D. (2014). Heritage language literacy maintenance: A study of Korean-American heritage learners.

Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 27(3), 294-315.

Kondo-Brown, K. (2011). Maintaining heritage language perspectives of Korean parents, Multicultural Education, 19(1),

31-37.

Lee, C. (2021). Role of immigrant parents’ attitudes and practices in emergent bilingual students’ language use and

translanguaging. In G., Onchwari, & J, Keengwe (Eds.), Bridging Family – Teacher Relationship for ELL and

Immigrant Students (pp. 182–206). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Lee, J. S., & Jeong, E. (2013). Korean-English dual language immersion: Perspectives of students, parents, and teachers.

Language, Culture and Curriculum, 26(1), 89-107.

Lee, J. S., & Wright, W. (2014). The rediscovery of heritage and community language education in the United States.

Review of Research in Education, 38(1), 137-165.

Leija, M., & Franquiz, M. (2021). Building bridges between school and home: Teacher, parents, and students examining

Latinx immigrant experiences, In G., Onchwari, & J, Keengwe (Eds.), Bridging Family – Teacher Relationship for

ELL and Immigrant Students (pp. 100–121). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Liang, F. (2018). Parental perceptions toward and practices of heritage language maintenance: Focusing on the United

States and Canada. International Journal of Language Studies, 12(2), 65-86.

Lopez, D. (1996). Language: Diversity and assimilation. In R. Waldinger & M. Bozorgmehr (Eds.), Ethnic Los Angeles

(pp. 139-163). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Lü, C., & Koda, K. (2011). The impact of home language and literacy support on English-Chinese biliteracy acquisition

among Chinese heritage language learners. Heritage Language Journal, 8, 119-231.

McCabe, M. (2016). Transnationalism and language maintenance: Czech and Slovak as heritage languages in the

Southeastern United States. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 238, 169-191.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2015). The role of the family in heritage language use and learning: Impact on heritage language policies,

International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 18(1), 26-44.

Montrul, S. (2010). Current issues in heritage language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 30, 3-23.

Montrul, S. A. (2018). Heritage language development: Connecting the dots, International Journal of Bilingualism, 22(5),

530-546.

Moro, L., Mortimer, E., & Tiberghien, A. (2019). The use of social semiotics multimodality and joint action theory to

describe teaching practices: two cases studies with experienced teachers. Classroom Discourse. 1-23.

Murphy, V. (2014). Second language learning in the early school years: Trends and contexts. Oxford, UK: Oxford

University Press.

Polinsky, M. (2011). Reanalysis in adult heritage language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 33(2), 305-328.

Polinsky, M., (2018). Bilingual children and adult heritage speakers: The range of comparison. International Journal of

Bilingualism, 22(5) 547-563.

Polinsky, M., & Kagan, O. (2007). Heritage languages: In the 'wild' and in the classroom. Language and Linguistics

Compass, 1(5), 368-395.

Potowski, K. (2016). Bilingual youth: Spanish-speakers at the beginning of the 21st century. Language and Linguistics

Compass, 10(6), 272-283.

Ro, Y. E., & Cheatham, G. A. (2009). Biliteracy and bilingual development in a second-generation Korean child: A case

study, Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 23, 290-308.

Rodriguez-Mojica, C. (2017). From test scores to language use: Emergent bilinguals using English to accomplish academic

tasks. International Multilingual Research Journal, 12(1), 31-61.

Schmid, M. S. (2010). Languages at play: The relevance of L1 attrition to the study of bilingualism.

Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13, 1-7

Scontras, G., Fuchs, Z., & Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage language and linguistic theory. Frontiers in Psychology, 6,

1545-1564.

Seals, C., & Peyton, J. K. (2017). Heritage language education: Valuing the languages, literacies and cultural competencies

of immigrant youth. Current Issues of Language Planning, 18(1), 87-101.

Shin, S. J. (2005). Developing in two languages: Korean children in America. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.

Shin, S. J. (2014). Language learning as culture keeping: Family language policies of transnational adoptive parents.

International Multilingual Research Journal, 8(3), 189-207.

Shin, S. J. & Lee, J. S. (2013). Expanding capacity, opportunity, and desire to learn Korean as a heritage language.

Heritage Language Journal, 10(3), 64-73.

Shin, J., & Viruru, R. (2021). A qualitative study of home-school literacy connections between Korean ELL families and

their children’s early childhood teachers, In G., Onchwari, & J, Keengwe (Eds.), Bridging Family – Teacher

Relationship for ELL and Immigrant Students (pp. 238-264). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Spolsky, B. (2012). Family language policy – the critical domain. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development,

33(1), 3-11.

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded

theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Street, B. V. (1984). Literacy in theory and practice CUP: Cambridge.

Street, B. V. (2001). The new literacy studies. In E. Cushman, G.R. Kintgen, B.M. Kroll, & M. Rose (Eds.), Literacy: A

critical sourcebook (pp. 430-442). Boston: St. Martin’s Press.

Szilagyi, J., & Szecsi, T. (2020). Why and how to maintain the Hungarian language: Hungarian-American families’ views

on heritage language practices, Heritage Language Journal, 17(1), 114-139.

Tse, L. (2001). Why don't they learn English? Separating fact from fallacy in the U.S. language debate. New York:

Teachers College Press.

Valdes, G. (2014). Expanding definitions of giftedness: The case of young interpreters from immigrant communities. New

York, NY: Routledge

Veltman, C. (1983). Language shift in the United States. The Hague: Mouton.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Yang, J., Fox, R., & Jacewicz, E. (2015). Vowel development in an emergent Mandarin-English bilingual child: A

longitudinal study. Journal of Child Language, 42, 1125-1145.

Yazan, B., & Ali, I. (2018). Family language policies in a Libyan immigrant family in the U.S.: Language and religious

identity. Heritage Language Journal, 15(3), 369-388.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



SPECIALISED CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: THE CONVENTION FOR

NAMING ARRAYS AND DESCRIBING EQUAL GROUPS’ PROBLEMS

Chris HURST

Dr., Curtin University, Perth, Australia


[email protected]

Derek HURRELL

Dr., University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, Australia


[email protected]

Received: March 10, 2021 Accepted: April 17, 2021 Published: June 30, 2021

Suggested Citation:

Hurst, C., & Hurrell, D. (2021). Specialised content knowledge: The convention for naming arrays and describing equal

groups’ problems. International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 10(1), 19-31.


Abstract

Specialised Content Knowledge (SCK) is defined by Ball, Hoover-Thames, and Phelps (2008) as mathematical knowledge

essential for effective teaching. It is knowledge of mathematics that is beyond knowledge which would be required outside

of teaching; for instance, the capacity to determine what misconception(s) may lie behind an error in calculation. Such

knowledge should be core business of teachers of mathematics, and any perceived shortfall in SCK viewed as problematic.

The research reported on here is part of a large study about multiplicative thinking involving approximately two thousand

children between nine and twelve years of age and their teachers. Data were generated from semi-structured interviews and a

written diagnostic assessment quiz. As part of that large project, forty-four Australian and New Zealand primary and middle

school teachers were asked to respond to student work related to multiplicative thinking, particularly to concepts of numbers

of equal groups and commutativity. Participants’ responses reflected confusion about a pivotal piece of SCK, the convention

for naming arrays. As well, questionable assumptions about the children’s work samples were made. Given that there is not

unanimous agreement amongst mathematics educators about naming conventions, these observations may not be surprising.

Due to the sample size, broad generalisations cannot be made, but the results suggest that many teachers may have limited

SCK with regards to the important mathematical area of Multiplicative Thinking (MT).

Keywords: Conventions, arrays, multiplicative, teacher content knowledge.

INTRODUCTION

Background

Since the publication of Shulman’s seminal work on Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) in the

1980s, much has been written about PCK, as well as the variations of it. The attempt by Shulman to

codify the elements which can be identified in effective teachers, has provided a platform from which

the idea of Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching (MKT) (Ball, Hoover-Thames & Phelps, 2008) has

evolved. This paper posits the question “To what extent can a sample of primary and middle school

teachers articulate the Specialised Content Knowledge needed for teaching aspects of multiplicative

thinking, in particular, with regard to equal groups’ problems?” Further, it will make a case for the

development of teachers’ Multiplicative Thinking (MT), an essential ‘big idea’ (Siemon, Beswick,

Brady, Clark, Faragher, & Warren, 2015) of mathematics which spans the domains of Common

Content Knowledge (CCK) and Specialised Content Knowledge (SCK). It will assert that many of the

teachers involved in this study did not display sufficient levels of SCK, and therefore Subject Matter

Knowledge (SMK) regarding MT, that are necessary to effectively teach this vital concept. Further it

will investigate a pedagogical tool, the multiplicative array, for the teaching and learning of MT, a

tool which can be used to promote a conceptual understanding of this important mathematics.





IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Literature review

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) and Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching (MKT)

Shulman (1986) argued the presence of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), a form of knowledge

which could be described as the nexus between the content and pedagogy, and a third essential

domain, context (Figure 1). PCK can be described as a practical knowledge of teaching and learning,

through a contextualised lens of knowledge of a particular classroom setting (Shulman, 1986).

Figure 1. Shulman’s (1986) domains of pedagogical content knowledge

Since the 1980s, Shulman’s ideas and schema regarding PCK has been widely accepted and has been

adapted by a number of authors. In elaborating on Shulman’s construct of PCK, several teams of

researchers (e.g. Hill, Ball & Schilling, 2008; Ball, Hoover-Thames & Phelps, 2008; Delaney, Ball,

Hill, Schilling & Zopf, 2008) have used a construct (Figure 2) which aligns their stated domains of

content knowledge for teaching onto two of Shulman’s (1986) categories for PCK, Subject Matter

Knowledge (SMK) and Pedagogical Content Knowledge. This construct by Hill et al. (2008) to

illustrate Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching (MKT) was described by Depaepe, Verschaffel and

Kelchtermans in 2013, as being mathematics education’s most influential reconceptualisation of

teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge.

Figure 2. Mathematical knowledge for teaching (Hill, Ball, & Schilling, 2008, p. 377)

Hill, Ball and Schilling (2008) assert that Pedagogical Content Knowledge can be broken into three

domains: Knowledge of Content and Students (KCS); Knowledge of Content and Teaching (KCT);

and Knowledge of Content and Curriculum (KCC). Subject Matter Knowledge (SMK) also contains

three domains: Common Content Knowledge (CCK); Specialised Content Knowledge (SCK); and

Knowledge at the mathematical horizon. This paper will primarily concern itself with only two of the

domains CCK and SCK, while acknowledging that all domains are interrelated.

Common Content Knowledge (CCK) is mathematical knowledge and skill used in settings not

necessarily unique to teaching (for example the ability to: calculate an answer correctly or recognise

incorrect answers). Effective teaching requires more than CCK, it also requires Specialised Content

Knowledge (SCK) which is the basis of quality instruction, instruction which is focussed and where


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



decisions regarding both content and pedagogy are made (Delaney et al., 2008). SCK is the

understanding of the mathematical knowledge and skills which are particular to teaching (for example

the ability to respond to students’ “why” questions or recognise what is involved by using a particular

representation).

SCK of pedagogical concerns (for example, in recognising what is involved in using a particular

representation or linking representations to underlying ideas and to other representations) is necessary

to develop conceptual and/or procedural knowledge (Rittle-Johnson & Schneider, 2015). Bruner

(1966) asserted that concepts are progressively developed, first in the ‘enactive’ stage through

engagement with concrete experiences, then the ‘iconic’ stage, when pictorial and other graphic

representations are used, and finally, the symbolic stage. Bruner’s work underpins the contemporary

practice of CRA (Concrete-Representational-Abstract), a graduated sequence of instruction proven to

be an effective strategy for teaching mathematics concepts and skills (Agrawal & Morin, 2016;

Goonen & Pittman-Shetler, 2012). An example of CRA is presented in Figure 3.

3 2

3 + 2 = 5

5 Enactive Concrete

Iconic Representational

Pictorial

Symbolic Abstract

Figure 3. Example of CRA Model

CRA purports that it is developmentally advantageous for students to be afforded opportunities to

move from the concrete, to the representational, and then to the abstract (Goonen & Pittman-Shetler,

2012), in order to be facilitated in gaining a deeper and lasting understandings of mathematical

concepts (Mutodi & Ngirande, 2014). Research indicates that for learning benefits to occur, concrete

material is appropriate to the topic (Askew, 2018; Swan & Marshall, 2010), in order to stimulate

students’ thinking. Merely providing students with materials to manipulate, will not provide the

benefits of thoughtful selection and employment – that must be associated with particular SCK that is

linked to the use of manipulatives. (Askew, 2018; Swan & Marshall, 2010).

More recently, various researchers and mathematics educators have indicated the need for

teachers to hold a strong and connected knowledge of mathematical structure. Siemon,

Warren, Beswick, Faragher, Miller, Horne, Jazby, Breed, Clark, and Brady (2021) noted its

importance if teachers were to make learning meaningful for children. Similarly, Waller and

Marzocchi (2020), Parker (2019), and McKenna (2019) all provided examples of how string

teacher content knowledge could enhance teaching and learning of mathematics at a

conceptual level. Also, Clements and Sarama (2019) clearly allude to the importance of

strong teacher knowledge in understanding children’s developmental learning paths.

Multiplicative Thinking (MT)

Multiplicative thinking is fundamental to the development of important mathematical concepts and

understandings such as algebraic reasoning (Brown & Quinn, 2006), place value, proportional

reasoning, rates and ratios, measurement, and statistical sampling (Mulligan & Watson, 1998;

Siemon, Izard, Breed & Virgona, 2006). According to Siemon, Breed, Dole, Izard, and Virgona

(2006), students who are not proficient with multiplicative thinking lack the foundational skills and

knowledge to participate effectively in further school mathematics, or to avail themselves of some

post-compulsory school opportunities. Further, Siegler, Duncan , Davis-Kean, Duckworth, Claessens,

Enge, Susperreguy, & Chen (2012) advocate that knowledge of division and of fractions (another part

of mathematics very much reliant on multiplicative thinking) are unique predictors of later

mathematical achievement.


http://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.url?origin=resultslist&authorId=7005862070&zone=







IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Multiplicative thinking is significantly more complex than addition so is consequently not easy to

teach or to learn (Barmby, Harries, Higgins & Suggate, 2009). Although most students will enter

school with an informal knowledge that underpins counting and initial additive thinking (Sophian &

Madrid, 2003) re-conceptualisation of understanding about number is necessary to understand

multiplicative relationships (Wright, 2011). Multiplicative thinking is markedly different from

additive thinking (Jacob & Willis, 2001) and needs to be understood as being much more than the

capacity to remember and use multiplication facts. What is needed is a developing ability to apply

these facts to the many and varied situations which are built on multiplication. Jacob and Willis

(2003) outlined five broad phases for the development of multiplicative thinking: One-to-One

Counting; Additive Composition; Many-to-One Counting; Multiplicative Relations; and Operating on

the Operator. It is at the third phase, the development of many-to-one counting when students can

simultaneously hold two numbers in their head; the number of groups and the total in each group.

Traditionally the approach has been to use links with repeated addition to facilitate students’

multiplicative thinking (Confrey & Smith, 1995), an approach which may not be helpful in addressing

the variety of situations to which multiplication needs to be applied (Wright, 2011). Behr, Harel, Post

and Lesh (1994) posit that students often have the inappropriate additive model presented to them by

teachers, who themselves use an additive model. It may be useful for teachers to be given the

opportunity to ‘see’ multiplication as standard and non-standard multiplicative partitioning and to

create situations where they are mindful of the way in which questions and tasks are phrased and are

aware of the power of particular representations. A multiplicative array is a powerful representation

which may allow this to occur and teachers require a strong level of SCK to facilitate that.

Multiplicative Arrays as a powerful mediating artefact for MT

Research (Barmby et al., 2009; Young-Loveridge & Mills, 2009) suggests that the array is a potent

way in which to represent multiplication. Multiplicative arrays have the potential to allow students to

visualise commutativity, associativity and distributivity, (Nunes & Bryant, 1996; Young-Loveridge,

2005) and that if employed alongside other representations, can serve to “allow students to develop a

deeper and more flexible understanding of multiplication/division” (Young-Loveridge, 2005, p. 38-

39). Indeed, they enable students to understand commutativity through rotating the array, and, by

seeing that although the multiplicand and multiplier can be exchanged without effecting the product,

the two situations (e.g., 4 × 3 and 3 × 4) are different. Further, multiplicative arrays exemplify the

dualistic character of multiplication (Barmby et al., 2009), and have value in as a representation, that

they also connect to the mathematical ideas of area and volume and Cartesian products (Wright,

2011).

The representation of multiplicative thinking using the array is not a trivial decision, and one which

allows students to develop from being solely additive thinkers (Askew, 2018; Downton, 2008). While

representations such as ten-frames are adept at helping children to develop additive reasoning, arrays

have been the preferred representation in the development of multiplicative thinking (Siemon et al.,

2015; Vale, & Davies, 2007; Young-Loveridge, 2005). According to Askew, (2018) additive

problems and additive thinking (AT) are essentially problems involving three numbers, where all

three numbers relate to the same referent. For example, there are five sheep in a pen, three more sheep

are placed in the pen, so there are now eight sheep in the pen. Multiplicative Thinking (MT) problems

have numbers that do not all share the same referents; there are 4 pens, there are three sheep in each

pen, there is a total of 12 sheep. The four tells of how many iterations, or the number of pens, and the

three tells of how many sheep in each pen. This mental manipulation of the multiplier and the

multiplicand can be facilitated through the use of arrays which allows students the opportunity to both

visualise and manipulate the concrete representation, before moving to pictorial and then an abstract

representation (Askew, 2018; Lesh, Cramer, Doerr, Post, & Zawojewski, 2003; Sriraman, 2006). A

further advantage of the array is that it allows for collinearity (Jacob & Mulligan, 2014), the capacity

to focus students’ attention on the three quantities, the coordination of; the number of rows, the

number in each row (both factors), and the whole amount (the multiple), simultaneously (Jacob &


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Mulligan, 2014; Siemon et al., 2015). Importantly the multiplicative array also has agency in allowing

the opportunity to see multiplication as a structure rather than a procedure (Askew, 2018). Again,

teachers need to hold a strong level of SCK for this to occur.

Conventions for naming arrays and equal groups

There is an accepted convention for naming arrays and for describing numbers of equal groups, and

this is an essential component of teachers’ SCK. In a multiplication fact, the first number indicates the

number of groups and the second number indicates the number in each group. In an array, the first

number indicates the number of rows and the second number indicates the number in each row (Jacob

& Mulligan, 2014). Hurst and Hurrell (2018, p. 25) noted that it must be understood that “four groups

of seven (4 × 7) is conceptually different to seven groups of four (7 × 4) but that the order of factors

can be changed and the product will remain the same”. Hurst (2018) also pointed out the importance

of a conceptual understanding of ideas like the commutative property and how it underpins the later

use of mathematical algorithms and procedures. Indeed, Hurst (2017, p. 3) stated that, “being able to

understand and articulate that four groups of seven is quite a different multiplicative situation to seven

groups of four, demonstrates more powerful knowledge”.

To ascertain the extent to which this convention is accepted, a content analysis of 24 reputable sources

was conducted. Sources included research articles, conference papers, teacher education textbooks,

and publisher websites. Twenty of those sources, a selection of which is provided here, (e.g., Benson,

Wall, & Malm, 2013; Stott, 2016; Tipps, Johnson, & Kennedy, 2011; Van de Walle, Karp, & Bay-

Williams, 2013; Way, 2011) clearly adhered to the convention. For example, Tipps et al. (2011, p.

236) stated that, “The first factor is called the multiplication operator or multiplier because it acts on

the second factor, the multiplicand, which names the number of objects in each set”. In four other

sources, there was some confusion and/or contradiction about the convention (Barmby, Harries, &

Higgins, 2010; Cotton, 2016; Haylock, 2010; Reys et al., 2020). As an example of this contradiction,

Cotton (2016) discussed how 4 × 3 could be shown and promptly showed an array with three rows of

four. Later, he showed a three by eight array of postage stamps and correctly described it as a 3 × 8

array. While over 80% of the analysed sources adhere to the convention, it would be preferable if they

all did in order that teachers in all jurisdictions received the same message that the convention is

important.

The problem here is that not all of the sources used the convention for naming arrays. In the context

of the overall research described earlier, a sub-problem emerges – To what extent do teachers adhere

to the convention when naming and describing arrays?

METHOD


Figure 4. Theoretical framework


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Research Design

The study utilised a qualitative method of investigation that follows a constructivist research paradigm

and an interpretivist theoretical perspective, as outlined in Figure 4, which seeks to understand the

primary importance of the meaning people attach to the world around them (Creswell, 2007). The

qualitative methodology used content analysis of reflection sheets compiled by teacher participants.

Participants and Data Collection

Data were collected from 44 primary and middle school teachers from both Australian and New

Zealand schools, and this was done through working with small focus groups. The participants were

supplied with authentic work samples which had been collected through work with primary school

aged students and were asked to make some determinations about those samples.

Participant teachers were presented with printed student work samples and asked to individually

respond to two questions for each scenario:

a. What does each work sample tell you about the student’s understanding of the

mathematics involved?

b. What teaching strategies would you employ to help each student?

The first question to which teachers were asked to respond, and which is the focus of this paper, is

shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Question 1 from scenarios given to teachers

Fundamentally, the researchers were interested to determine which aspects of the identified SCK were

evident in the participants’ responses. Thus, there were two ways in which participants could

demonstrate SCK – appropriately identifying the students’ responses in terms of SCK, and identifying

an appropriate intervention in terms of SCK.

After multiple readings of the scripts, the responses were categorised by one of the interviewers

according to the aspects of SCK in the framework presented below. The responses were considered to

be either:

A valid or appropriate response indicating the presence of the specific SCK

A vague or inappropriate response indicating partial presence of SCK, or lack of it

These categorisations were then given to the second interviewer and challenged until a final set of

categories was established through consensus. This process required both researchers to agree on the

intent of the written materials, both in what was written and what that writing was trying to convey.

The process, although quite time consuming, proved to be instructive and challenging but remained

systematic and thorough.

Framework for Data Analysis

The framework for this study is based on the premise of Specialised Content Knowledge (SCK) and

the following five phases of development of multiplicative thinking proposed by Jacob & Willis

(2003).

1. One-to-one counting – can count by one, but do not trust the count and do not count on


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



2. Additive composition – trust the count, do not count groups, and can count on.

3. Many-to-one counters – can hold two numbers (the number of groups and the number in each

group) in their head and double count. They need to use arrays to move on. They do not understand

the inverse relationship of the multiplicative situation, nor the commutative property. They understand

the multiplicand but not the role of the multiplier.

4. Multiplicative relations – they know about the role of the multiplicand and multiplier and can

coordinate the structure of grouping for both multiplication and division. They know which number

tells them the number of groups and which one tells them the number in each group. They know

whether to find five times the quantity or one fifth of the total. They are starting to use commutativity,

inverse relationship, and part-whole understanding.

5. Operate on the operator – can work on variables in algebraic situations, operate on operators, and

can flexibly use factors to make calculation of a multiplication sentence easier.

The first two phases related to counting and additive composition and were not considered relevant

for this study and analysis. Also, the final phase relates to operating on variables and flexibly using

factors, which are not appropriate for the specific mathematics involved in this sample. Essentially,

Phases 3 and 4 focus on the transition from additive to multiplicative thinking on which the sample

described above is based (see Figure 5).

Jacob and Willis stated that, “…unless teachers can actually recognise the difference between additive

and multiplicative thinking, they would be unlikely to be able to help children develop the latter”

(2003, p. 461). Clearly, they are alluding to the need for teachers to hold the necessary SCK in order

for them to be able to assist their students to move beyond repeated addition. They need to recognise

and use the array structure rather than continue to rely on the separate groups. Hence, the importance

of teachers recognising the difference between the ‘array response’ and the ‘group response’ comes

into focus and the need for teachers to hold strong SCK is emphasised. Jacob and Willis (2001)

suggest that the power of the array lies in the fact that children can recognise the three aspects of the

multiplicative situation – multiplier, multiplicand, and product – and that multiplicative thinking is

about coordinating those three aspects in multiplication and division problems. Using two of the five

phases outlined by Jacob and Willis (2001), the following framework was developed for the purpose

of considering the data collected from the sample of teachers. The framework contains two aspects –

first, the developmental phase of children, and second, the specialised content knowledge required of

teachers to help children progress through each particular phase.

Table 1. Framework for data analysis

Children’s developmental phase

Specialised content knowledge required by the teacher

Many-to-one counters – can hold two numbers (number

of groups and number in each group) in their head and

double count.

3 x 4 means ‘three groups of four’ because the

convention is that the first factor indicates the

‘number of groups’ and the second factor indicates

the ‘number in each group’.

The representation as separate groups likely indicates

additive thinking and/or the use of repeated addition,

and a lower level of thinking than is demonstrated by

the use of the array.

Multiplicative relations – they know about the role of the

multiplicand and multiplier and can coordinate the

structure of grouping for both multiplication and

division. They know which number tells them the

number of groups and which one tells them the number

in each group.

The use of the array shows the two factors and the

product as one entity.

An array is read as the ‘number of rows’ multiplied

by the ‘number in each row’. Hence, a 3 x 4 array is

read as ‘3 rows of 4’.

The use of the array more likely indicates a level of

multiplicative thinking.

Rotating the array can be used to demonstrate the

commutative property.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Developing Categories for Responses

The process of developing categories for participant responses took some time. Initially, it was

thought important to identify what constituted a ‘full response’ to the questions about Tommy and

Jamie and to see which participants were able to provide such a response. A ‘full response’ about

Jamie’s sample was considered to include the following points:

Jamie should be asked to explain his thinking.

Jamie needs to explain what 3 × 4 and 4 × 3 mean.

Jamie needs to understand that 3 × 4 and 4 × 3 are different.

Jamie needs to be exposed to arrays and the convention for naming them.

Jamie needs to demonstrate an understanding of the convention for writing multiplication

facts.

Jamie needs assistance to understand the commutative property.

It soon became apparent that no participant gave such a complete response. It was then decided to

classify responses as ‘appropriate’ or ‘inappropriate‘, ‘vague’, or ‘unclear/incoherent’. As the analysis

continued, it was evident that participants frequently made assumptions about the work samples in

terms of what they thought the samples showed about the knowledge of the two students. Even when

challenged in conversation about whether their observations were assumptions or ‘truths’, few seemed

to be able to concede that making the assumption could be erroneous. Through extensive interviews

with children the researchers were abundantly aware that when such assumptions were made, they

were almost always incorrect. For example, when students were questioned about the orientation of

the array it was evident that it had been drawn with no understanding of the multiplicative situation or

commutative property. Hence, responses where such assumptions could not be totally justified, were

deemed to be inappropriate. Ultimately, it was decided that it would be better to focus on the

percentage of appropriate responses based on the framework criteria (Table 1) and to include

examples of inappropriate responses in the discussion.

RESULTS

The following results are presented in terms of the two phases of the framework – Table 1 shows

results for identification of SCK about many to one counters and Table 2 shows results for

identification of SCK about multiplicative relations. To provide some clarity about how the responses

were categorised, sample responses which are typically appropriate, or inappropriate, are provided

after Tables 2 and 3. Teacher respondents are identified with pseudonyms – R1to R44.

Table 2. Data summary relating to ‘many to one counters’

Many-to-one counters

(1) 3 x 4 means ‘three groups of four’ because the convention is that the first factor indicates the ‘number of groups’

and the second factor indicates the ‘number in each group’.

Part (a)

Appropriate Identification

40.9%

Part (b)

Appropriate Intervention

22.7%

(2) The representation as separate groups likely indicates additive thinking and/or the use of repeated addition, and a

lower level of thinking than is demonstrated by the use of the array.

Part (a)


11.4%

Part (b)


2.3%

Typical appropriate responses about the SCK in Table 2 Criterion (1) included that ‘Jamie has shown

4 x 3 and not 3 x 4 which he was asked to do’ (R1) or that ‘Jamie has made three, four times’ (R2).

Another participant responded with ‘Tommy is linking to arrays but doesn’t understand correct

placement. He should have three rows and four in each’ (R3). Inappropriate responses included that


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



‘They have both created three groups of four’ (R4) as well as making unjustified assumptions such as

‘Tommy has shown the relationship between 3 × 4 and 4 × 3’ (R5). Other inappropriate responses for

Criterion (1) included ‘They both understand grouping’ (R6), or ‘They both have an understanding of

what 3 x 4 means’ (R4). With regard to a possible intervention for Criterion (1), appropriate responses

included ‘I would get blocks and do hands on. [They need] visual representation of each one whilst

writing the number sentences’ (R7). Another response was ‘Jamie needs careful reading of the

question to adjust the groups of tiles. The first number is the number of groups and the second number

is the number in each group’ (R8). As well, another said that ‘I would want to interview Tommy to

find out why he arranged it that way’ (R1). Finally, another said that ‘Jamie needs to see 3 × 4 with

tiles and 4 × 3 with tiles to see if he can see the difference’ (R9). For Criterion (2), typical appropriate

responses included that ‘Jamie had laid the times out in a repeated addition format’ (R10) or that

‘Jamie is still thinking additively and possibly skip counting’ (R11). Good suggested interventions

included that Jamie needed to be introduced to arrays (R12) and that Tommy would benefit from

using strips of three and four to show groups and overlaying them to form the arrays (R13).

Table 3. Results identifying aspects of multiplicative relations

Multiplicative relations

(1) The use of the array shows the two factors and the product as one entity.

Part (a)


0%

Part (b)


0%

(2) An array is read as the ‘number of rows’ multiplied by the ‘number in each row’. Hence, a 3 x 4 array is read

as ‘3 rows of 4’.

Part (a)


6.8%

Part (b)


9.1%

(3) The use of the array more likely indicates a level of multiplicative thinking.

Part (a)


6.8%

Part (b)


2.3%

(4) Rotating the array can be used to demonstrate the commutative property.

Part (a)


2.3%

Part (b)


9.1%

There were few responses related to Table 3 Criterion (1) apart from ‘Tommy has shown the total or

product as one entity’ (R14) (appropriate) and ‘Tommy represents the answer, not the question’ (R15)

(inappropriate). For Table 3 Criterion (2), appropriate responses included ‘Tommy has shown as an

array but unsure if it shows 4 x 3 or 3 x 4’ (R9) and ‘Tommy is linking to arrays but doesn’t

understand correct placement’ (R3). Inappropriate responses included that ‘Tommy has laid out the

tiles in a 3 x 4 pattern’ (R10). With regard to a possible intervention, an appropriate response was

‘Ask children to share what they have made. Discuss how many groups they have created. Discuss

what 3 x 4 means’ (R16), and ‘Ask Tommy – ‘You have the right amount but how many groups are

there in 3 x 4?’ (R15) For Table 3 Criterion 3, an appropriate response was that ‘Tommy is thinking in

a multiplicative way and has used an array’ (R18), while an appropriate response for an intervention

would be ‘Ask Jamie if he can show it as an array’ (R15).

Table 3 Criterion 4 produced by far the highest number of inappropriate responses. Only one

appropriate response was recorded – ‘It would be easy to assume that Tommy perhaps sees the

relationship to 4 x 3 in his array, however, my experience of making this assumption in the past has

shown that this is often not a connection necessarily made’ (R16). Inappropriate responses generally

assumed that the commutative property was understood because Tommy had not shown the array as a

3 x 4 but in showing it as a 4 x 3, it indicated that he understood commutativity. For example,

‘Tommy shows perhaps greater awareness of commutative property of multiplication’ (R17).

However, there were a number of appropriate suggestions for interventions including, ‘Is this (3 x 4)


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



the same as 4 x 3 (i.e., 3 groups of 4 and 4 groups of 3)?’ (R19), and, ‘See if Tommy understands

commutativity and is able to show as [rotated array drawn]’ (R5).

Inappropriate responses for Table 3 included that ‘Tommy has only put the total in and he needs

separation to show groups’ (R20) and ‘Further investigation may be needed to see if they can be

represented in other ways. If not, further teaching may be needed’ (R21). The latter comment is not

related to any of the specific SCK criteria and is therefore considered vague or inappropriate.

It is worth considering the range of individual results across the sample of 44 participant teachers as

there was a great variation in the responses from person to person. The framework shown in Tables 1,

2, and 3 indicates six aspects of SCK that teachers could identify and about which they could respond.

With regard to identifying the SCK contained in each criterion (i.e., the question asking ‘What does

each work sample tell you about the student’s understanding of the mathematics involved?’), many

participants gave appropriate responses alongside inappropriate, vague or unclear/incoherent

responses. However, a large proportion (43.1%) provided no appropriate responses and 45.5%

provided only one appropriate response to the six criteria. No participant recorded a majority of

appropriate responses and 11.4% provided two appropriate responses. A total of 30 appropriate

identifications/responses were given across the whole sample.

With regard to using the SCK for each criterion to suggest an appropriate intervention (i.e., the

question asking ‘What teaching strategies would you employ to help each student?’), there was a total

of 20 appropriate interventions across the whole sample. Ten (10) of these related to the first of the

‘many-to-one counters’ criteria shown in Table 2, and there were four (4) appropriate interventions

suggested for each of Criteria 2 and 4 about ‘multiplicative relations’ in Table 3. In all, 65.9% of

participants were unable to suggest an appropriate intervention for any criteria, and 25.0% suggested

one (1) appropriate intervention. A further 6.8% suggested two (2) appropriate interventions while

2.3% (one participant suggested three (3) appropriate interventions.


Numerous educators have continued to write about the importance of deep teacher knowledge of

mathematical structure. In discussing pedagogical content knowledge, Siemon, Warren, Beswick,

Faragher, Miller, Horne, Jazby, Breed, Clark, and Brady (2021), noted the importance of teachers

having a strong understanding of structure in order for them to identify the best way/s of explaining a

concept so that their students find it meaningful. Clements and Sarama (2019, p. 44) alluded to the

importance of teacher knowledge, especially of mathematical connections, in discussing teacher

awareness of appropriate learning trajectories, stating that, “As teachers come to understand children’s

probable developmental paths and become adept at anticipating children’s strategies and

misconceptions, their teaching practices may become more grounded and solidified”. McKenna

(2019) discussed children learning about factors through exploring, rather than simply being ‘taught’.

Clearly, if such an approach is to be successful, teachers need a deep and broad understanding of the

structure about factors and multiples, a vital aspect of multiplicative thinking.

This is echoed by Waller & Marzocchi (2020) who assert that if children are to develop as deep and

flexible thinkers, then the mathematical content knowledge held by their teachers needs to be strong

and connected. Parker (2019) makes a similar point when discussing how children need to learn

multiplication facts with conceptual understanding. For that to occur, teachers need a strong

knowledge of multiplication and division. Hurst, Hurrell, & Huntley (2021) discussed children’s

fragmented understanding of factors and multiples. Their observations suggest that such fragmented

knowledge is possibly due to the way in which factors are taught which is likely to have its origins in

incomplete or unconnected teacher content knowledge.

The study clearly has limitations and it would not be appropriate, given the sample size (n = 44), to

attempt to generalise widely from the results of this study. Nonetheless, it appears that there needs to

be further research into teachers’ SCK about aspects of multiplicative thinking. Even when given that


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



the sample is small, some worrying indicators have emerged. First, the high proportion of participants

who were unable to identify the specific mathematics nor suggest an appropriate intervention is of

concern. Second, a number of participants made inappropriate assumptions about what the samples

demonstrated. This was particularly evident in responses to the ‘multiplicative relations’ criterion

about the commutative property where participants said that Tommy’s sample indicated that he

understood the property. It is just as likely that he does not understand commutativity nor the

convention for writing number facts, as in ‘many-to-one counters’ criterion 1. Third, the high number

of inappropriate responses that reflect a confused understanding of the mathematics needs further

investigation. Finally, there seems to be no ‘down-side’ to adopting a consistent convention for

naming arrays and describing equal group problems. In fact, research such as this would suggest that

consistency is advisable and desirable.

Even considering the limitations in terms of the sample size and the relatively narrow focus of the

study, there are some implications that are evident. First, the results suggest that further research

should be undertaken with a larger sample and a broader content focus about multiplicative thinking.

Second, with regard to teacher professional learning and pre-service teacher education, the results

suggest that closer attention may need to be paid to Specialised Content Knowledge (SCK),

specifically the fine points of mathematical structure about multiplicative thinking. In particular, the

convention of describing number facts in terms of numbers of groups and the number in each group is

important and forms the basis for understanding commutativity rather than considering it in a

procedural way in terms of ‘swaps and switches’ (Anthony & Walshaw, 2002). Teachers need to

better understand the structure if they are going to be in a position to assist their students to do so.

REFERENCES

Anthony, G., & Walshaw, M. (2002). Swaps and switches: Students’ understandings of commutativity. In B. Barton, K. C.

Irwin, M. Pfannkuch, & M. O. J. Thomas (Eds.). Mathematics Education in the South Pacific (Proceedings of the

25th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, Auckland, (pp. 91-99).

Sydney: MERGA.

Askew, M. (2018). Multiplicative reasoning: teaching primary pupils in ways that focus on functional relations. The

Curriculum Journal, 29(3), 406-423.

Ball, D. L., Hoover-Thames, M., & Phelps, G. (2008). Content knowledge for teaching: What makes it special? Journal of

Teacher Education, 59(5), 389-407.

Barmby, P., Harries, T., Higgins, S., & Suggate, J. (2009). The array representation and primary children’s understanding

and reasoning in multiplication. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 70, 217-241.

Barmby, P., Harries, T., & Higgins, S. (2010). Teaching for understanding/understanding for teaching. In I. Thompson

(Ed.), Issues in teaching numeracy in primary schools, (2nd. ed.). Maidenhead, U.K.: Open University Press.

Benson, C. C., Wall, J. T., & Malm, C. (2013). The distributive property in Grade 3? Teaching Children Mathematics,

19(8), 498-506.

Behr, M., Harel, G., Post, T., & Lesh, R. (1994). Units of quantity: A conceptual basis common to additive and

multiplicative structures. In G. Harel & J. Confrey (Eds.). The development of multiplicative reasoning in the

learning of mathematics (pp. 121-176). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Boaler, J., Chen, L., Williams, C., & Cordero, M. V. (2016). Seeing as understanding: The Importance of visual

mathematics for our brain and learning. Journal of Applied and Computational Mathematics, 5, 1-6.

Brown, G., & Quinn, R. J. (2006). Algebra students’ difficulty with fractions: An error analysis. Australian Mathematics

Teacher, 62, 28-40.

Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Belkapp Press.

Clements, D., & Sarama, J. (2019) From Children’s Thinking to Curriculum to Professional Development to Scale:

Research Impacting Early Maths Practice. In G. Hine, S. Blackley, & A. Cooke (Eds.). Mathematics Education

Research: Impacting Practice (Proceedings of the 42nd annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research

Group of Australasia) pp. 36-48. Perth: MERGA. Retrieved from:

https://merga.net.au/Public/Publications/Annual_Conference_Proceedings/2019-MERGA-conference-

proceedings.aspx


https://merga.net.au/Public/Publications/Annual_Conference_Proceedings/2019-MERGA-conference-proceedings.aspx

https://merga.net.au/Public/Publications/Annual_Conference_Proceedings/2019-MERGA-conference-proceedings.aspx

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Confrey, J., & Smith, E. (1995). Splitting, covariation, and their role in the development of exponential functions. Journal

for Research in Mathematics Education, 26(1), 66-86.

Cotton, T. (2016). Understanding and teaching primary mathematics. (3rd. ed.). Abingdon, U.K.: Routledge.

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand

Oaks: Sage publications.

Delaney, S., Ball, D. L., Hill, H. C., Schilling, S. G., & Zopf, D. (2008). Mathematical knowledge for teaching: Adapting

U.S. measures for use in Ireland. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 11(3), 171-197.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10857- 008-9072-1

Depaepe, F., Verschaffel, L., & Kelchtermans, G. (2013). Pedagogical content knowledge: A systematic review of the way

in which the concept has pervaded mathematics educational research. Teaching and Teacher Education 34, 12-25

Downton, A. (2008). Links between children’s understanding of multiplication and solution strategies for division. In M.

Goos, R. Brown & K. Makar (Eds), Navigating currents and charting directions (Proceedings of the 31st annual

conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, pp 171-178). Brisbane: MERGA Inc.

Goonen, B., & Pittman-Shetler, S. (2012). The struggling math student: From mindless manipulation of numbers to mastery

of mathematical concepts and principles. Focus on Basics, 4(5), 24-27.

Haylock, D. (2010). Mathematics explained for primary teachers. (4th. Ed.). London: Sage.

Hill, H. C., Ball, D. L., & Schilling, S. (2008). Unpacking pedagogical content knowledge: Conceptualizing and measuring

teachers' topic-specific knowledge of students. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 39(4), 372-400.

Hurst, C. (2017). Children have the capacity to think multiplicatively, as long as …. European Journal of STEM Education,

2(3), 1-14.

Hurst, C. (2018). A tale of two kiddies: A Dickensian slant on multiplicative thinking. Australian Primary Mathematics

Classroom, 23(1), 31-36.

Hurst, C., Hurrell, D., & Huntley, R. (in press). Factors and multiples: Important and misunderstood. International Journal

on Teaching and Learning Mathematics.

Hurst, C. & Hurrell, D. (2018). Algorithms are great: What about the mathematics that underpins them? Australian Primary

Mathematics Classroom, 23(3), 22-26.

Jacob, L., & Mulligan, J. (2014). Using arrays to build towards multiplicative thinking in the early years. Australian

Primary Mathematics Classroom, 19(1), 35-40.

Jacob, L., & Willis, S. (2001). Recognising the difference between additive and multiplicative thinking in young children.

In J. Bobis, B. Perry & M. Mitchelmore. (Eds.), Numeracy and beyond (Proceedings of the 24th Annual

Conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, Sydney pp. 306-313). Sydney: MERGA.

Jacob, L., & Willis, S. (2003). The development of multiplicative thinking in young children. In: L. Bragg, C. Campbell, G.

Herbert, & J. Mousley (Eds.), Mathematics education research: Innovation, networking, opportunity. Proceedings

of the 26th Annual Conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, 6 - 10 July 2003,

Deakin University, Geelong.

Lesh, R., Cramer, K., Doerr, H. M., Post, T., & Zawojewski, J. S. (2003). Model development sequences. In R. Lesh, & H.

M. Doerr (Eds.), Beyond constructivism: Models and modeling perspectives on mathematics problem solving,

learning, and teaching (pp. 3-33). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

McKenna, S. (2019). Discussion, conjectures, noticing. Mathematics Teaching, 267, 38-39.

Mulligan, J., & Watson, J. (1998). A developmental multimodal model for multiplication and division. Mathematics

Education Research Journal, 10(2), 61-86.

Mutodi, P., & Ngirande, H. (2014). The nature of misconceptions and cognitive obstacles faced by secondary school

mathematics students in understanding probability: A case study of selected Polokwane Secondary Schools.

Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(8), 446-455.

Nunes, T. & Bryant, P. (1996). Children doing mathematics. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

McKenna, S. (2019). Discussion, conjectures, noticing. Mathematics Teaching, 267, 38-39.

Reys, R. E., Rogers, A., Bennett, S., Cooke, A., Robson, K., Ewing, B., & West, J. (2020). Helping children learn

mathematics, (3rd. Aust. Ed.). Milton, Qld: Wiley.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Rittle-Johnson, B., & Schneider, M. (2015). Developing conceptual and procedural knowledge in mathematics. In R.

Cohen Kadosh & A. Dowker (Eds.), Oxford handbook of numerical cognition (pp. 1102-1118). Oxford, UK:

Oxford University Press.

Schneider, M., Grabner, R. H., & Paetsch, J. (2009). Mental number line, number line estimation, and mathematical

achievement: Their interrelations in grades 5 and 6. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 359.

Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand, knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher 15(2), 4-14.

Siegler R. S., Duncan G. J., Davis-Kean P. E., Duckworth K., Claessens A., Engel M., Susperreguy M. I., & Chen M.

(2012). Early predictors of high school mathematics achievement. Psychological Science, 23(7), 691-697.

Siemon, D., Warren, E., Beswick, K., Faragher, R., Miller, J., Horne, M., Jazby, D., Breed, M., Clark, J., & Brady, K. M.

(2021). Teaching mathematics: Foundations to middle years – 3rd ed. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

Siemon, D., Beswick, K., Brady, K. M., Clark, J., Faragher, R., & Warren, E. (2015). Teaching mathematics: Foundations

to middle years – 2nd ed. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

Siemon, D., Breed, M., Dole, S., Izard, J., & Virgona, J. (2006). Scaffolding Numeracy in the Middle Years – Project

Findings, Materials, and Resources, Final Report submitted to Victorian Department of Education and Training

and the Tasmanian Department of Education, Retrieved from:

http://www.eduweb.vic.gov.au/edulibrary/public/teachlearn/student/snmy.ppt

Sophian, C., & Madrid, S. (2003). Young childrens' reasoning about many-to-one correspondences. Child Development,

74(5), 1418-1432.

Sriraman, B. (2006). Conceptualizing the model-eliciting perspective of mathematical problem solving. In M. Bosch (Ed.),

Proceedings of the Fourth Congress of the European Society for Research in Mathematics Education (CERME 4)

(pp. 1686-1695).

Stott, D. (2016). Using arrays for multiplication in the Intermediate Phase. Learning and teaching mathematics, 21(6-10).

Swan, P., & Marshall, L. (2010). Revisiting mathematics manipulative materials. Australian Primary Mathematics

Classroom, 15(2), 13-19.

Tipps, S., Johnson, A., & Kennedy, L. M. (2011). Guiding children’s learning of mathematics. (2nd ed.). Belmont,

California: Wadsworth. (p. 203; p. 237)

Vale, C., & Davies, A. (2007). Dean’s great discovery: Multiplication, division and fractions. Australian Primary

Mathematics Classroom. 12(3), 18–22.

Van de Walle, J. A., Karp, K. S., & Bay-Williams, J. M. (2013). Elementary and middle school mathematics: Teaching

developmentally (8th. Ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Way, J. (2011). Multiplication series: Number arrays. Retrieved from https://nrich.maths.org/2466

Waller, P. P., & Marzocchi, A. S. (2020). From rules that expire to language that inspires. The Mathematics Teacher,

113(7), 544-550.

Wright, V. J. (2011). The development of multiplicative thinking and proportional reasoning: Models of conceptual

learning and transfer. (Doctoral dissertation). University of Waikato, Waikato. Retrieved from

http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/.

Young-Loveridge, J. (2005). Fostering multiplicative thinking using array-based strategies. The Australian Mathematics

Teacher, 61(3), 34-40.

Young-Loveridge, J., & Mills, J. (2009). Teaching multi-digit multiplication using array-based materials. In R. Hunter, B.

Bicknell, &T.Burgess (Eds.), Crossing divides (Proceedings of the 32nd annual conference of the Mathematics

Education Research Group of Australasia pp. 635-643). Palmerston North, NZ: MERGA


http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



AN EXPLORATION OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS’

MATHS ANXIETY USING INTERPRETATIVE

PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

Jane DOVE

MRes Psychology student, University of Derby, School of Human Sciences, Derby, UK


[email protected]

Jane MONTAGUE

Dr., Head of Psychology, University of Derby, School of Human Sciences, Derby, UK


[email protected]

Thomas E. HUNT

Dr., University of Derby, School of Human Sciences, Derby, UK


[email protected]

Received: March 31, 2021 Accepted: May 14, 2021 Published: June 30, 2021

Suggested Citation:

Dove, J., Montague, J., & Hunt, T. E. (2021). An exploration of primary school teachers’ maths anxiety using interpretative

phenomenological analysis. International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 10(1), 32-49.


Abstract

Primary school teachers are important in children’s learning of mathematics, and maths anxiety development has been partly

attributed to children’s classroom experiences (Das & Das, 2013). Maths anxiety was explored in UK primary school

teachers, with a view to understanding its development and impact. Data from four semi-structured individual interviews

were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), which facilitates a deeper knowledge of individuals’

personal experience. Three key themes emerged: “experiencing the psychological consequences of maths anxiety”, “social

influences” and “the consequences of experiencing maths anxiety as a teaching professional”. The findings contribute to our

understanding of the influence of maths anxiety on teachers and teaching practices.

Keywords: Maths anxiety, qualitative research, primary school teachers, experience of teaching.

INTRODUCTION

Maths anxiety is a negative emotional response to situations involving mathematics (henceforth

maths); it is not simply a proxy for poor maths ability but rather the fear that arises in individuals

undertaking a mathematical task, which impedes performance (Beilock, Gunderson, Ramirez, &

Levine, 2010). Indeed, there is much evidence that maths anxiety is negatively related to maths

performance (Hembree, 1990; Namkung, Peng, & Lin, 2019; Zhang, Zhao, & Kong, 2019; Barroso,

Ganley, McGraw, Geer, Hart, & Daucourt, 2021). It is associated with avoidance of effort-based

decision making (Choe, Jenifer, Rozek, Berman, & Beilock, 2019) and maths related education or

career paths (Hembree, 1990; Ahmed, 2018). It can also have serious implications within the

workplace such as inaccurate calculations of drug dosages by medical staff (Ahmed, Minnaert,

Kuyper, & van der Werf, 2012) or impaired financial planning (Beilock & Willingham, 2014). People

with maths anxiety may experience negative feelings when asked to divide up a restaurant bill or

answer a mathematical problem in front of others. Fear of being judged or looking incompetent in

front of others are the consequences of failure and can lead to unpleasant physiological reactions such

as feelings of tension, nervousness or nausea (Dowker, Sarkar, & Looi, 2016).

It is difficult to determine the causes of maths anxiety. One argument is that some people have a

genetic predisposition to develop maths anxiety. This has been seen in maths anxiety studies involving




https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5769-1154



IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



twins. For example, Wang, Hart, Kovas, Lukowski, Soden, Thompson, Plomin, McLoughlin,

Bartlett, Lyons, and Petrill (2014) studied 514 twelve-year-old twin pairs who were given a test to

assess their maths anxiety levels, a general test of anxiety, a maths problem solving test and a reading

comprehension test. A multivariate analysis revealed 40% of the variance in maths anxiety of the twin

pairs was accounted for by behavioural genetic factors and the remaining variance explained by non-

shared child-specific environmental factors. This suggests that maths anxiety may result from a

combination of negative experiences with maths and predisposing genetic risk factors associated with

maths cognition and general anxiety (Wang et al., 2014). Other work has suggested that brain activity

is associated with maths anxiety, e.g. neuroimaging studies indicate individuals with high maths

anxiety show reduced response in the posterior parietal and dorsolateral pre-frontal cortex brain

regions (which are involved in mathematical cognition) and increased responses in the right amygdala

– the brain region involved in affective fearfulness and threat detection (Young, Wu, & Menon, 2012).

Psychological theories have emphasised the role of cognitive processes, e.g. that working memory of

individuals with high maths anxiety is impaired by intrusive, worrisome thoughts (Ashcraft & Krause,

2007). In particular, it is thought that high maths anxious individuals use up limited attentional

resources of the central executive component of working memory, rather than allocating their

attentional resources to the task at hand (Suárez-Pellicioni, Núñez-Peña, & Colomé, 2016). This

debilitating effects model, however, has been discussed against a deficit model whereby an early

deficit in mathematical understanding and knowledge is thought to lead to the later development of

maths anxiety (Ma & Xu, 2004). As Carey, Hill, Devine and Szucs (2016) note, it is likely that a

reciprocal model is more likely. It also seems that maths anxiety is strongly related to the way a person

rates themselves in relation to maths (Dowker, Sarkar, & Looi, 2016).

It is likely that negative or positive reactions and experiences associated with maths will influence an

individual’s self-concept. Self-concept is a global composite view of oneself: how an individual

perceives their skills and abilities they possess (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003). Self-efficacy, on the other

hand, is concerned with what individuals believe they can do with the skills and abilities they possess

(Bong & Skaalvik, 2003) and constitutes an individual’s innate belief in their ability to succeed at a

task or in a situation (Bandura, 1982). Emotional and psychological states contribute to an individual’s

self-efficacy towards their maths capabilities. Self-efficacy is influenced by an individual’s past

experience and their perceived ability to master, or not, a particular task. It is also influenced by seeing

others who they determine to be similar to themselves either succeed or fail. Social encouragement

from others also influences self-efficacy; however, positive encouragement is more difficult to impart

and therefore to influence positive self-efficacy compared with the ease it takes to undermine an

individual. Reducing the stress response and an individual’s negative tendencies that they associate

with a task or situation will also modify self-efficacy (Bandura, 1994): how an individual perceives

themselves and their abilities influences their thoughts and behaviours towards a task or situation. A

high self-concept in maths for example may lead an individual to have a positive outlook on maths and

based on their feelings towards it and their past positive experiences may lead them to consider that

they have good maths abilities. For these individuals any maths difficulties may be seen as challenges,

thus prompting a positive approach towards solving problems. On the other hand, a low maths self-

concept can lead to a focus on negative maths experiences and a low perception of one’s maths ability,

giving a negative overall view of maths and possibly prompting anxiety around it.

One of the most clearly investigated factors on maths anxiety is the relationship between gender

and maths. Although research indicates that males and females provided equal education in maths

show little or no difference in mathematical performance, females do tend to rate themselves

lower in maths ability and to express more anxiety (Dowker, Sarkar, & Looi, 2016). This increased

anxiety expression in females is posited to come from several sources such as exposure to gender

stereotypes and the influence of and social transmission of anxiety by female teachers who are

maths anxious (Beilock et al., 2010). Stereotypically the common assumption in the maths domain

is that males are better at maths than females. When a relevant negative stereotype is made salient in a


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



performance situation an individual may perform more negatively than perhaps their ability would

suggest, resulting in stereotype threat (Maloney, Schaeffer & Beilock, 2013); this can impact both

maths anxious males who feel they are required to uphold the positive image of male maths

superiority, and females who feel they confirm the negative stereotype.

Some researchers have suggested anxiety as resulting from a combination of factors: if a child has

cognitive issues with numerical and spatial competencies and lacks confidence, they may have a

greater predisposition to pick up the negative cues from their maths anxious teacher, leading to the

development of maths anxiety (Maloney & Beilock, 2012). Additionally, negative classroom

experiences are considered by some researchers as key factors in the development of maths anxiety.

This includes maths being taught in a rigid, non-participatory or rote fashion without full

explanation of the concepts and procedures behind the methods (Das & Das, 2013) or an

overreliance on using tests to assess maths learning as well as teacher attitudes (Hamza & Helal,

2013). Schofield (1981) found that teacher attitudes were linked to students’ performance and

attitudes towards maths. Teachers who were classified with low or middle levels of achievement

and attitude in their own maths ability maintained the lowest student performance scores with

students holding the least favourable attitudes towards maths. This was compared to teachers with

high maths achievement and a positive maths attitude whose teaching produced high achieving

students even though the students had initially had an unfavourable attitude towards maths.

Jackson and Leffingwell (1999) also researched teachers’ own attitudes towards maths as a subject

and how their attitude towards teaching affected student performance. They found that many had

negative early school years experiences, describing negative teacher behaviours, including

hostility if they asked for help or highlighting student errors in front of the class, causing

embarrassment and humiliation. Overall, their study suggested that just 7% of their sample reported

having had only positive experiences with maths during their school years.

It is important to understand, therefore, how for some teachers a negative maths attitude might

evolve. Teachers who are anxious about their own maths ability may unwittingly impart these

negative beliefs to some of their students and therefore contribute to the development of the cycle

of maths anxiety. A negative attitude towards maths may also lead teachers to reduce their effort,

affecting their instructional behaviour, which in turn influences student attitudes. Relich, Way and

Martin (1994) suggested that a positive teacher attitude towards maths is beneficial as it helps

develop positive student attitudes; this then increases the likelihood of students investing more

time and energy in improving their own competence.

A teacher’s professional identity is a combination of their past experiences around maths, social

influences such as maths gender stereotypes as well as their knowledge, maths self-efficacy and

maths self-concept (Bennison & Goos, 2013). Research has shown that even teachers with high

levels of maths anxiety hold high efficacious beliefs about their ability to teach maths and express

confidence in their ability to be effective maths teachers (Swars, Daane, & Giesen, 2006). This

may be due to the availability of professional learning and improved pedagogical maths content

support for teachers that helps bolster their confidence in their ability to teach maths effectively.

Much of the research into maths anxiety seems to rely on questionnaires, beginning with the

Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale (Richardson & Suinn, 1972), and its subsequent versions (Plake

& Parker, 1982; Alexander & Martray, 1989; Suinn & Winston, 2003). More recent scales have

been developed or modified to measure maths anxiety in populations outside of the U.S.A. (e.g.

Hunt, Clark-Carter, & Sheffield, 2011; Nunez-Pena, Suarez-Pellicioni, Guilera, &

Mercade-Carranza, 2013). Questionnaires provide useful data about maths anxiety; however,

such a measurement technique may not capture the full range of individuals’ attitudes, feelings and

experiences of maths.

To date, relatively few studies have adopted a qualitative methodology to investigate maths

anxiety. Those that have, have tended to focus on pre-service teachers. Trujillo and Hadfield


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



(1999), via a series of interviews, identified commonalities between pre-service teachers in

relation to their negative emotions relating to maths, including early school and home

experiences and how they planned to overcome their maths anxiety. More recently, Uusimaki and

Nason (2004) conducted mixed-methods research to investigate pre-service teachers’ negative

beliefs and anxiety around maths. Applying thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) to interview

data, they generated three ‘school experiences’ themes: ‘origins of negative beliefs and anxiety

about mathematics’, ‘situations causing most maths anxiety’ and ‘types of maths causing maths

anxiety’. They demonstrated that most of the pre-service teachers’ maths anxiety could be

attributed to their own primary school experiences in learning maths, such as within test situations,

having to give verbal explanations, dealing with poor teacher attitudes and difficult mathematical

content. In their quantitative element, Uusimaki and Nason (2004) ascertained the number of

participants per theme and converted the totals to percentage scores. These findings suggested that

72% of their participants attributed their negative school maths experiences to their teachers,

rather than to specific mathematical content or social factors such as family or peers. These

findings have been supported more recently within work from Bekdemir (2010), who found pre-

service teachers’ maths anxiety to be related to their own remembered negative classroom

experiences, in particular the perceived hostility and inadequacy of their teachers.

It seems, then, that teachers’ own early negative experiences in learning maths might contribute to

the development of anxiety towards maths in others. However, research has suggested that even if

teachers experience maths anxiety and have a low aptitude for maths themselves, this does not

preclude them from continuing their career as a teacher and successfully teaching maths nor does it

negatively impact their confidence in their ability to teach maths (Beilock et al., 2010: Bennison &

Goos, 2013). A qualitative approach, aimed at giving a deeper understanding of what it is like to

experience maths anxiety, can be used to develop more applicable interventions and training as well

as to help raise awareness of the impact of experiencing its potentially debilitating effects. Maths

teachers in secondary education elect to specialise in maths and therefore, we suggest, may not

exhibit as much maths anxiety as teachers in the primary education sector who are obliged to

teach mathematics as part of the curriculum. To facilitate a more in-depth understanding, the

present research utilizes the qualitative approach of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis to

explore primary school teachers’ experiences and understanding of their own maths anxiety.

METHOD

Analytic Approach

Teachers’ personal accounts, gained via semi-structured interviews, are analysed using

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA, Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009). IPA has been

developed through integrating ideas from philosophers such as Husserl, Heidegger,

Merleau-Ponty, and Sartre (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009). Drawing on philosophical areas of

phenomenology, hermeneutics and ideography, IPA goes beyond pure description of events

exploring how individuals make sense of their experiences, such as maths anxiety, and what

meanings they attach to them. For example, IPA can give a deeper understanding of the feelings,

behavior and consequences of how a participant felt about being singled out when they were a

child to answer a maths problem in front of a class.

IPA is fundamentally ideographic – researchers are committed to a detailed analysis of the

phenomenon under investigation, analysing each individual’s lived experience before moving to a

cross-case analysis illuminating convergence and divergence between individuals (Tuffour,

2017). Teachers are the experts on their own maths anxiety experiences offering an ‘insider’s’

perspective through accounts of their childhood maths encounters and the impact of those

encounters on their professional lives as primary school teachers.

The data generated are embedded in the specific contextual and socio-cultural background that

participants and researcher share (Reid, Flowers, & Larkin, 2005) and the analytic process of IPA


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



is a subjective and reflective process of interpretation by the researcher of the participants’

experiences (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009). The researcher actively works with these data,

balancing shared commonalities across each account and highlighting participants’ experiences

(Reid et al., 2005). It has been argued that IPA might become more descriptive than interpretative

(Truffour, 2017) therefore it is important to acknowledge the double hermeneutic of the

researcher interpreting the participants’ interpretations of their experiences.

With its focus on lived experience IPA was deemed appropriate for an exploration of the

experience of maths anxiety. This is a topic that individuals express their feelings towards – it is

socially acceptable to ‘admit’ to not liking/not being good at maths (Kindermann & Skinner,

2009) – therefore participants are likely to share rich and detailed information about its impact on

their lives. As discussed previously much of the research in this area has used quantitative

approaches such as surveys and questionnaires whereas insights into the experience of anxiety

about encounters with maths are limited. Taking this novel approach our overall aim was to

explore the maths anxiety experiences of primary school teachers, offering a specific focus on

increasing understanding of the psychological impact of maths anxiety on primary school teachers

and their perception of its impact upon them.

Research Design

Data were generated using semi-structured interviews and then analysed using Interpretative

Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Rather than predicting what might prevent maths anxiety, IPA

enables insight into how primary school teachers make sense of their own maths anxiety

experiences thus informing recommendations for future developments of support in the area

(Cooper, Fleischer, & Cotton, 2012).

Recruitment Strategy

Participants were recruited from a state-run mixed primary school (ages 7-11) based in a large

town in the U.K. Permission was granted to advertise in the staff room for participants who

believed they suffered with maths anxiety; thus the participant group all self-reported their maths

anxiety. All participants consented to the study and were fully debriefed. Anonymity was

guaranteed through the use of pseudonyms in all transcripts and reporting. Ethical clearance was

granted by the university research ethics board following guidelines from the British

Psychological Society (BPS) Code of Human Research Ethics (2010).

Participants

As guided within the methodological framework of IPA a small, purposive sample of primary

school teachers (Table 1, four participants) was selected for inclusion. Their homogeneity

(sharing similarities such as occupation and working environment) ensured that detailed accounts

generated during the interview yielded sufficient relevant and idiographic information (Cooper,

Fleischer, & Cotton, 2012). No age range or gender was specified.

Table 1. Participant details

Participant pseudonym Tania Maria John Kate

Participant age (years)

29 28 38 21

Number of years teaching

10 7 2 <1

Ages of children they teach 7-8 8-9 7-8 6-7

Being taught maths at school and additional maths education

Tania remembers learning multiplication tables by rote, being selected to answer a maths

problem in front of the class and being sat at a desk with the teacher in the front of the class as

well as a lot of writing in exercise books rather than practical maths work. She took extra tuition

in high school to obtain a maths qualification in order to get to university and study a post-


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



graduate certificate in education (PGCE). John remembers standing in front of a chalkboard at

school working out an equation in front of the class. He also remembers desks in a row and

copying from the blackboard and writing in exercise books. John hired a tutor and re-took his

maths qualification twice before he could study for his PGCE. Maria remembers working through

text books, learning multiplication tables sitting at desks and learning in a rote fashion. Maria had

no further maths education after gaining the required grade on her first attempt in order to attend

university. Kate remembers teachers standing at the front of the class with her then writing

answers in an exercise book. She also remembers being asked to answer maths problems in front

of class and its damage to her confidence. At the time of interview Kate was having extra maths

tuition as part of her newly qualified teacher (NQT) training in order to help her complete the

maths requirement of the training.

Data generation and materials

Individual face-to-face semi- structured interviews were conducted using a schedule asking 12

open-ended questions plus prompts (see Appendix). Questions were designed to address a number

of considerations. They built rapport with participants, enabling them to contemplate the topic

under discussion and elaborate on aspects that held importance for them in relation to the overall

focus of the research question. As the research question’s aim is to uncover participants’

experiences of maths anxiety the questions were open ended and framed to encourage

participants to reflect on their childhood maths experiences, their adult and professional

experiences and the type of maths support they may have received. The questions also enabled

the interviewer to maintain control of the interview without leading the participant in particular

directions (Willig, 2013). Each interview was held in a private room on school premises lasting

35 to 45 minutes and recorded using a Dictaphone. The material gathered from participants was

transcribed verbatim.

Analytic procedure

Following the recommendations by Smith and colleagues (2003; 2009), IPA processes were applied

to each transcript on a case-by-case basis. This was then followed by comparison across all the

case transcripts.

Stage one

The interviews were read repeatedly to facilitate close interaction with the data followed by initial

noting of exploratory comments. The exploratory comments consisted of descriptive, linguistic

and interpretative comments. Descriptive comments involved identifying explanations and

descriptions of events, emotional comments or key experiences described by the participants.

Linguistic comments focused on the specific use of language that participants used to describe

events and feelings. Linguistic features such as the use of metaphors, repetition, pauses, sighs or

laughter were also noted. The third stage was interpretative and involved making conceptual

comments about what the researcher believed was the participant’s overarching understanding of

what they were saying (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009). Table 2 outlines examples of the types

of comments with the analysis found in the transcripts.

Table 2. Exploratory comments

Type of Comment Analysis of comments Original Transcript

Descriptive Remembers the panic which

heightened awareness of how

children may feel when asked on

the spot questions

“I just remember the panic part so

it definitely makes me more aware

of my kids”

Linguistic Use of ‘freak’ expresses strength

of reaction, use of ‘definitely’

reinforces action

“I would definitely have a bit of a

freak out because I would have to

go over things before I taught

them”


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Conceptual Feels the advantage of having

maths anxiety makes her a more

effective teacher of maths

“I do think it has an advantage

being aware I wasn’t good at

maths…..I almost find it easier to

teach maths because I feel I have a

very simple way of doing it”

Stage 2

Initial themes that emerged from the exploratory analysis were identified by taking note of the

transcript and the exploratory comments (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009). Themes were

produced using a concise statement or phrase that captured and reflected the participant’s original

words that alluded to their cognitive states, thoughts and feelings as well as the researcher’s

interpretations (Table 3).

Table 3. Developing emergent themes

Exploratory Comments Transcript Emergent themes

Remembers the panic which

heightened awareness of how

children may feel when asked on

the spot questions

‘‘I just remember the panic part so

it definitely makes me more aware

of my kids’’

Heightened awareness

Feels the advantage of having

maths anxiety makes her a more

effective teacher of maths

“I do think it has an advantage

being aware I wasn’t good at math

because when I explain maths to

kids now, I almost find it easier to

teach maths because I feel I have a

very simple way of looking at it”

Empathy

Recognises panic in children “If now if I have a kid that panics I

can see and know they are going to

panic”

Recognition of fear in others

Stage 3

Superordinate themes were then developed by identifying connections between the emergent

themes. Emerging themes were entered onto a list, printed and cut into separate pieces. The

themes were moved around on a piece of card (670mm x940mm) into clusters that represented

parallel or similar understandings and given a superordinate theme title that reflected the essence

of the cluster (Box 1).

Box 1. Developing a superordinate theme

Stage 4

Once stages 1- 3 had been carried out on all transcripts, the final stage looked for patterns across all

the cases to produce a master table of themes for the group. This involved laying out the

individual themes for each participant typed in a different colour to ensure an even consideration

of each participant. Each theme was cut into single items, placed on the card to facilitate

identification of connections between the themes. As clusters of themes for the group were

emerging the passages from each transcript were reread to ensure a close reflection of the data

leading to the creation of new superordinate themes and sub themes along with extracts from the

data to illustrate them. The superordinate themes were developed based on their perceived

importance of the participant’s maths anxiety experiences. On completion, the final master table of

Heightened awareness

Empathy

Recognition of fear in others


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



themes for the group emerged (Table 4). The quotes that it was felt most effectively reflected

participants’ thoughts and feelings about their maths anxiety were then analysed and are presented

in the analysis section of this article.

FINDINGS

The three master themes and their subthemes (Table 4) that emerged from the analysis are presented

with quotes from the participants and the researcher’s interpretation of the analysis.

Table 4. Master themes for the group and their related sub-themes

Superordinate Themes Subordinate themes

Experiencing the psychological consequences of

maths anxiety

Effects on learning and maths performance

Effect on self-efficacy

Social influences Parents and Teachers

Peer relationships

The consequences of experiencing maths anxiety as

a teaching professional

Recognition and understanding maths anxiety in

pupils

Benefits of experiencing maths anxiety

Each superordinate theme and its related subordinate themes are presented and discussed

individually.

Experiencing the psychological consequences of maths anxiety

Throughout their accounts, participants’ experiences of maths were discussed as making them feel

anxious and affecting their learning, maths performance and mathematical self-beliefs.

Effects on learning and maths performance Participants reflected how their childhood classroom experiences contributed to their feelings of

anxiety and how they made sense of the development of their maths anxiety.

‘I hated maths, I really hated maths and being put on the spot I absolutely hated it (sigh,

pause) You know when you are sat there and the teacher is going ‘what is 5 x 7?’ even if I

knew it, I didn’t know it when they asked me (pause) I remember just being so ‘please

don’t ask me please don’t ask me’. I just hated having to do something really quickly in

front of people.’ (Tania).

Tania’s emphatic response, in which her strength of feeling was emphasised, reflected her tension,

apprehension and worry at being singled out to answer a maths question in front of others. She

focused on the apprehension of being selected to provide an answer rather than being able to

think about the answer to the problem itself. Her constant fear of being singled out and being

unable to answer questions appeared to reinforce her negative thoughts and feelings towards

maths, thus setting up a situation of anxiety even around fairly straightforward numerical problems.

Maria recalled how her anxiety arose from the feelings of confusion she felt when attempting to

learn new mathematical concepts but was unable to grasp the theories:

I do remember really hating it (pause) because it was just hard and fractions in

particular. I didn’t get it, they were just numbers and lines. People were giving me food

and trying to talk to me about pizzas and cakes, way over my head and it stressed me out.

As with Tania, Maria emphasised her negative emotional response with reference to a specific issue

– in her case ‘fractions’. Even when people tried to illustrate them in everyday ways, such as with

food, she became stressed as she struggled to understand these attempts at clarifying new concepts,

thus linking to self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Effect on self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is concerned with the extent to which an individual believes they are able to

perform an activity (Bandura, 1986) and for these participants a shared negative self-belief in their

maths ability was evident. For some, this judgment arose from a comparison of how good they

believed they were at other subjects and the emotional attachment they attributed to them. Tania

said:

I got an A in English because I loved it so much I think I would have been much more

disappointed if I’d got low scores in anything like that I’m just really bad with numbers

like I said before I don’t remember numbers, no we’re not friends.

Tania’s emphasis that maths was not an area she was comfortable with, alongside her perception of

her poor ability, was based on the comparison she made on her past performances in English. Her

positive self-efficacy towards English, which she ‘loved’ was contrasted with her negative

self-efficacy towards maths, which she ‘hated’. Her rejection and dismissal of anything positive

being linked to numbers appeared to reinforce her negative self-belief and led to her conclusion she

was ‘really bad’ at maths.

Other participants demonstrated similar feelings of negative self-efficacy towards their maths

ability, a stress that was perceived to have wider implications in terms of career choices. Maria said:

Before gaining newly qualified teaching status you have to do a maths multiple - choice.

That was a bit stressful cause I’m like ‘(gasp) oh my gosh I don’t know if I can even do it,

how can I teach it?’.

Maria’s inward expression of doubt over her performance ability became apparent in her discussion

of training to become a teacher. Her worry about having to complete the maths test influenced her

perception of her ability to teach it. Similarly, Kate was concerned about the effects of her

perceived lack of ability:

I just get worried that one day someone is going to ask me a question like subtract

something and I’m going to be like ‘umm ermm ‘ and just not be able to answer it which

as a teacher you’re expected to be like ‘yep yep that’s right’. Sometimes I feel like I’m not

quick enough (pause) it’s always been my weakest subject (pause) but I have actually not

found that in the 7 weeks that I have been here.

Kate’s internal conversation, suggesting the type of response she believed teachers are expected to

give and what she believed would be her own response, again indicates negative self-efficacy

towards maths ability. Her negative expectation suggested a belief that she was not good enough to

teach maths even though that does not seem to have been found in practice.

Bandalos, Yates and Thorndike-Christ (1995) suggest that cues from past performance

experiences can be factors that contribute to self-efficacy judgments. Some of the participants

seemed to doubt their ability to teach maths based on previous negative experiences

(McCulloch-Vinson, 2001). The lack of confidence is suggested by Klinger (2006) to be linked to

negative mathematics self-efficacy beliefs that prevailed during school years. These are then carried

on into adulthood and are supported by registering and recalling events that support this belief.

In addition to the psychological consequences of maths anxiety that were discussed in relation to

their learning, maths performance and mathematical self- beliefs, participants also referred to the

social influence of parents, teacher and peers.

Social influences

The second theme focuses on how the attitudes and behaviours of parents, teachers and peers

affected participants’ maths anxiety.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Parents and teachers

As a child, maths homework was a key activity for all the participants but, as Tania explained, this

could become a problem:

I can remember taking maths homework home and obviously because my dad’s a teacher

and my mums a teacher I remember them trying to help me do it and I remember I’d get

so frustrated I’d say ‘no you don’t understand that’s not how we’re doing it’ (pause) it

probably was how we were doing it but because I didn’t understand it I remember having

right strops about it.

Although Tania’s parents were supportive in their attempts to help her with her homework, their

problem-solving approaches were described as clashing with her teacher’s instructions. This

difference in approach appeared to leave her experiencing frustration and confusion which, in her

own words, led to an angry reaction. In linking her frustration and anger to her lack of

understanding of her maths homework, its difficulty became more apparent. Categorising her

parents in terms of their occupation adds emphasis to her self- perception as someone who does not

understand. Not all participants felt the same level of frustration, however. Maria, in contrast, felt

encouraged and motivated by her mother’s involvement:

My mum went and bought me books and I’d be like ‘I don’t get it’ so yeah she’d buy me

loads of stuff and be like ‘this is how you do it’. It was good ‘cause I liked working

through books and getting stars and I liked the well done I liked that I remember my

mum always saying ‘ask someone if you don’t know ask, ask what can you do, don’t just

sit there’ I remember the stern talking to so I’m assuming that I asked.

Maria’s memory of having the resources she needed and the pleasure she derived from being

rewarded suggests she associated these positive events with her maths learning experience. The

clear description of the memory of her mother demonstrating how to solve maths problems, and of

the repetition and directive tone of her words of encouragement to Maria to actively ask questions

suggests she was aware of the level of her mother’s involvement and influence on her maths

experience.

Participants also described clear memories of the pivotal part played by their teachers’ attitudes and

approaches in their maths anxiety experiences. Tania described how a teacher helped her reach a

key goal in maths:

In fact, it was when I started not to hate it so much because I had a lot of tuition from my

maths teacher at the time and erm (pause) I guess in a way it affected me in a good way, in

the beginning your scared of it, because I had to work really hard and I ended up getting a

B and was so so chuffed (pause) because I was trying to just trying to get the C and I just

worked hard.

Tania suggests that as her fear subsided, she began to feel less negative towards maths; although she

still verbalised her negative feelings the teacher’s support may have increased her motivation. Her

hesitation as she speaks suggests her careful consideration of the effort required. Similarly, her

recognition of the support she received suggests an understanding that the efforts of her teacher

helped her reach her goal.

John experienced both positive and negative teacher attitudes and his contrasting accounts suggest

this had an important influence on his approach to maths:

My middle school maths teacher, I had the same teacher all the way through I loved the

guy he was fantastic and I remember, I don’t remember many teachers names but I

remember his (pause) he would actually talk to us like a proper human and he was a very

very interesting guy and I think that maybe that made him more human.

John’s use of emotive language alongside repetition alluded to the impact of his positive


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



experience with this particular teacher. The teacher’s open and encouraging approach appeared to

engage John’s interest and he began to feel comfortable in the maths learning environment. He

contrasted this experience with a different maths teacher whose attitude had a negative impact:

The teacher was very, erm (pause) she wasn’t (pause) actually she wasn’t very patient,

she was very impatient (pause) you couldn’t ask a question. I felt I couldn’t ask a question

without being shouted at.

John’s hesitation in discussing how this teacher made him feel suggests his discomfort at

remembering the teacher’s impatient and aggressive approach that seemed to discourage student

questions and created an intimidating environment. The negative cues John picked up from this

teacher’s behaviour may have highlighted maths in negative terms and possibly discouraged him

from engaging in the learning experience for fear of being reprimanded.

Parental encouragement and expressing belief in a child’s ability to learn may ensure they continue

to try even when they find things difficult, something which is likely to lead to less maths anxious

behaviour (Gunderson, Ramirez, Levine, & Beilock, 2012) and could increase mathematical

resilience (Johnston-Wilder & Lee, 2010). Schofield (1981) concluded that teacher attitudes were

directly linked to student attitude and performance in maths. In addition, as Das and Das (2013)

suggested, teachers provided a guiding and leading role in the learning environment and were

therefore highly influential in determining what happened in classrooms. Different experiences

ensued from this complexity of interaction, though teachers who cultivated a positive learning

environment encouraged children to learn and gain confidence. The opposite was true of negative

teacher behaviour and attitudes, which discouraged children and created anxiety in them (Plaisance,

2009).

As well as the impact of their teachers the participants highlighted how their interactions with their

peers also affected their maths anxiety.

Peer relationships

Peer relationships were important indicators to participants of how they compared themselves with

their colleagues with regards to their concerns around maths.

‘Once the Head gave us (a group of teachers) a SATS mental maths test cause she wanted us

to see the pressure the kids were under. My first instinct was to see what the person next to

me has written, you know like oh I’m right.’ (Tania).

John describes his experience:

When I was doing my PGSE I realised I wasn’t alone in my class of 30 people. There were

guys who were phenomenal they were real mathematicians and it’s when you start

talking to your peers you realise ‘you are actually in the same boat you’re not so confident

with it’ and I could probably get to the same answer as they guy who got there in 30

seconds it might take me 2 minutes but I will get there.

John’s personal attachment to his class suggests his feeling of connection to his peer group. His

expression of admiration of colleagues whom he considered to be mathematicians indicates an

acceptance of a range of maths skills. The ‘same boat’ metaphor suggests John’s feelings of

connection with others who experienced anxiety and reduced his feeling of isolation. Identifying

with peers seemed to help John acknowledge his strengths rather than focusing on feeling less

adequate. Being able to share experiences appeared to make him feel more comfortable in

expressing his maths anxiety.

How individuals believed they were perceived by their peers appeared to be of concern throughout

the interviews. For example, Maria said:

Sometimes when we are talking, when I’m with Tash and Gina, they are really


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



mathematicians, when I talk to them it all goes a bit over my head and I wouldn’t ask

(pause) I’d just be like ‘yeah aha’ . It’s all about your relationship, (pause) Tash I’m a bit

closer to and I would be like’ I didn’t get it’ whereas in front of Gina ‘oh ok that’s great’

but have no idea.

Maria discussed how she modified her behaviour in front of her peers when discussing maths so

that they did not perceive her to have less knowledge than them. This was particularly apparent in

her description of her behaviour with different people and its link to how well she knew them. She

seemed to gain some confidence from presenting an outwardly knowledgeable image when

discussing maths, achieved by observing her colleagues’ interactions and maintained her equal

standing in that interaction by expressing agreement. In other cases, within the data, peer interaction

was discussed as enhancing the ways in which participants viewed themselves. Kate said:

Coming straight from Uni your shown strategies for maths like multiplication grids (pause)

they didn’t know about that and I showed them the box method I was like ‘who’s seen

that?’ a few people had but some were like’ oh we’ve not seen that’ so I was like ‘yes one

point to me’.

Kate outlined a maths discussion with peers where she introduced new mathematical tools that she

had been introduced to while at university. This seemingly more knowledgeable status from

someone who was lacking in experience seemed to give Kate a boost in confidence, enhancing

her self-esteem. Her use of descriptive point scoring suggests that being able to demonstrate this

greater knowledge made her feel as if she had an advantage over her peers, thus enhancing her

self- image.

The awareness of the influence key people had on participants’ maths anxiety was a common thread

in their accounts. Research suggests that it is socially acceptable to express dislike for maths and to

have anxiety around it without it affecting social perceptions of an individual’s normal contribution

to society or feeling socially compromised (Kindermann & Skinner, 2008), and this was certainly

demonstrated by some participants. Others described comparisons with peers. Those who described

more successful peers seemed to suffer from increased anxiety and stress, an effect seen in research

where comparison to others may negatively affect self-esteem if an individual feels less able

(Klinger, 2006). In other cases, however, successful comparisons can aid in self-evaluation

(Wood, 1989), something demonstrated by participants in some circumstances. In addition to these

comparisons, participants also discussed how experiencing maths anxiety was sometimes

considered of benefit to them.

The consequences of experiencing maths anxiety as a teaching professional

In some of their discussions participants highlighted advantages of having a level of personal maths

anxiety. In this theme we explore how experiencing maths anxiety was described as enabling

participants to recognise similar feelings in their own pupils and how they believed it improved

their maths teaching ability.

Recognition and understanding maths anxiety in pupils

Kate recognised behaviour in her pupils that she had exhibited as a child in maths lessons:

There are the ones that don’t put their hands up probably like I used to do, that’s when you

get picked on because you’ve not put your hand up and then you get it wrong which

knocks your confidence.

Kate related particular classroom behaviour to her own experience, interpreting not raising hands

to answer questions as maths anxious behaviour: she reasoned that the children’s fear of being

selected made them anxious. Her use of ‘picked on’ suggests she felt empathy towards pupils

exhibiting this behaviour. Recognition of anxiety and understanding its consequences enabled

participants to employ teaching strategies that encouraged children to be less maths anxious. As

Tania explained:


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



You can just tell straight away, I’ve got a little boy who just sits there and if there’s a test

or you are doing something or ask him something he doesn’t know the answer, you can

tell he is just going ‘oh my God’ and he just says numbers, random numbers and you think

‘oh’ and move onto someone else and then every time he does put his hand up I’ll ask him

because he knows and I’ll give him a chance to say.

Tania’s description of what she perceived the child may be thinking suggests she felt empathy for

him within the classroom situation, which in turn enabled her to modify her own behaviour in order

to reduce his anxiety levels. Awareness and recognition of maths anxious behaviour and

understanding its impact on a child’s learning meant participants were implementing positive

teaching practices. Maria’s example of positive teaching practice appeared also to be as a result of

her awareness of her own maths anxiety experiences:

Now as a teacher I say ‘when I was your age I didn’t get this either so it’s alright if you

don’t get it’. So I generate that sort of culture in the classroom.

Maria’s expression of understanding demonstrates her expectation that some pupils would not

understand some areas of maths. Her reflection on her own childhood experience seems to indicate

why she was motivated to cultivate an inclusive classroom environment where it was socially

acceptable to not understand maths immediately.

It has been suggested that teachers who fail to implement positive practices may actually cause

students to learn maths anxious behaviours (McCulloch-Vinson, 2001). Subtle messages may

unintentionally be given to children that can validate their opinion of being poor at maths; this, in

turn may lower motivation and performance expectation. The participants’ heightened awareness

of maths anxiety and empathy, which they all perceived as a benefit, can help build confidence and

encourage pupils to work harder to overcome maths difficulties (Beilock & Willingham, 2014).

Benefits of experiencing maths anxiety

Experiencing maths anxiety and having difficulties with it appeared to enhance Tania’s teaching

ability:

I do think it has an advantage being kind of aware that I wasn’t good at maths or that I

didn’t really get maths because when I explain maths to kids now I almost find it easier

to teach maths than I do English because I feel like I have a very simple way of looking at

it.

Tania’s observation that she found maths almost easier to teach than English suggests she

understood the advantage of a simpler, more straightforward teaching approach, recognising the

importance of being clear when delivering maths as a subject. Her own maths learning experience

enhanced her awareness of the consequences of adopting a more flexible teaching approach

towards. The participants also recognised, from their own experiences, that as teachers their

attitudes were an important influence on children potentially developing maths anxiety. John

highlighted:

I’m much more patient with them and er ok you don’t understand it this way let’s think

of it another way so there’s two, three or four ways that we try and get or I try and get the

message across and er (slight pause) hand on heart I can honestly say if someone doesn’t

understand something I won’t shout, you’re not going to shout at a child because they

don’t understand and I think that is my biggest learn from my experience of maths being

at school. You know I think, I think its criminal to be impatient with a child with maths

only from my point of view you know knowing how how I felt its em my job to then to try

and think of different ways to make them understand.

John’s use of affirmative language and his commitment to avoiding expressing irritation or

impatience with children when they are learning suggests an awareness of his importance on the

pupils’ learning. His expression that this behaviour is “criminal’ alludes to the strength of his belief


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



that intimidating behaviour is unacceptable and counterproductive.

Participants’ approaches to teaching, based on their own experience, indicates the advantages that

experiencing maths anxiety can bring to a maths teaching context. The role of the teacher in

developing effective teaching methods breaks the cycle of maths anxiety that might otherwise

continue (Beilock & Willingham, 2014). Being more attuned to recognising maths anxiety in their

pupils, they felt they were better equipped to make adjustments to their teaching approach and

instructional delivery.


The aim of this study was to explore the personal accounts of maths anxiety of primary school

teachers using IPA, with the specific objectives of increasing understanding of its psychological

impact by personal interaction with teachers and listening to their maths anxiety stories, their own

reflections, perceptions and interpretations of their experiences. The key findings emerging from

this study lend support to previous maths anxiety research whilst also contributing new aspects for

future investigation.

This study helped uncover possible psychological consequences of maths anxiety with the use of

IPA by highlighting details of participants’ specific childhood maths situations. These were

organised into three key themes: ‘experiencing the psychological consequences of maths anxiety’,

‘social influences’ and ‘the consequences of experiencing maths anxiety as a teaching professional.

Situations such as feelings of worry over being singled out and being ‘picked on’ to answer

questions in front of others in class and being judged caused participants high levels of anxiety.

Also, their anxiety interfered with their learning, particularly those aspects of maths perceived to

be more difficult, such as fractions. The detailed information about past experiences and

comparisons with performances in other areas also appeared to influence their self-efficacy

judgement about not only their maths ability but also ability to teach it.

The detailed accounts connected to participants’ social relationships and the impact these had on

their maths anxiety mirrored other research findings that found positive support and

encouragement from parents and teachers resulted in maths progression and increased confidence

(Gunderson et al., 2012). However, if the social cues and observed behaviour particularly from

teachers was deemed to be critical, aggressive and unsupportive this highlighted maths negatively,

discouraged learning and resulted in increased anxiety (Schofield, 1981). Peer relationships helped

participants feel less isolated and influenced aspects of their behaviour by either modifying it to

‘fit in’ socially or resulted in enhanced levels of self – esteem; social comparisons with peers

influenced how participants viewed themselves in relation to how they interpreted their maths

anxiety and ability within a social context (Klinger, 2006; Wood, 1989).

Finally, this study uncovered some potential consequences of experiencing maths anxiety as a

teaching professional and offers some new insights. Previous research suggests in order to prevent

maths anxiety developing, teachers need to adopt a variety of strategies: flexible teaching and

testing methods, creating positive environments to help encourage positive self- concepts,

encourage original thinking rather than learning by rote as well as being aware of teacher

behaviours and the influence they can have on pupils (Plaisance, 2009). These recommendations

mostly are based on findings from questionnaires with fixed choice responses whereas findings from

this IPA study add further contributions to the literature by giving specific information direct from

the participants’ own experiences. In addition, the findings showed that teachers who have

experienced maths anxiety believe it may be helpful in their teaching, echoing Trujillo and Hadfield’s

(1999) finding that maths anxious teacher wanted to be more understanding and progressive in their

teaching. In our study teachers believed that their ability to identify and respond appropriately to maths

anxious pupils was advantageous as it enabled them to further understand how their maths anxious

pupils feel, readily recognise maths anxious behaviour, develop new teaching strategies to help


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



their pupils cope with maths anxiety and be more aware of the consequences of their own

behaviour. Indeed, such a positive view of experiencing maths anxiety is associated with the

concept of mathematical resilience, e.g. perseverance despite setbacks in maths (Johnston-Wilder

& Lee, 2010); the findings presented here suggest mathematical resilience may be relevant to

teachers as well as pupils, which can be further explored in future research. Future research could

also investigate if these positive maths anxiety consequences are supported by use of measures of

teacher effectiveness. This would have a huge impact on how and why we study maths anxiety in

preservice and in-service teaching populations.

Limitations

The research reported here is one of only a few studies of maths anxiety taking a qualitative

approach and is the first to use IPA to investigate maths anxiety amongst primary school teachers.

The analysis of the data gives specific detail and a deeper understanding of primary school

teachers’ personal maths anxiety. However, some limitations should be considered. Participant

teaching experience ranged from seven weeks to 10 years; more experienced participants may be

more likely to have developed strategies for observing maths anxious behavior, not only due to

their own maths anxiety experiences but also due to overall teaching experience of recognising

children in difficulty. Heterogeneity of time spent teaching raises issues concerning disentangling

attitudes and approaches based on teaching experience from those related to experiences

pertaining to maths anxiety. This is particularly important given that length of teaching experience

has been shown to be inversely related to maths teaching anxiety (Gresham, 2018; Hunt & Sari,

2019). Although gender differences in maths anxiety were not explored in this study, previous

research into maths anxiety suggests females exhibit higher levels of maths anxiety than males

(Devine, Fawcett, Szucs, & Dowker, 2012) therefore suggesting it is worth exploring this further

across primary school teachers. Finally, the present study is confined to the specific context of

UK culture; it is important to bear in mind the context-specific challenges faced by teachers

globally, particularly in developing nations (Hunt, Simms, Cahoon, & Muwonge, 2021).

Conclusion

The findings from this study hold useful implications for understanding the influence of maths

anxiety on teachers and teaching practices. Participants in this study perceived their own maths as

beneficial, feeling it has helped them be more effective teachers. Highlighting the positive aspects

of a phenomenon like maths anxiety, such as effective recognition of anxiety in pupils and using

flexible teaching strategies to accommodate anxious pupils whilst still delivering the curriculum

effectively, may help encourage a more mainstream approach to dealing with maths anxiety in the

UK education system. This study also highlights the fact that teachers themselves experience maths

anxiety and complements recent work on maths teaching anxiety (Hunt & Sari, 2019). Such

awareness and recognition of the influence of teacher maths anxiety on its development in children

could contribute to teacher training in the delivery of maths, as well as improved personal support

to alleviate maths anxiety in teachers. Future research into teacher maths anxiety and whether it

impacts teacher effectiveness may also provide new information that could highlight the benefits

of experiencing maths anxiety rather than it being seen in a wholly negative light; indeed, such

experiences may be associated with greater mathematics resilience. IPA is useful for exploring

the self- reflective processes through which individuals interpret and understand their experiences

(Brocki & Wearden, 2006). Therefore, continued use of IPA analysis in future studies may help

with understanding the developmental trajectory of maths anxiety and its negative and positive

impact on maths education. Overall, increasing awareness of the existence of maths anxiety in

teachers is important for informing further research, interventions and training for student teachers

as well as improving support and training for maths anxious qualified teachers, which may in turn

impact the development of maths anxiety in the next generation of children.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



REFERENCES

Ahmed, W. (2018). Developmental trajectories of math anxiety during adolescence: Associations with STEM career

choice. Journal of Adolescence, 67, 158-166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence. 2018.06.01

Ahmed, W., Minnaert, A., Kuyper H., & van der Werf, G. (2012). Reciprocal relationships between math self-concept and

math anxiety. Learning and Individual Differences, 22, 385-389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.12.004

Alexander, L., & Martray, C. (1989). The development of an abbreviated version of the mathematics anxiety rating

scale. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 38, 485-490.

Ashcraft, M. H., & Krause, J. A. (2007). Working memory, math performance, and math anxiety. Psychonomic Bulletin

& Review, 14, 243-248.

Bandalos, D. L., Yates, K., & Thorndike–Christ, T. (1995). Effects of math self-concept, perceived self-efficacy and

attributions for failure and success on test anxiety. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 611-623.

https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-0663.87.4.611

Bandura, A. (1982). The assessment and predictive generality of self-percepts of efficacy. Journal of behavior therapy

and experimental psychiatry, 13, 195-199.

Bandura, A. (1986). Fearful expectations and avoidant actions as co-effects of perceived self- inefficacy. American

Psychologist, 41, 1389-1391.

Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81).

New York: Academic Press.

Barroso, C., Ganley, C. M., McGraw, A. L., Geer, E. A., Hart, S. A., & Daucourt, M. C. (2021). A meta-analysis of the

relation between math anxiety and math achievement. Psychological Bulletin, 147, 134–168.

https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000307

Beilock, S. L. & Willingham, D. T. (2014). Math anxiety: Can teachers help students reduce it? American Educator,

summer, 28, 32-43.

Beilock, S. L., Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., & Levine, S. C. (2010). Female teachers’ math anxiety affects girls’ math

achievement. PNAS, 107, 1860-1863. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0910967107

Bekdemir, M. (2010). The pre-service teachers' mathematics anxiety related to depth of negative experiences in

mathematics classroom while they were students. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 75, 311-328.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-010-9260-7

Bennison, A., & Goos, M. (2013). Teacher identity and numeracy: Developing an analytic lens for understanding

numeracy teacher identity. In V. Steinle, L. Ball & C. Bardini (Eds.), Mathematics education: Yesterday, today

and tomorrow (Proceedings of the 36th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of

Australasia, Vol. 1, pp. 90-97). MERGA.

Bong, M., & Skaalvik, E. M. (2003). Academic self-concept and self-efficacy: How different are they really?

Educational Psychology Review, 15, 1-40. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021302408382

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77-101.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

British Psychological Society (2010). Code of human research ethics. British Psychological Society. Retrieved March 31,

2021, from INF180 2014 (bps.org.uk)

Brocki, J. M. & Wearden, A. J. (2006). A critical evaluation of the use of interpretative phenomenological analysis

(IPA) in health psychology. Psychology and Health, 21, 87- 108. https://doi.org/10.1080/14768320500230185

Carey, E., Hill, F., Devine, A., & Szücs, D. (2016). The chicken or the egg? The direction of the relationship between

mathematics anxiety and mathematics performance. Frontiers in psychology, 6, 1987.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01987

Choe, K. W., Jenifer, J. B., Rozek, C. S., Berman, M. G., & Beilock, S. L. (2019). Calculated avoidance: Math anxiety

predicts math avoidance in effort-based decision-making. Science Advances, 5(11), 1-9, eaay1062.

https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aay1062

Cooper, R., Fleischer, A., & Cotton, F. A. (2012). Building connections: An interpretative phenomenological analysis of

qualitative research: Students’ learning experiences. Qualitative Report, 17(1), 1-16.

http://www.nova.ed/ssss/QR/QR17/cooper.pdf

Das, R., & Das, G. C. (2013). Math anxiety: The poor problem-solving factor in school mathematics. International

Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 3, 1-5.


https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.06.010

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.12.004

https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-0663.87.4.611

file:///C:/Users/Sc/Downloads/Barroso,%20C.,%20Ganley,%20C.%20M.,%20McGraw,%20A.%20L.,%20Geer,%20E.%20A.,%20Hart,%20S.%20A.,%20&%20Daucourt,%20M.%20C.%20(2021).%20A%20meta-analysis%20of%20the%20relation%20between%20math%20anxiety%20and%20math%20achievement.%20Psychological%20Bulletin,%20147,%20134–168.%20https:/doi.org/10.1037/bul0000307



https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0910967107

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-010-9260-7

https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021302408382

http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

https://www.bps.org.uk/sites/bps.org.uk/files/Policy/Policy%20-%20Files/BPS%20Code%20of%20Human%20Research%20Ethics.pdf

https://doi.org/10.1080/14768320500230185


https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aay1062

http://www.nova.ed/ssss/QR/QR17/cooper.pdf

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Devine, A., Fawcett, K., Szűcs, D. & Dowker., A. (2012). Gender differences in mathematics anxiety and the relation to

mathematics performance while controlling for test anxiety. Behavioural and Brain Functions, 8.

https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-8-33

Dowker, A., Sarkar, A., & Looi, C. (2016). Mathematics anxiety: What have we learned in 60years? Frontiers in

Psychology, 7, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00508

Gresham, G. (2018). Preservice to inservice: Does mathematics anxiety change with teaching experience? Journal of

Teacher Education, 69, 90-107. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022487117702580

Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., Levine, S. C., & Beilock, S. L. (2012). The role of parents and teachers in the

development of gender-related math attitudes. Sex Roles, 66, 153-166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9996-2

Hamza, E. G. A., & Helal, A. M. (2013). Maths anxiety in college students across majors: A cross-cultural study. British

Education Studies Association, Educational futures, 5, 58-61.

Hembree, R. (1990). The nature, effects, and relief of mathematics anxiety. Journal of Research for Mathematics

Education, 21, 33-46. https://doi.org/10.2307/749455

Hunt, T. E., Clark-Carter, D., & Sheffield, D. (2011). The development and part validation of a UK scale for

mathematics anxiety. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 29, 455-466.

https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0734282910392892

Hunt, T. E., & Sari, M. (2019). An English version of the Mathematics Teaching Anxiety Scale. International Journal

of Assessment Tools in Education, 6, 436-443. https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.615640

Hunt, T. E., Simms, V., Cahoon, A., & Muwonge, C. M. (2021). Socio-cognitive-affective barriers to mathematics

education in developing nations. In W. Leal Filho., P. Gökçin Özuyar., A. Lange Salvia., A. Marisa Azul., L.

Londero Brandli., & T. Wall (Eds), Encyclopaedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals: Quality

Education. Springer.

Jackson, C. D., & Leffingwell, R. J. (1999). The role of instructors in creating math anxiety in students from kindergarten

through college. Mathematics Teacher, 92, 583-586. Retrieved March 31, 2021, from

https://www.jstor.org/stable/27971118

Johnson-Wilder, S., & Lee, C. (2010). Mathematical resilience. Mathematics Teaching. 218, 38-41

Kindermann, T. A., & Skinner, E. A. (2009). How do naturally existing peer groups shape children’s academic

development during sixth grade? European Journal of Psychological Science, 3, 31-43.

Klinger, C. M. (2006). Challenging negative attitudes, low self-efficacy beliefs, and math- anxiety in pre-tertiary adult

learners. In M. Horne, & B. Marr (Ed.), Connecting voices in adult mathematics and numeracy: practitioners,

researchers and learners. Proceedings of the Adults Learning Mathematics (ALM) 12th Annual International

Conference, Melbourne, July, 2005 (pp. 164-171).

Ma, X., & Xu, J. (2004). The causal ordering of mathematics anxiety and mathematics achievement: A longitudinal

panel analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 165-179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.11.003

Maloney, E., & Beilock, S. L. (2012). Math anxiety: Who has it, why it develops and how to guard against it. Trends in

Cognitive Science, 16, 404-405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.06.008

Maloney, E. M., Schaeffer, M. W., & Beilock, S. L. (2013). Mathematics anxiety and stereotype threat: Shared

mechanisms, negative consequences and promising interventions. Research in Mathematics Education, 15, 115-

128. https://doi.org/10.1080/14794802.2013.797744

McCulloch-Vinson, B. (2001). A comparison of pre-service teachers’ mathematics anxiety before and after a methods

class emphasizing manipulatives. Early Childhood Education Journal, 29(2), 89-94.

https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012568711257

Namkung, J. M., Peng, P., & Lin, X. (2019). The relation between mathematics anxiety and mathematics performance

among school-aged students: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 89, 459-496.

https://doi.org/10.3102%2F0034654319843494

Nunez-Pena, M. I., Suarez-Pellicioni, M., Guilera, G., & Mercade-Carranza, C. (2013). A Spanish version of the short

Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale (sMARD). Learning and Individual Differences, 24, 204-210.


Plaisance, D. V. (2009). A teacher’s quick guide to understanding mathematics anxiety. Louisiana Association of

Teachers of Mathematics Journal, 6 (1), 1-8.


https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-8-33


https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022487117702580

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199%1e011%1e9996%1e2

https://doi.org/10.2307/749455

https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0734282910392892

https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.615640

https://meteor.springer.com/project/dashboard.jsf?id=693&tab=About&auth_user=520724&auth_key=567c2d51af8ec0e15b8eb1bc9ddf8399

https://meteor.springer.com/project/dashboard.jsf?id=693&tab=About&auth_user=520724&auth_key=567c2d51af8ec0e15b8eb1bc9ddf8399

https://www.jstor.org/stable/27971118

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.11.003

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.06.008

https://doi.org/10.1080/14794802.2013.797744

https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012568711257

https://doi.org/10.3102%2F0034654319843494


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Plake, B. S., & Parker, C. S. (1982). The development and validation of a revised version of the mathematics anxiety rating

scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 42, 551-557.

https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001316448204200218

Reid, K., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2005). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: An overview and methodo-

logical review. The Psychologist, 18, 20-23.

Relich, J., Way, J., & Martin, A. (1994). Attitudes to teaching mathematics: Further development of a measurement

instrument. Mathematics Research Journal, 6 (1), 56-69. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03217262

Richardson, F. C., & Suinn, R. M. (1972). The Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 19,

551-554.

Schofield, H. L. (1981). Teacher effects on cognitive and affective pupil outcomes in elementary school mathematics.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 462-571.

Smith, J., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2009). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. Sage Publications Inc.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14780880903340091

Smith, J. A., & Osborn, M. (2003) Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In J.A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative

Psychology: A Practical Guide to Research Methods. London: Sage Publications Inc.

Suárez-Pellicioni, M., Núñez-Peña, M. I., & Colomé, À. (2016). Math anxiety: A review of its cognitive consequences,

psychophysiological correlates, and brain bases. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 16(1), 3-22.

http://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-015-0370-7

Suinn, R. M., & Winston, E. H. (2003). The mathematics anxiety rating scale, a brief version: Psychometric data.

Psychological Reports, 92, 167-173. https://doi.org/10.2466%2Fpr0.2003.92.1.167

Swars, S., Daane, C., & Giesen, J. (2006). Mathematics anxiety and mathematics teacher efficacy: What is the

relationship in elementary preservice teachers? School Science and Mathematics, 106(7), 306-315.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1949-8594.2006.tb17921.x

Trujillo, K. M., & Hadfield, O. D. (1999). Tracing the roots of mathematics anxiety through in-depth interviews with

preservice elementary teachers. College Student Journal, 33(2), 219-232.

Tuffour, I. (2017). A critical overview of interpretative phenomenological analysis: a contemporary qualitative research

approach. Journal of Healthcare Communications, 2(4), 52. https://doi.org/10.4172/2472-1654.100093

Uusimaki, L., & Nason, R. (2004). Causes underlying pre-service teachers’ negative beliefs and anxieties about

mathematics. Group for the Psychology of Mathematics, 4, 369-376.

Wang, Z., Hart, S., Kovas, Y., Lukowski, S., Soden, B., & Thompson, L., Plomin, R., McLoughlin, G., Bartlett, C. W.,

Lyons, I. M., & Petrill, S. A. (2014). Who is afraid of math? Two sources of genetic variance for mathematical

anxiety. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 1056-1064. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12224

Willig, C. (2013). Introducing qualitative research in psychology (3rd ed.). Maidenhead, England: Open University Press.

Wood, J. V. (1989). Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes. Psychological Bulletin,

106, 231-248.

Young, C., Wu, S., & Menon, V. (2012). The neurodevelopmental basis of math anxiety. Psychological Science, 23,

492-501. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0956797611429134

Zhang, J., Zhao, N., & Kong, Q. P. (2019). The relationship between math anxiety and math performance: A meta-

analytic investigation. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1613. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01613


https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001316448204200218

https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03217262

https://doi.org/10.1080/14780880903340091

http://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-015-0370-7

https://doi.org/10.2466%2Fpr0.2003.92.1.167


https://doi.org/10.4172/2472-1654.100093

https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12224

https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0956797611429134

file:///C:/Users/Sc/Downloads/Zhang,%20J.,%20Zhao,%20N.,%20&%20Kong,%20Q.%20P.%20(2019).%20The%20relationship%20between%20math%20anxiety%20and%20math%20performance:%20A%20meta-analytic%20investigation.%20Frontiers%20in%20Psychology,%2010,%201613.%20https:/doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01613

file:///C:/Users/Sc/Downloads/Zhang,%20J.,%20Zhao,%20N.,%20&%20Kong,%20Q.%20P.%20(2019).%20The%20relationship%20between%20math%20anxiety%20and%20math%20performance:%20A%20meta-analytic%20investigation.%20Frontiers%20in%20Psychology,%2010,%201613.%20https:/doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01613

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



THE EFFECT OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING ON PRE-SERVICE

PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS' CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING

AND MISCONCEPTIONS

Çiğdem ŞENYİĞİT

Dr., Van Yüzüncü Yıl University, Faculty of Education,

Department of Basic Education, Van, Turkey


[email protected]

Received: November 04, 2020 Accepted: March 20, 2021 Published: June 30, 2021

Suggested Citation:

Şenyiğit, Ç. (2021). The effect of problem-based learning on pre-service primary school teachers' conceptual understanding

and misconceptions. International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 10(1), 50-72.


Abstract

The aim of this research is to investigate the effect of problem-based learning on misconceptions and conceptual

understanding regarding simple electric circuits. Participants are 54 pre-service primary school teachers enrolled on the Basic

Science in Elementary School course at a state university. The research employs a nonequivalent control group model. The

activity sheets containing problem-based scenarios prepared by the researcher were used in the experimental group. In the

control group, the lecture-based learning supported by problem solving, question-answer, discussion activities and

demonstration experiments was used. Data were gathered by three-tier Simple Electric Circuit Diagnostic Test consisting of

12 questions developed by Peşman (2005). The research revealed that problem-based learning is more effective in improving

conceptual understanding and overcoming misconceptions than lecture-based learning.

Keywords: Problem-based learning, conceptual understanding, misconceptions, simple electric circuit, pre-service primary

school teachers.

INTRODUCTION

In modern education systems, it is aimed to train individuals who can acquire scientific knowledge and

concepts, and integrate these into the solutions of problem situations. Learning environments are of

great importance in raising individuals with these qualities. This requires learning environments that

allow learners to construct and internalize scientific knowledge based on their own prior knowledge.

Learners develop some knowledge and explanations about the natural world from formal or informal

learning environments based on their experiences (Soeharto, Csapó, Sarimanah, Dewi, & Sabri, 2019).

However, these pre-knowledge and concepts do not always correspond to accurate scientific

explanations (Duit & Treagust, 2003). The literature shows that the learners have some non-scientific

concepts and explanations in various subject fields of science, such as electric circuits (Engelhardt &

Beichner, 2004; Küçüközer & Kocakülah, 2007; Peşman & Eryılmaz, 2010; Tahir, Nasri, & Halim,

2020), force and motion (Anggoro, Widodo, Suhandi, & Treagust, 2019; Fadaei & Mora, 2015;

Narjaikaew, 2013; Nie, Xiao, Fritchman, Liu, Han, Xiong, & Bao, 2019), chemical bonding (Fadillah

& Salirawati, 2018; Fahmi & Irhasyuarna, 2017), acids and bases (Mubarokah, Mulyani, & Indriyanti,

2018), photosynthesis (Haslam & Treagust, 1987; Kırılmazkaya & Kırbağ Zengin, 2016), heat and

temperature (Alwan, 2011; Suliyanah, Putri, & Rohmawati, 2018). These non-scientific concepts and

explanations pose great obstacles to the conceptual understanding, and it is important to reduce their

effect to achieve the determined learning goals. However, scientifically reconstructing these concepts

is not always an easy process. The required conceptual change is expressed as the process of repairing

the misconceptions to allow a deeper conceptual understanding (Chi & Roscoe, 2002). When

considered from this point of view, identifying and correcting the misconceptions is the basis for

learners to construct scientific knowledge and concepts. The lecture method is ineffective for this task

(Desstya, Prasetyo, Suyanta, Susila, & Irwanto, 2019), and it is necessary to apply appropriate

teaching strategies (Widarti, Permanasari, & Mulyani, 2017). For this, learning environments and

approaches that give opportunities conceptual change to the learners are needed. It can be said that




IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



problem-based learning (PBL) will allow learners to understand if their concepts are correct, and to

correct them if not. At the same time, it is thought that the PBL will help the learners to provide

conceptual understanding by constructing the conceptual structure of the knowledge in the subject

field within the scope of scientific methods. In the following sections, there is a discussion on why and

how PBL has these effects.

Theoretical Background

A conceptual understanding becomes meaningful when conceptual knowledge is used in the process

of discovering and explaining new situations, beyond knowing the facts and conceptual labels (Roth,

1990). For this reason, there is a need for educational approaches that allow the concepts to be

structured beyond memorization and to be interpreted by transferring them to different situations.

Considered in a theoretical context, it can be said that cognitive theories are among the leading

theories that play a role in concept formation and conceptual understanding. Cognitive theories place

great emphasis on learners processing information (Schunk, 2012). Cognitive psychologists who

research the mental processes in the learning process argue that prior knowledge has a critical role in

the learning process (Roth, 1990). In addition, constructivism, which emphasizes that knowledge is

not independent of the human mind, cannot be transferred among individuals, must be structured by

individuals based on their prior knowledge and experience (Hendry, Frommer, & Walker, 1999), is a

leading approach in the process of concept formation and conceptual understanding. Constructivism

emphasizes that the learning process should take place in meaningful contexts, and what has been

learned will be meaningless unless put into practice (Marra, Jonassen, Palmer, & Luft, 2014). Piaget,

who has one of the biggest influences on the rise of constructivism (Schunk, 2012), has defined a

learning process in which individuals create meaning with the dynamic cognitive schemas they have

created as a result of their experiences (Scott, Asoko, & Leach, 2007). These schemas are sets of

information that define the concepts that exist in individuals' minds and the relationships among

concepts (Roth, 1990). Individuals create various conceptual structures in their mental schemas based

on experiences in their own lives. When the new concepts that individuals encounter are compatible

with their existing schemas, they include them in their existing schemas; this is assimilation (Scott et

al., 2007). However, a cognitive imbalance occurs when the concepts that individuals encounter are

incompatible with their existing schemas (Abraham, 2005). In this case, individuals enter into the

process of organizing their existing schema or creating a new schema; i.e. accommodation (Zhiqing,

2015). Cognitive development can only occur when there is a cognitive imbalance or cognitive

conflict (Schunk, 2012). Learners need to change their current non-scientific concepts with correct

concepts by experiencing cognitive conflict in order to form the correct conceptual understanding. In

this context, PBL comes across.

PBL is basically based on the constructivist assumption (Loyens, Rikers & Schmidt, 2006; Marra et

al., 2014). Promoting experiential active learning, PBL focuses on supporting the formation of

knowledge (Torp & Sage, 2002). Conceptual understanding refers to the ability to integrate the

theoretical knowledge existing in the mind of the individual into practice in different events and

situations (Darmofal, Soderholm, & Brodeur, 2002). PBL uses real world problems to help learners

identify concepts and information they want to know and integrate them into practice (Duch, Groh, &

Allen, 2001). This shows that PBL can be effective in forming a conceptual understanding. In PBL,

while students determine the concepts they need to know in order to solve the problem, they actually

enter the conceptual change process required for conceptual understanding. Trying to create meaning

between what we know and what we want to know about the problems in the PBL includes

incompatibility, and trying to solve this incompatibility is the essence of knowledge construction

(Marra et al., 2014). Learners conduct a pre-discussion in small groups about the problem situations in

order to activate their own prior knowledge in PBL (Wood, 2003). These pre-discussions support to

create new cognitive structures by enabling learners to encounter different views (Dolmans,

Wolfhagen, Van Der Vleuten, & Wijnen, 2001). The opportunity for learners to question their own

concepts when confronted with different views may cause renewal and change in the cognitive

structures of the learners. This situation may foresee that different views may create cognitive conflict.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



In this case, PBL aims to provide a cognitive conflict that will initiate the conceptual change process

required for a correct and valid conceptual understanding (De Grave, Boshuizen, & Schmidt, 1996).

Cognitive conflict is an important factor in the basis of the conceptual change required for correct

conceptual understanding (Hadjiachilleos, Valanides, & Angeli, 2013; Lee, Kwon, Park, Kim, Kwon,

& Park, 2003).

In addition, small group discussions support the formation of explanatory statements beyond

activating learners' prior knowledge and concepts during the problem analysis process (Schmidt et al.,

1989). Learners form a hypothesis for the solution of the problem situation based on these explanatory

statements. At this stage, learners experience a discussion within the learning groups by giving reasons

to validate or reject views to support own conceptual understanding. Throughout this discussion,

learners try to convince each other about the validity of their arguments beyond developing arguments

made up of claims, evidence, and reason (Aydeniz & Dogan, 2016). Discussion can make connections

between isolated facts and concepts (Venville & Dawson, 2010). In this sense, these processes in PBL

are an important tool in structuring correct conceptual understanding on the basis of valid scientific

realities. Learners who identify learning subjects that include the concepts they do not know and need

to learn, evaluate hypotheses in the light of their new knowledge after going through the self-direction

learning process (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). These stages offer learners the opportunity to integrate their

concepts into a new situation. Since learners discuss the relationships between concepts and principles,

transmit their knowledge and concepts into problem situations, integrate different literature sources as

a result of their self-direction learnings, it is assumed that the PBL encourages deep and

comprehensive learning process (Dolmans, Loyens, Marcq, & Gijbels, 2016). In this learning process,

learners have the opportunity to notice their current concepts and change their wrong concepts in order

to reach the correct conceptual understanding. This situation reflects the conceptual change process.

Problem situations that PBL uses as a focus and the process of finding solutions to them triggers the

conceptual change process required to reach conceptual understanding. Within all this capacity, there

is a strong structure in which the PBL supports conceptual understanding.

Problem-Based Learning

Constructivism theory, which aims to understand how individuals construct information in their mind,

views meaning not as independent from the individual, but structured by the individual (Uden &

Beaumont, 2006). In PBL, individuals build new knowledge based on their existing knowledge

(Awang & Ramly, 2008). In this sense, it can be said that PBL is related to constructivism. PBL based

on the educational principles and practices of the constructivist approach theoretically (Savery &

Duffy, 1995), emerged in Case Western Reverse University in the United States in the 1950s and in

Medical schools at McMaster University in Canada in the 1960s (Uden & Beaumont, 2006). Since

then, PBL approach has been applied in many disciplines (Savery, 2006). There are many definitions

in the literature. Savery (2006) defines PBL as a didactic approach that requires research, questioning,

putting theoretical knowledge into practice, and using knowledge and skills to find solutions. Barrows

and Tamblyn's (1980) PBL definition is learning that occurs through the process of understanding and

problem-solving.

PBL is a teaching method that uses problems as a focus provider and encouraging (Boud & Feletti,

1997), and involves cognitive and interrogator processes in which problems are the starting point in

learning, and actively facilitates the construction of knowledge (Reynolds & Hancock, 2010). PBL is

experiential learning organized around researching and solving real-world problem situations (Torp &

Sage, 2002). In traditional learning approaches that present information ready, the problems are given

after necessary concepts and information, while in the PBL approach, the problem is the starting point

of the learning process (Chin & Chia, 2006). The learning subject in PBL is integrated into real-world

problem situations (Hmelo-Silver, 2004), and the presentation of problem situations at the beginning

of the learning cycle allows creation of content for the learning process (Prince, 2004). These problem

situations, presented by fusing them into learning scenarios in PBL, have been created in a complex

structure regarding real life and the concepts and principles in the learning process (Dahlgren &


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Öberg, 2001). These problem situations are classified by Jonassen and Kwon (2001) as well-structured

and ill-structured. Well-structured problems are those in which elements related to the problem are

presented, and whose real-life transferability is very low, the problems are not too complex, and

require a limited number of principles and rules to find the possible solution (Jonassen, 1997). On the

other hand, ill-structured problems have many features and multiple solution methods (Chin & Chia,

2006). Ill-structured problems require use of metacognitive skills and knowledge related to various

fields, beyond what is known about the subject represented in the problem situation (Chen &

Bradshaw, 2007). Ill-structured problems are frequently encountered in daily life, usually require the

integration of information about more than one discipline, and include more than one option for the

solution (Jonassen, 1997). PBL consists of ill-structured problems that usually deal with real life

problems, require connection between concepts and facts, and have multiple and complex solution

processes (Lohman & Finkelstein, 2000).

The learning content aimed to be acquired by students in PBL is organized as problem scenarios

shaped within the problem framework, and presented as modules consisting of several sessions

(Cantürk-Günhan, 2006). In PBL, learners need to determine the background information about the

problem and further information needed, working in small collaborative groups on a problem scenario

related to the real world (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). In this process, learners set out to define other required

information after systematically organizing their own relevant knowledge regarding the solution of the

problem situation which acts as a trigger for learning (Hendry et al., 1999). This promotes

understanding of how to organize the conceptual framework, and brings insight into the kind of

knowledge needed and ways to structure it (Duch et al., 2001). Later, a hypothesis for the solution is

created and is evaluated in the light of new knowledge obtained by working on various scenarios

(Hmelo-Silver, 2004). Then the hypotheses are tested. In the last stage, the results are made available

and the process is evaluated (Wood, 2003).

Misconceptions and Conceptual Change in the Conceptual Understanding Process

Learners have many pre-concepts and knowledge before the teaching (Duit & Treagust, 2003).

Although these pre-concepts and knowledge brought to science lessons are well structured in the

learners’ minds, they may inconsistent with scientific thought (Treagust, 1988). Such unscientific

concepts can be variously expressed by terms such as misconception (Fisher, 1985; Helm, 1980),

alternative concepts (Klammer, 1998; Schoon & Boone, 1998), common sense belief (Halloun &

Hestenes, 1985), children’s science (Gilbert, Osborne & Fensham, 1982) and alternative framework

(Driver, 1981). In this research, however, the term misconception is used.

All individuals have misconceptions, as a result of misunderstandings personally created to make

sense of the world (Gooding & Metz, 2011). Considering that science education is aimed at

developing learners’ conceptual understanding (Gavalcante, Newton & Newton, 1997; Smith,

Blakeslee & Anderson, 1993), it is important to identify their misconceptions and replace these using a

conceptual change process. The conceptual change model of Posner, Strike, Hewson and Gertzog

(1982) can be considered as a conceptual change framework structure. According to this model, for

change to occur, the new concept must meet the conditions of intelligibility, plausibility, and

fruitfulness, bringing dissatisfaction with the currently-held concept (Posner et al., 1982). The first

condition for conceptual change is intelligibility (Hewson & Thorley, 1989), referring to

understanding what the new concept means (Hewson & Hewson, 1983) and how to construct it

(Posner et al., 1982). Plausible condition implies the belief that the new concept can be integrated with

the learner’s existing concepts (Hewson & Hewson, 1983). Dissatisfaction refers to the situation

experienced when the currently-held concept is insufficient to solve the problem (Posner et al., 1982),

and fruitfulness represents the functionality of the new concept in solving problems (Hewson &

Hewson, 1983).

Hewson and Hewson (1984) state that disagreement between the existing and new concepts causes

difficulty in the learning process, and in order to prevent this, the existing concept should be

reconstructed or replaced. Therefore, conceptual change is necessary and important for the learning


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



process to reach its goal. Learners who realize the inaccuracy of their own concepts and their

inadequacy in problem-solving will be guided to the correct concepts through conceptual change. It

can be said that realizing their misconceptions is an important step in this process. Traditional learning

processes, involving passive listening does not actively engage the learners' minds or provide much

opportunity for them to become aware of their misconceptions (Darmofal et al., 2002). Similarly,

Fisher (1985) also states that traditional learning methods are insufficient to eliminate misconceptions.

It can thus be understood that the structure of traditional learning does not direct learners to conceptual

change. In this sense, it is important to adopt learning approaches that allow learners to realize their

own misconceptions, and to see if their concepts are sufficient in understanding the content of learning

and solving problem situations, i.e., PBL.

Problem-Based Learning in Providing Conceptual Understanding and Eliminating

Misconceptions

PBL, which enables learners to access information content by engaging with real-life problem

situations, provide learners to gain experience as active learners with a guide (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). In

the PBL process, teachers have a facilitating role as well as a guide (Barrows, 1996). Students are at

the center of the learning process. Learners involved with various disciplines have the opportunity for

preliminary experience in solving real-life problems by transferring the knowledge acquired via self-

directed learning to new problem situations (Stepien & Gallagher, 1993). When learners discover new

methods for solving the problem, they are able to integrate their conceptual knowledge into the

implementation in the solution phase (Roh, 2003). This allows students to test the accuracy and

effectiveness of their current concepts. In PBL, students construct hypotheses based on their solution

suggestions by using their preliminary concepts for the problems in the scenario. When testing their

hypotheses with the information obtained in the later parts of the scenario, they begin to question

existing concepts. They then come to doubt about the reliability of these concepts and gain awareness

through experience about these concepts’ functionality and validity. In this way, learners area able to

assess their existing conceptual structures, and their misconceptions, beyond generalized discourses

through personal experience. Such a process is an important step for conceptual change. It is important

to identify misconceptions in order to reach the correct conceptual understandings. Posner et al. (1982)

state that one of the conditions for the realization of conceptual change is that learners should first

experience dissatisfaction, and realize that their current concepts are inadequate. PBL provides such a

process, promoting conceptual change.

In terms of PBL structure, it involves learners working in small groups to obtain information, discuss

and integrate information regarding problem situations (Goodman, 2010). In PBL, learners reflect on

their knowledge, by listening to the ideas of others, while engaged in finding various possible

solutions (Erickson, 1999). Therefore, each student involved in the PBL process becomes aware of

their own pre-concepts during these discussions. This situation may cause students to encounter with

different opinions, question their current concepts and realize their misconceptions, if any. PBL

process thus appears as an opportunity to initiate the conceptual change process in order to reach a

valid conceptual understanding. In this context, it can be said that PBL is an effective method for

replacing incorrect concepts with scientifically correct ones. From this point of view, PBL can help

learners in structuring their knowledge, as based on scientific explanations, as basic concepts are

perceived in more complex and abstract ways in science.

The concrete foundations of the concept of electricity, one of the most fundamental concepts of

science, are generally imparted via simple electric circuits at primary level. Learning the concepts

related to simple electric circuit, which is the basis of the study of electricity, helps students to learn

related subjects and concepts. Considering that the knowledge structuring starts from the early ages

(Wild, Hilson & Hobson, 2013), basic education is a key stage in education. In this context, primary

school teachers have great roles and responsibilities. For this reason, it is very important for educators

to be able to clearly articulate the concepts in related subject field and to eliminate their

misconceptions. Pre-service primary school teachers should therefore be trained in an environment


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



that promotes these qualities. In this research, it is assumed that PBL will overcome pre-service

primary school teachers’ misconceptions regarding simple electric circuits, and improve their

conceptual understanding. There are many studies that investigate conceptual understandings and

misconceptions at various levels of education, using different methods and models, regarding simple

electric circuits and related concepts (Afra, Osta & Zoubeir, 2009; Aykutlu & Şen, 2012; Bostan

Sarıoğlan & Abacı, 2017; Cohen, Eylon, & Ganiel, 1983; Demirezen & Yağbasan, 2013; Dupin &

Johsua, 1987; Farrokhnia & Esmailpour, 2010; Fredette & Lochhead, 1980; Jaakkola, Nurmi, &

Veermans, 2011; Kalaya, Nopparatjamjomras, Chitaree, & Nopparatjamjomras, 2019; Manunure,

Delserieys, & Castéra, 2019; Millar & King, 1993; Picciarelli, Di Gennaro, Stella, & Conte, 1991;

Setyani, Suparmi, Sarwanto, & Handhika, 2017; Shepardson & Moje, 1994; Shipstone, 1988;

Suciatmoko, Suparmi, & Sukarmin, 2018; Suryadi, Kusairi, & Husna, 2020; Şenyiğit, 2020; Türkoğuz

& Cin, 2013; Villarino, 2018; Widodo, Rosdiana, Fauziah, & Suryanti, 2018; Zacharia & de Jong,

2014). However, no study was found that specifically examines the effect of PBL on conceptual

understanding and misconceptions of pre-service primary school teachers regarding simple electric

circuits. This research aims to fill this gap in the literature by examining the effect of PBL on

elimination of misconceptions about simple electric circuits and improving conceptual understanding.

The main aim of this research is to investigate PBL’s effects on conceptual understanding and

misconceptions, with the following research questions:

Research Questions

Does PBL improve pre-service primary school teachers’ conceptual understanding of simple

electric circuits at a significant level?

Does PBL decrease pre-service primary school teachers’ misconceptions about simple electric

circuits at a significant level?

METHOD

Research Model

The pre-test and post-test nonequivalent control group model design was used in the research. This

design, one of the most common experimental designs includes an experiment and a control group; the

subjects are not randomly assigned, but efforts were made to ensure the similarity of the groups

(Campbell & Stanley, 1963). In the nonequivalent control group model, both the experimental and

control groups are subjected to a measurement before and after the implementation (West, Biesanz, &

Pitts, 2000).

Research Design and Implementation

This research includes an experimental and a control group; PBL was used in the experimental group,

and lecture-based learning supported by problem solving, question-answer, discussion activities and

demonstration experiments in the control group. A pre-test was applied to both groups to determine

their conceptual understanding and misconceptions regarding simple electric circuits, and after the

implementation, the same test was applied as a posttest, in order to determine any changes in these.

Materials

Experiment materials required for participants in experimental group to design experimental setups

and the activity sheets containing scenarios regarding PBL and are among the main materials used in

the research.

Problem-based Scenarios

In the experimental group, in which PBL was applied, the lessons involved activity sheets containing

problem-based scenarios prepared by the researcher. While preparing the scenarios, firstly the

literature on simple electric circuits was scanned to identify the common misconceptions. The next

step was to identify targeted learning outcomes for teaching within the framework of the concepts of

closed circuit, open circuit, short circuit, internal resistance, equivalent resistance, ohm law, lamp

brightness (electrical power) on subject of simple electric circuits. Then, researcher prepared scenarios


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



for achieving these learning outcomes. The scenarios contain ill-structured problems that involve more

than one solution, and reflect real life. Later, two science education experts who worked in the subject

of PBL were consulted, and the scenarios were adjusted accordingly. Necessary corrections were

made after expert opinions. One correction was the revision and restructuring of scenarios so that they

provided more than one solution option. Another important correction was the revision of language

and narration, to reflect more realistic daily life situations, with a more detailed narrative. After the

corrections made, the final version of the activity sheets was obtained. In the activity sheets containing

problem scenarios, empty boxes were provided under each question for participants to write their

answers.

Experiment Materials

In the research, the researcher provided the experimental group with materials for the experimental

setup, including batteries, lamps, lamp holders, conductive wires, switches, ammeters, voltmeters.

Care was taken to ensure that the sufficient materials were available to allow the implementation to be

carried out flexibly. These materials were checked before the implementation and those that were not

intact were removed.

Experimental Process

The implementations in the experimental and control groups were carried out over 4 weeks by the

researcher during the face-to-face training process. Before the experimental procedure, the

experimental group participants were divided into groups of 4-5, in a way that ensured heterogeneity

within groups and homogeneity between groups. Participants in the experimental group were informed

about the PBL process and its principles before the implementation with a sample scenario before they

received activity sheets containing scenarios regarding complex problem situations. The concepts

regarding target learning outcomes in the experimental process were presented to the participants

within a problem scenario. Care was taken to present the relevant concepts in a specific order in

problem situations; for example, the concept of closed circuit was presented before the concept of

open circuit and short circuit. Scenarios in the research were handled in sessions. The experimental

process was carried out over a total of 4 weeks, 3 lesson hours (135 minute) per week. Three course

hours were allocated for each scenario in the experimental process. This research was carried out in 12

sessions, in total including 4 scenario consisting of 3 sessions. These were conducted on the basis of

the session steps for the scenarios, consisting of 3 sessions each, as explained by Musal, Akalın, Kılıç,

Esen, and Alıcı (2002). Accordingly, after reading the scenarios in the first session, the participants

examined the problem situation presented, and summarize the information. Then, the participants

determined the problem situation based on their prior knowledge. Later, the participants formed a

hypothesis by brainstorming the problem situation. Subsequently, the participants determined what

they need to know in order to test their hypotheses. Then, the learning goals were determined and the

feedback process was carried out. In the second session, the participants summarized and shared the

data they obtained as a result of their individual studies in the previous session. At these stages, the

participants were able to benefit from various internet databases and printed resources in the learning

environment. Later, in the previous session, the questions about what the participants needed to know

were answered. Then, after reading the next part of the scenario, they narrowed down the hypotheses

using the newly obtained information. Later, new learning topics were determined and the feedback

process was carried out. In the third session, after reading the next part of the scenario, the participants

summarized and shared the data they obtained as a result of their individual work in the previous

session, and then they reviewed hypothesis in the light of all the data. Then, the participants were

asked to design an experiment in which they could test their hypotheses. Finally, it was ensured that

the result obtained for the solution was determined by associating the hypotheses with the result of the

experiment. The next aim was for the group leaders to present the obtained results to the class in a

report and to exchange ideas on the results. Then the feedback process was carried out by

summarizing the learning topics.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



In the control group with the lecture-based learning, problems on subjects in the activity sheets were

handled with traditional question-answer, and problem solving activities. During the course of a

lesson, the teacher presented the necessary information and concepts at the beginning of the lesson.

Then, the teacher solved problems on simple electrical circuits related to the learned subjects and

concepts through mathematical operations on the board. These mathematical operations include basic

calculation (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) and equations on the subject used to

solve problems on simple electrical circuits. Later, similar problems were solved individually by the

participants. Thus, an improvement was made in the control group by trying to limit the participants'

being passive in the learning process. At the same time, lesson-based learning in the control group was

supported by demonstration experiments. The aim was to limit the possible biased research results in

favor of the experimental group in which experimental implementations were made. After each

teaching input, a demonstration experiment was carried out. Control group' participants answered

questions about the variables manipulated and their possible effects, especially during demonstration

experiments, and they discussed their predictions, ensuring the active involvement. This situation is

another improvement made in the control group. Attention was paid to the simultaneous processing of

related topics and concepts in both groups.

Study Group

Participants of the research consist of 54 pre-service primary school teachers enrolled in the Basic

Science in Elementary School course in the 2019 spring semester at the state university. The

participants were easily accessible, therefore convenience sampling was used; sampling that is

continued until the required sampling size is reached (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2018; Gravetter &

Forzano, 2018). All participants were pre-service primary school teachers studying in the first grade.

Participants were divided into two groups, so as to ensure homogeneity between groups and

heterogeneity within groups, according to their grade point averages of the previous term. The two

groups were assigned as the experimental and control groups, with 27 in each. 16 of the participants in

the experimental group were female and 11 were male, and in the control group, 17 female and 10

male. The average age of the participants was 18.9.

Data Collection Tool

Simple Electric Circuit Diagnostic Test (SECDT) developed by Peşman (2005) was used as a data

collection tool in the research.

Simple Electric Circuit Diagnostic Test (SECDT)

The SECDT, developed by Peşman (2005) was used to determine the misconceptions and conceptual

understanding of pre-service primary school teachers in this research. This test is a three-tier test

consisting of 12 questions. The first stage is in a traditional multiple-choice test structure (Peşman,

2005). The second stage consists of options that indicate the possible rationale for the answer given in

the first stage (Caleon & Subramaniam, 2010). In the third stage, the focus is on the respondent’s

certainty of the answers given in the first two stages (Peşman, 2005). This test represents a sufficient

tool to measure the learning outcomes of the participants. The maximum score that can be taken from

the test is 12, and the minimum score is 0. Many analyzes were performed in the test development

phase by Peşman (2005) regarding the SECDT used for this research. As result of these, relationship

between Score-2 and the confidence score was found significantly positive (r = .51, p <.01), which is

evidence for the construct validity; in addition, Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient was determine

as .69 (Peşman, 2005). Later, point biserial correlation coefficient, false negative, and false positive

values were examined, and acceptable values were determined for content validity (Peşman, 2005).

SECDT is a test developed for a high school level target audience. Participants of the current study

group of this research last took courses related to the research topic in the high school. In addition,

SECDT's validity and reliability analyzes were conducted in order to determine the applicability for

pre-service primary school teachers of the test in this research. For this, SECDT was applied to 232

pre-service primary school teachers outside the study group of this research. The answers based on the

score-3, which are considered as correct information, were taken into consideration in performing item


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



and reliability analyzes. The arithmetic mean value for the SECDT was 5.73, the standard deviation

value was 3.32, and the coefficient of skewness was .362, the coefficient of kurtosis -.697. The

difficulty indices of the items in the test were between .35 and .47; the discrimination indices varied

between .52 and .78, and the point biserial correlation coefficient values were determined to be .20 and

above for each item. In this case, point biserial correlation coefficient values (Crocker & Algina,

1986), item difficulty (Crocker & Algina, 1986), and item discrimination (Ebel & Frisbie, 1986) index

values are acceptable. As a result of the reliability analysis of the SECDT performed on 232

participants, the Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient was calculated as .81. Hestenes and Halloun

(1995) state that the false positive and false negative rates should be below 10% in order to ensure the

structure and content validity of the test. In this research, SECDT’s second type misconception score

(false positive) and third type misconception score (false negative) were used to determine the false

positive and false negative rates, respectively. For this research, the false positive rate was 7.65% and

the false negative rate was 3.27%. In this case, the false negative and false positive rates were below

10%, evidence that the SECDT provided content and structure validity for this research. Cataloglu

(2002) states that the positive correlation between score-2 type and confidence score is evidence of the

test’s construct validity. The relationship between score-2 and confidence score type for this research

was positive and significant (r = .45, p <.00). This result is another indicator of the SECDT’s construct

validity. These results reveal that the SECDT is a valid and reliable test for pre-service primary school

teachers. In addition, there are different studies in which SECDT is used on pre-service teachers as a

data collection tool (Altun, 2009; Arı, Peşman, & Baykara, 2017).

Data Scoring

The data related to the research were obtained from the SECDT applied to both groups before and

after the experimental process. Şen and Yılmaz’s (2017) scoring system is thought to be the most up-

to-date and comprehensive scoring system for the three-tier tests in the literature, and was used in

scoring of the data obtained. According to this scoring system, nine different types of scores can be

obtained. This wide-ranging scoring system prevents from evaluating every wrong answer as a

misconception, and highlights that that they may also be caused by the lack of information (Şen &

Yılmaz, 2017). Using such a detailed scoring system in the research is important factor in the accurate

identification of misconceptions.

Şen and Yılmaz (2017) propose three types of scores representing misconceptions: misconception,

false positive and false negative. These score types were evaluated under the name of first, second and

third type misconception score for this research. Dealing with misconceptions under three sub-

headings leads to more detailed results regarding misconceptions. In this research, the score type

coded to determine conceptual understanding was evaluated under the name of conceptual

understanding score. In this case, the results obtained were the conceptual understanding score for

conceptual understanding, and three different types misconception scores. Although nine different

types of scores can be obtained from Şen and Yılmaz’s (2017) system, the focus was on the conceptual

understanding scores, and the misconception scores, since the conceptual understanding and

misconceptions of the participants were examined in this research. Score-4 and Score-5 are used to

determine lack of information and lack of confidence/lucky guess, respectively (Şen & Yılmaz, 2017).

Since the aim of the research is to determine conceptual understanding and misconceptions, these

score types (Score-4 and Score-5) were not used. Detailed information about score types, and how to

code them for the data analysis process is provided below.

Score-1: This type of score calculated by examining the answers given only in the first stage is

obtained by scoring of the condition that the participants gave correct answer in the first stage, as 1,

and the incorrect answer as 0 (Şen & Yılmaz, 2017).

Score-2: This type of score calculated by examining the answers given in both the first and the second

stages is obtained by scoring of the condition that the participants gave correct answers in the first and

second stages, as 1, and all other situations as 0 (Şen & Yılmaz, 2017).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Score-3 (Conceptual understanding score): This scoring type represents the scientifically correct

answers given by the participants. This type of score is obtained by scoring of the condition that the

participants gave correct answers in the first and second stages and were sure of their answers, as 1,

and all other situations as 0 (Şen & Yılmaz, 2017). This type of score, coded as Score-3 by Şen and

Yılmaz (2017) was explained as the conceptual understanding score in this research.

Score-6 (First type misconception score (misconception)): This type of score is obtained by scoring of

the condition that the participants gave incorrect answers in the first and second stages, and were sure

of their answers, as 1, and all other situations as 0 (Şen & Yılmaz, 2017). This type of score, coded as

Score-6 by Şen and Yılmaz (2017) was explained as the first type misconception score in this research.

Score-7 (Second type misconception score (misconception, false positive)): This type of score is

obtained by scoring of the condition that the participants gave correct answers in the first stage,

incorrect answers in the second stage, and were sure of their answers, as 1, and all other situations are

scored as 0 (Şen & Yılmaz, 2017). This scoring is a misconception type, it indicates that the

respondents give the correct answer with a wrong justification, and are sure of their answers (Şen &

Yılmaz, 2017). This type of score, coded as Score-7 by Şen and Yılmaz (2017) was explained as the

second type misconception score in this research.

Score-8 (Third type misconception score (misconception, false negative)): This type of score is

obtained by scoring of the condition that the participants gave incorrect answers in the first stage,

correct answers in the second stage, and were sure of their answers, as 1, and all other situations are

scored as 0 (Şen & Yılmaz, 2017). This scoring is a misconception type, it indicates that the

respondents give the wrong answer with a correct justification and are sure of their answers (Şen &

Yılmaz, 2017). This type of score, coded as Score-8 by Şen and Yılmaz (2017) was explained as the

third type misconception score in this research.

Score-9 (Confidence score): In this score type, only the answers to the third stage are taken into

account (Şen & Yılmaz, 2017). The answers given are coded as 1 if "I am sure" and 0 if "I am not

sure". This type of score, coded as Score-9 by Şen and Yılmaz (2017) was explained as the confidence

score in this research.

Data Analysis

SPSS Statistics 23 program was used for data analysis. In data analysis, the level of significance was

evaluated as .05. Analysis was conducted using arithmetic mean, standard deviation, percentage value,

independent samples t-test, paired samples t-test, One-way MANOVA, and One-way repeated

measures MANOVA. The purpose of using the independent samples t-test is to determine the

significance of the difference between the arithmetic means of data values obtained from two

independent or unrelated groups (Morgan, Leech, Gloeckner & Barrett, 2011). Independent samples t-

test was used to compare the mean score of the groups regarding conceptual understanding before and

after the implementation. Before the test, the assumptions were checked. The independent samples t-

test assumption is that the data are suitable for normal distribution and the variances are equal (Cronk,

2020). Tabachnick and Fidell (2019), and Ntoumanis (2001) state that the normality assumption can

be evaluated with the coefficients of skewness and kurtosis. George and Mallery (2020) state that the

coefficients of skewness and kurtosis between ± 2.0 are acceptable. The results of the analysis showed

that the experimental group pretest (Skewness= .374; Kurtosis= .769), the control group pretest

(Skewness= -.400; Kurtosis= -.20), the experimental group posttest (Skewness= .100; Kurtosis=

-1.226), and the control group posttest (Skewness= -.805; Kurtosis= .417) data for the conceptual

understanding were suitable for normal distribution. Levene’s test results for equality of variances

regarding the pretest mean scores (p= .585, p>.05) and the posttest mean scores (p= .70, p>.05) of the

experimental and control groups revealed no significant difference between the variances of the

groups. The paired samples t-test is performed to determine the significance of the difference between

the arithmetic mean values of the data obtained as a result of successive measurements over the same

data source (George & Mallery, 2020). Paired samples t-test was conducted to determine whether the


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



conceptual understanding of the groups improved significantly compared to the pre-implementation.

The paired samples-t test assumes that the data shows a normal distribution and are measured with the

same scale (Cronk, 2020). Before the test, the normality condition was checked by calculating the

values of skewness and kurtosis coefficient. Accordingly, the skewness and kurtosis coefficient values

were obtained from the averages of the experimental group's the posttest pretest difference score and

the control group's posttest pretest difference score. The results of the analysis showed that the

experimental group's posttest pretest difference score (Skewness= .389; Kurtosis= -1.089), control

group's posttest pretest difference score (Skewness= .012; Kurtosis= .059) data were suitable for

normal distribution. These results revealed that the necessary conditions for independent samples t-test

and paired samples t-test were met.

One-way MANOVA was used to determine the significance of the difference between misconceptions

pretest and posttest mean scores of the two groups. Before the test, normality condition was checked

by the coefficients of skewness and kurtosis and multivariate normality condition was checked by

calculating Mahalanobis distance values. The analysis results showed that the pre-test and post-test

mean scores of the experimental group were suitable for normal distribution regarding the first

(Skewness (pretest; posttest) = .504; 1.007, Kurtosis (pretest; posttest) = .230; .670), second (Skewness (pretest; posttest)

= 1.634; .237, Kurtosis (pretest; posttest) =1.396; -1.106), and third (Skewness (pretest; posttest) = 1.691; 1.099,

Kurtosis (pretest; posttest) = 1.683; 1.594) type misconception. In addition, the analysis revealed that the

pre-test and post-test mean scores of the control group were suitable for normal distribution regarding

the first (Skewness (pretest; posttest) = .671; .262, Kurtosis (pretest; posttest) = .075; -.668), second (Skewness

(pretest; posttest) = 1.567; .422, Kurtosis (pretest; posttest) =1.651; -.650), and third (Skewness (pretest; posttest) =

1.452; 1.416, Kurtosis (pretest; posttest) = 1.379; .649) type misconception. Mahalanobis distance values

revealed that there is no multivariate outlier that breaks multivariate normality. Analysis results

showed that the data were distributed normally in both cases. Box’s M test showed that there is no

significant difference between the covariance matrices (Box’s M= 6.092, F= .952, p= .457, p>.05).

Levene’s test showed that error variances for scores of the first type misconception (p= .277, p>.05),

the second type misconception (p= .216, p>.05), and the third type misconception (p= .168, p>.05) can

be considered equal. One-way repeated measures MANOVA was conducted to determine the

significance of the difference between experimental group' the posttest pretest mean scores and control

group' the posttest pretest mean scores for each type of misconception. The assumptions required for

the validity of the results obtained from the One-way repeated measures MANOVA analysis were

examined. Before the test, normality condition was checked by the coefficients of skewness and

kurtosis. The analysis results showed that the post-test pre-test difference scores of the experimental

and control groups were suitable for normal distribution regarding the first (Skewness (experimental; control) =

.662; -.236, Kurtosis (experimental; control) = .355; .248), second (Skewness (experimental; control) = -1.264; -.664,

Kurtosis (experimental; control) = 1.661; .510), and third (Skewness (experimental; control) = -.997; -1.108, Kurtosis

(experimental; control) = .852; 1.298) type misconception. Mauchly’s test of Sphericity results showed that

there was no significant difference between the variances of the difference scores (p=.065, p> .05).

These results revealed that the necessary conditions for One-way MANOVA and One-way repeated

measures MANOVA were met.

RESULTS

Conceptual understanding score was used to determine the effect of the method applied on the

participants' conceptual understanding of basic electric circuits. First type misconception score

(misconception), second type misconception score (false positive) and third type misconception score

(false negative) were used to determine the applied method’s effect on the change of misconceptions.

High conceptual understanding mean scores as a result of the scores obtained from the data collection

tool are considered as a benefit for participant groups, and the high mean score for misconception

types, a drawback.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



This section includes, in parallel with the research questions, the results of the analysis of the effect of

the method applied on misconceptions and conceptual understanding.

Results Regarding the Change in the Conceptual Understanding

The aim of the first research question is to determine whether there was significant improvement in the

conceptual understanding in the experimental and control groups after the implementation. As a result

of the analysis of SECDT’s conceptual understanding scores, the pretest mean scores of the

experimental and control groups were determined as 2.30 and 2.74 respectively. To determine whether

this difference was significant, the groups' the pretest mean scores were compared with independent

samples t-test (Table 1).

Table 1. Independent samples t-test results regarding conceptual understanding

Group Pretest Posttest

n M SD df t p n M SD df t p

Experimental 27 2.30 1.07 52 1.463 .150

27 7.26 2.18 52 7.814 .000*

Control 27 2.74 1.16 27 3.33 1.44

*p<.05, M: Mean, SD: Standard Deviation

In the Table 1, the research showed no significant difference between the SECDT's pretest mean

scores of the experimental and control groups (t(52)=1.463, p>.05). In order to determine the

significance of the difference between the SECDT's posttest mean scores of the experimental and

control groups in Table 1, independent samples t-test was conducted. Table 1 shows a significant

difference between the SECDT's posttest mean scores of the experimental and control groups

(t(52)=7.814, p<.05).

Then, in order to determine whether there was significant improvement in participants’ conceptual

understanding in the experimental and control groups after the implementation compared to before the

implementation, paired samples t-test was conducted related to conceptual understanding mean scores

(Table 2).

Table 2. Paired samples t-test results regarding conceptual understanding

Group Experimental Control

n M SD df t p n M SD df t p

Pretest 27 2.30 1.07 26 11.579 .000*

27 2.74 1.16 26 1.728 .096

Posttest 27 7.26 2.18 27 3.33 1.44

*p< .05, M: Mean, SD: Standard Deviation

In the Table 2, the research showed a significant difference between SECDT’s pretest and posttest

mean scores of the experimental group (t(26)=11.579, p<.05). In addition, Table 2 indicates no

significant difference between SECDT’s pretest and posttest mean scores of the control group

(t(26)=1.728; p>.05). Table 3 shows the conceptual understanding percentages in the experimental and

control groups.

Table 3. Percentages of conceptual understanding regarding experimental and control groups

Group Conceptual understanding

(%)

Experimental pretest 19.12

Experimental posttest 60.49

Control pretest 22.82

Control posttest 27.76

Table 3 reveals that the experimental group’s conceptual understanding was 32.73% higher than the

control group’s after the implementation compared to before the implementation.

Results Regarding the Change in the Misconceptions

The aim of the second research question was to determine whether there was a significant decrease in

misconceptions in the experimental and control groups after the implementation. In order to determine


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



the significance of the difference between the pretest and posttest mean scores of the two groups

regarding SECDT’s misconception score types in Table 4, One-way MANOVA analysis was

conducted (Table 4).

Table 4. One-way MANOVA test results regarding misconception score types

Misconception

score types Group

Pretest Posttest

n M SD F p n M SD F p

First type

misconception

Experimental group 27 3.30 1.49 1.076 .304

27 1.63 1.39 7.929 .007*

Control group 27 2.89 1.40 27 2.82 1.69

Second type

misconception

Experimental group 27 .48 .89 .024 .877

27 .44 .51 2.579 .114

Control group 27 .52 .85 27 .70 .67

Third type

misconception

Experimental group 27 .48 .85 .103 .750

27 .15 .36 .477 .493

Control group 27 .56 .85 27 .22 .42


Table 4 reveals no significant difference between groups’ pretest mean scores regarding the first type

misconception (F=1.076, p>.05), the second type misconception (F=.024, p>.05), and the third type

misconception (F=.103, p>.05). Wilks' Lambda analysis results showed a significant difference

between the experimental and control group regarding SECDT’s posttest misconception mean scores

(F(3-50)=3.624, p=.019, p<.05, Wilks' ⋀=.821, partial η2=.179). Table 4 indicates significant difference

between groups’ posttest mean scores regarding the first type misconception (F=7.929, p<.05), but no

significant difference between the posttest mean scores regarding the second (F=2.579, p>.05) and the

third type misconception (F =.477, p>.05).

One-way repeated measures MANOVA analysis was conducted to determine whether there was

significant decrease in misconceptions in the experimental and control group after the implementation

compared to before the implementation (Table 5).

Table 5. One-way repeated measures MANOVA results regarding misconception score types


Table 5 shows significant difference between experimental group’ posttest and pretest mean scores

regarding the first type misconception (F=15.476, p<.05), but no significant difference between the

posttest and pretest mean scores for the second type misconception (F=.031, p>.05) and the third type

misconception (F=3.000, p>.05). Table 5 indicates no significant difference between control group’

posttest and pretest mean scores regarding the first type misconception (F=.047, p>.05), the second

type misconception (F=.632, p>.05), and the third type misconception (F=3.900, p>.05). Table 6

shows the misconception percentages of the participants in the experimental and control groups.

Table 6. Percentages of misconception regarding experimental and control groups

Group First type misconception

(%)

Second type misconception

(%)

Third type misconception

(%)

Experimental pretest 27.45 4.32 4.01

Experimental posttest 13.57 3.7 1.23

Control pretest 24.05 4.32 4.63

Control posttest 21.89 5.86 1.85

Misconception

score types Test

Experimental group Control group

n M SD F p 2 n M SD F p 2

First type

misconception

Pretest 27 3.30 1.49 15.476 .001* .373

27 2.89 1.40 .047 .830 .002

Posttest 27 1.63 1.39 27 2.82 1.69

Second type

misconception

Pretest 27 .48 .89 .031 .861 .001

27 .52 .85 .632 .434 .024

Posttest 27 .44 .51 27 .70 .67

Third type

misconception

Pretest 27 .48 .85 3.000 .095 .103

27 .56 .85 3.900 .059 .130

Posttest 27 .15 .36 27 .22 .42


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 6 reveals that the first type (8.32%), the second type (2.16%), and the third type (.62%)

misconception percentage was lower in the experimental group compared to the control group after the

implementation.


This research focused on comparing the effect of PBL and lecture-based learning in improving

conceptual understanding of simple electric circuits, and eliminating misconceptions. The results

support the assumption that PBL stated at the beginning of the research will be more effective in

improving conceptual understanding and in decreasing misconceptions when compared to the lecture-

based learning. diSessa (2014) states that for some difficult subjects, conventional teaching methods

are often unsuccessful. The teaching of concepts, such as closed circuit, open circuit, short circuit,

internal resistance, equivalent resistance, ohm law, electrical power in the subject field of simple

electrical circuits is generally limited to the mathematical operations for problem solving in lecture-

based learning. Explanations for these concepts in lecture-based learning, however, are likely to

remain abstract in the minds of learners. The abstract structure of the subjects and concepts, in

particular, may make it difficult for learners to structure these concepts correctly, and gain conceptual

understanding. Gavalcante et al. (1997) states that the conceptual understanding cannot simply be

transferred to the learners; they should construct it themselves. For this reason, learners should be

given the opportunity to construct these concepts in real-life learning situations, rather than listening to

verbal explanations, for correct interpretation. Thus, learners may be more likely to realize the

inaccuracy of their own abstract explanations, and embrace scientific explanations that will provide

correct conceptual understanding. Bilgin, Şenocak, and Sözbilir (2009) state that PBL is among the

various learning approaches developed by researchers to improve conceptual learning skills, as an

alternative to moving away from memorization. PBL includes problem situations that are used to

increase knowledge and understanding (Awang & Ramly, 2008). Iglesias (2002) states that PBL,

which is characterized by posing real-life problems, enables learners to acquire basic concepts for

certain content fields. In this research, in the experimental group, concepts in the subject field of

simple electric circuits were studied through scenarios involving real-life problem situations. In this

way, learners have the opportunity to transform their abstract explanations and misconceptions into

correct scientific explanations through concrete implementation. Research results support these

explanations. The maximum score that can be obtained from the SECDT for conceptual understanding

is 12. However, before the implementation, this score was found to be 2.30 in the experimental group

and 2.74 in the control group. This highlights the low conceptual understanding, of the pre-service

primary school teachers in the participant group before the implementation. These scores for

conceptual understanding were found to be 7.26 in the experimental group and 3.33 in the control

group at the end of the implementation. In the light of the findings obtained, the research showed that

PBL is significantly more effective in improving conceptual understanding regarding simple electric

circuit compared to lecture-based learning. PBL made a 32.73% greater contribution in improving

conceptual understanding compared to lecture-based learning. In the literature, existing studies support

this result, and show that PBL has positive effects on conceptual understanding and concept learning.

Sahin (2010) concluded that PBL has a more positive effect on university students' conceptual

understanding of Newtonian Mechanics compared to traditional instruction. Günter, Akkuzu, and

Alpat (2017) determined that PBL has more positive effects on the understanding of green chemistry

and sustainability compared to traditional expository learning. Wardani, Nurhayati, and Hardiyanti

(2017) found that PBL model more positive effect the conceptual understanding of students compared

to the lecture-based learning. Eren and Akınoğlu (2012) determined that PBL has a significantly

greater positive effect on concept teaching compared to the lecture-based learning. Nangku and

Rohaeti (2019) found that PBL model positively affected students' conceptual understanding. Ahied

and Ekapti (2020) concluded that learning using PBL can improve students' conceptual understanding

of pressure concept. In addition, there are studies regarding the positive effects of PBL supported by

various methods and techniques on conceptual understanding. Pratiwi, Cari, Aminah, and Affandy


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



(2019) determined that PBL applying argumentation skills improves learners' conceptual

understanding regarding relationship between buoyant and sinking volume. Zahro, Jumadi, Wilujeng,

and Kuswanto (2019) determined that web-assisted PBL model resulted in a higher conceptual

understanding compared to the traditional learning model. Rohmah, Pramono, and Yusuf (2020) stated

that PBL supported by mobile learning media can improve primary students’ conceptual

understanding, and Ula, Supardi, and Sulhadi (2018) concluded that the implementation of PBL with

mind mapping improves understanding of concepts.

In this research, the participants with misconceptions in general were more likely to give wrong

answer with the wrong reason, rather than reaching the wrong answer with the correct reason, or the

correct answer with the wrong reason. Thus, of the three sub-score of misconception examined, the

mean scores for the first type misconception are higher than for the others. The research showed that

PBL provided a decrease in all misconception types at the end of the implementation, but this decrease

was significant only for the first type. Consistent with this result, the research revealed that PBL

provided a 13.88% decrease for the first type misconception at the end of the implementation

compared to before the implementation. The fact that the research was limited to 4 weeks can be

shown as the reason why the decrease in other misconception types was not significant. The results

revealed that the lecture-based learning after the implementation provided a non-significant decrease

in the first and third types of misconception, and a non-significant increase in the second type. Based

on this result, in the control group, after the implementation, there was an increase in the numbers

giving the correct answer based on the wrong reason, and being sure of the answers. Percentage

changes in misconception score types are consistent with this result. The research showed that lecture-

based learning increased the second type misconception (false positive) by 1.54% at the end of the

implementation. This increase in the second type misconception, as opposed to a decrease or no

change, was an unexpected result. However, this increase was not significant. The lack of a significant

increase may be a reason for optimism about the effect of this result. The cause may be that

participants are likely to reach correct answers in their predictions results, even without the correct

justification. Hestenes and Halloun (1995) states that it is difficult to reduce the rate of false positives,

and that even random choices are effective in increasing the rate of false positives. This explanation

supports the result obtained.

The research revealed that PBL was effective 13.88% and lecture-based learning was 2.16% effective

in decreasing the first type misconception after the implementation. It was previously stated that some

improvements were made in the control group in order to limit the results of the biased research in

favor of the experimental group in which the experimental implementations were made. Accordingly,

in order to ensure the activeness of the participants in the control group, question-answer and problem

solving activities were carried out. In addition, during the demonstration experiments used in the

control group, a discussion environment was provided on the predictions of the control group

participants. However, unlike lecture-based learning, PBL provides an opportunity for learners to

think about the solution of a problem situation, to form a hypothesis and test it. In PBL, learners make

pre-discussions based on their pre-knowledge to determine the problem and its solution. These

discussions cause learners to encounter different ideas and question their own concepts. In addition,

the process of creating and testing hypotheses provides an opportunity for learners involved in the

learning process with their pre-concepts to question their existing concepts and realize that they are

wrong. Thus, learners enter a process that will replace their misconceptions with scientific

explanations. The inability of lecture-based learning to have a significant effect on overcoming

misconceptions in this research can be attributed to these reasons. Widarti et al. (2017) states that

lecture-based learning will be insufficient in overcoming misconceptions related to conceptual change.

PBL was significantly effective in overcoming misconceptions, but did not completely eliminate

misconceptions. This is probably because the participants had a lot of misconceptions before the

implementation. Perhaps the success of PBL could be seen more clearly if it had been studied with a

group of participants who had less misconceptions before the implementation. But still the research

revealed that PBL is more effective at overcoming misconceptions of all types than lecture-based


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



learning. The research showed that PBL is more effective by 8.32% at decreasing misconception

compared to lecture-based learning. This shows the success of PBL in overcoming misconceptions.

These results confirmed the assumption that PBL presented in the research is effective in decreasing

misconceptions. In the literature, there are studies that support the effectiveness of PBL in decreasing

misconceptions. Akınoğlu and Tandoğan (2007) determined that the PBL model not only positively

affected the conceptual development, but also kept misconceptions at a low level. Tarhan and Acar

(2007) found that PBL compensates for misconception in students, and Bayram (2010) found that PBL

is more successful in eliminating misconceptions compared to traditional learning methods. The PBL

method applied in this research was more effective in decreasing the participants' misconceptions

about simple electric circuits compared to the lecture-based learning and had a more positive effect on

enabling participants to make scientific explanations about simple electric circuits, and improve their

conceptual understanding.

Suggestions

The research results reveal the positive effects of PBL in eliminating pre-service primary school

teachers' misconceptions and supporting conceptual understanding, compared to lecture-based

learning. This suggests that PBL should be employed more frequently in the education system. This

research was carried out on simple electrical circuit issues and concepts, but future studies can be

expanded to include other science subjects and concepts. Longer-term research will enable the effect

of PBL on variables to be determined more clearly. The current research focused on the elimination of

misconceptions within the scope of the general results obtained from the test, but the misconceptions

surrounding each concept were not examined individually before and after the implementation. For

this reason, it is not known which misconceptions were more resistant to elimination at the end of the

implementation. Therefore, in subsequent studies, the results obtained may be supported with

qualitative data in order to determine the change of pre-and post-implementation misconceptions for

each concept.

Limitations

There are some limitations of the present research. The first limitation of this research was that the

research period was limited to four weeks in order to minimize disrupt the education program. This

limitation can be overcome by carrying out the research with a longer implementation period to reveal

the change in conceptual understanding and misconceptions more clearly. In this research, concepts

regarding basic electric circuits were limited to closed circuit, open circuit, short circuit, internal

resistance, equivalent resistance, ohm law, lamp brightness (electrical power). In future studies, these

concepts can be further expanded taking a holistic approach. The last limitation is that the research

data was obtained using three-tier SECDT. In the third stage of the three-tier tests, the participants

were asked to confirm whether they were sure of their answers in both stages (Şen & Yılmaz, 2017).

Similar research can use a four-tier test to be developed on simple electrical circuits in the literature.

Thus, this limitation of the three-tier tests can be eliminated by asking the participants about the

certainty of their responses separately for both stages.

REFERENCES

Abraham, M. R. (2005). Inquiry and the learning cycle approach. In N. J. Pienta, M. M. Cooper, & T. J. Greenbowe (Eds.),

Chemists’ guide to effective teaching (pp. 41–52). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Afra, N. C., Osta, I., & Zoubeir, W. (2009). Students’ alternative conceptions about electricity and effect of inquiry-based

teaching strategies. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 7(1), 103-132.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-007-9106-7

Ahied, M., & Ekapti, R. F. (2020). Conceptual understanding of pressure concept through problem based learning in junior

high school grade 8th. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1521. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-

6596/1521/4/042120

Akınoğlu, O., & Tandoğan, R. Ö. (2007). The effects of problem-based active learning in science education on students’

academic achievement, attitude and concept learning. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology

Education, 3(1), 71-81. https://doi.org/10.12973/ejmste/75375


https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-007-9106-7

https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1521/4/042120

https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1521/4/042120

https://doi.org/10.12973/ejmste/75375

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Altun, S. (2009). Üç aşamalı bir testle fen bilgisi öğretmen adaylarının basit elektrik devreleri konusundaki kavram

yanılgılarının tespiti [Determination of prospective science teachers’ misconceptions of simple electric circuits issue

with three-stage test]. Bayburt University Journal of Education Faculty, 4(1), 72-79.

Alwan, A. A. (2011). Misconception of heat and temperature among physics students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral

Sciences, 12, 600-614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.02.074

Anggoro, S., Widodo, A., Suhandi, A., & Treagust, D. F. (2019). Using a discrepant event to facilitate preservice elementary

teachers’ conceptual change about force and motion. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology

Education, 15(8), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/105275

Arı, Ü., Peşman, H., & Baykara, O. (2017). Sorgulamaya dayalı öğretimde rehberlik düzeyinin fen bilimleri öğretmen

adaylarının kavram yanılgılarını iyileştirmedeki etkisinin bilimsel süreç becerileriyle etkileşimi [Interaction of effect

upon remediating prospective science teachers’ misconceptions by guidance level in inquiry teaching with science

process skills]. Bartın University Journal of Faculty of Education, 6(1), 304-321.

Awang, H., & Ramly, I. (2008). Creative thinking skill approach through problem-based learning: Pedagogy and practice in

the engineering classroom. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, International Journal of

Educational and Pedagogical Sciences, 2(4), 334-339. Retrieved from https://publications.waset.org/15369/pdf

Aydeniz, M., & Dogan, A. (2016). Exploring the impact of argumentation on pre-service science teachers' conceptual

understanding of chemical equilibrium. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 17(1), 111-119.

https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RP00170F

Aykutlu, I., & Şen, A. İ. (2012). Üç aşamalı test, kavram haritası ve analoji kullanılarak lise öğrencilerinin elektrik akımı

konusundaki kavram yanılgılarının belirlenmesi [Determination of secondary school students’ misconceptions about

the electric current using a three tier test, concept maps and analogies]. Education and Science, 37(166), 275-288.

Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem‐based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview. New Directions for Teaching and

Learning, 68, 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1002/tl.37219966804

Barrows, H. S., & Tamblyn, R. M. (1980). Problem-based learning: An approach to medical education (Vol. 1). Broadway

New York: Springer Publishing Company, Inc.

Bayram, A. (2010). Probleme dayalı öğrenme yönteminin ilköğretim 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin fen ve teknoloji dersi “ısı ve

sıcaklık” konusunda sahip oldukları kavram yanılgılarını gidermede etkisi [The effect of problem based learning on

overcoming 5th grade students’ misconceptions about “heat and temperature”]. (Unpublished Master Thesis), Selçuk

University, Konya.

Bilgin, I., Şenocak, E., & Sözbilir, M. (2009). The effects of problem-based learning instruction on university students’

performance of conceptual and quantitative problems in gas concepts. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and

Technology Education, 5(2), 153-164. https://doi.org/10.12973/ejmste/75267

Bostan Sarıoğlan, A., & Abacı, B. (2017). Sorgulamaya dayalı öğretimin “lamba parlaklığı” kavramının ortaokul 5. sınıf

öğrencilerinin başarısına etkisi [The effect of inquiry based learning approach about "light bright" concept on 5th

grade middle school students]. Journal of Balıkesir University Institute of Science and Technology, 19(3), 164-171.

Boud, D., & Feletti, G. (1997). Changing problem-based learning. Introduction to the second edition. In D. Boud, & G.

Feletti, (Eds.), The challenge of problem based learning (2nd edition) (pp. 1-14). New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Caleon, I. S., & Subramaniam, R. (2010). Do students know what they know and what they don’t know? Using a four-tier

diagnostic test to assess the nature of students’ alternative conceptions. Research in Science Education, 40(3), 313-

337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-009-9122-4

Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research on teaching. In N. L.

Gage (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching. A Project of the American Educational Research Association (pp.

171-246). Chicago: Rand McNally & Company.

Cantürk-Günhan, B. (2006). İlköğretim II. kademede matematik dersinde probleme dayalı öğrenmenin uygulanabilirliği

üzerine bir araştırma [An investigation on applicability of problem based learning in the mathematics lesson at the

second stage in the elementary education] (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation), Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir.

Cataloglu, E. (2002). Development and validation of an achievement test in introductory quantum mechanics: The quantum

mechanics visualization instrument (QMVI) (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). The Pennsylvania State University,

Pennsylvania.

Chen, C. H., & Bradshaw, A. C. (2007). The effect of web-based question prompts on scaffolding knowledge integration and

ill-structured problem solving. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 39(4), 359-375.

https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2007.10782487


https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.02.074


https://publications.waset.org/15369/pdf

https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RP00170F

https://doi.org/10.1002/tl.37219966804


https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-009-9122-4

https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2007.10782487

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Chi, M. T. H., & Roscoe, R. D. (2002). The process and challenges of conceptual change. In M. Limon and L. Mason (Eds.),

Reconsidering conceptual change: Issues in theory and practice. Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Chin, C., & Chia, L. G. (2006). Problem‐based learning: Using ill‐structured problems in biology project work. Science

Education, 90(1), 44-67. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20097

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th edition). London: Routledge/Taylor &

Francis.

Cohen, R., Eylon, B., & Ganiel, U. (1983). Potential difference and current in simple electric circuits: A study of students’

concepts. American Journal of Physics, 51(5), 407-412. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.13226

Crocker, L., & Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Orlando, Florida: Holt, Rinehart, and

Winston, Inc.

Cronk, B. C. (2020). How to use SPSS: A step-by-step guide to analysis and interpretation (11th edition). London:

Routledge/Taylor & Francis.

Dahlgren, M. A., & Öberg, G. (2001). Questioning to learn and learning to question: Structure and function of problem-based

learning scenarios in environmental science education. Higher Education, 41(3), 263-282.

https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1004138810465

Darmofal, D. L., Soderholm, D. H., & Brodeur. D. R. (2002, November). Using concept maps and concept questions to

enhance conceptual understanding. 32nd Annual ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference, Vol. 3, pp. T3A-1-

T3A-6, 6-9 November 2002, Boston, MA.

De Grave, W. S., Boshuizen, H. P. A., & Schmidt, H. G. (1996). Problem based learning: Cognitive and metacognitive

processes during problem analysis. Instructional Science, 24(5), 321-341.

Demirezen, S., & Yağbasan, R. (2013). 7E modelinin basit elektrik devreleri konusundaki kavram yanılgıları üzerine etkisi

[The effect of 7E model on misconceptions about simple electrical circuits]. Hacettepe University Journal of

Education, 28(2), 132-151.

Desstya, A., Prasetyo, Z. K., Suyanta, Susila, I., & Irwanto (2019). Developing an instrument to detect science misconception

of an elementary school teacher. International Journal of Instruction, 12(3), 201-218.

diSessa, A. A. (2014). A history of conceptual change research: Threads and fault lines. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The

Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (2nd edition) (pp. 88–108). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Dolmans, D. H. J. M., Loyens, S. M. M., Marcq, H., & Gijbels, D. (2016). Deep and surface learning in problem-based

learning: a review of the literature. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 21(5), 1087-1112.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-015-9645-6

Dolmans, D. H. J. M., Wolfhagen, I. H. A. P., Van Der Vleuten, C. P. M., & Wijnen, W. H. F. W. (2001). Solving problems

with group work in problem‐based learning: Hold on to the philosophy. Medical Education, 35(9), 884-889.

Driver, R. (1981). Pupils’ alternative frameworks in science. European Journal of Science Education, 3(1), 93-101.

https://doi.org/10.1080/0140528810030109

Duch, B. J., Groh, S. E., & Allen, D. E. (2001). Why problem-based learning? A case study of institutional change in

undergraduate education. In B. J. Duch, S. E. Groh, & D. E. Allen (Eds.), The power of problem-based learning (pp.

3-11). Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.

Duit, R., & Treagust, D. F. (2003). Conceptual change: A powerful framework for improving science teaching and learning.

International Journal of Science Education, 25(6), 671-688. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690305016

Dupin, J. J., & Johsua, S. (1987). Conceptions of French pupils concerning electric circuits: Structure and evolution. Journal

of Research in Science Teaching, 24(9), 791-806. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660240903

Ebel, R. L., & Frisbie, D. A. (1986). Essentials of educational measurement (4th edition). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:

Prentice-Hall Inc.

Engelhardt, P. V., & Beichner, R. J. (2004). Students' understanding of direct current resistive electrical circuits. American

Journal of Physics, 72(1), 98-115. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.1614813

Eren, C. D., & Akınoğlu, O. (2012). Fen eğitiminde probleme dayalı öğrenmenin kavram öğrenmeye etkisi [The effect of

problem based learning on concept learning in science education]. Journal of Research in Education and Teaching,

1(3), 19-32.

Erickson, D. K. (1999). A problem-based approach to mathematics instruction. The Mathematics Teacher, 92(6), 516-521.


https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20097

https://doi.org/10.1119/1.13226

https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1004138810465

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-015-9645-6

https://doi.org/10.1080/0140528810030109

https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690305016

https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660240903

https://doi.org/10.1119/1.1614813

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Fadaei, S. S., & Mora, C. (2015). An investigation about misconceptions in force and motion in high school. US-China

Education Review A, 5(1), 38-45. https://doi.org/10.17265/2161-623X/2015.01.004

Fadillah, A., & Salirawati, D. (2018). Analysis of misconceptions of chemical bonding among tenth grade senior high school

students using a two-tier test. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2021, 080002-1-080002-7.

https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5062821

Fahmi, F., & Irhasyuarna, Y. (2017). The misconceptions of senior high school students in Banjarmasin on chemical

bonding. Journal of Education and Practice, 8(17), 32-39.

Farrokhnia, M. R., & Esmailpour, A. (2010). A study on the impact of real, virtual and comprehensive experimenting on

students’ conceptual understanding of DC electric circuits and their skills in undergraduate electricity laboratory.

Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 5474-5482.

Fisher, K. M. (1985). A misconception in biology: Amino acids and translation. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,

22(1), 53-62. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660220105

Fredette, N., & Lochhead, J. (1980). Student conceptions of simple circuits. Physics Teacher, 18(3), 194-198.

https://doi.org/10.1119/1.2340470

Gavalcante, P. S., Newton, D. P., & Newton, L. D. (1997). The effect of various kinds of lesson on conceptual understanding

in science. Research in Science & Technological Education, 15(2), 185-193.

https://doi.org/10.1080/0263514970150205

George, D., & Mallery, M. (2020). IBM SPSS statistics 26 step by step: A simple guide and reference (16th edition). London:

Routledge/Taylor & Francis.

Gilbert, J. K., Osborne, R. J., & Fensham, P. J. (1982). Children's science and its consequences for teaching. Science

Education, 66(4), 623-633. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730660412

Gooding, J., & Metz, B. (2011). From misconceptions to conceptual change: Tips for identifying and overcoming students'

misconceptions. The Science Teacher, 78(4), 34-37.

Goodman, R. J. B. (2010). Problem-based learning: Merging of economics and mathematics. Journal of Economics and

Finance, 34(4), 477-483. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12197-010-9154-7

Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L. A. B. (2018). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (6th edition). Boston: Cangage

Learning.

Günter, T., Akkuzu, N., & Alpat, Ş. (2017). Understanding ‘green chemistry’ and ‘sustainability’: An example of problem-

based learning (PBL). Research in Science & Technological Education, 35(4), 500-520.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2017.1353964

Hadjiachilleos, S., Valanides, N., & Angeli, C. (2013). The impact of cognitive and affective aspects of cognitive conflict on

learners’ conceptual change about floating and sinking. Research in Science & Technological Education, 31(2),

133-152. https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2013.811074

Halloun, I. A., & Hestenes, D. (1985). Common sense concepts about motion. American Journal of Physics, 53(11),

1056-1065. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.14031

Haslam, F., & Treagust, D. F. (1987). Diagnosing secondary students' misconceptions of photosynthesis and respiration in

plants using a two-tier multiple choice instrument. Journal of Biological Education, 21(3), 203-211.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.1987.9654897

Helm, H. (1980). Misconceptions in physics amongst South African students. Physics Education, 15(2), 92-105.

https://doi.org/10.1088/0031-9120/15/2/308

Hendry, G. D., Frommer, M., & Walker, R. A. (1999). Constructivism and problem‐based learning. Journal of Further and

Higher Education, 23(3), 359-371. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877990230306

Hestenes, D., & Halloun, I. (1995). Interpreting the force concept inventory: A response to March 1995 critique by Huffman

and Heller. The Physics Teacher, 33(8), 502-506. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.2344278

Hewson, M. G., & Hewson, P. W. (1983). Effect of instruction using students' prior knowledge and conceptual change

strategies on science learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20(8), 731-743.

https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660200804

Hewson, P. W., & Hewson, M. G. B. (1984). The role of conceptual conflict in conceptual change and the design of science

instruction. Instructional Science, 13(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00051837

Hewson, P. W., & Thorley, N. R. (1989). The conditions of conceptual change in the classroom. International Journal of

Science Education, 11(5), 541-553. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069890110506


https://doi.org/10.17265/2161-623X/2015.01.004

https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5062821

https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660220105

https://doi.org/10.1119/1.2340470

https://doi.org/10.1080/0263514970150205

https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730660412

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12197-010-9154-7

https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2017.1353964

https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2013.811074

https://doi.org/10.1119/1.14031

https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.1987.9654897

https://doi.org/10.1088/0031-9120/15/2/308

https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877990230306

https://doi.org/10.1119/1.2344278

https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660200804

https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00051837

https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069890110506

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn?. Educational Psychology Review,

16(3), 235-266. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3

Iglesias, J. L. (2002). Problem-based learning in initial teacher education. Prospects, 32(3), 319-332.

https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022133529435

Jaakkola, T., Nurmi, S., & Veermans, K. (2011). A comparison of students' conceptual understanding of electric circuits in

simulation only and simulation‐laboratory contexts. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 48(1), 71-93.

Jonassen, D. H. (1997). Instructional design models for well-structured and ill-structured problem-solving learning outcomes.

Educational Technology Research and Development, 45(1), 65-94. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02299613

Jonassen, D. H., & Kwon, H. (2001). Communication patterns in computer mediated versus face-to-face group problem

solving. Educational Technology Research and Development, 49(1), 35-51. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02504505

Kalaya, T., Nopparatjamjomras, S., Chitaree, R., & Nopparatjamjomras, T. R. (2019). Worksheet analysis for revealing

students’ understanding of simple DC circuits. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1380.

https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1380/1/012164

Kırılmazkaya, G., & Kırbağ Zengin, F. (2016). Öğretmen adaylarının fotosentez konusu hakkında kavram yanılgılarının vee

diyagramı aracılığıyla belirlenmesi ve bu araca yönelik görüşlerinin tespiti [Determination of photosynthesis

misconceptions’ through vee diyagrams and preservice teachers’ views towards these tools]. Erzincan University

Journal of Education Faculty, 18(2), 1537-1563.

Klammer, J. (1998). An overview of techniques for identifying, acknowledging and overcoming alternate conceptions in

physics education. Klingenstein Project Paper, Teachers College, Columbia University (ERIC Document

Reproduction Service No. ED423121).

Küçüközer, H., & Kocakülah, S. (2007). Secondary school students’ misconceptions about simple electric circuits. Journal of

Turkish Science Education, 4(1), 101-115.

Lee, G., Kwon, J., Park, S. S., Kim, J. W., Kwon, H. G., & Park, H. K. (2003). Development of an instrument for measuring

cognitive conflict in secondary‐level science classes. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40(6), 585-603.

https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.10099

Lohman, M. C., & Finkelstein, M. (2000). Designing groups in problem-based learning to promote problem-solving skill and

self-directedness. Instructional Science, 28(4), 291-307. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003927228005

Loyens, S. M. M., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & Schmidt, H. G. (2006). Students' conceptions of constructivist learning: A

comparison between a traditional and a problem-based learning curriculum. Advances in Health Sciences

Education, 11(4), 365-379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-006-9015-5

Manunure, K., Delserieys, A., & Castéra, J. (2019). The effects of combining simulations and laboratory experiments on

Zimbabwean students’ conceptual understanding of electric circuits. Research in Science & Technological

Education, 38(3), 289-307. https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2019.1629407

Marra, R. M., Jonassen, D. H., Palmer, B., & Luft, S. (2014). Why problem-based learning works: Theoretical foundations.

Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25(3&4), 221-238.

Millar, R., & King, T. (1993). Students’ understanding of voltage in simple series electric circuits. International Journal of

Science Education, 15(3), 339-349. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069930150310

Morgan, G. A., Leech, N. L., Gloeckner, G. W., & Barrett, K. C. (2011). SPSS for introductory statistics: Use and

interpretation (2nd edition). London: Routledge.

Mubarokah, F. D., Mulyani, S., & Indriyanti, N. Y. (2018). Identifying students’ misconceptions of acid-base concepts using

a three-tier diagnostic test: A case of Indonesia and Thailand. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 15(Special),

51-58. https://doi.org/10.12973/tused.10256a

Musal, B., Akalın, E., Kılıç, O., Esen, A, & Alıcı, E. (2002). Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi probleme dayalı öğretim

programı, süreçleri ve eğitim yönlendiricilerinin rolü [PBL program, process and the roles of tutors in Dokuz Eylül

University School of Medicine]. The World of Medical Education, 9(9), 39-49.

Nangku, M. S., & Rohaeti, E. (2019). The effect of problem-based learning model toward students’ conceptual understanding

and verbal communication skills in reaction rate learning. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1397.

https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1397/1/012037

Narjaikaew, P. (2013). Alternative conceptions of primary school teachers of science about force and motion. Procedia-

Social and Behavioral Sciences, 88, 250-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.503


https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3

https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022133529435

https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02299613

https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02504505

https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1380/1/012164


https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003927228005

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-006-9015-5

https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2019.1629407

https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069930150310

https://doi.org/10.12973/tused.10256a

https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1397/1/012037

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.503

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Nie, Y., Xiao, Y., Fritchman, J. C., Liu, Q., Han, J., Xiong, J., & Bao, L. (2019). Teaching towards knowledge integration in

learning force and motion. International Journal of Science Education, 41(16), 2271-2295.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2019.1672905

Ntoumanis, N. (2001). A step-by-step guide to SPSS for sport and exercise studies. London: Routledge.

Peşman, H. (2005). Development of a three-tier to assess ninth grade students' misconceptions about simple electric circuits

(Unpublished Master Thesis). Orta Doğu Teknik University, Ankara.

Peşman, H., & Eryılmaz, A. (2010). Development of a three-tier test to assess misconceptions about simple electric circuits.

The Journal of Educational Research, 103(3), 208-222. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670903383002

Picciarelli, V., Di Gennaro, M., Stella, R., & Conte, E. (1991). A study of university students' understanding of simple

electric circuits part 1: Current in d.c. circuits. European Journal of Engineering Education, 16(1), 41-56.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03043799108939503

Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P. W., & Gertzog, W. A. (1982). Accommodation of a scientific conception: Toward a

theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66(2), 211-227. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730660207

Pratiwi, S. N., Cari, C., Aminah, N. S., & Affandy, H. (2019). Problem-based learning with argumentation skills to improve

students’ concept understanding. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1155. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-

6596/1155/1/012065

Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A review of the research. Journal of Engineering Education, 93(3), 223-231.


Reynolds, J. M., & Hancock, D. R. (2010). Problem‐based learning in a higher education environmental biotechnology

course. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 47(2), 175-186.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14703291003718919

Roh, K. H. (2003). Problem-based learning in mathematics. ERIC Clearinghouse for Science Mathematics and

Environmental Education, Columbus, OH. EDO-SE-03-07. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED482725).

Rohmah, F., Pramono, S. E., & Yusuf, A. (2020). Problem based learning assisted by mobile learning to improve conceptual

understanding of primary school students. Educational Management, 9(1), 51-58.

Roth, K. J. (1990). Developing meaningful conceptual understanding in science. In B. F. Jones, & L. Idol, (Eds.), Dimensions

of thinking and cognitive instruction (pp. 139- 175). Broadway Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Sahin, M. (2010). Effects of problem-based learning on university students’ epistemological beliefs about physics and

physics learning and conceptual understanding of Newtonian mechanics. Journal of Science Education and

Technology, 19(3), 266-275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-009-9198-7

Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of problem-based learning: Definitions and distinctions. Interdisciplinary Journal of

Problem-Based Learning, 1(1), 9-20. https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1002

Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework.

Educational Technology, 35(5), 31-38.

Schmidt, H. G., De Volder, M. L., De Grave, W. S., Moust, J. H. C., & Patel, V. L. (1989). Explanatory models in the

processing of science text: The role of prior knowledge activation through small-group discussion. Journal of

Educational Psychology, 81(4), 610- 619.

Schoon, K. J., & Boone, W. J. (1998). Self‐efficacy and alternative conceptions of science of preservice elementary teachers.

Science Education, 82(5), 553-568. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(199809)82:5<553::AID-

SCE2>3.0.CO;2-8

Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6th edition). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Scott, P., Asoko, H., & Leach, J. (2007). Student conceptions and conceptual learning in science. In S. K. Abell, & N. G.

Lederman (Eds.), Handbook of research on science education (pp. 31-56). New York, NY: Routledge.

Setyani, N. D., Suparmi, Sarwanto, & Handhika, J. (2017). Students conception and perception of simple electrical circuit.

Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 909. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/909/1/012051

Shepardson, D. P., & Moje, E. B. (1994). The nature of fourth graders' understandings of electric circuits. Science Education,

78(5), 489-514. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730780505

Shipstone, D. (1988). Pupils' understanding of simple electrical circuits. Some implications for instruction. Physics

Education, 23(2), 92-96. https://doi.org/10.1088/0031-9120/23/2/004


https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2019.1672905

https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670903383002

https://doi.org/10.1080/03043799108939503

https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730660207

https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1155/1/012065

https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1155/1/012065


https://doi.org/10.1080/14703291003718919

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-009-9198-7

https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1002

https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(199809)82:5%3c553::AID-SCE2%3e3.0.CO;2-8

https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(199809)82:5%3c553::AID-SCE2%3e3.0.CO;2-8

https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/909/1/012051

https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730780505

https://doi.org/10.1088/0031-9120/23/2/004

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Smith, E. L., Blakeslee, T. D., & Anderson, C. W. (1993). Teaching strategies associated with conceptual change learning in

science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30(2), 111-126. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660300202

Soeharto, S., Csapó, B., Sarimanah, E., Dewi, F. I., & Sabri, T. (2019). A review of students’ common misconceptions in

science and their diagnostic assessment tools. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia, 8(2), 247-266.

https://doi.org/10.15294/jpii.v8i2.18649

Stepien, W., & Gallagher, S. (1993). Problem-based learning: As authentic as it gets. Educational Leadership, 50(7), 25-28.

Suciatmoko, P. M., Suparmi, A., & Sukarmin, S. (2018). An analysis of students’ conceptual understanding: How do students

understand some electricity concepts?. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2014(1), 20154-1-20154-6.

https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5054558

Suliyanah, Putri, H. N. P. A., & Rohmawati, L. (2018). Identification student’s misconception of heat and temperature using

three-tier diagnostic test. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 997. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-

6596/997/1/012035

Suryadi, A., Kusairi, S., & Husna, D. A. (2020). Comparative study of secondary school students' and pre-service teachers'

misconception about simple electric circuit. Jurnal Pendidikan Fisika Indonesia, 16(2), 111-121.

https://doi.org/10.15294/jpfi.v16i2.21909

Şen, Ş., & Yılmaz, A. (2017). The development of a three-tier chemical bonding concept test. Journal of Turkish Science

Education, 14(1), 110-126.

Şenyiğit, Ç. (2020). Sorgulama temelli öğrenmenin sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının bilimsel süreç becerilerine ve kavramsal

anlamalarına etkisi [The effect of inquiry-based learning on elementary school teacher candidates' scientific process

skills and conceptual understanding] (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation), Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir.

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2019). Using multivariate statistics (7th edition). NY: Pearson.

Tahir, F. M., Nasri, N. M., & Halim, L. (2020). The effectiveness of predict-observe-explain-animation (poe-a) strategy to

overcome students’ misconceptions about electric circuits concepts. Learning Science and Mathematics Journal, 15,

1-15.

Tarhan, L., & Acar, B. (2007). Problem‐based learning in an eleventh grade chemistry class: ‘Factors affecting cell potential’.

Research in Science & Technological Education, 25(3), 351-369. https://doi.org/10.1080/02635140701535299

Torp, L., & Sage, S. (2002). Problems as possibilities: Problem-based learning for K–16 education (2nd edition). Alexandria,

Virginia USA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Treagust, D. F. (1988). Development and use of diagnostic tests to evaluate students’ misconceptions in science.

International Journal of Science Education, 10(2), 159-169. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069880100204

Türkoğuz, S., & Cin, M. (2013). Argümantasyona dayalı kavram karikatürü etkinliklerinin öğrencilerin kavramsal anlama

düzeylerine etkisi [Effects of argumentation based concept cartoon activities on students' conceptual understanding

levels]. Dokuz Eylül University the Journal of Buca Faculty of Education, 35, 155-173.

Uden, L., & Beaumont, C. (2006). Technology and problem-based learning. Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.

Ula, W. R. R., Supardi, K. I., & Sulhadi, S. (2018). The implementation of problem based learning with mind mapping to

improve the student’s understanding of concept. Journal of Primary Education, 7(2), 163-171.

https://doi.org/10.15294/JPE.V7I2.23089

Venville, G. J., & Dawson, V. M. (2010). The impact of a classroom intervention on grade 10 students' argumentation skills,

informal reasoning, and conceptual understanding of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 47(8), 952-

977. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20358

Villarino, G. N. B. (2018). Students’ alternative conceptions and patterns of understanding on electric circuits. International

Journal of Innovation in Science and Mathematics Education, 26(4), 49-70.

Wardani, S., Nurhayati, S., & Hardiyanti, P. C. (2017). The effectiveness of problem based learning model to improve

conceptual understanding and intrapersonal skill. International Journal of Science and Research, 6(5), 1576-1580.

West, S. G., Biesanz, J. C., & Pitts, S. C. (2000). Casual inference and generalization in field settings: Experimental and

quasi-experimental designs. In H. T. Reis, & C. M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and

personality psychology (2nd edition) (pp. 40-84). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Widarti, H. R., Permanasari, A., & Mulyani, S. (2017). Undergraduate students’ misconception on acid-base and

argentometric titrations: A challenge to implement multiple representation learning model with cognitive dissonance

strategy. International Journal of Education (IJE), 9(2), 105-112. https://doi.org/10.17509/ije.v9i2.5464


https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660300202

https://doi.org/10.15294/jpii.v8i2.18649

https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5054558

https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/997/1/012035

https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/997/1/012035

https://doi.org/10.15294/jpfi.v16i2.21909

https://doi.org/10.1080/02635140701535299

https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069880100204

https://doi.org/10.15294/JPE.V7I2.23089


https://doi.org/10.17509/ije.v9i2.5464

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Widodo, W., Rosdiana, L., Fauziah, A. M., & Suryanti (2018). Revealing student’s multiple-misconception on electric

circuits. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1108. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1108/1/012088

Wild, T. A., Hilson, M. P., & Hobson, S. M. (2013). The conceptual understanding of sound by students with visual

impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 107(2), 107-116.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482X1310700204

Wood, D. F. (2003). ABC of learning and teaching in medicine-Problem based learning. BMJ, 328-330.

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.326.7384.328

Zacharia, Z. C., & de Jong, T. (2014). The effects on students’ conceptual understanding of electric circuits of introducing

virtual manipulatives within a physical manipulatives-oriented curriculum. Cognition and Instruction, 32(2), 101-

158. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370008.2014.887083

Zahro, R., Jumadi, Wilujeng, I., & Kuswanto, H. (2019). The effect of web-assisted problem based learning model on physics

conceptual understanding of 10th grade students. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1233.

https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1233/1/012058

Zhiqing, Z. (2015). Assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration: A schema-based perspective on translation as process

and as product. International Forum of Teaching and Studies, 11(1-2), 84-89.


https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1108/1/012088

https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482X1310700204

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.326.7384.328

https://doi.org/10.1080/07370008.2014.887083

https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1233/1/012058

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



TEACHERS’ EXPERIENCES WITH OVERCROWDED CLASSROOMS

IN A BASIC SCHOOL IN GHANA

Joycelyn Adwoa OSAI

Mallam MA 2 Basic School, Mallam, Accra, Ghana


[email protected]

Kwaku Darko AMPONSAH

PhD., Department of Teacher Education, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana


[email protected]

Ernest AMPADU

Associate Professor, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden


[email protected]

Priscilla COMMEY-MINTAH

PhD., Department of Teacher Education, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana


[email protected]

Received: February 15, 2021 Accepted: April 11, 2021 Published: June 30, 2021

Suggested Citation:

Osai, J. A., Amponsah, K. D., Ampadu, E., & Commey-Mintah, P. (2021). Teachers’ experiences with overcrowded

classrooms in a basic school in Ghana. International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 10(1), 73-88.


Abstract

This research sought to investigate teachers’ experiences with overcrowded classrooms: the case of new Gbawe

experimental 1 basic school in Ghana's Greater Accra region. The study explicitly followed a qualitative approach to

research specifically a case study design. Unstructured questionnaires and Teacher observations were utilised in the process

of generating the data. This investigation’s general results indicate that educators’ perceptions with overcrowded classrooms

are ‘stressful’. Similarly, teachers described some situations in an overcrowded classroom which they defined as stressful.

Some of the descriptions given by educators include insufficient learning environments, safety and health concerns, limited

contact between pupils and educators, disruptive behaviour, emotional and mental challenges for educators, increased

workload and insufficient time in the classroom. In addition, the factors contributing to traumatic experiences include lack of

administrative support, lack of policy enforcement, insufficient teacher preparation and professional development and lack of

teaching material for learning. Educators, however, suggested that they still had recourse to improvisation to allow them to

handle overcrowded classrooms. Working on teacher best practices in overcrowded classrooms was suggested to be helpful

in helping teachers who find themselves in such circumstances.

Keywords: Class size, classroom discipline, classroom management techniques, overcrowded classroom, public basic school

teachers’ experiences.

INTRODUCTION

Globally, all countries both developed and developing, including Ghana, experience a fundamental

challenge in education and training institutions when it comes to providing all school-going children

with a satisfactory basic education. This is as a result of the unprecedented increase in enrolment in

schools worldwide (Hachem & Mayor, 2019). Despite the significant steps accomplished especially in

access to basic education, momentous difficulties remain, particularly in developing countries. Some

of the difficulties include the issue of improving quality and expanding learning accomplishment.

Accordingly, Ahmed and Arends-Kuenning (2003) posited that essentially, education is a foundation

for monetary development and advancement attributable to the colossal extension in the number of







IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



applications for its products and services around the world. Subsequently, student enrolment is on the

increase thereby driving the global community, governments, and administrators of the education

system to deal with the huge enrolment numbers without trading off quality. "Education is the wise,

hopeful and respectful cultivation of learning undertaken in the belief that all should have the chance

to share in life" (Smith, 2020: p.1). This implies that education requires a conviction that everybody

holds in life and a vision of what will make people happy and prosperous.

This is in accordance with the desire or disposition of others (fear of respect, knowledge, and

prudence) and collaboration (relationship with others in establishing relations and learning

environments) with others. In conclusion, it is the issue of customary practice or behaviour that leads

to a committed and responsible action (Carr & Kemmis, 1986; Grundy, 1987). The classroom as a

unit of the school executes its role as part of the learning process. Correspondingly, a classroom, a

room where children, as well as adults, learn (Moreno, Cavazotte, & Dutra, 2020), is also a study

area. Classrooms can take place in all kinds of educational establishments, from preschools to

universities or elsewhere, such as in religious and humanitarian institutions, for example.

Overcrowding in classrooms is an international issue that hinders an efficient teaching and learning

process (Hachem & Mayor, 2019). One of the most pressing issues facing educators in the United

States today is overcrowding (Hachem & Mayor, 2019). The question is a combination of population

growth, the lack of educators, and a reduction in grants or support that has increased class size

(Hachem & Mayor, 2019). There are about 17,400 schools that are overcrowded in the USA (Hachem

& Mayor, 2019). Class sizes would be set in an ideal world for 15-20 students. Sadly, many

classrooms now surpass 30 students on a daily basis, and even in some cases, schools have more than

40 learners in one class. Likewise, the only EU nation with overcrowded primary classes is the United

Kingdom. In Ireland, two out of three primary pupils are also in above-average classes of 25 or more,

second only to the UK in Europe (Donnelly, 2019). There were also more than 30 pupils per class in

China. Among primary school and lower secondary education, the number of students per class

appears to increase. A 2015 provincial survey found that in Shandong, more than 40 percent of classes

in primary and middle schools were over-sized. Ten per cent had a class size of more than 666 per

cent (China Xinhua, 2016). The average class size is more than 100 at a middle school in Zhoukou

District, in China's most populated Henan province (China Xinhua, 2016). In China, education

officials describe classes of "normal" size as those with up to 45 learners. Classes with more than 55

pupils are called "large" and "super-large" are those with more than 65. But in 15 Chinese provinces,

the average for junior high schools reaches 45, and in two provinces, it is more than 55 (China

Leiyang, 2018).

The problem of overcrowded classrooms in most African countries is no different. Overcrowded

classrooms have been reported in some countries in Africa. Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa have all

admitted congestions that are overly above the UN acceptable ratio (Motshekga, 2012; Mutisya, 2020;

Onwu & Stoffels, 2005). The learner teacher ratio (LTR) (Motshekga, 2012; UNESCO Institute of

Statistics, 2008) for primary education is 40:1. Pupil teacher ratio (PTR) is, however, troubling in the

majority of developed countries. It was calculated by UNESCO (2008) that more than 84% of the

classrooms had more than 40 learners. However, Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, form the majority of

countries with PTR over 40:1. Although Ghana was at 27.25 pupil-teacher ratio in primary schools in

2018 (UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2020), Ghana has many more schools that are associated with a

large number of pupils at the same age. Nevertheless, there have been major regional variations in

national pupil-classroom ratio (PCR). According to the Ministry for Education, Ghana (2018), the

PCR of public elementary schools is 55:1 for kindergarten, 38:1 for primary school, and 35:1 for

junior high school (JHS).

Therefore, overcrowded classrooms disrupt teaching effectively as most teachers experience teaching

difficulties, discipline, physical, and appraisal problems (Iqbal &, Khan 2012). Regrettably, teachers

in public schools are still facing severe problems with congested classrooms (Amarat, 2011).

Consequently, Oliver (2006) argues that overcrowded classrooms lead to frustration when learners


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



withdraw, become frustrated, and exhibit negative attitudes. Consequently, overcrowded schools have

negatively affected the self-confidence of teachers and their professional satisfaction, creating a

situation in the classroom whereby educators encounter countless difficulties (Fin, 2003). Learners

learn at different levels and, because of a learning barrier, some learners might need individual

attention. In Ghana, the School Feeding Scheme, the provision of free school uniforms and

workbooks, and the “FREE, Compulsory Universal Basic Education” (FCUBE), are some recent

policies introduced in the education sector (Kweitsu, 2019). From 1996-2005, the FCUBE presented

an action plan to close the gender gap in primary schools, to strengthen education and the living

situation of teachers (Thompson & Casely-Hayford 2014). Ghana thus scored 1 for both elementary

school and high school levels in 2013 on the UNESCO Gender Parity Index (GPI) (World Bank,

2013). These policies have led to an increase in the number of students in classrooms, given the lack

of appropriate school facilities (Kweitsu, 2019).

Given the strides that Ghana has made in enhancing access for all to education, obstacles remain that

prevent the acquisition of knowledge in quality learning by thousands of children (Kweitsu, 2019).

Normally, since schools are overpopulated, the school environment is not ideal for learning. In

consequence, the low standard of education is reflected in the academic performance of the students

(Shah & InamuIlah, 2012). Due in part to numerous initiatives aimed at enrolling more students, some

schools in the Accra Metropolis, including New Gbawe Experimental 1 Basic School, has been

overcrowded during the course of time.

When the researcher examined and witnessed students studying, and teaching at New Gbawe

Experimental 1 Basic School, the researcher confirmed the condition of overly crowded classrooms.

The investigator noted that students sat in threes or fours on benches supposed to be occupied by two

students, obstructing the movement of teachers and students alike, in the classroom, causing

discomfort among students, and requiring exceptional tactics. Correspondingly, in the New Gbawe

Experimental 1 Basic School, the average pupil-teacher ratio is 72. It is almost twice as much as the

Ghana Education Service’s standard pupil-teacher ratio of 38 (Ministry of Education, MOE, 2018).

According to Freiberg (2013), classroom management plays a significant role in student success in a

chaotic and badly controlled classroom. The classes are usually crowded and students have little space

to navigate. Accordingly, Marzano and Marzano (2003) described aspects of the management of

classrooms, including the creation of a place for successful class management (Saifi, Hussain,

Salamat, & Bakht, 2018). Marzano and Marzano noted that the management of the classroom will

involve a teacher, who will ensure that the students will have a sense of what they need to do within a

given time span. A second approach would be to reorganise the seats to allow all students to

participate equally in their learning experience.

Behaviourism is used in many class management investigations, where the teachers manage the

atmosphere in the classroom for the students to understudy them (Edwards & Watts, 2010; Freiberg,

2013; Saifi, Hussain, Salamat, & Bakht, 2018). Particularly, the use of desks, lamps, ventilation, and

the proper use of blackboard, as techniques for the management of classrooms, is continuously

defined by teachers. In huge classrooms, educators often use various approaches such as the

establishment of positive relationships with students; the arrangement of their instruction to improve

access to learning for students; and the promotion of students' participation in academic activities

using social management techniques. The rest are promotion of learners' communal abilities and

trying to control one's actions, feelings and thinking in the pursuit of long-term objectives; and usage

of suitable interdisciplinary approaches to support learners experiencing reactions to the social

stimulation difficulties.

Nevertheless, the organisation of large and smaller classrooms is differentiated (Asodike & Onyeike,

2016). Consequently, stratagems in smaller classrooms cannot easily be translated into those with

large classes. For starters, the consideration of seating arrangements because of space is useless in a

large classroom. Also, the standard of the teacher and his connection with students is a fundamental


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



element of all other class management aspects in large classrooms. Adeyemi (2008) opined that the

average number of learners in a class is reported in class size or in the number of students taught by a

teacher in a single classroom. Kedney (2013), however, found that class size is a method for

evaluating the educational system’s success as the bigger the class size the less efficient is the

instruction. An alternative opinion is held by Stepaniuk (1997) that educators’ organisation could

define the triumph or the non-fulfilment in instruction and learning and not the quality utilisation of

the classroom even though that may depend upon class space and size. It is significant in instruction

and learning, not because of the size of the class, but rather how the teacher handles their classes in

terms of the classroom's size and capacity (Stepaniuk, 1997). Educators and learners alike would have

trouble moving about during learning, especially when there is a lack of space. Likewise, pupil-

teacher ratios (PTRs) and class size are dissimilar or inconsistent as opined by some investigators

(Harfitt, 2015; O’sullivan, 2006). Unlike PTR that is the overall student enrolment at one school

divided by administrators, counsellors, professional teachers, and other people supporting the school

and not just the number of teachers, class size is the average number of children for which the Teacher

is responsible. This thesis, therefore, examines the experiences of educators at the New Gbawe

Experimental 1 Basic School as a case study of overcrowded classrooms.

Statement of the Problem

Challenges with overcrowded classrooms have been reported all over the world. For instance,

overcrowding is one of the most significant concerns facing schools and teachers in the United States

today (Hachem & Mayor, 2019), the UK and Ireland (Donnelly, 2019), and China (China Xinhua,

2016: China Leiyang, 2018). Additionally, overcrowded classrooms are also found in some countries

in Africa such as Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa (Motshekga, 2012; Mutisya, 2020; Onwu & Stoffels,

2005). Ghana is also experiencing unprecedented levels of overcrowding as a result of the FCUBE

and school feeding programme (Kweitsu, 2019; Ministry for Education, Ghana, 2018). Teachers

around the world, like Ghana, have trouble managing overcrowded classrooms (UNESCO Institute

for Statistics, 2018). Although measures are put in place to reduce the overcrowding issue in schools,

they are not enforced and cause teachers a variety of problems. Teachers are faced with overcrowded

tasks, as they are responsible for instructing, learning and managing the classroom simultaneously.

There are schools in Ghana with many more learners in one classroom despite the fact that the

officially prescribed LTR for primary schools is 40:1 (Motshekga, 2012; UNESCO, Statistics

Institute, 2008). Relatively, this accounts for an overcrowded classroom, and that of New Gbawe

Experimental 1 Basic School with an LTR of 72 cannot be overemphasised.

LTR is directly related to the standard of schooling according to Lannoy and Hall (2010). Such

challenges have an immense effect on teachers as teaching and learning quality in overcrowded

setting decreases. Similarly, teachers find it very easy to get upset when they face challenges that

hinder them from producing educational results. In addition, there is a variety in every classroom

because the learners have specific needs and aspirations. Therefore, learners learn at various rates and

due to learning challenges they may meet, some learners may need individual attention. As part of its

pledge to Free and Compulsory Basic Education (Ghana Education Service, GES, 2014), Ghana's new

education programme provides two years of Kindergarten (KG) which brings it ahead of the curve

relative to other countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Ghana's education is “divided into three phases:

basic education (nursery, elementary, lower secondary), secondary education (high school, technical

and vocational education), and higher education (universities, polytechnics, and colleges)” (GES,

2014: p.2). Acknowledging the gains of the last two decades, Ghana has significantly higher efforts of

the government through the Ministry of Education and the Ghana Education Service, GES (2014) to

extend KG services equitably, particularly for its most marginalised and vulnerable children

(UNESCO, 2018). The Ministry of Education and Ghana Education Service have been steadily

working for universal access to basic education (UNESCO, 2018). The Inclusive Education Policy

Framework delivers opportunities for the students to obtain a quality education. Ghana's Inclusive

Education (IE) programme supersedes the concept of geographic location (UNESCO, 2020).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



However, the strategy acknowledges the varying learning needs of the students. Teachers cannot

enforce this in an overcrowded classroom.

There is no comprehensive literature regarding the disparity between the scholastic achievement of

the learners and the number of learners enrolled. Although some genuinely think that large classes are

detrimental to student accomplishment, (Cooper, Lindsay, & Nye, 2000), think alternatively.

UNESCO (2020) has expressed the view that although the number of classrooms built in different

parts of the country has not increased correspondingly, enrolment in all primary schools, especially

public schools, has doubled. Yelkpieri, Namale, Esia-Dankoh, and Ofosu-Dwamena (2012)

researched on overcrowded classrooms at University of Education, Winneba campus. Similarly,

Akoto-Baako (2018) also reported overcrowding in senior high school (SHS) in Cape Coast

Metropolis, Ghana. From the above it is realised that research on overcrowded classrooms have been

performed in some parts of Ghana and at certain levels of education but not in the current study area.

It is against this backdrop that the research is conducted to interrogate issues regarding overcrowding

in Gbawe Experimental 1 Basic School. Again, it will analyse the procedures that teachers utilise to

handle overcrowded classrooms, and recognise the obstacles that educators experience as they handle

overcrowded classrooms.


School Improvement programme theory

Van Velzen, Miles, Elholm, Hameyer, and Robin (1985) described school improvement as "a

comprehensive, concerted initiative targeted at enhancing learning environment as well as other

relevant internal circumstances in one or more schools, with the overarching goals of attaining more

efficiently academic objectives." Consequently, Jansen (2001) observed that school improvements are

important for a school and an emphasis on results. With respect to congested schools, it's a concern

for many educators worldwide and the sooner the condition is addressed the faster. In fact, school

development plans are important to mitigate the issue for teachers and they help to reduce the

repetitive tension that teachers face in congested classrooms on a regular basis. As a consequence,

Creemers (2008) argues that a climate convenient for enhanced efficacy is perceived as important for

institutions trying to implement action since this would enable them to increase productivity. While

all factors relating to education are taken into account in the school improvement context, the study

may concentrate on how this idea and the others mentioned earlier may be connected to the

perceptions of educators to establish an initiative such that they will provide meaningful instructional

interactions in the classroom. Educators are seen as an integral lever of transformation, according to

Creemers (2008), so progress is visible in their classrooms and everyday activities. Furthermore,

Creemers (2008) discusses that proposals for school change should often concentrate on educators

who might want to enhance facets of their instruction and help to develop teaching skills. Teachers

will still need preparation and encouragement to empower them with the ability to cope with the

occurring challenges relative to consequences of the overcrowded classroom.

Figure 1. Efficient institutional amelioration related to congested classrooms (Creemers, 2008, p. 7).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Creemers (2008) further suggests that attempts to change would not just change the perceptions of

teachers but also the teaching standard. In overcrowded classrooms, a study has demonstrated that

often teachers feel stressed and are not prepared with the expertise to cope with overcrowded

classrooms. There is a correlation between school reform and the perceptions of teachers as their

perspectives will contribute to initiatives and encourage schools to reconsider methods and adopt

initiatives to strengthen schools that help teachers in coping with overcrowded classrooms. Teachers

often manage overcrowded classes and are struggling with them. 'Institution Reform' is the only way

to make sense of how teachers treat overcrowded classes and work with them. This often causes less

tension for teachers as schools are changed, as they will manage more in the classroom. Congested

classes are not only a challenge but a means to build space for change and to reconsider strategies.

This model indicates that productive progress contributes to better performance in achieving

educational targets, according to Creemers (2008). It outlines the philosophy of school improvement

and shows the theoretical basis for the essential structures of school improvement. If we strengthen

the ability of teachers, it enhances learning and teaching and in essence, contributes to achieving the

objectives of education. The model for the efficient institutional reduction of stress in overcrowded

classrooms is shown in Figure 1.

The philosophy of school enhancement, which subsumes the constructivist theory, class management

theory, conventional classroom management theory, and child-centred classroom model, supports this

research. In this analysis, this theory will help to explain the data produced. The researcher considered

the school improvement theoretical concept as central to the study because it indicates that

instructional objectives are met through improvement and interaction.

Review of Related Literature

Empirical Review

The school atmosphere may have a beneficial effect on the wellbeing of the learning community or

can be a huge obstacle to learning. The school atmosphere inside the schools will impact multiple

places and individuals. A healthy school environment for example has been correlated with decreased

mental and emotional concerns for pupils. It is also assumed that constructive organisational

interactions and optional learning experiences will improve achievement behaviour for students in all

educational settings. The strong student-teacher partnership provides students with a positive and

welcoming school atmosphere to operate learning activities smoothly, resulting in successful

academic results.

The school climate and educational attainment of standard six students were investigated by Arul and

Vimala (2012). The input from 400 respondents in the study was used to assess the association

between the school atmosphere and educational attainment. The outcome of this analysis showed that

there is no substantial variation in gender and teaching methodology in the standard six learners’

school setting. But there is a major variation in the standard six pupils' education setting in terms of

the school's locality. There is a better school climate for urban learners than for rural pupils. In their

everyday lives, urban learners have a traumatic or stressful world quite mostly because they live in a

technological and fast-paced life. Thus, with their research, they found that the school atmosphere was

not quite comfortable.

Chepkonga (2017) indicated that the consistency of school amenities tends to have an indirect impact

on learning and instruction. This suggests that educational outcomes are dependent on, class size,

instructional methods, Teacher competence and abilities, instructional and learning atmosphere, and

subject matter, all affecting educational outcomes in both of these respects (Finn, Walton, & Elliott-

White, 2000). As stated by Shamaki (2015), the content of the learning atmosphere is closely

associated with the performance of the students in different subjects, so that literature surveyed from

different developing countries in Africa, notably from Mozambique, Uganda, Zimbabwe, and Nigeria,

revealed the connection between class size and learner success (Motshekga, 2012; Mutisya, 2020;

Onwu & Stoffels, 2005).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



According to Siperto (2017) in Mwanza, the overpopulated classrooms have been identified as

increasing and sustaining problems that obstruct successful teaching and learning operation.

According to Siperto, the proportion of learners she researched in the classes was too high for the

small space of the classroom to be accessible. Siperto found that in all the schools studied, the

teacher-student ratio ranged from 1:80-90. In such a scenario, educators were finding it impossible to

implement successful teaching methodology. The investigator also noticed that educators were

overwhelmed in such a way as not to be able to walk around a classroom.

Similarly, Mutisya (2020) published research in Kenya with the same experience as Siperto’s in

Mwanza. Free primary education in Kenya culminated in dangerously overpopulated classes in which

the learner-centred method was quite challenging for the educators to introduce. Mutisya complained

that although most of the classes were built to fit 45 students, the classrooms had between 80 and 90

students, beyond the number prescribed by the Ministry of Education. The consequence of this is that

during classroom interaction, it continues to hinder teacher-student and student-student engagement,

with detrimental effects on their academic success. Although Jason (2006) mentioned that large

classrooms are major pitfalls, including stressed interpersonal relationships between learners and

educators with a small variety of instructional techniques, teachers teaching a large class are

uncomfortable.

In addition, he noted that amid a contradictory definition among investigators about class size and

learners’ success, small class size retains an advantage on the level of results. It was noted that large-

scale instructional techniques have an influence on the efficacy of instructional practices. Similarly,

she observed that in a typical classroom where the teacher-centred approach is used, marked by a high

percentage of pupils with instructional practices, pupil innovation, and interest are therefore reduced.

Research Questions

This research aims to answer the following questions, in line with the objectives:

i. What experiences do teachers have with overcrowded classrooms?

ii. What challenges do teachers encounter as they manage classrooms that are overcrowded?

iii. What strategies do teachers use to manage overcrowded classrooms?

METHOD

Research Design

The appropriate research design that was employed for this study is the case study. It is the framework

that was created to seek answers to the research questions. The case study design subsequently

supported the investigator to gain detailed information from educators concerning their experiences in

congested classrooms (Burns & Grove, 2010) in New Gbawe Experimental 1 Basic School. As

previously mentioned, this investigation took the form of a case study. The purpose of the case study

is to understand the case in depth and in its natural environment, to understand its sophistication and

meaning (Punch, 2009). In addition, Neale, Thapa, and Boyce (2006) postulated that a case study

offers the story behind the result by documenting what happened to bring about a scenario. Neale et

al. (2006) propose that case studies are necessary when there are special or interesting stories to be

told. Case studies offer even more comprehensive information (Neale et al., 2006).This is also

confirmed by Lee and Brennenstuhl (2010), who argue that an in-depth overview, discovery, or

interpretation of a study is given by a case study.

In addition, the main principle of a case study is that it is necessary to discuss the 'how' and 'why'

questions with the respondents (Lincoln, 2010). Consequently, the case study design supported the

investigator to collect in-depth educator knowledge and how the public school faced

congested classrooms. The data generation tools used enables the investigator to raise and explore

questions about how and why. This was significant because it offered educators with a chance to

offer in-depth information about their overpopulated classroom encounters. Additionally, Creswell


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



(2013) argued that a case study is related to offering a detailed overview of the circumstances

involving persons, incidents and how their relationship with their setting is influenced in the research

project. Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2011) postulate in the same vein that case studies are very

descriptive. The investigator selected a case study for this study to investigate a particular community

of educators within a specific school to investigate their perceptions of overcrowded classrooms.

Population

The population for the study was centred on the teaching staff of New Gbawe Experimental 1 Basic

School. It is located in the Weija Gbawe District of the Greater Accra Region. The school has 11

classrooms with staff strength of 14. New Gbawe Experimental 1 Basic School was preferred due to

the surge in enrolment in every classroom in the school, which exceeds the pupil to teacher ratio of

35:1 as indicated by Ghana Education Service (MOE, 2018).

Sample and Sampling Techniques

Five participants were selected for the study based on the highest-class enrolment. The class teachers

for the following classes, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, were used in this study. The study adopted both purposive

sampling and convenience sampling for the investigation.

Purposive Sampling

Purposeful sampling means that respondents with certain features or characteristics are tested by the

investigator (Koerber & McMichael, 2008). In this research, only those educators who work in a

school with congested classrooms were chosen. Intentional sampling is synonymous with qualitative

inquiry, Palys (2008) suggests. In order to obtain in-depth data on their encounters in these

classrooms, educators who have overpopulated classrooms were selected. Creswell (2013) has

suggested that the investigator must acknowledge the objectives of the study when choosing a

sampling procedure.

Based on the objective of this study, the respondents were selected to participate in the

research. Palys (2008) states that what exactly they want to achieve is the main question any

investigator requires to ask themselves. The investigator decided to illustrate and identify the

experiences educators have in a congested classroom in this report. The purposive sampling

methodology was suitable as it matched the purpose of this study's investigative goals.

Convenience Sampling

The convenience sampling is described by Farrokhi and Mahmoudi-Hamidabad (2012) as comprising

respondents who are easily accessible to contact. While this concept stresses easily accessible, certain

convenience samples are more widely available than others, as per Koerber and McMichael (2008),

but although a study is convenient, certain work would definitely be required in accessing respondents

from that study. This sampling approach was used because respondents from the Municipality of the

Investigator were chosen and were readily available and easy to collect information from.

The Sample

Three classrooms with the largest number of learners were used for observation although there were

five respondents in this research. The following is included in the sample: educators with the largest

number of students were selected for the research investigation; schoolrooms with the largest

admission in the whole school were selected; and although three classes were observed, all five

educators took part responding to the questions. The sample is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Profile of educators who participated in the investigation

Teachers’

Name

Gender Age Class Class

Size

Highest

Qualification

Teaching

Experience

Years spent in the

research school

Teacher A Female 44 2 68 B.Ed. 20 9

Teacher B Female 34 3 62 B.Ed. 12 4

Teacher C Female 38 4 80 B.Ed. 14 3

Teacher D Female 47 5 74 B.Ed. 17 10

Teacher E Female 36 6 68 B.Ed. 10 4


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



These educators in the New Gbawe Experimental 1 Basic School assisted the investigator with

invaluable data about their perceptions of overpopulated classrooms at the public school.

Methods of Data Generation

In view of the qualitative aspect of this investigation, the investigator selected unstructured

questionnaire and observation as data generation approaches. According to Adejimi, Oyediran and

Ogunsanmi (2010), data generation is a very critical step in any investigative process, and

investigation includes the identification of relevant data. According to Kothari (2004), all

investigation involves the generation of suitable information. This information is invaluable since the

outcomes of the research are decided by the knowledge that is produced. The investigator is

responsible for choosing data collection methods that they believe can provide them with rich and

suitable data to answer the research questions. The investigator selected unstructured questionnaire

and observation as approaches of data generation for this qualitative study.

Unstructured Questionnaire

An unstructured questionnaire was utilised in this investigation as the main instrument for generating

data. Fife Schwa (2001) noted that a questionnaire is the single most common research tool used

owing to its simplicity and usability. Adejimi et al. (2010) argue that by adding more open-ended

questions, it is possible to structure a questionnaire to add further value.

An unstructured questionnaire poses open-ended questions, according to Cohen et al. (2011).

Wilkinson and Birmingham (2003) argue that open-ended questionnaires do not place any constraints

and encourage the participant to answer any question. This form of a questionnaire was chosen

because, without any limitations, the investigator wanted participants to openly share their encounters.

It also gave participants enough time to think about their answers and complete their questionnaire

and submit it on completion to the investigator. This questionnaire was structured with several

questions as this would allow one to extract rich insightful details about the perspectives of educators

in overpopulated classrooms with various how and why. It is also very easy to utilise investigation

tool and encourages you to ask as many questions as you can. Personal views, opinions, feelings, and

experiences were created by the questionnaire.

Observations

According to Crossman (2019), and Simpson and Tuson (2005), observation takes note of behaviours,

actions, situations, artefacts, and habits of people. Cohen et al. (2011) noted that it allows the

researcher the opportunity to collect 'live' information from naturally occurring social contexts. The

method of observation was chosen as one of the data collection methods because it allowed the

researcher to observe educators teaching in overcrowded classrooms. Simpson and Tuson suggest that

what should be looked at and is grouped into categories is defined by an observation plan. There was

the highest degree of enrolment in the school in the classrooms chosen to observe. The study assumed

that it was important to observe and integrate these classrooms so that the researchers could also have

first-hand knowledge of what is happening.

The researcher was a non-participatory observer and tried to remain as inconspicuous as possible. A

colleague helped with the recording of the observation in order to compare notes. As what was

happening in a natural environment was registered, this allowed the researcher to gather rich

information. Cohen et al. (2011) argue that observations are powerful methods to gain insight into

conditions. This data collection technique was ideal because it allowed the researcher to examine first-

hand what was going on in overcrowded classrooms.

Data Analysis

The analysis of the data was carried out using a thematic analysis approach. The thematic analysis is a

tool for defining, analysing, and reporting trends (themes) within the data, according to Braun and

Clarke (2006). A theme captures something meaningful about the research questions' information and

expresses some degree of patterned response or context inside the data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Braun

and Clarke (2006: p.79) also note that there are "six thematic analytical phases that include:


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Data familiarisation: This includes transcribing the content, reading, and re-reading the data

and noting initial ideas. The researcher transcribed the content by reading and re-reading the

data and taking note of the initial concepts.

Generating initial codes: This refers to the quest for interesting patterns or features in the data

collected. The investigator looked for interesting patterns in the data collected.

Checking for themes: the compilation of codes into potential themes and the compilation of

all relevant details for each potential theme. The researcher checked by creating codes into

potential themes and compiling all the significant details for each potential theme.

Reviewing themes: Check if the themes work on the coded extracts and the whole data

collected. In reviewing the themes, the researcher compared the coded extracts with the

themes by considering all the data collected.

Defining and naming the themes: For each theme, simple meanings and names. The

researcher provided simple and names for each theme to refine the data.

Producing the report: making the investigation a scholarly document by writing up.” Finally,

the investigator wrote up the report based on the information generated through the thematic

process.

The material was read carefully and extensively for this study and then transcribed and analysed. The

investigator searched for trends in the data as the data was coded and put them into various categories.

The investigator then grouped similar categories and placed them under three specified themes. In

order to ensure a rich explanation of the data, the thematic analysis was selected as it offers a rich

thematic explanation of the entire data collection so that the reader gets a sense of the prevalent and

significant theme (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

RESULTS

RQ1: Educators encounter “stress” in congested classrooms

Research question one investigated the experiences teachers have with overcrowded classrooms. The

findings from this research suggest that teachers' encounters with congested classrooms are

overwhelming. Teachers themselves have described such situations in an overcrowded classroom

which are stressful (Mutisya, 2020; Muthusamy, 2015; Shah, & Inamullah, 2012; Yelkpieri, Namale,

Esia-Dankoh, & Ofosu-Dwamena, 2012). Such conditions were insufficient classroom space, safety

and health issues, limited contact between learners and teachers, destructive conduct, mental and

psychological challenges encountered by educators, elevated responsibilities, and limited time

(Asadullah, 2005; Muthusamy, 2015; Shah, & Inamullah, 2012). Some of the opinions expressed by

the teachers are as follows:

"One classroom has too many kids. The classroom is inadequate for student numbers in the

classroom. It minimises movement." "There's little room for students to sit down, 4 learners

are required to share, instead of 2 per seat.” "Sixty-four students in a summer class are a

nightmare. Fans don't work. Learners are nervous, very restless, and not centred." "Because

the classrooms lack space, they become extremely hot and uncomfortable to become impatient

learners.” "I do most of the talk, essentially. Sometimes the learners do not answer questions.

It's hard to pay attention individually.” "To involve the learners in the lesson is hard. It's

loud, and you can't pay attention individually.” "Personally, I have issues with the discipline.

The learners are particularly too noisy when there's a feature that kids get into a frenzy." “Learners suffer a lot over trivial issues such as fighting one another for losing their

possessions as their belongings have no location to be kept. And I do settle inconsequential

issues that can trigger severe disciplinary concerns. That takes time away from teaching.” "I

can't deal with it at all. I am constantly nervous. I am still depressed and I sob.” “I am really

angry, and the despondent learners are behaving poorly, and they don't matter. I am also


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



depressed because my Headteacher does not support me." "Since it is difficult to mark at

school, I take marking at home. This removes me since personal time. My daughter laments I

ignore her. Often I disregard her need to get my job done and that creates trouble." "I find

myself solving minor discipline problems and that takes time off teaching. I always take the

marking at home as there is not enough time to mark the work of the learners.”

From the sampled opinions of the teachers, it is realised that in the school, teachers do not have

adequate room so the tables and chairs are cramped and the students become very irritated (Asadullah,

2005). There is no wandering around the classroom for students as the mobility is very minimal.

Health and safety problems have been reported as a result of room limitations. Interacting with

learners is very difficult for the Teacher since these circumstances limit contact. As a consequence of

the limited student-Teacher involvement that led them to indulge in destructive actions, pupils felt

inferior. Educators also feel very nervous and stressed in a congested classroom, causing them to

develop social and emotional difficulties (Mutisya, 2020; Shah, & Inamullah, 2012). Similarly,

because of the increasing number of students in the school, the teachers' workload tends to be quite

high. Educators' responses suggested that they did most of their school work, such as teaching and

teaching-learning materials (TLMs) preparation and marking at home. They stated that such patterns

have an effect on their personal and family lives, depriving their families of quality time. The

educators argued that the process of teaching and learning is often disrupted constantly while they

waste time settling disputes instead of teaching. From the above, the enumerated situations

encountered by educators indicate that the interactions of teachers in congested classrooms are

'stressful' and can impair their classroom effectiveness.

RQ2: Various and nuanced factors leading to stressful interactions for educators

Research question two interrogated issues regarding the challenges teachers encounter as they manage

classrooms that are overcrowded. Sampled comments made by the teachers are as follows:

"Sometimes I'm not inspired and I don't know how to manage those problems and no-one

wants to help. And I just find out what to do on my own.” "The number of learners exceeds

that prescribed by the Ghana education service." "The number of learners at the school is

more than 50 learners in a single classroom.” "The lessons cannot be thrilling because the

classrooms are so overcrowded and the facilities are not enough that you completely lose

hope." "We share what we have with the learners. There are inadequate resources and

insufficient funds to provide services because school fees are a major issue.” "Practical

sessions are too complex to carry out. There are inadequate resources for making lessons

interesting and exciting. I don't have enough teaching-learning materials. It's hard but I'm

improvising.”

Teacher comments and our observation suggest that stressful experiences with congested classes, such

as those identified in the New Gbawe Experimental 1 Basic School, are frequent and complicated.

Career development and shortage of resources, policy compliance (Muthusamy, 2015), teacher

readiness, and lack of institutional help are some of the reasons that are creating challenging

circumstances for educators (Onwu & Stoffels, 2005). The direction or assistance offered by the

school management, in particular, the head teacher is insufficient. The results have suggested that

New Gbawe Experimental 1 Basic School is not following the policies as required by law. Secondly,

any classroom enrolment exceeds what the policy states. The learner-teacher ratio is 35:1 according to

the Ministry for Education, Ghana (2018). However, enrolment in the New Gbawe Experimental 1

Basic School is higher than the learner-teacher ratio of 35:1, suggesting at this stage the policy is not

being implemented. Unfortunately, teachers may not have the expertise to contend with overcrowded

classrooms, and their capacity to cope with this has been compromised (Mweru, 2010). At New

Gbawe Experimental 1 Basic School shortage of funding was a big problem and this influenced

teaching and learning. Teachers suggested that, due to lack of resources, the lessons cannot be

informative and exciting. Both of the above factors are contributing to traumatic teachers' experiences.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



RQ3: Perspectives of educators handling congested classrooms

In research question three, we investigated the strategies teachers use to manage overcrowded

classrooms. Sampled comments made by the teachers are as follows:

"There are social exercises conducted outside to reduce movement and noise. I take one step

at a time to ensure all prescribed work is complete. I like to scream a lot. I reward them with

candy, occasionally. Nobody talks except for putting their hand up.” “Group work is an

efficient way for learners to provide guidance and test work. Consolidating and testing work

in groups is easier for me.” “I am basically struggling with problems to keep things from

worsening. I try to hold the students engaged constructively from the beginning of the lesson

till the end so that they do not get impatient, and mess with other learners. I plan lessons that

make it interesting.” “I lay down simple guidelines for handling classrooms. I don't neglect

lesser discipline problems as they save me time to solve a small issue, then bigger ones. I do

the training without interrupting the lesson. I offer rules and bonuses for good behaviour.” “I'm using corporal punishment and I'm giving students tons of notes to copy and write and

they're occupied but they're always crying and yelling and behaving like your invisible.” “I

am trying to keep an optimistic and relaxed outlook and I am trying to find answers to

problems. I know the learners are victims. They have no alternative in terms of what school

will they go to.”

We found that though educators' encounters with congested classrooms are daunting, the problem is

often addressed by them (Yelkpieri, Namale, Esia-Dankoh, & Ofosu-Dwamena, 2012). Educators

normally rally their resources to enable them to control overcrowded classrooms (Muthusamy, 2015).

Correspondingly, in order to actively involve learners in their lessons and enhance learner

achievement, educators designed cooperative learning activities. Similarly, the teachers used

incentives to encourage positive learner behaviour. Additionally, educators suggested specific rules

and guidelines should be set. Although some teachers were reported to use innovative methods to

handle overcrowded classes, there were others who used offensive tactics such as insulting, yelling,

and corporal punishment (Muthusamy, 2015). Findings from this study revealed that despite the

challenges in overcrowded classrooms encountered by educators in New Gbawe Experimental 1 Basic

School, they are still keen on working hard within the constraints of inadequate resources and the

huge student numbers, suggesting that they have the best interest of the learners.


Discussion

The results of the study have shown that there are a multitude of difficulties for educators to face in

congested classrooms. The results also suggest that the 'no effort' and often challenging methods used

by educators have shown the Teacher's role in managing congested classrooms and transforming their

schools and classrooms as agents of change (Donnelly, 2019; Fatima, Mushatq, & Fatima, 2019;

Hachem & Mayor, 2019; Khanare, 2009; Marais, 2016; Muthusamy, 2015). The value of the school

reform system driving this research highlights facets of how even the smallest interventions can be

nurtured in the psycho-social well-being of children (Donald & Lolwana, 2006; Donnelly, 2019;

Hachem & Mayor, 2019; Marais, 2016; Muthusamy, 2015). Thus, the researcher suggested in the

results as to why the teachers are getting the experiences they do. The teachers still do this given the

pressures of running overcrowded classrooms. Some teachers had shared optimism and positivity

anyway. This research focused on the theoretical structure for school improvement and is perfect,

because teachers are already familiar with and dealing with congested classrooms as they have a sense

of school improvement and coping strategies. Thus, according to Creemers (2008), educators are seen

as an important tool for progress, as transformation is evident in their classrooms and day-to-day

activities, but effective school initiatives are still needed to bring about change. The emphasis was on

educator interactions with congested classrooms, and why they have the experience they have, and

what management techniques they use to deal with congested classroom challenges.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Conclusions

Teachers’ overcrowded classroom experiences are “stressful.” There are causative factors leading to

traumatic situations for teachers but they often handle the overcrowded situation with tactfulness. As

improvement is the main factor to bring about intervention, it is expedient that the problem is

actionised in order to mitigate it. This will enhance the experience of teaching and learning for both

teachers and learners. In order to cope with overcrowded classrooms in traditional schools, there are a

number of approaches that schools may use to increase teacher ability and school performance as

revealed in this research. From this study, we observed that teachers used different approaches to

enable them overcome overcrowding in their classrooms. Some of the approaches mentioned include

the following. Some teachers use group work in a flexible way to ensure that different ability groups

are taken care of while helping to overcome overcrowding as well. Others used improvisation to

improvise materials to stimulate and maintain the confidence and excitement of students (Marais,

2016; Muthusamy, 2015; West & Meler, 2020). One aspect that the researchers were not enthiused

about was the use of corporal punishment. It is also not advisable for some teachers to keep the lesson

too long in an overcrowded classroom. Keeping the lesson short is very helpful so that teachers can

devote as much time as possible to working with a variety of groups. Keeping learners busy right fom

the start of a lesson is very crucial in successful overcrowded clasrroom management. As a result, it's

important that the teacher keeps the entire class occupied as much as possible. Thua, at the beginning

of each period, get the students to work straight away (Kriegel, n.d.; West & Meler, 2020 ).

Recommendations

It is believed that when the required action is taken, schools experiencing overcrowding across the

country can be improved. The research can be broadened to a number of schools from other

backgrounds such as semi-urban and rural areas to get a clearer picture of the nature of

congested classrooms. It is suggested that research involving other respondents like pupils

using a variety of pedagogic approaches would be fascinating such as art-based approaches to

make the learners' voices heard in their classrooms over-crowded. It is recommended that the

Ghana education service takes a critical look of these behaviour that is exhited by some

teachers in overcrowded classrooms.

Limitations of the Research

This study was conducted in an overcrowded urban school where all the teachers observed and

interviewed were females. It would have been helpful if some of the teachers were males so that their

divergent views could have been compared. Also overcrowded classrooms in semi-urban and rural

areas could have also been considered to compare how teachers and learners will fare in these

locations. It is suggested that further research be undertaken by including the aforementioned

variables.

Acknowledgment

We wish to acknowledge the teachers used in this study for making themselves available and also

allowing us to observe their classroom practice.

REFERENCES

Adejimi, A., Oyediran, O. S., & Ogunsanmi, E. B. (2010). Employing qualitatively enriched semi structured questionnaire

in evaluating ICT impact on Nigerian ‘construction chain integration’. The Built & Human Environment Review,

3(1), 49-62.

Adeyemi, B. A. (2008). Effects of cooperative learning and problem-solving strategies on junior secondary school students’

achievement in social studies. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 6(3), 691-708.

Ahmed, A. U., & Arends-Kuenning, M. (2006). Do crowded classrooms crowd out learning? Evidence from the food for

education program in Bangladesh. World Development, 34, 665–684.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Akoto-Baako, H. (2018). Perceived influence of large class size and psychological classroom environment on students’

academic performance. Retrieved October 01, 2020, from

https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui/bitstream/123456789/3421/1/HANSEN%202018.pdf

Amarat, S. M. (2011). The classroom problems faced teachers at the public schools in Tafila province, and solutions.

International Education Science, 3(1), 37-48.

Arul, A. S. L., & Vimala, A. (2012). School environment and academic achievement of standard IX students. Online

Submission, 2(3), 210-215. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED542331

Asodike, J. D., & Onyeike, V. C. (2016). Managing large classes in developing countries. Global Journal of Educational

Research, 15(1), 31-39. DOI:10.4314/gjedr.v15i1.4.

Burns, N., & Grove, S. K. (2010). Understanding nursing research-eBook: Building an evidence-based practice (5th ed.).

Philadelphia: Saunders.

Carr, W., & Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming critical: Education, knowledge and action research. Lewes: Falmer.

Chepkonga, M. C. (2017). Influence of learning facilities on provision of quality education in early childhood development

centres in Kenya. International Journal of Education and Research, 5(6), 15-26.

China L. (2018, September 13). Anger grows in China over school crowding. Retrieved September 28, 2020, from

https://www.economist.com/china/2018/09/13/anger-grows-in-china-over-school-crowding

China, X. (2016, March 29). Chinese urban schools strive to 'slim' oversize classes. Retrieved September 28, 2020, from

https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2016-03/29/content_24167862.htm

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in education. (7th ed.). London: Routledge.

Cooper, H., Lindsay, J. J., & Nye, B. (2000). Homework in the home: How student, family, and parenting-style differences

relate to the homework process. Contemporary educational psychology, 25(4), 464-487.

Creemers, B. (2008). Effective school improvement-Ingredients for success, organisational effectiveness and improvement

in education. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage.

Crossman, A. (2019). An overview of qualitative research methods: Direct observation, interviews, participation,

immersion, focus groups. Retrieved September 28, 2020, from https://www.thoughtco.com/qualitative-research-

methods-3026555.

Donnelly, K. (2019, October 16). Cram school: Two-thirds of primary school pupils stuck in overcrowded classrooms.

Retrieved September 28, 2020, from https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/education/cram-school-two-thirds-of-

primary-school-pupils-stuck-in-overcrowded-classrooms-38316566.html

Edwards, C. H., & Watts, V. J. (2010). Classroom discipline & management (2nd ed.). Milton, Qld.: John Wiley & Sons.

Emmer, T., & Stough, L. (2010). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with implications for

teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 103-112.

Farrokhi, F., & Mahmoudi-Hamidabad, A. (2012). Re-thinking convenience sampling: Defining quality criteria. Theory

and Practice in Language Studies, 2(4), 784-792.

Fatima, Z. U. A., Mushatq, M., & Fatima, Q. U. A. (2019). Overcrowded classroom problems faced by school teachers in

district Muzzafarabad. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development,

8(4), 328–339.

Fife Schwa, T. (2001). There are many steps in carrying out successful research. The Journal of Educational Research,

2(4), 113-125.

Fin, J. D. (2003). Tennessee’s class size study: Findings, implications, misconceptions. Education Evaluation and Policy

Analysis, 21(2), 97-109.

Finn, M., Walton, M., & Elliott-White, M. (2000). Tourism and leisure research methods: Data collection, analysis, and

interpretation. New York City: Pearson education.

Freiberg, H. J. (2013). Classroom management and student achievement. International Guide to Student Achievement, 228-

230.

Ghana Education Service (GES) (2014). Basic education curriculum. Retrieved 09 April 2020 from

https://web.archive.org/web/20140525195225/http://www.ges.gov.gh/?q=content%2Fbasic-education-curriculum-

1.


https://erl.ucc.edu.gh/jspui/bitstream/123456789/3421/1/HANSEN%202018.pdf

https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED542331

https://www.economist.com/china/2018/09/13/anger-grows-in-china-over-school-crowding

https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2016-03/29/content_24167862.htm

https://www.thoughtco.com/qualitative-research-methods-3026555

https://www.thoughtco.com/qualitative-research-methods-3026555

https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/education/cram-school-two-thirds-of-primary-school-pupils-stuck-in-overcrowded-classrooms-38316566.html

https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/education/cram-school-two-thirds-of-primary-school-pupils-stuck-in-overcrowded-classrooms-38316566.html

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Hachem, H., & Mayor, P. (2019, October 04). Overcrowding in schools: Why is it a huge Issue? Retrieved September 28,

2020, from https://patch.com/michigan/dearborn/overcrowding-schools-why-it-huge-issue.

Harfitt, G. J., & Tsui, A. B. (2015). An examination of class size reduction on teaching and learning processes: A

theoretical perspective. British Educational Research Journal, 41(5), 845-865.

Iqbal, P., & Khan, M. (2012). Overcrowded classrooms: A serious problem for teachers. Elixir International Journal, 2(5),

10162-10165.

Kedney, R. J. (2013). Performance measurement in non-advanced further education: The use of statistics. (Unpublished

doctoral dissertation). University of Lancaster, United Kingdom.

Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods & techniques. New Dehli: New Age International (P) Limited

Publishers.

Kriegel, O. (n.d.). 3 tips on how to manage an overcrowded classroom. Retrieved April 02, 2021, from

https://www.wgu.edu/heyteach/article/3-tips-how-manage-overcrowded-classroom1809.html

Kweitsu, R. (2019). Ghana’s education sector: Key challenges hindering the effective delivery of education and the way

forward. Retrieved June, 11, 2020, from https://www.modernghana.com/news/579629/ghanas-education-sector-

key-challenges-hindering.html

Lannoy, A., & Hall, K. (2010). Statistics on children in South Africa. Cape Town: Cape Town University Press.

Lee, E., & Brennenstuhl, S. (2010). How to critically evaluate case studies in social work. London: SAGE Publications.

Marais, P. (2016). “We can’t believe what we see”: Overcrowded classrooms through the eyes of student teachers. South

African Journal of Education, 36(2), 1-10.

Marzano, R. J., & Marzano, J. S. (2003). The key to classroom management. Educational Leadership, 61(1), 6-13.

Ministry of Education (MOE), Ghana (2018). Education sector analysis. Retrieved on April 09, 2020 from

https://sapghana.com/data/documents/Ghana-Education-Sector-Analysis-2018.pdf.

Moreno, V., Cavazotte, F., & Dutra, J. P. (2020). Psychosocial and organisational antecedents of knowledge sharing in the

workplace. Revista de Administração Contemporânea, 24(4), 283-299A.

Mutisya, M. (2020, February 24). Some Kenyan schools are dangerously overcrowded. What must be done? Retrieved

September 01, 2020, from https://theconversation.com/some-kenyan-schools-are-dangerously-overcrowded-what-

must-be-done-131774.

Muthusamy, N. (2015). Teachers’ experiences with overcrowded classrooms in a mainstream school. (Unpublished M.Ed.

dissertation). Durban, South Africa: University of KwaZulu-Natal. Available at

https://researchspace.ukzn.ac.za/bitstream/handle/1

Neale, P., Thapa, S., & Boyce, C. (2006). Preparing a case study: A guide for designing and conducting a case study for

evaluation input. London: Routledge.

O’Sullivan, M. C. (2006). Teaching large classes: The international evidence and a discussion of some good practice in

Ugandan primary schools. International Journal of Educational Development, 26(1), 24-37.

Oliver, R. (2006). Exploring a technology-facilitated solution to cater for advanced students in large undergraduate classes.

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 22(1), 1-12.

Onwu, G., & Stoffels, N. (2005). Challenges of large class teaching. Journal of South African Education, 12(10), 14-26.

Palys, T. (2008). Purposive sampling. London: Routledge.

Punch, F. K. (2009). Introduction to research methods in education. London: Sage Publications Ltd.

Saifi, I. L., Hussain, M., Salamat, L., & Bakht, I. (2018). Impact of classroom management on students achievement at

university level. Asian Innovative Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 2(2), 13-27.

Shah, J., & Inamullah, H. M. (2012). Overcrowded classrooms: A serious problem for teachers. The Journal of Educational

Strategies, 5(1), 772-789.

Shamaki, T. A. (2015). Influence of learning environment on students’ academic achievement in mathematics: A case study

of some selected secondary schools in Yobe State-Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(34), 40-44.

Simpson, M., & Tuson, J. (2005). Using observation in small-scale research. Glasgow: SCRE Publications.

Siperto, J. (2017). Secondary school teachers experience in managing large classes: The case of secondary schools in

Buchosa district council Mwanza. http://repository.out.ac.tz/1915/1/Dissertation%20%20BENJAMIN%20SIPERT

O%20%20Final.pdf


https://patch.com/michigan/dearborn/overcrowding-schools-why-it-huge-issue

https://www.modernghana.com/news/579629/ghanas-education-sector-key-challenges-hindering.html

https://www.modernghana.com/news/579629/ghanas-education-sector-key-challenges-hindering.html

https://sapghana.com/data/documents/Ghana-Education-Sector-Analysis-2018.pdf

https://theconversation.com/some-kenyan-schools-are-dangerously-overcrowded-what-must-be-done-131774

https://theconversation.com/some-kenyan-schools-are-dangerously-overcrowded-what-must-be-done-131774

https://researchspace.ukzn.ac.za/bitstream/handle/1

http://repository.out.ac.tz/1915/1/Dissertation%20%20BENJAMIN%20SIPERTO%20%20Final.pdf

http://repository.out.ac.tz/1915/1/Dissertation%20%20BENJAMIN%20SIPERTO%20%20Final.pdf

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Smith, M. K. (2020). What is education? A definition and discussion. The encyclopaedia of pedagogy and informal

education. Retrieved on April 07, 2020, from https://infed.org/mobi/what-is-education-a-definition-and-discussion/.

Stepaniuk, V. I. (1997). The use of classroom space in urban schools: The case of Ukraine. The Economics of Education in

the USSR (ed) and Translated by Harold J Noah, New York: Frederick A Praeger Publishers.

Thompson, N. M., & Casely-Hayford, L. (2014). The financing and outcomes of education in Ghana. The University of

Cambridge. pp. 9–14. Retrieved June 13, 2020, from http://ceid.educ.cam.ac.uk/publications/WP16.pdf

UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2008). Education for all: Global monitoring report 2008. Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO Institute for Statistics. (2018). Ghana: Making inclusive education a reality.

http://www.iiep.unesco.org/en/ghana-making-inclusive-education-reality-4564

UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2020). Ghana: Student teacher ratio, primary school. Retrieved 21 March 2020 from

http://uis.unesco.org/

Van Velzen W., Miles, M., Elholm, M., Hameyer, U., & Robin, D. (1985). Making school improvement work. Leuven:

Belgium ACCO.

West, J., & Meler, C. (2020). Overcrowded classrooms – The Achilles heel of South African education? South African

Journal of Childhood Education 10(1). DOI:10.4102/sajce.v10i1.617

Wilkinson, D., & Birmingham, P. (2003). Using research instruments. London: Routledge.

World Bank (2013). Ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education (%). Retrieved March 21, 2020, Available

online: www.worldbank.org

Yelkpieri, D., Namale, M., Esia-Dankoh, K., & Ofosu-Dwamena, E. (2012). Effects of large class size on effective teaching

and learning at the Winneba campus of the University of Education, Winneba, Ghana. US-China Education review

A. 3, 319-332.


https://infed.org/mobi/what-is-education-a-definition-and-discussion/

http://ceid.educ.cam.ac.uk/publications/WP16.pdf

http://www.iiep.unesco.org/en/ghana-making-inclusive-education-reality-4564

http://uis.unesco.org/

http://www.worldbank.org/

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



THE CONCEPT OF ANGLE IN TURKISH AND SINGAPOREAN

PRIMARY SCHOOL MATHEMATICS TEXTBOOKS: DYNAMIC OR

STATIC?

Suphi Önder BÜTÜNER

Assoc.Prof.Dr., Yozgat Bozok University, Faculty of Education, Mathematics Education Yozgat, Turkey


[email protected]

Received: November 06, 2020 Accepted: February 08, 2021 Published: June 30, 2021

Suggested Citation:

Bütüner, S. Ö. (2021). The concept of angle in Turkish and Singaporean primary school mathematics textbooks: Dynamic or

static?. International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 10(1), 89-105.


Abstract

The present study compared Turkish and Singaporean textbooks with respect to their instructional contents on a difficult

topic for most students: the concept of angle. The study used the 3rd and 4th grade mathematics textbooks taught in Turkish

and Singaporean schools. The analysis showed that Turkish textbooks defined the angle as a static concept, and Singaporean

textbooks defined it as both a static and dynamic concept. The definitions of the concept of angle included in the textbooks

reflect on the representation of the angle, instructional tools and problems. Turkish students learn angle from textbooks only

as a static concept, so they may have difficulties and misconceptions about the subject and related concepts. The findings

showed that the contents of Singaporean textbooks offer students more opportunities than Turkish textbooks in learning

about the angle as a static and dynamic concept.

Keywords: Singapore, Turkey, mathematics, textbook, the concept of angle.

INTRODUCTION

Many countries participate in international comparative exams such as TIMSS, PISA and PIRLS in

order to better see their own development in science, mathematics and reading skills. One of these

international exams, TIMSS is held every four years to compare the science and mathematics

achievement levels of elementary 4th and 8th graders. In the exam, participant countries’ mathematics

standards achievement scores are calculated (numbers and operations, geometry, algebra and data-

probability) in order to reach an overall achievement score. In TIMSS 2015, Singapore was the top

country with 617 points, and Turkey remained below the international mean with 463 points in the

geometry domain (Mullis, Martin, Foy, & Hooper, 2016). The differences between Turkish and

Singaporean students’ geometry performances may be attributed to many factors. One reason could be

differences in the content of the textbooks.

Rezat (2006) makes an attempt to develop a framework on the use of textbooks by both teachers and

students. Using the tetrahedron model shown in Figure 1, Rezat (2009) represented the relationships

among textbooks, students, teachers, and mathematical knowledge.

Mathematical knowledge/didactical aspects of the mathematical knowledge

Figure 1. Rezat’s tetrahedron model


https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7083-6549



IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Figure 1 indicates the importance of textbooks in the teaching process. Textbooks can be

considered an important resource for both students and teachers (Fan & Zhu, 2000; Son & Hu, 2016).

Textbooks shape what teachers will teach in the classroom and how (Alajmi, 2012; Hirsch, Lappan,

Reys & Reys, 2005; Li, 2000). As different textbooks provide students with different learning

opportunities, textbook comparison studies may help explain the differences in student success (Zhu

& Fan, 2006). It is therefore not surprising that textbook comparison studies have become popular in

recent years. These studies particularly use textbooks from high scoring countries in international

exams such as the TIMSS or PISA namely China, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Singapore, and

Finland. Most of these studies have analyzed textbooks with respect to their contents or problem types

(Hong & Choi, 2014). There is a limited number of studies comparing Turkish and Singapore

textbooks. These studies are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Studies comparing Turkish and Singapore textbooks and the content of the studies

Author Year Countries Content

Erbaş et al. 2012 Turkey, Singapore, USA Design characteristics

Sağlam and Alacacı 2012 Turkey, Singapore Content, organization, and

presentation style (Quadratics)

Özer and Sezer 2014 Turkey, Singapore, USA Problem type

Bütüner 2019 Turkey, Singapore Problem Analysis (division in fractions)

Toprak and Özmantar 2020 Turkey, Singapore Worked-examples and questions posed

(potential cognitive demand, reasoning and

proof)

Bütüner 2020 Turkey, Singapore Instructional content (division in fractions)

Differently from these previous studies, the present study compares Turkish and Singaporean

textbooks with respect to their instructional contents on a difficult topic for most students: the concept

of angle. There is a limited number of comparative studies on angle in the literature. Park (2015)

compared the teaching contents for angle and measure of an angle in Korean and Japanese

mathematics textbooks. The results show that it is necessary to reconsider the way of the definition of

angle. Kim (2018a) investigated the definitions of angles in the past Korean Elementary Mathematics

Textbooks. The results show that textbooks treat angles solely as a static concept. In another study,

Choi, Kim, and Kwon (2019) examine angle-related contents and learning process and then look at

the perspectives and the size aspects of angle in detail. Singapore, U.K., Australia, and U.S. were

selected as comparable countries in this study. The results show that the dynamic definition of the

angle is described later and less in the Korean curriculum when compared to other countries.

While considering that textbooks are primary sources used by teachers, possessing well-designed

textbooks including correct and complete definitions, examples, representation modes, teaching tools

and problems is one of the effective factors for students to have a correct conceptual image

(Bingölbali, 2016, p. 140). The present study examines the definition of the concept of angle in

Turkish and Singaporean textbooks, its representation (dynamic vs static), the tools used in the

teaching of the angle and their purposes, and the aspect of the angle emphasized in problems

(dynamic vs static). The findings of this study were used to make recommendations to curriculum

designers in Turkish and Singaporean Education Ministries so as to guide them in amending the

deficiencies in textbooks. The recommendations for improving textbooks will guide curriculum

developers in overcoming the deficiencies of textbooks. Different textbooks can offer different

learning opportunities to students and help explain the differences between students’ success levels

(Reys, Reys, & Chavez, 2004; Zhu & Fan, 2006). Therefore, the results of this study may give an idea

about the performances of Turkish and Singaporean students, who will take international exams in

future years, on the concept of angle. The research questions are as following:


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



• How is the concept of angle defined?

• How is the angle represented?

• What learning tools are used when teaching the concept of angle?

• What are the purposes of using these instructional tools in the process of teaching?

• What aspect of the angle is emphasized in problems related to the concept of angle?

The Concept of Angle: Its Significance, Definitions and Representations

The angle is an important concept in geometry as it is one of the most basic and fundamental

geometry concepts. The concept of angle is always there regardless of the concept being studied (For

instance, when two lines intersect or when we examine a polygon or a polyhedral) (Argün, Arıkan,

Bulut, & Halıcıoğlu, 2014). Angles are also used in various other areas such as engineering,

architecture, land measurement, geology and physics. In high school mathematics, students need

knowledge of angles to solve various mathematical problems. Indeed, the problems that students

encounter regarding the concept of angle also lead to other problems in future topics (trigonometric

functions, etc.) (Moore, 2013).

Henderson and Taimina (2005) list the following conceptions of angle: angle as a geometric shape,

union of two rays with a common end point (static); angle as movement; angle as rotation (dynamic);

angle as measure; and, amount of turning (also dynamic). Older students may be able to conceptualize

angles in turns, ray pairs, or regions, but may not be able to relate them. Younger students may be

able to conceptualize certain angle situations in terms of ray pairs or regions, but may not

conceptualize turns in terms of angles at all (Mitchelmore & White, 1998, p.5). Kim (2018b)

investigated angle concepts and introduction methods of angles in textbooks. Her findings show that

textbooks treat angles solely as a static concept. Kim (2018b) stated that treating angles solely as a

static concept in textbooks leads to certain difficulties for students in understanding the concept.

Bütüner and Filiz (2017) investigated high achievers’ erroneous answers and misconceptions on the

angle concept. According to the results, many students assumed that the size of an angle depends on

the radius of the arc marking the angle and the area of the sector. 32% of students in this study were

unable to recognize a 180° angle.

Presenting the angle as a static concept may lead to certain difficulties for students in understanding

the concept. For instance, they may come to think that the arm length of the angle increases with its

degree, and may therefore find it hard to grasp angles greater than 360°, and some students can not

recognize 0° and 180° angles (Hansen, 2017; Keiser, 2004). Clausen-May (2005) stated that the angle

is usually emphasized not as a measurement (dynamic) but only as a figure (static). In the static

representation, the concept of kinesthetic angle (as motion) is lost, thus blurring the true meaning of

the concept of angle. In order to avoid such problems, students should learn the angle both as a

dynamic and static concept (Barmby, Bilsborough, Harries, & Higgins, 2009; Clausen-May, 2008;

Clements, Wilson, & Sarama, 2004; Crompton, 2013; Mitchelmore & White, 2000). Clausen-May

(2005) states that although it is not possible to show motion on paper, a directed arrow can be used as

its representative. Three different representations of an angle are shown in Figure 2. Textbooks should

therefore include content that enables students to learn the angle both as a dynamic and static concept.

Figure 2. Three different representations of an angle (from left to right: static-static-dynamic)


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Tools Used in Teaching the Concept of Angle

The instruction of the angle may involve dynamic mathematics software (Clements & Battista, 1990;

1994; Crompton, 2013; Kaur, 2020), various daily life tools (Clements & Burns, 2000; Fyhn, 2007;

Mitchelmore, 1998; Mitchelmore & White, 2000), body movements (Fyhn, 2006; Smith, King, &

Hoyte, 2014) and out-of-class learning experiences (Munier, Devichi, & Merle, 2008).

In studies conducted in the late 80s, the software Logo was used extensively in teaching the concept

of angle (Clements & Battista, 1989; 1990; Clements, Battista, Sarama, & Swaminathan, 1996;

Clements & Burns, 2000; Simmons & Cope, 1990). The results of previous studies have shown that

Logo-aided learning environments may be effective in students’ understanding of the dynamic

definition of the angle and their skills for predicting the measurement of a given angle. Also, Logo-

aided learning environments prevent the emergence of misconceptions. The literature also includes

studies reporting the positive effects of dynamic geometry software such as Sketchpad (Crompton,

2013; Tieng & Eu, 2014) and Geogebra (Baya'a, Daher, & Mahagna, 2017; Boo & Leong, 2016) in

teaching the concept of angle.

Many daily tools (wheels, doors, scissors, fans, signposts, hills, crossroads, tiles and walls) may be

used when teaching this concept (Mitchelmore, 1998; Mitchelmore & White, 2000). The first four

tools are suitable for teaching the dynamic definition of the angle, while the last five tools are suitable

for teaching the static definition of the angle. Besides, tools such as doors or scissors give the

opportunity to display limited turns, while tools such as wheels, fans, ventilators and wind chimes

give the opportunity to demonstrate unlimited turns. While teaching the concept of angle, learning

objects such as geometry strips or protractors may also be used in addition to daily life tools. In Figure

3, the red strip makes a counter-clockwise quarter turn. If a full turn is 360 degrees, 1 quarter turn

equals to 90 degrees. As can be seen, geometry strips help establish a relationship between the

concepts of angle and fraction (part-whole relationship) when teaching angle as a dynamic concept

(Clausen-May, 2008, p. 6-7).

Figure 3. The use of geometry strips in angle instruction

METHOD

Textbooks Used in the Study

In this study, selected Singaporean (Ming, 2016a, b) and Turkish mathematics (Genç, Güleç, Şahin, &

Taşcı, 2019; Kayapınar, Şahin, Erdem, & Leylek, 2019) textbooks were compared. Textbooks from

these two countries were selected because these countries represent different levels of performance on

the TIMSS. While 4th-grade Singaporean students performed well, 4th-grade Turkish students

performed below the TIMSS scale average. In Turkey, Primary Education involves the education and

training of children in the age group of 6 to 10. Primary education is compulsory for all citizens. It is

free in state schools and lasts four years (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th grades). In Singapore, compulsory

education includes six years of primary school (ages 6-12), four years of secondary school, and one to

three years of post-secondary school. 3rd and 4th grade levels are primary school levels in both

countries. The concept of angle is introduced in the 3rd grade in both countries, and continued in the


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



4th grade. The objectives regarding the teaching of the angle as a dynamic concept in Turkish and

Singaporean primary mathematics curricula are given in Table 2.

Table 2. The Objectives regarding the teaching of the angle in Turkish and Singaporean primary

mathematics (MONE, 2018, p. 41, 48; MES, 2012, p. 46-51).

Country Grade Objectives

SIN

3

Students should have opportunities to:

*Illustrate an angle as an amount of turning using geostrips / riveted straws and use language

such as “acute angle” and “obtuse angle” to describe angles.

**find angles in the environment and use a “paper right angle” to identify right angles, angles

greater than a right angle and angles smaller than a right angle.

TUR 3 **recognizes the angle and gives examples in the environment

SIN

4

Students should have opportunities to:

*Associate the amount of turning (rotation), clockwise or anti-clockwise, with an angle

measured in degrees

1/4 turn is 90; 1/2 turn is 180

**Estimate before measuring angles using a protractor

**Draw angles using a protractor

**Find the angles (in degrees) between two 8-point compass directions

TUR

4

** Determines the rays that make up the angle and the corner, names the angle and shows it

with a symbol

** Measures angles in non-standard units and explains the need for standard measuring units

** Measures angles with standard angle measuring tools and determines them as acute, obtuse

and right angles.

*Can form an angle using standard measurement tools: ”Realizes with the help of an angle

measurement tool (protractor, goniometer, etc.) that an angle is formed by rotating a ray

around an endpoint”

*The objectives regarding the teaching of the angle as a dynamic concept in Turkish and Singaporean primary mathematics

The study used the 3rd and 4th grade mathematics textbooks taught in Turkish schools and published

by the Turkish Education Ministry, and the Singaporean mathematics textbooks entitled Targeting

Mathematics 3B-4A. “My Pals are here” and “Targeting Mathematics” are commonly used books at

schools in Singapore. These two books are similar in terms of the teaching content of the angle

concept. In Turkey, textbooks are decided by the Ministry of Education. The Turkish Ministry posts

the textbooks used at schools on the webpage http://www.eba.gov.tr/ekitap. The Turkish textbooks

examined in this study were obtained from this website. These textbooks were used on students in the

same age groups that correspond to primary grades 3, and 4 and all books were in use in the

2019-2020 academic year in their respective countries. Two field specialists identified the grade levels

where the textbooks introduced the concept of angle, and then noted the relevant page numbers.

Following this, the analysis (coding) processes started.

The Theoretical Framework for the Analyses

In the study, vertical analyses were performed on the angles content in Turkish and Singaporean

mathematics textbooks. As complementary to horizontal analysis, the vertical analysis offers in-depth

understanding of mathematical content (Hong & Choi, 2014; Yang & Lin, 2015). For example, this

analysis can reveal how the contents of a relevant mathematical concept are presented, what

representation styles are used, what tools are used in concept instruction and their purposes. The scope

of vertical analyses is given in Table 3.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 3. Scope of vertical analyses

Vertical Analysis Indicators

How has the concept of angle been defined?

How is the angle represented?

What learning tools are used when teaching the concept of angle?

What are the purposes of using these instructional tools in the process of teaching?

What aspect of the angle is emphasized in problems related to the concept of angle?

Data analysis

In coding the angle as a static or dynamic concept, the opinions in the literature are taken as basis

(Clausen-May, 2005; Henderson & Taimina, 2005; Mitchelmore & White, 2000; Wilson & Adams,

1992). The coding criteria for the angle as a dynamic and static concept is given in Table 4. The

analyses were performed by two academics in the field of mathematics education. The coherence

between the intercoders was calculated using the formula developed by Miles and Huberman (1994).

The agreement for each category varied between 98% and 100%. They debated any differences and

made the final decision based on the views of yet another researcher. The findings were supported

with direct quotes from the textbooks.

Table 4. Coding criteria for the angle as a dynamic and static concept

Indicators Dynamic Static

How has the concept of

angle been defined?

angle as movement; angle as rotation; angle

as measure; and, amount of turning

(Henderson and Taimina, 2005)

angle as a geometric shape, union of two

rays with a common end point (Henderson

and Taimina, 2005)

How is the angle

represented?

a directed arrow Clausen-May, 2005) arrow with no direction; only as two rays-a

corner; no arrow (Clausen-May, 2005)

What learning tools are

used when teaching the

concept of angle?

Wheels, doors, scissors, fans, geometry strips,

riveted straws, clocks etc. (Mitchelmore &

White, 2000).

Signposts, hills, crossroads, tiles, table and

walls etc. (Mitchelmore & White, 2000).

What are the purposes of

using these instructional

tools in the process of

teaching?

An emphasis on the dynamic aspect of the

concept of angle (movement, amount of

rotation) (Henderson and Taimina, 2005).

did not make any emphasis on the dynamic

aspect of the concept of angle (movement,

amount of rotation) (Henderson and

Taimina, 2005)

What aspect of the angle

is emphasized in

problems related to the

concept of angle?

Students are expected to solve, allowing them

to realize that an angle is formed by rotating a

ray around an endpoint and to associate the

degree of the angle with the concept of

fraction (part-whole) etc. (Wilson & Adams,

1992; Clausen-May, 2005, 2008).

Students are not expected to solve, allowing

them to realize that an angle is formed by

rotating a ray around an endpoint (Wilson

& Adams, 1992; Clausen-May, 2005,

2008).

FINDINGS

Table 5 presents the findings concerning how the concept of angle is defined in Turkish and

Singaporean textbooks, how it is represented, what instructional tools are taught to teach it, what

purposes the instructional tools have, and what aspect (dynamic-static) is emphasized in problems

concerning the concept of angle.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 5. Vertical analysis findings

Indicators TAR3B TAR4A TR3 TR4

How is the concept of

angle defined?

Both Static and Dynamic Both Static and

Dynamic

Static Static

How is the angle

represented?

A directed arrow; arrow

with no direction

A directed arrow;

arrow with no

direction

Arrow with no

direction; only as

two rays-a corner;

no arrow

Arrow with no

direction; only as

two rays-a corner;

no arrow

What instructional tools

are used to teach the

concept of angle?

Daily life tools, Learning

objects (geometry strips,

riveted straws), Body

movements

Daily life tools,

Learning objects

(geometry strips,

riveted straws and

protractor), Body

movements

Daily life tools Daily life tools,

Learning objects

(protractor)

What purpose do the

instructional tools have?

To teach the static and

dynamic aspects of the

angle

To teach the static and

dynamic aspects of the

angle

To teach the static

aspect of the angle

To teach the static

aspect of the angle

What aspect of the angle

is emphasized in angle

problems?

Both static and dynamic Both static and

dynamic

Static Static

How is the concept of angle defined?

The angle is defined in Turkish textbooks as “a plane formed by two rays with a shared endpoint

(TR3, p. 229)” and “a plane formed by the closed edges of two intersecting rays (TR4, p. 207)”.

Singaporean textbooks state that “an angle is formed when two straight lines meet at a common point.

The size of an angle depends on the amount of turning (TAR3B, p. 60-61, TAR4A, p.116)”. The

Singaporean book also emphasizes the dynamic aspect (quarter turn) when defining the right angle

(Figure 4). As can be seen, Turkish textbooks define the angle as a static concept while Singaporean

textbooks define it as both a static and a dynamic (amount of rotation) concept.

Figure 4. Definition of the right angle in the Singaporean book (TAR3B, p. 62)

How is the angle represented?

The definitions in the textbooks are reflected in angle representation. Singaporean textbooks represent

the angle as an “arrow with direction” or an “arrow with no direction” (Figure 5). Turkish textbooks

represent the angle as an “arrow with no direction” or “only two rays – a corner and no arrow” (Figure

6). Therefore, while the angle exists in Singaporean textbooks as both a dynamic and a static concept,

it remains a static concept in Turkish books. In conclusion, it may be stated that the textbooks from

both countries include representations in line with the definitions of the angle that they adopt.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Figure 5. The dynamic (“arrow with direction,” TAR3B-I, p.60, TAR4A-III, p. 123) and static

(“arrow with no direction,” TAR3B-II, p. 68, TAR4A-IV, p. 117) representations of the angle in the

Singaporean textbook

Figure 6. The static representation of the angle in the Turkish textbook (“arrow with no direction,”

TR3-I, p. 229, TR4-III, p. 209 or “two rays-a corner and no arrow,” TR3-II, p. 230, TR-IV, p. 215).

What instructional tools are used to teach the concept of angle and what purpose do the

instructional tools have?

The instructional tools used in Singaporean textbooks to teach the concept of angle include body

movements, protractor, geometry strips, and daily life tools (fans, computer, traffic signs, scissors,

stairs, clock, stapler, and compass). Singaporean textbooks teach the angle as both a static and

dynamic concept by using these tools. As can be seen in Figure 7, as Singaporean textbooks introduce

the concept of angle, they make use of body movements and riveted straws, thus emphasizing the

dynamic aspect of the angle.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Figure 7. Teaching the angle as a dynamic concept in the Singaporean textbook via body movements

and riveted straws (TAR3B, p. 60-61)

After emphasizing the dynamic aspect of the angle by using body movements, geometry strips and

riveted straws, Singaporean textbooks pass on to the static aspect of angle by using daily life tools

(fans, computer, traffic signs, scissors, stairs) (Figure 8). Visuals pertaining to these tools are given,

asking students to find the angles in them. Even though a fan, notebook computer and scissors are

suitable tools to teach the angle as a dynamic concept and they exist in Singaporean textbooks, they

were there only as examples and did not make any emphasis on the dynamic aspect of the concept of

angle (movement, amount of rotation). In other words, the angle was not treated as a dynamic concept

alone (movement, amount of rotation).

Figure 8. Tools used in the Singaporean textbook when teaching the angle as a static concept

(TAR3B, p. 61).

The 4th grade Singaporean book also teaches the angle as a dynamic concept. As shown in Figure 9,

the book uses geometry strips and makes a connection between the concepts of angle and fraction

(part-whole relationship), thus emphasizing the dynamic aspect of the angle. It is easy to see in Figure

9 that 1 full turn corresponds to 360 degrees, while 1 quarter turn corresponds to 90 degrees, two

quarter turns to 180 degrees, and three quarter turns to 270 degrees.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Figure 9. Teaching the angle in Singaporean books as a dynamic concept by using geometry strips

(TAR4A, p. 123).

In Turkish textbooks, the teaching of the concept of angle made use of a protractor and certain daily

life tools (“hanger, frame, chair” TR3, p. 229; “door, classroom desk, scissors, clock” TR4, p. 207)

(Figure 10). Hanger, frame, chair and classroom desk are suitable tools to teach the angle as a static

concept. Even though door, scissors and clocks are suitable tools to teach the angle as a dynamic

concept and they exist in Turkish textbooks, they were there only as examples and did not make any

emphasis on the dynamic aspect of the concept of angle (movement, amount of rotation). Thus,

Turkish textbooks use these tools to teach the angle only as a static concept.

Figure 10. Tools used in the Turkish textbook to teach the concept of angle (TR3, p. 229; TR4,

p. 207).

What aspect of the angle is emphasized in angle problems?

While the Turkish textbooks only include problems emphasizing the static aspect of the angle,

Singaporean textbooks include problems including both the static and dynamic aspects. The number

of problems with and without solutions in the two textbooks that treat the angle as a static and

dynamic concept are given in Table 6.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 6. The Number of Problems in the Textbooks that Treat the Angle as a Static and Dynamic

Concept

Problem Type

Turkish Textbooks Singaporean Textbooks

TR3 TR4 TAR3B TAR4A

Number of solved problems in the textbooks that treat the angle as a

static concept

0 1 1 6

Number of unsolved problems in the textbooks that treat the angle as

a static concept

3 5 10 5

Number of solved problems in the textbooks that treat the angle as a

dynamic concept

0 0 0 5

Number of unsolved problems in the textbooks that treat the angle as

a dynamic concept

0 0 0 3

Turkish textbooks do not include any problems that treat the angle as a dynamic concept. In contrast,

Singaporean textbooks include 5 problems with solutions and 3 questions that treat the angle as a

dynamic concept. The first problem in Appendix 1 is a daily life problem that students are expected to

solve, allowing them to realize that an angle is formed by rotating a ray around an endpoint and to

associate the degree of the angle with the concept of fraction (part-whole) (TAR4A-I). The second

problem expects students to classify given angles as straight, obtuse or acute (TAR4A-II). Therefore,

the first problem emphasizes the dynamic aspect of the angle, while the second problem emphasizes

its static aspect. Appendix 2 shows a problem from the Turkish textbooks emphasizing only the static

aspect of the angle. Students are not expected to solve, allowing them to realize that an angle is

formed by rotating a ray around an endpoint. This problem expects students to show the angles in the

images and classify the given angles as a straight, obtuse, acute or right angle. Other problems from

Turkish and Singaporean textbooks on the concept of angle are given in Appendix 3, 4, and 5.


The present study investigated how Turkish and Singaporean primary mathematics textbooks define

the concept of angle, how they represent angles, what tools are used with what purpose in teaching

angles, and what aspect of the angle is emphasized in problems regarding the concept of angle. The

concept of angle is introduced in both countries in the 3rd grade and continued in the 4th grade. The

primary mathematics curricula of both countries include objectives concerning “teaching the angle as

a dynamic concept.

The vertical analysis showed that Turkish textbooks defined the angle as a static concept, and

Singaporean textbooks defined it as both a static and dynamic concept. The definitions of the concept

of angle included in the textbooks reflect on the representation of the angle, the aims for using the

selected instructional tools in angle instruction, and the problem structure in the textbooks. In Turkish

textbooks, the angle is represented with “an arrow that does not show direction” or “two rays-a corner

and no arrow.” In Singaporean textbooks, it is represented with “an arrow that shows direction” or “an

arrow that does not show direction.” Therefore, in Singaporean books, the angle was treated both as a

dynamic and static concept, while Turkish books only treated it as a static concept. According to

Clausen-May (2005), the representation in Turkish books is a move away from the true meaning of

the concept of angle. She continues that even when it seems impossible to indicate the movement on a

piece of paper, a directed arrow may be used for representation. Turkish textbooks teach the concept

of angle only by using a protractor and various daily tools (scissors, clocks, chairs, frames, hangers,

doors). These textbooks do not emphasize the dynamic aspect of the concept of angle (motion,

amount of rotation); they are merely included in the textbook as examples. Singaporean textbooks, on

the other hand, use body movement, protractor, geometry strips, and daily materials (fans, computers,


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



traffic signs, scissors, stairs, clocks, staplers, and compass) as tools in teaching the concept of angle.

In the 3rd grade Singaporean book, as an introduction was made to the concept of angle, it was treated

as a dynamic concept by using body movements and riveted straws. In the 4th grade Singaporean

textbook, geometry strips were used to make a connection between the concepts of angle and fraction

(part-whole relationship) and to emphasize the dynamic aspect of the angle. The literature states that

teaching the angle as a dynamic concept can help make use of learning objects (such as geometry

strips). Considering that a full turn in a circle equals to 360 degrees, the students may be asked to

think what a quarter turn or two quarter turns would equal to in degrees. In this way, students can

have the opportunity to learn the angle as a dynamic concept by mobilizing their existing knowledge

and using the part-whole meaning of fraction (Clausen-May, 2005, 2008; Wilson & Adams, 1992).

There is no emphasis or activity on the use of dynamic geometry software in the textbooks of either

country. The literature also includes studies reporting the positive effects of dynamic geometry

software (Clements et al., 1996; Clements & Burns, 2000; Crompton, 2013; Boo & Leong, 2016). In

GeoGebra software, students may be asked to rotate a ray around its endpoint by using a ‘slider’ and

‘rotate around point.’ Therefore, students may gain an awareness of the dynamic definition of the

angle concept (Bütüner & Filiz, 2017).

The angle was treated as a static concept in all problems in Turkish textbooks. In contrast, the 4th

grade Singaporean book included eight problems that treat the angle as a dynamic concept. Therefore,

it was concluded that in both Turkish and Singaporean textbooks, there was harmony between the

instructional contents of the concept of angle and the angle problems in the textbooks. The results

show that Turkish textbooks need to be enriched with contents regarding teaching the angle as a

dynamic concept. Angle problems that treat the angle as both a dynamic and a static concept should

be added to the Turkish textbooks in a balanced way. When the angle is treated solely as a static

concept, students may end up thinking that an angle may increase when its arm length increases

(Clausen-May, 2008) and fail to recognize angles of 0 degrees or those larger than 360 degrees as

they do not see an openness (Barmby et al, 2009, p. 147). Therefore, many studies have attempted to

teach the angle as a dynamic concept (Clements & Battista, 1989; 1990, Clements et al., 1996;

Clements & Burns, 2000; Mitchelmore, 1998; Mitchelmore & White, 2000; Simmons & Cope, 1990).

Other results from the findings include that, in contrast to the case in Singapore, there is a mismatch

in the contents of Turkish textbooks and the objectives of the primary mathematics curriculum, and

that the contents of Singaporean textbooks offer students more learning opportunities than Turkish

textbooks regarding the concept of angle. These results also suggest that as the concept of angle is

introduced in Turkish and Singaporean textbooks, students should be given learning opportunities to

assist them in constructing the dynamic definition of the concept, rather than directly giving them a

static or dynamic definition.

Limitations and Implications for Future Research

According to the findings, Singaporean students can learn from textbooks that angle is both a static

and a dynamic concept. Therefore, they may not have difficulties or misconceptions about angle and

related concepts (such as trigonometry) in their following years. Turkish students, on the other hand,

learn angle from textbooks only as a static concept, so they may have difficulties and misconceptions

about angle [e.g., students may think that the arm length of an angle affect its degree, (Clausen- May

2005); they may think that the degree of an angle is related to the area surrounded by the arms of the

angle (Keiser, 2004); they may misread an angle on the protractor, (Hansen, 2017) and may have

further problems on related concepts (such as trigonometry)]. The findings have shown that

Singaporean students may display a better performance than Turkish students in problems based on

the concept of angle. Therefore, the results of this study give an idea about the performances (in

problems involving angles, polygons, trigonometry, slope etc.) of Turkish and Singaporean students,

who will take international exams in future years.

The generalization of these results calls for caution as the findings come from two mathematics

textbooks from either one of the two countries (Yang, 2018; Wijaya, Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, &


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Doorman, 2015). A well or poorly designed textbook may find life in the hands of a well-equipped

teacher. Such a teacher may spot the deficiencies in textbooks and enrich classes with contents that

enable students to better grasp mathematical concepts. Future researchers may study whether Turkish

and Singaporean teachers use textbooks when teaching the concept of angle, how they utilize these

books, how they teach the concept of angle, and what type of problems they use in their classes

regarding the concept of angle.

REFERENCES (*Textbooks Used in the Study)

Alajmi, A. H. (2012). How do elementary textbooks address fractions? A review of mathematics textbooks in the USA,

Japan, and Kuwait. Education Studies in Mathematics, 79(2), 239–261.

Argün, Z., Arıkan, A., Bulut, S., & Halıcıoğlu, S. (2014). Temel matematik kavramların künyesi [Identification of basic

mathematical concepts]. Ankara: Gazi Publishing.

Barmby, P., Bilsborough, L., Harries, T., & Higgins, S. (2009). Primary mathematics: teaching for understanding. NY:

McGraw Hill.

Baya’a, N., Daher, W., & Mahagna, S. (2017). The effect of collaborative computerized learning using GeoGebra on the

development of concept images of the angle among seventh graders (pp.208-215). In G. Aldon & J. Trgalova (Eds.),

Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Technology in Mathematics Teaching (ICTMT 13), Lyon,

France: Ecole Normale Sup´erieure de Lyon.

Bingölbali, E. (2016). Kavram tanımı ve kavram imajı. (In; Matematik Eğitiminde Teoriler, Ed, Bingölbali, E., Arslan, S.,

and Zembat, İ. Ö.). p. 136-148. Ankara: Pegem Akademi.

Boo, J. Y., & Leong, K. E. (2016). Teaching and learning of Geometry in Primary School using GeoGebra. Proceedings of

the 21st Asian Technology Conference in Mathematics, p. 289-300.

Bütüner, S. Ö., & Filiz, M. (2017). Exploring high-achieving sixth grade students’ erroneous answers and misconceptions on

the angle concept. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 48(4), 533-554.

Bütüner, S. Ö. (2019). Problem analysis in Turkish and Singapore mathematics textbooks: division of fraction. Pamukkale

University Journal of Education, 47, 370-394.

Bütüner, S. Ö. (2020). A comparison of the instructional content on division of fractions in Turkish and Singaporean

textbooks. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 51(2), 265-293.

Choi, E., Kim, S. Y., & Kwon, O. N. (2019). An International Comparison study in Mathematics Curriculum - Contents for

Angle among the Korea, Singapore U.K., Australia and U.S. Communications of Mathematical Education, 33(3),

295–317.

Clausen-May T. (2005). Teaching maths to pupils with different learning styles. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

Clausen-May, T. (2008). Another angle on angles. Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom, 13(1), 4-8.

Clements, D. H., & Battista, M. T. (1989). Learning of geometric concepts in a Logo environment. Journal for Research in

Mathematics Education, 20, 450-467.

Clements, D. H., & Battista, M. T. (1990). The effects of logo on children's conceptualizations of angle and polygons.

Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 21, 356-371.

Clements, D. H., & Battista, M. T. (1994). Computer environments for learning geometry. Journal of Educational

Computing Research, 10(2), 173-197.

Clements, D. H., Battista, M. T., Sarama, J., & Swaminathan, S. (1996). Development of turn and turn measurement

concepts in a computer-based instructional unit. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 30(4), 313-337.

Clements D. H., & Burns B. A. (2000). Students’ development of strategies for turn and angle measure. Educational Studies

in Mathematics, 41, 31–45.

Clements, D. H., Wilson, D. C., & Sarama, J. (2004). Young children’s composition of geometric figures: A learning

trajectory. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 6(2), 163-184.

Crompton, H. (2013). Coming to understand angle and angle measure: a design-based research curriculum study using

context-aware ubiquitous learning. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Erbaş, A. K., Alacacı, C., & Bulut, M. A. (2012). Comparison of Mathematics Textbooks from Turkey, Singapore and the

United States of America. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 12(3), 2311-2329.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Fan, L., & Zhu, Y. (2000). Problem solving in Singaporean secondary mathematics textbooks. Mathematics Education,

5(1/2), 117-141.

Fyhn, A. B. (2006). A climbing girl's reflections about angles. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 25, 91-102.

Fyhn, A. B. (2007). A climbing class' reinvention of angles. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 67, 19-35.

*Genç, H., Güleç, H., Şahin, N., & Taşcı, S. (2019). Primary school mathematics 3rd grade textbook, Ankara: National

Education Publications.

Hansen, A. (2017). Children’s errors in Mathematics. Sage Publications: California.

Henderson, D. W., & Taimina, D. (2005). Experiencing geometry: Euclidean and non-Euclidean with history. New York

(NY): Prentice Hall.

Hong, D. S., & Choi, K. M. (2014). A comparison of Korean and American secondary school textbooks: The case of

quadratic equations. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 85(2), 241-263.

Hirsch, C., Lappan, G., Reys, B., & Reys, R. (2005). Curriculum as a focus for improving school mathematics.

Mathematicians and Education Reform Forum Newsletter, 18(1), 12-14.

Kaur, H. (2020). Introducing the concept of angle to young children in a dynamic geometry environment. International

Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 51(2), 161-182.

*Kayapınar, A., Şahin, N., Erdem, G., & Leylek, B. Ş. (2019). Primary school mathematics 4th grade textbook, Ankara:

National Education Publications.

Keiser, J. (2004). Struggles with developing the concept of angle: Comparing sixth-grade students’ discourse to the history

of angle concept. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 6(3), 285-306.

Kim, S. M. (2018a). Research of the Definitions of Angles in the Past Korean Elementary Mathematics Textbooks. Journal

of Educational Research in Mathematics, 28(3), 265-282.

Kim, S. M. (2018b). Angle concepts and introduction methods of angles in elementary mathematics textbooks. Education of

Primary School Mathematics, 21(2), 209-221.

Li, Y. (2000). A comparison of problems that follow selected content presentations in American and Chinese mathematics

textbooks. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 31(2), 234–241.

Ministry of Education Singapore [MES] (2012). Mathematics syllabus Primary one to six, Singapore.

Miles, M. B, & Huberman, M. A. (1994). An expanded sourcebook qualitative data analysis. London: Sage.

Ministry of National Education [MONE], (2018). Elementary mathematics curriculum: Grades 1-4, Ankara.

*Ming, E. C. C. (2016a). Targeting mathematics 3B. Singapore: Star Publishing.

*Ming, E. C. C. (2016b). Targeting mathematics 4A. Singapore: Star Publishing.

Mitchelmore, M. C. (1998). Young students' concepts of turning and angle. Cognition and Instruction, 16(3), 265-284.

Mitchelmore, M. C., & White, P. (1998). Development of angle concepts: a framework for research. Mathematics Education

Research Journal, 10, 4-27.

Mitchelmore, M. C., & White, P. (2000). Development of angle concepts by progressive abstraction and generalisation.

Educational Studies in Mathematics, 41, 209–238.

Moore, K. (2013). Making sense by measuring arcs: A teaching experiment in angle measure. Educational Studies in

Mathematics, 83, 225-245.

Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Foy, P., & Hooper, M. (2016). TIMSS 2015 international results in mathematics. TIMSS and

PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA.

Munier, V., Devichi, C., & Merle, H. A. (2008). Physical situation as a way to teach angle. Teaching Children Mathematics,

14, 402-407.

Özer, E., & Sezer, R. A. (2014). Comparative analysis of questions in American, Singaporean, and Turkish mathematics

textbooks based on the topics covered in 8th grade in Turkey. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 14(1),

411-421.

Park, K. S. (2015). A comparative study on teaching contents for angle and measure of an angle in elementary mathematics

textbook between Korea and Japan. School Mathematics, 17(1), 35-46.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Sağlam, R., & Alacacı, C. (2012). A Comparative Analysis of Quadratics Unit in Singaporean, Turkish and IBDP

Mathematics Textbooks. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education, 3(3), 131-147.

Simmons, M., & Cope, P. (1990). Fragile knowledge of angle in turtle geometry. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 21,

375-382.

Smith, C. P., King, B., & Hoyte, J. (2014). Learning angles through movement: critical actions for developing understanding

in an embodied activity. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 36, 95-108.

Son, J. W. & Hu, Q. (2016). The initial treatment of the concept of function in the selected secondary school mathematics

textbooks in the US and China. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 47(4),

505-530.

Reys, B. J., Reys, R. E., & Chavez, O. (2004). Why mathematics textbooks matter. Education Leadership, 61(5), 61–66.

Rezat, S. (2006). A model of textbook use. In J. Novotna, H. Kratka,& N. Stehlikova (Eds.), Proceedings of the 30th annual

conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (Vol. 4, pp. 409–416). Prague:

PME.

Rezat S. (2009). The utilization of mathematics textbooks as instruments of learning. In: Durand Guerrier V,

Soury-Lavergne S, Arzarello F, editors. Proceedings of Congress of European Research in Mathematics Education

6; Lyon; p. 1260-1269.

Tieng, P. G., & Eu, L. K. (2014). Improving students’ van hiele level of geometric thinking using geometer’s sketchpad.

The Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology, 2(3), 20-31.

Toprak, Z., & Özmantar, M. (2019). A comparative analysis of Turkey and Singapore 5th grade mathematics textbooks in

terms of worked examples and questions. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education (TURCOMAT),

10(2), 539-566.

Wilson, P. S., & Adams, V. M. (1992). A dynamic way to teach angle and angle measure. Arithmetic Teacher, 39, 6-13.

Wijaya, A., Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, M., & Doorman, M. (2015). Opportunity-to-learn context based tasks provided by

mathematics textbooks. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 89, 41-65.

Yang, D. C. (2018). Study of fractions in elementary mathematics textbooks from Finland and Taiwan. Educational Studies,

44(2), 190-211.

Yang, D., & Lin, Y. C. (2015). Examining the differences of linear systems between Finnish and Taiwanese textbooks,

Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 11(6), 1265-1281.

Zhu, Y., & Fan, L. (2006). Focus on the representation of problem types in intended curriculum: A comparison of selected

mathematics textbooks from mainland China and the United States. International Journal of Science and

Mathematics Education, 4, 609-626.

Appendix 1. Problems from the Singaporean textbook in line with both the dynamic (TAR4A-I,

p.128) and static aspects of the angle (TAR4A-II, p. 116).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Appendix 2. Problem from the Turkish book in line with the static aspect of the angle (show the

angles in the images below, TR3, p.233, find the acute angle, right angle, obtuse angle and straight

angles in the figure) (TR4, p. 212)

Appendix 3. A problem with solution in Singaporean textbook (angle as a dynamic concept) (TAR

4A, p. 127)


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Appendix 4. A problem without solution (angle as a dynamic concept) (TAR 4A, p. 129).

Appendix 5. A problem without solution (measure the angles given below and write down their

values) (angle as a static concept) (TR 4, p. 215)


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



SCIENCING ACTIVITIES AND SCIENTIFIC SKILLS OF CHILDREN AT

PRE-PRIMARY LEVEL IN NIGERIA

Eileen Oluwakemi AKINTEMI

Ph.D., University of Ibadan, Early Childhood Education Unit,

Department of Early Childhood & Educational Foundations, Nigeria


[email protected]

Esther Abiola ODUOLOWU

Ph.D., University of Ibadan, Early Childhood Education Unit,

Department of Early Childhood & Educational Foundations, Nigeria

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5783-299X

[email protected]

Received: March 22, 2021 Accepted: May 15, 2021 Published: June 30, 2021

Suggested Citation:

Akintemi, E. O., & Oduolowu, E. A. (2021). Sciencing activities and scientific skills of children at pre-primary level in

Nigeria. International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 10(1), 106-118.


Abstract

Science is taught at the pre-primary level to foster scientific skills, essential for learning science at other levels of education.

There is evidence that children are deficient in the scientific skills of observation, classification, communication, measurement,

prediction and inference. This problem has been attributed to teachers’ non-use of sciencing activities for children. This study

was, therefore, carried out to determine the effects of sciencing activities (formal and informal) on pre-primary school children’s

scientific skills in Ibadan, Nigeria. The pretest-posttest control group quasi-experimental design was adopted. Three public

primary schools were purposively selected from three Local Government Areas in Ibadan, Nigeria. An intact pre-primary class

was used from each school, and randomly assigned to Formal Sciencing (17), Informal Sciencing (19) and Control (24) groups.

Science Process Skills Rating Scale (r=.73) was used to measure the scientific skills of children before and after exposure to

sciencing activities. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics, Analysis of covariance and Scheffe post-hoc test. There were

significant main effects of treatment on children’s scientific skills (F(2, 57)=47.72; partial ῆ2=.65). Among the recommendations

made was that sciencing activities should be adopted by pre-primary teachers to foster scientific skills of pre-primary school

children.

Keywords: Sciencing activities, formal and informal sciencing activities, pre-primary science, scientific skills.

INTRODUCTION

Pre-primary education is essential for children's holistic development and wellbeing. In the Nigerian

education setting, it is the one year education given to five year old children before they begin primary

school (Federal Republic of Nigeria [FRN], 2013). Haque, Nasrin, Yesmin, and Biswas (2013) identifies

the essence of this level of education as ensuring a smooth transition to the primary level of education and

laying the foundation for lifelong learning. This period is considered the right time to expose children to

meaningful science learning that will build the scientific skills needed at other levels of education. It is in

recognition of this that the Nigerian Government has made one of the objectives of pre-primary education

to be to foster scientific skills through the exploration of various objects in the environment (FRN, 2013).

Hernawarti et al. (2018) described scientific skills as thinking skills that teachers and children use while

engaged in science related activities. Durham (2017) also described these skills as the process of doing

science which for young children involves observation, communication, classification, measurement,

prediction and inference. It has been established that scientific skills of children can only be developed





IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



when they are actively engaged in exploration and manipulation of objects in their environment (Suryanti,

Ibrahim, & Lede, 2018; Andiema, 2016).

Oduolowu and Akintemi (2017a) observed that pre-primary school children in Ibadan, Nigeria learn

science in abstraction without any form of active learning and experimentation, exploration and

investigation. Pre-primary school children will not acquire scientific skills by just sitting down and

listening to their teachers rather they acquire such skills through hands-on activities, inquiry, direct

experience, experimentation, discovery and investigation is in line with children’s nature as active

learners.

This is why Yennizar, Eriyam, Susanti, and Kausari (2020) stressed that science teaching at the

pre-primary level should not emphasise teaching children facts but should involve them in observation and

manipulation of objects. The danger in teaching science in abstraction to pre-primary school children is

that they are not adequately prepared for science at the primary level and other levels of education and

teachers only concentrate on scientific facts thereby neglecting the development of the scientific skills in

these children. Consequently, children who are not given the opportunity to be actively involved during

science lessons will not develop these skills and will not be able to use the more complex integrated

science process skills later in life.

However, the way children in Ibadan, Nigeria are learning is bereft of experiential/hands-on learning

activities for children during science lessons as they do not explore, observe and experiment with

materials (living and non-living) in their environment. Invariably, their lack of exposure to hands-on

science activities has negatively affected the development of their scientific skills as they were observed

by Oduolowu and Akintemi (2017b) to be deficient in the basic science process skills of observing,

communicating, classifying, measuring, predicting and inferring. In other words, they have deficiencies in

the skills of observing, classifying, communicating, measuring, predicting and inferring. For Nigeria to

produce the next generation of scientists needed to make scientific advancements and to be globally

recognised scientifically, pre-primary teachers need to go beyond the use of conventional teaching

methods to those that will produce quality science education.

There is thus a dire need to use hands-on activities for pre-primary science which is not only

developmentally appropriate, but can also be very effective in developing the process skills of young

children. Sciencing activities allow children to observe, explore their environment, experiment with

materials and discuss the results of their experiments with others as recommended in the one-year

curriculum for pre-basic science activities (NERDC, 2013). Seefeldt and Galper (2007; 2017) defined

sciencing as hands-on, brains-on endeavor for young children. Neuman (1972) defined sciencing as

science related activities for young children and categorised the activities into three; formal sciencing,

informal sciencing and incidental sciencing.

Lind (1999) observed that these activities differ in terms of who controls the choice of activity, the

teacher or the child and stressed that for formal sciencing activities, the teacher chooses the activities for

the child and gives some directions to the child’s actions, for informal sciencing activities the child

chooses the activity and action but the teacher intervenes at some point and for the incidental sciencing

the child controls choice and actions. Formal and informal sciencing activities were of interest to this

study because by nature both can be planned by the researchers in line with the Nigerian pre-primary

curriculum that was used for this study. Neuman (1972) described formal sciencing activity as a type of

sciencing whereby the teacher plans the lessons, prepares materials and guides children to explore with

the materials and make discoveries.

Researchers have found that formal sciencing activities improve children’s process skills. For instance,

studies by Aydin (2020) and Raymond (2015) indicated that formal sciencing activities enhance the


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



process skills of children. Despite the benefits of formal sciencing activities to children especially in the

acquisition of scientific skills, Oduolowu and Akintemi (2017a) observed that many pre-primary teachers

do not make use of sciencing activities in their classrooms. Moreover, there seems to be dearth of studies

on the impact of formal sciencing activities on pre-primary science learning outcomes in Nigeria.

Another type of sciencing activity which was of interest to the investigators is the informal sciencing.

According to Mayesky (1990) informal sciencing is non-directional, free investigation by a child. It is a

type of sciencing activity whereby the teacher sets up a science corner and allows children to

independently explore with science materials at the science corner (Neuman, 1972). Creating a science

corner in the classroom allows children to freely explore and experiment with things kept in the science

corner which can foster scientific skills, independence, curiosity and creativity in children. Studies have

established that informal sciencing activities improve scientific skills of children. For instance, Murphy,

Smith, and Broderick (2019) and Legoria (2012) reported that informal sciencing improved the process

skills of children. While Colgrove (2012) reported that informal sciencing activities did not improve the

process skills of children.

Despite these benefits of informal sciencing activities for children, Oduolowu and Akintemi (2017b)

observed that many pre-primary classrooms in Ibadan, Nigeria have no science corners for children to

carry out informal sciencing activities. Where there were science corners, the materials were not

adequate. What was available in most of the corners were old cartons, there were no living things such as

small animals, fishes and plants. Thus, pre-primary children in Ibadan Metropolis may grow up not to

appreciate and love nature because they are not exposed to nature in their classrooms. Appreciation and

stewardship of the natural environment has been identified as one of the 10 pillars of a good childhood

(Association for Childhood Education International, 2012). It also, appears that the impact of informal

sciencing activities on pre-primary science learning outcomes have not been explored by researchers

Ibadan, Nigeria.

Another major problem with pre-primary teachers’ non-use of active learning strategies is that it is not

individually appropriate as it does not consider individual differences in children. According to Browne

and Gordon (2009) teachers’ understanding and considerations for each child’s strengths, weaknesses and

interests will help them to plan and provide learning activities that are adaptable and responsive to

individual differences within a group of children. There are, therefore, certain individual differences in

children that can affect the way they learn science. Martin (2001) identified them as; learning modalities,

locus of control, learning style, gender bias, multiple intelligence and cultural/ethnic differences. Shrooti

(2011) stressed that learning can only be effective when learners’ individual differences are considered. In

other words, science learning at the pre-primary level can only be effective when teachers take

cognizance of individual differences of children in their classroom. However; gender and ethnic

affiliation were of great interest to the investigators because they have been found by researchers to

influence learning outcomes in language during the early years.

Ethnic affiliation determines what children already know about science (pre-existing knowledge) and how

they respond to science or do science (Universal Basic Education, 2010; Martin, 2001). Some of

children’s weaknesses or misconceptions about science come from their socio-cultural beliefs. According

to Chidiebere (2008) socio-cultural beliefs are already formed in the African child before they begin

formal schooling and that there are so many socio-cultural beliefs in Nigeria that make it difficult for

children to learn science because they are contrary to what science is all about. For example, thunder,

lightning, rainbow, rain, sun, stars, moon, rivers, land, trees in the forest are all believed to have

supernatural powers (Chidiebere, 2008). These beliefs can affect children’s understanding of scientific

concepts. Similarly, Luykx, Lee, Mahotiere, Lester, and Deaktor (2007) pointed out that children’s

linguistic characteristics may be inconsistent with the way in which science is taught in schools. Similarly,


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



the linguistic characteristics of pre-primary school children in Nigeria may also interfere with their ability

to learn science if the medium of instruction used is different from that of their ethnic affiliation especially

when they do not understand the language. This interference will make it difficult for children to be

involved in science activities as they will find it difficult to listen to instructions, express themselves or

talk about their science experiences if the language that is used in the classroom is different from their

home language.

Scholars have documented the influence of ethnic affiliation on scientific skills of children. For instance,

Githinji (2011) observed that ethnic affiliation of children influences the science process skills of children.

On the other hand, Duda, Susilo, and Newcombe (2019) observed that cultural background does not

influence the science process skills of learners. As much as ethnic affiliation is important to the learning of

science, it appears that nothing has been done on how ethnic affiliation influences science learning

outcomes (science knowledge and process skills) at the pre-primary level in Nigeria. There is thus a need

to examine whether the ethnic affiliation of children at the pre-primary level will influence learning

outcomes in science (science knowledge and process skills) while they are carrying out sciencing

activities.

For many years, gender has continued to play a significant role in science education globally. There still

exists a wide gap between the females and males in terms of participation in science. According to the

Soete, Schneegans, Eröcal, Angathevar, and Rasiah (2015) women constitute minority of the world’s

science researchers and in the Sub-Saharan region only 30.0% of the science researchers are women

while the remaining 70.0% are men. The reason for this disparity could have stemmed from the gender

stereotyping of the image of a scientist very early in life. Newton and Newton (2012) observed that

children both boys and girls across many cultures view a scientist as a man in a laboratory coat. This

stereotype if not addressed, could hinder female participation in science as girls would grow up feeling

that they are not competent to learn science or science is meant for boys. Secondly, with the strategy used

where there are no hands-on activities, girls may never be given the opportunity to try out things for

themselves in order to discard this belief and gain confidence in their ability to do science.

Studies have being carried out to examine the influence of gender on science learning outcomes for young

children. For instance, Simsar (2013) observed that gender influences children’s performance in the

science process skills. Similarly, Yuliskurniawati, Noviyanti, Mukti, Mahanal, and Zubaidah (2019)

observed that gender influences the science process skills of learners at the senior secondary level. On the

other hand, Ihejiamazu, Neji, and Isaac (2020) reported that the gender does not influence the science

process skills of learners at the senior secondary level. These studies were not carried out in Nigerian

pre-primary classrooms. Therefore, there is the need to examine how the gender of pre-primary school

children will influence their science process skills while they are involved in sciencing activities.

Purpose of the Study

This study was carried out to determine the effect of sciencing activities (formal and informal) on the

scientific skills of pre-primary school children in Ibadan and the moderating effects of ethnic affiliation

and gender on the scientific skills of children.

Hypotheses of the Study

The following null hypotheses were tested in this study at .05 level of significance.

Ho1: There is no significant main effect of treatment on pre-primary school children’s acquisition of

scientific skills.

Ho2: There is no significant main effect of ethnic affiliation on pre-primary school children’s;

acquisition of scientific skills.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Ho3: There is no significant main effect of gender on pre-primary school children’s; acquisition of

scientific skills.

METHOD

This study adopted a pretest-posttest, control group quasi experimental design (Cohen, Manion, &

Morrison, 2007). Purposive sampling technique was used to select three public primary schools in Ibadan,

Nigeria based on the criteria that; the public primary schools have 5 year old children in pre-primary

classes, teachers’ willingness to participate in the study and parents’ willingness to allow their children to

participate in the study. The sample comprised 60 pre-primary school children selected from the three

public primary schools and intact classes were used. The three schools were randomly assigned to formal

sciencing, informal sciencing, control groups and intact classes were used. Formal sciencing group

comprised 17 children, informal sciencing group comprised 19 children and control group comprised 24

children.

Research Instruments

Science Process Skills Rating Scale

Science Process Skills Rating Scale (r=.73) was used to measure the scientific skills of children before

and after exposure to sciencing activities. It was designed by the researchers using the basic science

process skills indicators by Padilla (1990). It was used to determine the performance of children in the

process skills of observing, classifying, communicating, measuring, predicting and inferring using an

Activity Guide for Hands-on Assessment of Science Process Skills and Science Process Skills Rubric.

The rating scale is made up of two sections A and B. Section A contains the demographic data of the

children. The items in this section are; gender and ethnic affiliation. Section B contains the indicators for

each process skill and the level of performance for each skill. There are four levels of performance for

this instrument (0=no performance, 1=moderate performance, 2=satisfactory performance, 3=excellent

performance). To determine the reliability of the instrument; it was administered to pre-primary school

children who did not participate in this study. Using test-retest method, the reliability coefficient of the

Science Process Skills Checklist obtained was .73 using Pearson Product Moment Correlation.

Activity Guide for Hands-on Assessment of Science Process Skills (AGHASPS)

This instrument was designed by the researchers to guide the activities that were used to determine

pre-primary school children’s proficiency in the science process skills of observing, classifying, inferring,

communicating, measuring and predicting before and after intervention. It is a hands-on assessment guide

and the children were required do each of the activities specified for all the process skills to be assessed

while the researchers or research assistant recorded their observation using the rating scale prepared for

the hands-on assessment. There are specific process skills activities children must carry out to

demonstrate their proficiency in each skill. It is made up of four columns; which are; serial number,

materials to be used, activity and process skills to be assessed The hands-on assessment is the most

suitable type of process skills assessment for pre-primary school children as multiple choice format of

process skills assessment is not appropriate for young children. The content and face validity was

established by experts in Early Childhood Education, Science Education and pre-primary school teachers

who have taught this class for a minimum of five years. Necessary adjustments were made based on their

recommendations.

Science Process Skills Rubric This instrument was designed by the researchers to guide teachers’ and research assistants’ scoring of the

Science Process Skills Rating Scale. It was used to determine specifically what children did to obtain the

following marks indicated in the Science Process Skills Rating Scale; no performance (1mark), moderate


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



performance (2marks), satisfactory performance (3 marks) and excellent performance (4 marks) using the

activity guide for hands–on assessment of science process skills. For instance to determine children’s

performance in the process skills of observation, children were expected to utilise all the senses. A child

was scored no performance or 0 mark when he/she could not utilise any of the senses, moderate

performance when he/she can utilise at least two senses, satisfactory performance when he/she could

utilise three senses and excellent performance when he/she could utilise all five senses. This instrument is

made up of five columns which are; process skills indicators, no performance (1mark), moderate

performance (2 marks), satisfactory performance (3 marks) and excellent performance (4 marks). Copies

of the instrument were given to experts in Early Childhood Education and Science Education. Also, pre-

primary school teachers who have taught this class for a minimum of five years were given copies of the

instrument. They determined its content and face validity and the clarity of its items.

Procedure

This study lasted for nine weeks. Five scientific activities were selected for the study in line with the

Nigerian pre-primary school curriculum. These activities are; exploring with living things, exploring with

non-living things, sense organs, exploration of seeds, planting of seeds and exploring with sinking and

floating objects. During the first week, a letter of authorization was collected from the Local Government

Education office and presented to Head teachers of participating schools for permission to use their

schools, staff and pre-primary children for the study. For ethical reasons, consent letters were written and

given to parents of the children that participated in the study to give their consent.

By the second week, pre-primary teachers assigned to both formal and informal sciencing groups and

research assistants were trained on how to teach science using formal and informal sciencing activities

and to administer the Science Process Skills Rating Scale (SPSRS). By the third week all pre-primary

school children in the experimental and control groups were exposed to pre-test where the researcher and

research assistants administered Science Process Skills Rating Scale (SPSRS) in order to determine the

comparability of the three groups and this phase lasted for one week. The treatment phase lasted for five

weeks, the experimental groups were exposed to treatments (formal sciencing and informal sciencing)

while the control group were exposed to the conventional strategy.

For the formal sciencing group the activities were as follows:

Step 1 (Sciencing Stage): The teacher plans the sciencing activities, prepares materials to be used for

sciencing activities, and uses questions to activate children’s prior knowledge. Children answer teacher’s

questions and make predictions before the exploration. Children watch short video on the lesson to be

taught and answer questions. Both teacher and children sing science songs relevant to the topic and recite

poems relevant to the science topic.

Step 2 (Sciencing Stage): Teacher guides children’s explorations and documentation of science

experiences. Children make their own discoveries, and document their discoveries in their science journal

by drawing.

Step 3 (Post-Sciencing Stage): Children and teacher reflect on the science experiences and apply the

knowledge gained into real life situations.

For the informal sciencing group the activities were as follows:

Step 1 (Pre-Sciencing Stage): The teacher provides science materials which are structured in line with all

the lesson/activities that were carried out during this study in the science corner for children to explore.

The teacher also provides short videos, songs and rhymes relevant to the lessons/activities at the science

corner.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Step 2 (Sciencing Stage): Children explore the materials in the science corner in whatever way they

choose to, the teacher observes their exploration and gives them minimal support.

Step 3 (Post-Sciencing Stage): After exploration, the teacher finds out about children’s discoveries by

asking them questions and the teacher guides them to relate their experiences into real life situations.

For the control group the activities were as follows:

Step I: The teacher introduces the lesson to the children by asking questions.

Step II: The teacher teaches directly using chalk board.

Step III: Teacher asks children questions to see if they understand the lesson.

During the ninth week administration of post-test occurred across all groups.

Data Analysis

Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was utilized to analyse the data collected. In order to determine the

magnitude of the mean scores of each group, estimated marginal means aspect of ANCOVA was used.

Also, to determine the sources of significant treatment effects observed on the ANCOVA, Scheffe

Post-hoc analysis was used.

RESULT

H01: There is no significant main effect of treatment on pre-primary school children’s acquisition of

science process skills.

Table 1. Summary of analysis of covariance on pre-primary school children science process skills

Table 1 shows that there is a significant main effect of treatment on children’s science process skills

(F(2, 52)=47.72; p<.05; ῆ2=.65). Therefore, hypothesis 1 is rejected. To identify which of the three

treatments have more effect on science process skills, Table 2 presents the estimated marginal means

scores across the various groups.

Source Type III Sum of

Squares

Df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta

Squared

Corrected Model 1404.512a 12 117.043 35.194 .000 .890

Intercept 234.785 1 234.785 70.598 .000 .576

Prescoreskills 142.769 1 142.769 42.930 .000 .452

Treatment 317.381 2 158.691 47.717 .000 .647

Gender .465 1 .465 .140 .710 .003

Ethnic 22.463 1 22.463 6.754 .012 .115

treatment * gender .298 2 .149 .045 .956 .002

treatment * ethnic 1,750 2 .875 .263 .770 .010

gender * ethnic ,127 1 .127 .038 .846 .001

treatment * gender * ethnic 12.108 2 6.054 1.820 .172 .065

Error 172.934 52 3.326

Total 7190.000 65

Corrected Total 1577.446 64

a. R Squared = .890 (Adjusted R Squared = .865)


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 2. Estimated marginal means of the science process skills across the three groups

Variables Mean Std. Error

Intercept

Pre-score process skill

Post-score process skill

5.28

9.552

-

.292

Treatment

Exp. I (Formal)

Exp. II (Informal)

Control (Conventional)

13.21

10.35

5.11

.476

.464

.628

Table 2 indicates that the general performance of the children in science process skills at post-test level

known as the post behaviour (Mean=9.55) is higher than their performance at the pre-test score

(Mean=5.28) known as the entry behaviour. Again, the Table 2 shows that children exposed to formal

sciencing (Experimental I) have the highest science process skills mean score (13.21), followed by those

exposed to informal sciencing (Experimental II) (10.35) while those exposed to conventional strategy

have the lowest science process skills mean score (5.11). The performance in science process skills across

the groups are hereby presented in figure 1 as a bar chart.

Figure 1: Performance of children in science process skills across the groups

Table 3. Scheffe’ post hoc pairwise comparison on science process skills

Groups Exp. I Exp. II Control

Exp. I * *

Exp. II * *

Control * *

Note, * implies that there is a significant difference

Table 3 shows that the significant main effect that was revealed by Table 1 is as a result of the significant

difference between:

i. Experimental I and Experimental II,

ii. Experimental I and control and

iii. Experimental II and control

This implies that formal sciencing enhances the children acquisition of science process skills significantly

better than informal sciencing while informal sciencing is also significantly better than conventional

strategy in enhancing the skills acquisition.

H02: There is no significant main effect of ethnic affiliation on pre-primary school children’s science

process skills.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 1 shows that there is a significant main effect of ethnic affiliation on children’s science process

skills (F(1, 52)=6.75; p<.05; ῆ2=.12). Therefore, hypothesis 2 is rejected. In order to know which of the

ethnic groups has the higher science process skills, estimated marginal means was performed and the

summary is presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Estimated marginal means of children’s process skills across ethnic groups

Variables Mean Std. Error

Science process skills

Yoruba

Non-Yoruba

10.33

8.70

.288

.518

Table 4 shows that Yoruba children had significantly higher science process skills mean score (10.33)

than non-Yoruba children (8.70). This performance is graphically represented in a bar chart as shown in

figure 2.

Figure 2: Children’s science process skills across the ethnic affiliations

H03: There is no significant main effect of gender on pre-primary school children’s science process skills.

Table 1 shows that there is no significant main effect of gender on children’s science process skills

(F(1,52)=.14; p>.05; ῆ2=.00). Therefore, hypothesis 3 is not rejected.


The findings of this study indicated a significant main effect of treatment on pre-primary school

children’s science process skills. Children exposed to formal sciencing activities had the highest mean

score, followed by children exposed to informal sciencing activities while children taught with the

conventional strategy had the least mean score. This means that both formal and informal sciencing

activities are more effective in fostering the acquisition of the science process skills of pre-primary school

children than the conventional strategy. The reason for this could be attributed to the fact that children

exposed to formal and informal sciencing activities were actively engaged in hands-on activities where

they interacted with both living and non-living materials provided for them while children who were

taught with the conventional strategy were not actively engaged in hands-on activities but they were

taught science in abstract. Children’s active engagement during sciencing activities helped them to see

and manipulate materials and subsequently enhance their science process skills. This supports the

assertions of Suryanti, Ibrahim, and Lede (2018) and Andiema (2016) that the science process skills of

children can only be developed when they are engaged in experiential or active learning experiences that

involve exploration and manipulation of materials.

This therefore explains why formal and informal sciencing activities were more effective than the

conventional strategy. The significant main effect of sciencing activities on pre-primary school children’s


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



science process skills is in agreement with the findings of Raymond (2015) that sciencing activities

improve the science process skills of children. Furthermore, the findings also showed that formal

sciencing activities enhanced the science process skills of pre-primary children better than informal

sciencing activities. This does not uphold the findings of Legoria (2012) that informal sciencing activities

are more effective in fostering the science process skills of children than the formal sciencing activities. It

was also established that children in the informal sciencing activities group performed better than children

in the conventional strategy group. This is contrary to the findings of Colgrove (2012) that there was no

significant difference between informal and conventional strategy in terms of the science process skills of

pre-primary school children. The findings that formal sciencing activities mean score is higher than the

conventional strategy mean scores corroborates the findings of Aydin (2020) that formal sciencing

activities were more effective than the conventional strategy in the fostering of the science process skills

of children.

The findings of the study also established a significant main effect of ethnic affiliation on pre-primary

school children’s science process skills. Yoruba children had significantly higher science process skills

mean score than non-Yoruba Children. In other words, Yoruba children performed better than non-

Yoruba children in science process skills. This finding could be as a result of the fact that the medium of

instruction/communication used in this study was the Yoruba language as recommended in the National

Policy on Education and majority of the children were Yoruba children. Therefore, non-Yoruba children

found it difficult to communicate with and interact with peers and teachers while carrying out sciencing

activities. The finding is in line with the assertions of Harlen (2014) that language particularly discussion

and interaction with others plays an important role in the development of skills. This therefore explains

why Yoruba children out performed non-Yoruba children in the science process skills. The significant

effect of ethnic affiliation on pre-primary school children’s science process skills is in congruence with

the findings of Duda, Susilo, and Newcombe (2019) that ethnic affiliation of children influences their

science process skills.

The findings of the study showed no significant main effect of gender on pre-primary school children’s

science process skills. This finding corroborates Yuliskurniawati et al. (2019) study outcomes which

found no gender difference in the science process skills of children. However, this result is contrary to the

study outcomes of Ihejiamazu, Neji, and Isaac (2020) and Simar (2013) which found gender difference in

the science process skills of children. This could be because sciencing activities allowed both girls and

boys be actively engaged in various activities therefore there were no disparities among both genders.

Conclusion

When pre-primary school children are exposed to formal sciencing activities where

experiences/explorations are hands on, structured and are guided by the teacher, it fosters the scientific

skills of children better than when they are exposed to informal sciencing activities that are not structured

and are given little guidance by the teacher. It also fosters scientific knowledge and skills better than the

conventional strategy. This is because formal sciencing activities are more directional, purposeful,

intentional and interactive than informal sciencing activities and conventional strategy. The study has also

established that ethnic affiliation can hinder pre-primary school children’s science process skills

especially when the medium of instruction is not their own language.

Based on the findings of this study the following recommendations are made:

Pre-primary school teachers should adopt sciencing activities in fostering of scientific skills of pre-

primary school children.

All pre-service Early Childhood Education teachers at the Colleges of Education and the Universities

should be exposed how to teach science at the pre-primary level using sciencing activities. This can


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



be done by incorporating and emphasising the use of sciencing activities when pre-service teachers in

Colleges of Education are taught ECE 127 (Early Childhood Science) and when pre-service teachers

in the Universities are taught the course science in the early years.

Teachers should also make use of readily available materials in the immediate environment for

sciencing activities to be carried out effectively in pre-primary classes.

The rate at which children at the pre-primary level acquire science process skills when they are taught

science in their own indigenous language also demands that children at that level should not be taught

science in a language that they do not understand. However, in a situation whereby a teacher notices

that some children in his/her class do not understand the language used as medium of instruction,

he/she could make use of “Peer interpreters” that is a child or children in the class who understand

both languages should be paired with another child who does not.

Activity based science text books emphasizing sciencing activities and teachers’ guides should be

written and produced in at least the three major Nigerian languages for the pre-primary level of

education.

Workshops and seminars should be organized to train teachers how to teach science using sciencing

activities.

The study is limited to pre-primary school children in Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria. The study determined

the impact of sciencing activities on pre-primary science learning outcomes. In the course of the study

some other constraints encountered were:

1. Transportation of both living and non-living instructional materials, audio visual materials and

generator for the sciencing activities daily because there was no safe place to keep them was very

tasking.

2. The outcome of the first planting experiment was not successful because the plants had to be locked

in the classroom after school hours for fear of being damaged by touts and miscreants that take over

the schools after school hours.

3. Technological issues with the generator and audio visual materials.

4. Teachers’ carefree attitude towards the study posed some frustrations on the researchers and research

assistants.

5. Children’s lack of exposure to the science materials made them to damage the materials and be over

excited.

6. Children in the informal sciencing group were more interested in watching the video than explore at

the science corner.

7. Children from other classes also come to play at the science corner during break time and this caused

distractions for the children in the informal sciencing group.

8. The living and non-living materials in the science corner distracted children from other class

activities.

REFERENCES

Andiema, N. C. (2016). Effect of child centered methods on teaching and learning of science activities in pre-schools in Kenya.

Journal of Education and Practice, 7(27), 222-288.

Association for Childhood Education International (2012). Ten pillars of a good childhood. August 6, 2017 retrieved from

https://acei.org/decade-for-childhood.html

Aydin, G. (2020). The effects of guided inquiry-based learning implementations on 4th grades students and elementary teachers:

A case study. Elementary Education Online, 19(3), 1155-1184.

Browne, K. W., & Gordon A. M. (2009). To teach well: An early childhood practicum guide. Upper-Saddle River, New Jersey:

Pearson Education.


https://acei.org/decade-for-childhood.html

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Chidiebere, D. B. (2008). The effects of problem-solving strategy and lecture method on socio-cultural beliefs hindering science

learning at the junior secondary school in FCT Abuja (Doctoral dissertation), Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Cohen, L, Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. 6th Edition. London: Routledge. p. 276-278.

Colgrove, A. (2012). Approaches to teaching young children science concepts, vocabulary and scientific problem-solving skills

and role of classroom environment. January 01, 2021 retrieved from

https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1157&cont

ext=cehsdiss

Duda, H., Susilo, H., & Newcombe, P. (2019). Enhancing different ethnicity science process skills: problem-based learning

through practicum and authentic assessment. International Journal of Instruction 12(1), 1207-1222.

Durham, J. (2017). Science process skills. Retrieved (August 26, 2020) from

https://inventorsoftomorrow.com/2017/01/19/science-process-skills/

Federal Republic of Nigeria [FRN] (2013). National policy on education. 6th Edition. NERDC, Lagos.

Githinji, A. W. (2011). Pre-School children’s performance in prediction and hypothesizing: A study of Isinya and Ngong

divisions of Kajiado district, Kenya. Retrieved (September 1, 2020) from

https://ir-library.ku.ac.ke/handle/123456789/1817

Haque, N., Nasrin, S., Yesmin, M., & Biswas, M. (2013). Universal primary education: a comparative study. American Journal

of Educational Research, 1(1), 31-36.

Harlen, W. (2014). Helping children’s development of inquiry skills. Inquiry in Primary Science Education, 1(1), 5-19.

Hernawati, D., Amin, M., Irawati, H., Indriwati E., & Omar, N. (2018). The effectiveness of scientific approach using

encyclopedia as learning materials in improving students’ science process skills in science. Journal Pendidikan IPA

Indonesia (JPII), 7(3), 266-272.

Ihejiamazu, C., Neji, H., & Isaac, A. (2020). Correlates of Science Process Skills Knowledge among Senior Secondary II Biology

Students in Cross River State, Nigeria. European Journal of Scientific Research, 155(3), 346-355.

Legoria, M. F. (2012). An exploratory study of informal science learning by children ages 2-12 years at selected US children’s

garden. (LSU Doctoral Dissertations). Louisiana State University, US. December 30, 2020 retrieved from

https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4578&context=gradschool_dissertations

Lind, K. (1999). Dialogue on early childhood science, mathematics and technology education: Science in early childhood

developing and acquiring fundamental concepts and skills. May 27, 2016 retrieved from

http:// www.project2061.org/publications/earlychildonline/experience/lind.htm

Luykx, A., Lee, O., Mahotiere, M., Lester, B., & Deaktor, R. (2007). Cultural and home language influences on children’s

responses to science assessments. Teachers College Record, 109(4), 879-926.

Martin, D. J. (2001). Constructing early childhood science. Albany, NY: Delmar Thomson Learning.

Mayesky, M. (1990). Creative activities for young children (4th ed). Albany, N.Y: Delmar Publishers.

Murphy, C., Smith, G., & Broderick, N. (2019). A starting point: Provide children opportunities to engage with scientific

inquiry and nature of science. Research in Science Education. April 4, 2021 retrieved from

www.link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11165-019-98250.pdf

Neuman, D. (1972). Sciencing for young children. Ideas that work with young children. K. R. Baker (ed), ideas that work with

young children. National Association for the Education of Young Children Washington, DC

Newton, L. D., & Newton, D. P. (2012). Primary children’s conceptions of science and the scientist: is the impact of a national

curriculum breaking down the stereotype? International Journal of Science Education, 20(9), 1137-1149.

Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council [NERDC]. (2013). One year pre-primary school education curriculum.

https://nerdc.org.ng/eCurriculum/

Oduolowu, E., & Akintemi E., (2017a). Analysis of science teaching practices of pre-primary teachers and children in Ibadan,

Oyo State, Nigeria. A paper presented at the ToyinFalola International Conference in Africa and the African Diaspora

(TOPAC) in conjuction with Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo, Nigeria. 3rd-5th July, 2017.


https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1157&context=cehsdiss

https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1157&context=cehsdiss

https://inventorsoftomorrow.com/2017/01/19/science-process-skills/

https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4578&context=gradschool_dissertations

http://www.project2061.org/publications/earlychildonline/experience/lind.htm

http://www.link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11165-019-98250.pdf

https://nerdc.org.ng/eCurriculum/

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Oduolowu, E., & Akintemi, E., (2017b). Assessment of pre-primary science learning environment and pre-primary school

children’s performance in science process skills in Ibadan, Nigeria. A paper presented at the Aga Khan University

Institute for Human Development Conference on Early Childhood Development Nov 7-9, 2017 at Der es Salaam,

Tanzania.

Padilla, M. J. (1990). The science process skills. Research matters-To the science teacher, No. 9004. Reston, VA: National

Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST). http://www.narst.org/publications/research/skill.cfm

Raymond, C. (2015). Professional development and family engagement program year one evaluation report. Raymond

Consulting, Inc.

Soete, L., Schneegans, S., Eröcal, D., Angathevar, B., & Rasiah, R. (2015). UNESCO science report: Towards 2030 – Executive

summary. UNESCO Digital Library. Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000235407

Seefeldt, C., & Galper, A. (2007). “Sciencing” and young children. Early Childhood Today, 21(7), 12-13.

Seefeldt, C., & Galper, A. (2017). Professional development: “Sciencing” and young children. Retrieved May 6, 2017 from

https://www.scholastic.com/teachers/articles/teaching-content/professional-development-quotsciencingquot-and-young-

children/

Shrooti, S. (2011). Individual difference and educational implications-thinking intelligence and

attitude. Retrieved Dec 31, 2020 from https://www.slideshare.net/Shrootishah/individual-differences-28706183

Simsar, A. (2013). Turkish students’ attitudes towards science in early childhood education. (Doctoral dissertation). University

of Dayton, US.

Suryanti, I., Ibrahim, M., & Lede, N. (2018). Process skills approach to develop primary students’ scientific literacy: A case

study with low achieving students on water cycle. The Consortium of Asia-Pacific Education Universities (CAPEU). IOP

Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 296 (2018) 012030 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/296/1/012030, p. 1-

6.1 April, 2021 retrieved from https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/296/1/012030/pdf

Universal Basic Education (2010). Manual for the re-training of basic education managers/inspectors and supervisors in Kwara

State on UBE 2010. Teacher professional development programmme.

Yennizar, Z., Eriyam, E., Susanti, W., & Kausari, D. (2020). Application of lesson study with scientific approach: A case study

of early childhood education. Journal of Critical Reviews, 7(7), 104-111.

Yuliskurniawati, I., Noviyanti, N., Mukti, W., Mahanal, S., & Zubaidah, S. (2019). Science process skills based on genders of

high school students. June 2019 Journal of Physics Conference Series 1241:012055 DOI:

10.1088/1742-6596/1241/1/012055. 4 April, 2021 retrieved from

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/1241/1/012055/meta


http://www.narst.org/publications/research/skill.cfm

https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000235407

https://www.scholastic.com/teachers/articles/teaching-content/professional-development-quotsciencingquot-and-young-children/

https://www.scholastic.com/teachers/articles/teaching-content/professional-development-quotsciencingquot-and-young-children/

https://www.slideshare.net/Shrootishah/individual-differences-28706183

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/296/1/012030/pdf

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/1241/1/012055/meta

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



PLAYFULNESS OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN IN TURKEY

Dondu Neslihan BAY

Assoc.Prof.Dr., Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Turkey


[email protected]

Received: July 15, 2020 Accepted: November 03, 2020 Published: June 30, 2021

Suggested Citation:

Bay, D. N. (2021). Playfulness of pre-school children in Turkey. International Online Journal of Primary Education

(IOJPE), 10(1), 119-136.


Abstract

In this research, the playfulness of 4- and 5-years-old 181 children, 100 boys and 81 girls, attending a kindergarten in

Turkey, was examined. The research was designed according to relational-correlational survey/research model, one of the

quantitative research methods; the data were collected using Personal Information Form and Children’s Playfulness Scale

(CPS) developed by Barnett (1990) and adapted to Turkish by Keleş and Yurt (2017). The playfulness levels of the children

were analyzed according to gender, age, number of children in the family, duration of pre-school education,

mother’s/father’s age and education level, mother's working status, and father's profession. To identify the playfulness levels

of pre-school children, descriptive statistics and difference statistics were calculated for both overall and each sub-dimension

according to the demographic characteristics of the children. As a result of the study, the playfulness levels of the children

were found to be high and physical spontaneity was observed to be the playfulness characteristic with the highest score.

Significant differences were observed in playfulness of children according to age and duration of pre-school education;

whereas no significant difference was observed according to gender, mother’s/father’s age and education level, mother's

working status, and father's profession.

Keywords: Playfulness, play, early childhood education, child, Turkey.

INTRODUCTION

Providing education in line with the interests and needs of children in pre-school education

institutions and supporting the development of children at maximum level are considered very

important in Turkey. With the increase of the importance of the pre-school education in the country,

researches on children's plays have increased (e.g., Aksoy & Yaralı, 2017; Gündüz, Aktepe,

Uzunoğlu, & Gündüz, 2017; Sapsağlam, 2018; Tuğrul, Boz, Uludağ, Aslan, Çelik, & Çapan, 2019).

Game-based approach has been set as one of the basic principles of the Pre-school Education Program

(2013), which has been put into practice by the Ministry of National Education. The researches

involving the playing behaviors of pre-school children in Turkey, will contribute to increasing the

quality of pre-school education.

Besides the individual differences of children, cultural and environmental differences cause their

cognitive, language, social-emotional and motor development to develop at different rates (Shepard,

Kagan, & Wurtz, 1998). Teachers should organize the educational setting by considering all these

differentiating factors and provide opportunities for children to develop their potential using

supportive methods (Cukierkorn, Karnes, & Manning, 2007). Organizing an educational setting

suitable to play increases the participation of the children and allow them to achieve a better learning

and development (Jones & Reynolds, 2011). In such a setting, children's imaginations, creativity and

academic achievements develop (Kangas & Ruokamo, 2012). However, the increasing tendency

towards acquiring learning and academic skills has created the necessity of intervention in

establishing a playful and creative environment in pre-school education (Lobman, 2003). Children

only perceive the activities they initiate as play, they see the activities that are structured and directed

by the teacher as learning, not play, and therefore learning does not take place in such cases (Karrby,

1989). Instead of limiting or directing the activities, teachers should find ways to get clues from

children's behavior and to expand, and improve their participation (Lobman, 2006). In this study, the


https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2656-0458



IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



playfulness levels of 181 children attending pre-school education in Turkey were analyzed through

independent variables, based on their teachers' observations. As far as is known, no research has been

conducted for this cultural structure in this context.

The Importance of Playfulness of Pre-school Children Study

There are some reasons that are considered as important in planning the study on the playfulness of

children. One of the most important reasons is the studies revealing that playfulness has an important

effect on children’s learning and development (Barnett, 1991a, 1991b, 2007; Cornelli Sanderson,

2010; Youell, 2008). Playfulness is an important part of the play (Youell, 2008). Play helps children

overcome ordinary challenges they encounter in their lives and share their experiences with adults and

peers. The factor that allows children to enjoy their play with their free will and reveal their creativity

is having the spirit of playfulness (Singer, 2015). Play can be defined through observable features,

however playfulness, which is defined as the child's disposition to play (Keleş & Yurt, 2017) involves children’s intrinsic characteristics, depending on the feelings in the play process (Howard,

Bellin, & Rees, 2002). These intrinsic features are; the internal motivation of the children independent

of external factors, the ability to specify or manage the play, the freedom to use the imagination, and

the ability to communicate and interpret in the play process (Pinchover, 2017). Considering the effect

of these features on learning, it is important to think about children’s perspective as players and to

motivate learning through activities they perceive as plays (Howard, Bellin, & Rees, 2002).

The second important reason is the effect of understanding and improving children's playfulness on

pedagogical goals (Jones & Reynolds, 2011). When the child plays a game within the activity, it is not

clear whether he/she is playing voluntarily (Bateson & Martin, 2013; Howard, Bellin, & Rees, 2002).

Teachers who begin to understand children's play and playfulness, can create more entertaining

educational settings by planning activities that allow children to show their playfulness (Carter, 1993).

Therefore, teachers should observe, understand and support children's playing behavior (Broadhead,

Howard, & Wood, 2010), instead of spoiling their fun by using children's play according to the

educational goals (Pramling Samuelsson & Carlsson, 2008). Because, the developmental potential of

the play is maximized when children perceive the activity as a play and participate in it as a player.

However, further information is needed to understand children's play perceptions and playfulness

(Howard, Bellin, & Rees, 2002). Children start the play based on different motivations and

tendencies. These motivations and tendencies defined as playfulness constitute the child's attitude

during play. Children willingly decide with whom, how, when and how much to play in their games

and enjoy playing by giving meaning to objects as imagined and desired, and adding their own humor,

without being tied to the objective reality. All these playfulness attitudes differ between children

(Román-Oyola, Figueroa-Feliciano, Torres-Martínez, Torres-Vélez, Encarnación-Pizarro, Fragoso-

Pagán, & Torres-Colón, 2018). For this reason, the playfulness characteristics of children should be

examined, and their changing playfulness behaviors should be understood by teachers.

In addition, discovering the effectiveness of various variables on children's playfulness also facilitates

understanding children's playfulness characteristics. Some of the variables that have been found to be

correlated with the playfulness of children in previous studies are; gender (e.g., Barnett, 1991b;

Cornelli Sanderson, 2010; Saunders, Sayer, & Goodale, 1999; Tae-Hyung, Tae-Hyun, & Jae-Shin,

2014; Zachopoulou, Trevlas, & Tsikriki, 2004), age (e.g., Barnett, 1991b; Cornelli Sanderson, 2010;

Lieberman, 1965; Rentzou, 2013; Saunders, Sayer, & Goodale, 1999), number of people in the family

(e.g., Barnett, 1991b; Barnett & Kleiber, 1984; Rentzou, 2013) and parents' occupation and age (e.g.,

Barnett & Kleiber, 1984). In Turkey, there are limited number of studies on children's playfulness

(e.g. Keles & Yurt, 2017; Macun & Güvendi, 2019) and these studies fail to adequately represent

pre-school children's playfulness characteristics. This creates the need to determine children's

playfulness levels and to investigate the variables according to which children's playfulness levels

differ. In order to contribute to the existing literature, the playfulness characteristics of the children

were examined according to various variables in a new cultural context, namely Turkey.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org




Playfulness is the pure essence of the play (Cornelli Sanderson, 2010; Rentzou, 2013; Youell, 2008).

Huizinga criticized focusing on the educational benefits of the play and argued that the essence of the

play was lost with the functionalist play approach (Singer, 2013). According to Huizinga, the play

cannot be played by force, it is played voluntarily depending on the person's will. At the same time,

the play frees individuals by allowing them to create alternative worlds and identities far from their

daily lives (Huizinga, 1955; Masters, 2008; Singer, 2013). Huizinga's play theory provides an

important framework for defining the elements of the play and playfulness and analyzing the

reflections of player interactions on societies and cultures (Masters, 2008). Contrary to the assumption

that the play should serve other purposes outside the play, which is highlighted by the other play

theories, Huizinga stated that the benefits of the play cannot be achieved without experiencing the fun,

which is the essence of the play. Children play the game because they want it, not for its benefit

(Singer, 2013). As a result, Huizinga’s theory emphasizes the playfulness spirit of the game, which is

a voluntary activity, which gives pleasure and freedom (Huizinga, 1955; Masters, 2008; Singer, 2013;

Singer, 2015). Understanding the reflection of playfulness in children's own culture should be seen as

a premise in achieving development and learning goals through play. Turkey does not have sufficient

amount of research on children's playfulness (e.g. Keles and Yurt, 2017; Macun & Güvendi, 2019). In

this context, it is thought that determining children's playfulness level within their own culture in

Turkey and identifying the variables affecting this level will contribute to support their development

and learning.

Purpose of the Current Study

Besides being a personal tendency (Lieberman, 1977), playfulness is a reflection of the culture

(Huizinga, 1955; Trevarthen, 2011). Therefore, the results obtained from different cultures make

contribution to the literature (Keleş & Yurt, 2017). The purpose of this research is analyzing the

playfulness level of the children who attend pre-school educational institutions in Turkey according to

different factors. In the current study, teachers were asked to fill the playfulness scale to identify the

playfulness levels of the children in their classes.

In this study, the following primary question and two sub-questions were addressed:

What are the playfulness levels of pre-school children and the variables that affect these levels?

1. What are the playfulness levels of pre-school children?

2. Do the playfulness levels of pre-school children significantly differ according to their demographic

characteristics (Gender, age, number of children in the family, duration of pre-school education,

mother’s/father’s age and education level, mother's working status, and father's profession)?

METHOD

This study, in which the playfulness of pre-school children and whether children’s playing tendency

shows a significant difference according to the demographic characteristics were investigated, was

designed according to relational-correlational survey/research model, which is one of the quantitative

research methods. Relational-correlational survey/research is a research approach aiming to describe a

situation that existed in the past or that still exists as it is (Karasar, 2008).

In the research, the playfulness of pre-school children is included in the study as the dependent

variable; whereas children’s age, gender, number of children in the family, duration of pre-school

education, mother’s/father’s age and education level, mother's working status, and father's profession

were included as independent variables.

Participants

This study was carried out with 181 children attending a pre-school education institution in Eskişehir

province, in 2019-2020 academic year. In the study, typical case sampling, one of purposeful

sampling methods was used. Neuman (2014) states that typical case sampling method is used in


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



researches where a specific application is evaluated, or a typical situation is examined. Accordingly,

based on the sampling feature (McNabb, 2015), the study was conducted with 181 pre-school children

in a school at the center, which shows typical characteristics of Eskişehir.

The distribution of the children participating in the study according to their demographic

characteristics were analyzed and the results are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Frequency and percentages of pre-school children participating in the research according to

demographic characteristics

Variable Category f %

Age 4-years-old 53 29.3

5-years-old 128 70.7

Gender Female 81 44.8

Male 100 55.8

Number of children in the family 1 child 55 30.4

2 children 95 52.5

3 children and more 31 17.1

Duration of pre-school education 1 year 112 61.9

2 years and more 69 38.1

Mother’s age Less than 30 years old 29 16.0

30-39-years-old 136 75.1

More than 40 years old 16 8.8

Father’s age Less than 30 years old 14 7.7

30-39-years-old 136 75.1

More than 40 years old 31 17.1

Mother’s Education Secondary school or less 50 27.6

High school 89 49.2

University and more 42 23.2

Father’s Education Secondary school or less 47 26.0

High school 98 54.1

University and more 36 19.9

Mother’s working status Not working 126 69.6

Working 55 30.4

Father’s Profession Unemployed 3 1.7

Civil servant 25 13.8

Worker 85 47.0

Self-employed 68 37.6

Regarding the information in Table 1, 29.3% (n=53) of the children participating in the study were

4-year-old and 70.7% (n=128) were 5-year-old. 44.8% (n=81) of the children were girls, and 55.2%

(n=100) were boys. Of the children, 30.4% (n=55) were the only child of the family, there are two

children in the family of 52.5% (n=95), and there are three or more children in the family of 17.1%

(n=31). 61.9% (n=112) of the children attended pre-school education for a year and 38.1% (n=69) for

two or more years. Regarding the age of pre-school children’s mothers, 16.0% (n=29) were less than

30, 75.1% (n=136) were 30-39-years-old, and 8.8% (n=16) were more than 40 years old. Regarding

the age of their fathers, 7.7% (n=14) were less than 30, 75.1% (n=136) were 30-39-year-old, and

17.1% (n=31) were more than 40. Regarding the education of the mothers, 27.6% (n=50) of them

were graduated from secondary school and below, 49.2% (n=89) from high school, and 23.2% (n=42)

were university graduate or more. The education of the fathers are as follows: 26.0% (n=47) were

primary or secondary school graduate, 54.1% (n=89) were high school graduate, and 19.9% (n=36)

were university graduate or more. The mothers of 69.6% (n=126) of the children were not working,

whereas 30.4% (n=55) were working. Regarding the profession of the fathers, 1.7% (n=3) were

observed to be unemployed; 13.8% (n=25) were civil servants, 47.0% (n=85) were workers, and

37.6% (n=68) were self-employed.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Data Collection

The data were collected from the children attending pre-school education institutions using Personal

Information Form and Children’s Playfulness Scale (CPS).

Personal Information Form: It has been developed by the researcher to collect information about

children’s age, gender, number of children in the family, duration of pre-school education,

mother’s/father’s age and education level, mother's working status, and father's profession. Personal

Information Form was filled out by the teachers of the children.

Children’s Playfulness Scale (CPS): CPS, which has been developed by Barnett (1990) and adapted

to Turkish by Keleş and Yurt (2017), was used to identify the playfulness level of the children

attending pre-school education. The scale consists of 23 items grouped under five dimensions. The

scale is answered by the teachers for each child. Items in the scale were rated in 5-point Likert scale,

where 1 means “It doesn’t fit to this child at all” and 5 means “It completely fit to this child”. Two of

the scale items contain negative expressions, whereas the other items are positive. The scale is used to

identify the playfulness levels of 29-61.5-month-old children.

In the process of adapting CPS to Turkish, first, four people who are familiar with both languages

undertook the translation process, then the translations were compared, and expert opinions were

received from five academicians working in the field of pre-school education. In the first pilot study,

the scale was filled for 79 children by their teachers and the expressions of the items were revised. A

second pilot study was conducted to confirm the validity and reliability of the research, in which scale

items whose translations were finalized were filled for 196 children by their teachers (Keleş & Yurt,

2017).

Then, first level and then second level confirmatory factor analysis were performed. As a result of the

analysis, each item of the scale was found to significantly explain the sub-dimension to which it

belongs. The standardized factor loads of the items included in the sub-dimensions were found to vary

as follows: physical spontaneity .68 - .91; social spontaneity .48 - .89; cognitive spontaneity .55 - .89;

manifest joy .68 - .90; and sense of humor .63 - .82. Model-data fit values calculated in the second

level confirmatory factor analysis (X2/df=2.84, RMSEA=.097, CFI=.97, NFI=.96, NNFI=.97,

GFI=.78, RFI=.95), show that the 5-dimensional 23-item structure was confirmed in the Turkish

sample (Keleş & Yurt, 2017).

To determine the reliability of the answers given to the scale items, Cronbach alpha coefficients and

McDonalds’ coefficients were calculated. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were found to be ranged

from .79 to .92 and McDonalds coefficient from .80 to .93, thus the reliability of the scale items

related to their internal consistency was found to be high (Keleş & Yurt, 2017).

Within the scope of this research, CPS was answered by the teachers for 181 children. Cronbach alpha

reliability coefficients were calculated to determine the reliability of the answers given to the scale

items. As a result of this calculation, the reliability coefficients were found as follows: physical

spontaneity .863; social spontaneity .830; cognitive spontaneity .695; manifest joy .805; and sense of

humor .834. The reliability coefficient calculated for the overall scale was .942. These figures show

that the reliability of the answers given to the scale items is high for the children participating in the

research (Kalaycı, 2009).

Data Analysis

During data analysis, the data collected for 182 children were transferred to SPSS 23.0 program, and

the analysis were performed. After confirming that there is no missing and incorrect data, the scores

of the sub-dimensions and the whole scale were calculated. Afterwards, z statistics were used to

analyze the extreme value of the scores (sub-dimensions and overall) and 1 observation showing

extreme value was removed from the dataset. Skewness and kurtosis coefficients were calculated to

check the distribution of the scores of the remaining 181 pre-school children. The results are shown in

Table 2.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 2. Skewness and Kurtosis coefficients calculated for the answers given to the scale items.

Scale n Skewness SE Kurtosis SE

Physical spontaneity 181 -1.117

.181

.640

.359

Social spontaneity 181 -.735 -.118

Cognitive spontaneity 181 -.263 -.252

Manifest joy 181 -.590 -.503

Sense of humor 181 -.537 -.493

Overall playfulness score 181 -.541 -.400

As can be seen in Table 2, skewness and kurtosis coefficients calculated for the distribution of the

scores achieved from the sub-dimensions and from the whole scale were between (-1,+1), except for

the first dimension. But the coefficient of physical spontaneity dimension was very close to -1.

Büyüköztürk (2018) states that skewness and kurtosis coefficients between (-1,+1) indicate that the

data does not show an excessive deviation from the normal distribution. Accordingly, CPS scores

were found to show normal distribution.

After analyzing the dataset, descriptive statistics including minimum, maximum, average and standard

deviation were calculated to determine the playfulness levels of pre-school children. Then, the

difference statistics were calculated to identify whether the playfulness of children showed a

significant difference according to their demographic characteristics. Before the calculations, each

assumption was tested and either parametric tests (t-test, one-way variance analysis for independent

measurements) or non-parametric tests (Kruskal Wallis) were performed. While interpreting the

difference, p significance value was taken as .05. Cohen's d effect size coefficient was calculated in

binary group comparisons to identify the effect size of the difference. The coefficient was interpreted

as follows: .20-.49 low; .50-.79 medium; and over .80 high (Cohen, 1988).

RESULTS

Descriptive statistics

To determine the playfulness of pre-school children, descriptive statistics were calculated first, and

the results are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics of pre-school children's playing tendencies

Sub-dimensions # of items n Minimum Maximum Mean Std.Dev.

Physical spontaneity 4 181 8.00 20.00 17.07 3.12

Social spontaneity 5 181 10.00 25.00 20.92 3.57

Cognitive spontaneity 4 181 6.00 20.00 14.91 3.00

Manifest joy 5 181 11.00 25.00 20.93 3.52

Sense of humor 5 181 8.00 25.00 19.76 4.29

Overall playfulness score 23 181 50.00 115.00 93.60 15.34

Table 3 shows that the scores that pre-school children got from the physical spontaneity dimension

ranged between 8.00 and 20.00, and the mean score was calculated as 17.07 (± 3.12). Scores taken

from the social spontaneity dimension ranged from 10.00 to 25.00, with an average of 20.92 (± 3.57).

The scores of children from cognitive spontaneity were between 6.00 and 20.00 and the average was

14.91 (± 3.00). Manifest joy scores of pre-school children varied between 11.00 and 25.00, and the

average was calculated as 20.93 (± 3.52). The scores that the children got from sense of humor ranged

between 8.00 and 25.00, and the average was 19.76 (± 4.29). The last line of the table shows that the

scores of pre-school children from 23-items playfulness tendency scale ranged between 50.00 and

115.00, and the average was calculated as 93.60 (± 15.34).

Since the number of items in CPS’ subdimensions is different, the average scores achieved from each

dimension and from the whole scale was scaled in 1-5 range for the ease of comparison. Accordingly,

the average scores of the sub-dimensions were as follows: physical spontaneity 4.3; social spontaneity

4.2; cognitive spontaneity 3.7; manifest joy 4.2; sense of humor 4.0; whereas the average of overall

playfulness score was calculated as 4.1.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



While interpreting the scores, the “ranges/number of categories” proposed by Tekin (2002) was

employed, then;

The scores between 1.0-2.3 were specified as low;

The scores between 2.3-3.7 were specified as medium;

The scores between 3.7-5.0 were specified as high

In line with this information, the playfulness of pre-school children participating in the study was

found to be high for all sub-dimensions and overall scale. The scores were ranked as physical

spontaneity, social spontaneity, manifest joy, sense of humor and cognitive spontaneity.

Difference statistics

The differentiation of the playfulness of children participating in the study according to age was

tested. The scores of the children according to age showed normal distribution, therefore t-test was

used in the comparison of the related measurements, and the results are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Independent T-test results for pre-school children’s playfulness according to age

Scale Age n Mean Std.Dev. t df P d’

Physical spontaneity 4-years-old 53 16.25 3.07

2.323 179 .021* .35 5-years-old 128 17.41 3.09

Social spontaneity 4-years-old 53 19.09 3.44

4.690 179 .000* .70 5-years-old 128 21.68 3.35

Cognitive spontaneity 4-years-old 53 14.09 2.65

2.387 179 .018* .36 5-years-old 128 15.25 3.08

Manifest joy 4-years-old 53 20.28 3.20

1.606 179 .110 --- 5-years-old 128 21.20 3.62

Sense of humor

4-years-old 53 18.72 4.40 2.128 179 .035* .32

5-years-old 128 20.20 4.19

Overall playfulness

score

4-years-old 53 88.43 14.15 2.980 179 .003* .45

5-years-old 128 95.74 15.35

*p<.05

Regarding the information in Table 4, a significant difference was observed in physical spontaneity

levels of pre-school children according to age (t(179)=2.323; p<.05; d’=.35). Average scores showed

that physical spontaneity level of 5-years-old children (17.41 ± 3.09) was significantly higher than

4-years-old children (16.25 ± 3.07). The calculated Cohen’s d effect size shows that the effect of the

difference is low. A significant difference was also observed in social spontaneity levels of pre-school

children according to age (t(179)=4.690; p<.05; d’=.70). Average scores showed that social spontaneity

level of 5-years-old children (21.68 ± 3.35) was significantly higher than 4-years-old children (19.09

± 3.44). The effect size implies that the effect of the difference is moderate (t(179)=2.387; p<.05;

d’=.36). Moreover, a significant difference was observed in cognitive spontaneity levels of pre-school

children according to age (t(179)=4.690; p<.05; d’=.70). Average scores showed that cognitive

spontaneity level of 5-years-old children (15.25 ± 3.08) was significantly higher than 4-years-old

children (14.09 ± 2.65). The effect size implies that the effect of the difference is low. The difference

of manifest joy level of children was found to be insignificant according to age (t(179)=1.606; p> 0.05).

In other words, manifest joy level of 4 and 5-years-old children was similar. A significant difference

was observed in the sense of humor of pre-school children according to age (t(179)=2.128; p<.05;

d’=.32). Average scores showed that sense of humor of 5-years-old children (20.20 ± 4.19) was

significantly higher than 4-years-old children (18.72 ± 4.40). The effect size shows that the effect of

the difference is low. Lastly in Table 4, the playfulness of pre-school children showed a significant

difference according to age (t(179)=2.980; p<.05; d’=.45). Regarding average scores, the playfulness of

5-year-old children (95.74 ± 15.35) was found to be significantly higher than 4-year-old’s (88.43 ±

14.15). The effect size implies that the effect of the difference is moderate. In other words, 4-years-old

children have a moderately higher tendency to play than 5-years-olds.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



The scores of the children according to gender also showed normal distribution, thus t-test was used in

the comparison of the related measurements, and the results are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Independent T-test results for pre-school children’s playfulness according to gender

Scale Gender n Mean Std.Dev. t df p d’

Physical spontaneity Female 81 17.06 3.06

.039 179 .969 --- Male 100 17.08 3.18

Social spontaneity Female 81 21.14 3.25

.723 179 .471 --- Male 100 20.75 3.81

Cognitive spontaneity Female 81 15.16 2.90

1.004 179 .317 --- Male 100 14.71 3.08

Manifest joy Female 81 21.40 3.30

1.593 179 .113 --- Male 100 20.56 3.66

Sense of humor Female 81 19.96 3.99

.564 179 .573 --- Male 100 19.60 4.54

Overall playfulness score Female 81 94.72 14.22

.879 179 .381 --- Male 100 92.70 16.20

*p<.05

Regarding Table 5, pre-school children’s physical spontaneity (t(179)=.039; p>.05), social spontaneity

(t(179)=.723; p>.05), cognitive spontaneity (t(179)=1.004; p>.05), manifest joy (t(179)=1.593; p>.05), and

sense of humor (t(179)=.564; p>.05) scores did not show significant difference according to gender.

Similarly, the difference on children's overall playfulness scores according to gender was not

significant (t(179)=.879; p>.05). In other words, the playfulness tendencies of girls and boys were found

to be similar both in overall and in all sub-dimensions.

The playfulness of pre-school children according to the number of children in the family was first

tested for normality, and then homogeneity of variances was tested by Levene test. After determining

that the assumptions are met, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed for comparison

and the results are shown in Table 6.

Table 6. One way ANOVA analysis results for pre-school children’s playfulness according the

number of children in the family

Scale # of children n Mean Std.Dev. F df p n2

Physical spontaneity

1 child 55 17.33 2.98

1.080

2

180

.969

--- 2 children 95 16.76 3.33

3+ children 31 17.58 2.62

Social spontaneity

1 child 55 20.91 3.57

.174

2

180

.471

--- 2 children 95 20.82 3.74

3+ children 31 21.26 3.05

Cognitive spontaneity 1 child 55 14.85 2.56

.098

2

180

.317

--- 2 children 95 14.87 3.23

3+ children 31 15.13 3.08

Manifest joy

1 child 55 21.25 3.10

.635

2

180

.113

--- 2 children 95 20.65 3.89

3+ children 31 21.23 3.05

Sense of humor

1 child 55 20.15 3.93

.494

2

180

.573

--- 2 children 95 19.46 4.52

3+ children 31 20.00 4.27

Overall playfulness score 1 child 55 94.49 13.32

.472

2

180

.381

--- 2 children 95 92.57 17.00

3+ children 31 95.19 13.40

*p<.05

According to Table 6, the differentiation of physical spontaneity (F(2,180)=1.080; p>.05), social

spontaneity (F(2,180)=.174; p>.05), cognitive spontaneity (F(2,180)=.098; p>.05), manifest joy

(F(2,180)=.635; p>.05), sense of humor (F(2,180)=.494; p>.05) levels were found to be insignificant


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



according to the number of children in the family. Similarly, pre-school children's overall playfulness

scores did not show a significant difference according to the number of children in the family

(F(2,180)=.472; p>.05). In other words, the playfulness of the children who are the only child of their

family, and who has one, two or more siblings were similar both in overall and in all sub-dimensions.

The differentiation of the playfulness of pre-school children according to the duration of pre-school

education was tested. The scores of the children according to the duration of pre-school education

showed normal distribution, therefore t-test was used in the comparison of the related measurements,

and the results are shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Independent T-test results for pre-school children’s playfulness according to the duration of

pre-school education

Scale Duration of pre-school

education

n Mean Std.Dev. t df p d’

Physical spontaneity 1 year 112 16.61 3.03

2.595

179

.010*

.39 2 years and more 69 17.83 3.14

Social spontaneity 1 year 112 19.95 3.61

4.995

179

.000*

.75 2 years and more 69 22.51 2.88

Cognitive spontaneity 1 year 112 14.67 3.07

1.385

179

.168

--- 2 years and more 69 15.30 2.88

Manifest joy 1 year 112 20.27 3.50

3.330

179

.001*

.50 2 years and more 69 22.01 3.30

Sense of humor

1 year 112 19.04 4.10

2.925

179

.004*

.44 2 years and more 69 20.93 4.37

Overall playfulness score 1 year 112 90.54 15.05

3.534

179

.001*

.53 2 years and more 69 98.58 14.57

*p<.05

Regarding the information in Table 4, a significant difference was observed in physical spontaneity

levels of pre-school children according to the duration of pre-school education (t(179)=2.595; p<.05;

d’=.39). Average scores showed that physical spontaneity level of the children who were attending a

pre-school education institution for two years and more (17.83 ± 3.14) was significantly higher than

those who were attending for one year (16.61 ± 3.03). The calculated effect size shows that the effect

of the difference is low. A significant difference was also observed in social spontaneity levels of pre-

school children according to the duration of pre-school education (t(179)=4.995; p<.05; d’=.75).

Average scores showed that social spontaneity level of the children who were attending a pre-school

education institution for two years and more (22.51 ± 2.88) was significantly higher than those who

were attending for one year (19.95 ± 3.61). The effect size shows that the effect of the difference is

moderate. The difference in cognitive spontaneity level of the children was found to be insignificant

according to the duration of pre-school education (t(179)=1.385; p>.05). In other words, the cognitive

spontaneity levels of the children who have been attending a pre-school education institution for 1

year and 2 years or more were similar. Manifest joy levels of the children were found to significantly

differentiate according to the duration of pre-school education (t(179)=3.330; p<.05; d’=.50). Average

scores showed that manifest joy level of the children who were attending a pre-school education

institution for two years and more (22.01 ± 3.30) was significantly higher than those who were

attending for one year (20.27 ± 3.50). The effect size shows that the effect of the difference is

moderate. Sense of humor of the children was also found to significantly differentiate according to the

duration of pre-school education (t(179)=2.925; p<.05; d’=.44). Average scores showed that sense of

humor level of the children who were attending a pre-school education institution for two years and

more (20.93 ± 4.37) was significantly higher than those who were attending for one year (19.04 ±

4.10). The effect size shows that the effect of the difference is moderate. The table also shows that the

overall playfulness scores of the children significantly differentiated according to the duration of pre-

school education. (t(179)=3.534; p<.05; d’=.53). Regarding average scores, the playfulness of the

children who were attending a pre-school education institution for two years and more (98.58 ± 14.57)


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



was significantly higher than those who were attending for one year (90.54 ± 15.05). The calculated

effect size shows that the effect of the difference is moderate. In other words, children who have

attended pre-school education for 2 years or more have moderately more playfulness behaviors than

children who have attended pre-school education for one year.

The differentiation of the playfulness of pre-school children according to their mother’s age was

tested. The scores of the children according to mother’s age did not exhibit normal distribution,

therefore Kruskal Wallis test was used in the comparison. The results are shown in Table 8.

Table 8. Kruskal Wallis test results for pre-school children’s playfulness according to mother’s age

Scale Mother’s Age n Mean Std.Dev. Rank

Mean

X2 df p n2


Less than 30 years old 29 17.24 3.16 96.95

1.331

2

.514

--- 30-39-years-old 136 16.99 3.12 88.53

More than 40 years old 16 17.50 3.14 101.19

Social spontaneity


3.689

2

.158

--- 30-39-years-old 136 21.03 3.37 91.43


Cognitive

spontaneity


.080

2

.961

--- 30-39-years-old 136 14.90 2.91 90.43


Manifest joy


.268

2

.875

--- 30-39-years-old 136 21.00 3.39 91.37


Sense of humor


.141

2

.932

--- 30-39-years-old 136 19.79 3.96 90.17


Overall playfulness

score


.362

2

.835

--- 30-39-years-old 136 93.70 14.52 90.53


*p<.05

According to Table 8, the difference on physical spontaneity (X2(2)=1.331; p>.05), social spontaneity

(X2(2)=3.689; p>.05), cognitive spontaneity (X2

(2)=.080; p>.05), manifest joy (X2(2)=.268; p>.05), and

sense of humor (X2(2)=.141; p>.05) levels of the children were observed to be insignificant according

to the age of the mother. Similarly, pre-school children's overall playfulness scores did not show a

significant difference according to the mother’s age (X2(2)=.362; p>.05). In other words, the

playfulness of the children whose mother are younger than 30-years-old, 30-39-years-old, or older

than 40-years-old were similar both in overall and in all sub-dimensions.

The scores of the playfulness of the children participating in the research according to their father’s

age did not exhibit normal distribution, therefore Kruskal Wallis test was used in the comparison. The

results are shown in Table 9a, and Table 9b.

Table 9a. Kruskal Wallis test results for pre-school children’s playfulness according to father’s age

Scale Father’s Age n Mean Std.Dev. Rank

Mean

X2 df p n2



.454

2

.797

--- 30-39-years-old 136 17.03 3.15 90.09


Social spontaneity


2.002

2

.368

--- 30-39-years-old 136 20.86 3.52 89.68


Cognitive

spontaneity


1.209

2

.546

--- 30-39-years-old 136 14.75 2.85 88.65



IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 9b. Kruskal Wallis test results for pre-school children’s playfulness according to father’s age

Scale Father’s Age n Mean Std.Dev. Rank

Mean

X2 df p n2

Manifest joy


1.214

2

.545

--- 30-39-years-old 136 21.03 3.53 92.39


Sense of humor


.380

2

.827

--- 30-39-years-old 136 19.71 4.15 89.79


Overall playfulness

score


.612

2

.736

--- 30-39-years-old 136 93.38 15.01 89.74


*p<.05

The playfulness of pre-school children according to the education level of the mother was tested for

normality and homogeneity of variances (by Levene test). After determining that the assumptions are

met, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed for comparison and the results are

shown in Table 10.

Table 10. ANOVA analysis results for pre-school children’s playfulness according to mother’s

education

Scale Mother’s Education Level n Mean Std.Dev. F df p n2


Less than high school 50 17.00 3.12

.049

2

180

.952

--- High school 89 17.15 3.04

University and more 42 17.00 3.34

Social spontaneity


.177

2

180

.838

--- High school 89 21.08 3.75


Cognitive spontaneity Less than high school 50 15.08 3.22

.112

2

180

.894

--- High school 89 14.87 3.07


Manifest joy


.406

2

180

.667

--- High school 89 21.03 3.49


Sense of humor


.605

2

180

.547

--- High school 89 20.02 4.21


Overall playfulness

score


.170

2

180

.843

--- High school 89 94.15 15.70


*p<.05

According to Table 10, the difference on physical spontaneity (F(2,180)=.049; p>.05), social spontaneity

(F(2,180)=.177; p>.05), cognitive spontaneity (F(2,180)=.112; p>.05), manifest joy (F(2,180)=.406; p>.05),

and sense of humor (F(2,180)=.605; p>.05) levels of the children were observed to be insignificant

according to the education of the mother. Similarly, pre-school children's overall playfulness scores

did not show a significant difference according to mother’s education (F(2,180)=.170; p>.05). In other

words, the playfulness of the children whose mother are graduated from primary-secondary school,

high school or university were similar both in overall and in all sub-dimensions.

The playfulness of pre-school children according to the education level of the father was found to

show normal distribution and to have homogeneous variances (by Levene test). Therefore, one-way

analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed for comparison and the results are shown in Table 11.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 11. ANOVA analysis results for pre-school children’s playfulness according to father’s

education

Scale Father’s Education Level n Mean Std.Dev. F df p n2



.789

2

180

.456

--- High school 98 17.31 2.62


Social spontaneity


.424

2

180

.655

--- High school 98 21.14 3.46


Cognitive spontaneity Less than high school 47 15.21 3.36

.674

2

180

.511

--- High school 98 14.94 2.97


Manifest joy


.501

2

180

.607

--- High school 98 21.15 3.28


Sense of humor


.440

2

180

.645

--- High school 98 19.76 4.21


Overall playfulness

score


.218

2

180

.804

--- High school 98 94.30 14.44


*p<.05




according to the education of the father. Similarly, pre-school children's overall playfulness scores did

not show a significant difference according to father’s education (F(2,180)=.218; p>.05). In other words,

the playfulness of the children whose fathers are graduated from primary-secondary school, high

school or university was similar both in overall and in all sub-dimensions.

Since the playfulness scores of pre-school children participating in the research according to their

mother’s working status showed normal distribution, t-test was used in the comparison of the related

measurements, and the results are shown in Table 12.

Table 12. Independent t-test results for pre-school children’s playfulness according to mother’s

working status

Scale Mother’s working

status

n Mean Std.Dev. t df p d’


Not-working 126 17.13 3.05

.359

179

.720

--- Working 55 16.95 3.30

Social spontaneity

Not-working 126 20.83 3.42

.554

179

.580

--- Working 55 21.15 3.89

Cognitive spontaneity Not-working 126 14.70 3.01

1.450

179

.149

--- Working 55 15.40 2.95

Manifest joy

Not-working 126 20.93 3.54

.030

179

.976

--- Working 55 20.95 3.51

Sense of humor Not-working 126 19.54 4.28

1.057

179

.292

--- Working 55 20.27 4.32

Overall playfulness score Not-working 126 93.12 14.98

.640

179

.523

--- Working 55 94.71 16.22

*p<.05

The working areas of the mothers who participated in the study varied too much, thus the working

status of mothers were evaluated in two categories as working and not-working. According to Table

12, the difference on physical spontaneity (t(179)=.359; p>.05), social spontaneity (t(179)=.559; p>.05),

cognitive spontaneity (t(179)=1.450; p>.05), manifest joy (t(179)=.030; p>.05), and sense of humor


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



(t(179)=1.057; p>.05) levels of the children were observed to be insignificant according to the working

status of the mother. Similarly, pre-school children's overall playfulness scores did not show a

significant difference according to mother’s working status (t(179)=.640; p>.05). In other words, the

playfulness of the children whose mother are working or not working were similar both in overall and

in all sub-dimensions.

The playfulness of pre-school children according to the profession of their father was analyzed. Since

the father of 1.7% (n=3) of the children who participated in the study were unemployed, the

comparison was made for 177 children whose father were working. The playfulness score of the

children according to the profession of the father was found to show normal distribution and to have

homogeneous variances (by Levene test). Therefore, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was

performed for comparison and the results are shown in Table 13.

Table 13. Independent t-test results for pre-school children’s playfulness according to father’s

profession

Scale Father’s profession n Mean Std.Dev. F df p n2


Civil servant 25 16.96 3.23

.454

2

180

.636

--- Worker 85 16.91 3.43

Self-employed 67 17.37 2.53

Social spontaneity


.205

2

180

.815

--- Worker 85 20.80 3.74


Cognitive spontaneity Civil servant 25 14.44 2.18

.469

2

180

.626

--- Worker 85 14.87 3.25


Manifest joy


.468

2

180

.627

--- Worker 85 20.85 3.68


Sense of humor


.513

2

180

.599

--- Worker 85 19.49 4.55


Overall playfulness score Civil servant 25 92.40 14.47

.486

2

180

.616

--- Worker 85 92.92 16.41


*p<.05




according to the profession of the father. Similarly, pre-school children's overall playfulness scores

did not show a significant difference according to father’s profession (F(2,180)=.486; p>.05). In other

words, the playfulness of the children whose father are civil servant, worker or self-employed were

similar both in overall and in all sub-dimensions.


Current research aimed to discover children’s playfulness level in Turkey and the variables affecting

playfulness level. It was concluded that the playfulness level of the children participating in the study

was high. Regarding the variables, the playfulness level of the children attending pre-school education

for 2 years or more were found to be higher than children received 1 year education; the playfulness

level of 5-years-old children were found to be higher than 4-years-old ones in some sub-dimensions,

although it didn’t create a significant difference in overall score. Other variables did not make a

significant difference in the playfulness levels of the children. These results were discussed through

the relevant literature to identify the implications for pre-school educators.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



In the study, the playfulness levels of the children were observed to be high both in overall (M = 4.1)

and in all sub-dimensions. Regarding the ranking of the scores, physical spontaneity dimension was

observed to have the highest average score, whereas cognitive spontaneity dimension had lowest

score. In similar studies, the playfulness levels of children were found to be high (Keleş & Yurt, 2017;

Zachopoulou, Trevlas, & Tsikriki, 2004), the highest average score was observed in physical

spontaneity dimension (Barnet, 1990. 1991a; Zachopoulou, Trevlas, & Tsikriki, 2004), and cognitive

spontaneity had lower average score than other dimensions (Keleş & Yurt, 2017; Macun & Güvendi,

2019; Zachopoulou, Trevlas, & Tsikriki, 2004). Physical spontaneity is one of the basic features of

pre-school children who express their emotions through movement (Zachopoulou, Trevlas, &

Tsikriki, 2004). Children show this feature in the game activity that requires the most movement.

Therefore, high levels of playfulness in physical spontaneity can be considered as an expected result.

In the research, the overall playfulness of the children was analyzed according the certain variables

and playfulness levels of the children were found to be similar for both 4- and 5-years-old ones.

Similarly, Pinchover (2017) concluded that there is no direct relationship between playfulness and

children's age, and playfulness level of children is similar. Regarding the sub-dimensions of

playfulness in the study, the playfulness levels of 5-years-old children was observed to be

significantly higher than 4-years-old ones in terms of physical spontaneity, social spontaneity and

cognitive spontaneity. In the study in which Macun and Güvendi (2019) examined the playfulness

levels of pre-school children, the playfulness levels of children were found to differ in favor of 5-year-

old children in overall and in the sub-dimensions. Barnet (1991b), reported that social spontaneity and

cognitive spontaneity levels of children increased with age. With the increase in the age of the

children, their skills develop, and children become more conscious regarding playing and winning

(Howard, 2002). Therefore, an increase in playfulness level can be observed with age. However,

Saunders, Sayer, and Goodale (1999) found that younger children had higher average playfulness

score. The reason for this difference in the results of the studies may be the experience that 5-years-

old children have gained in terms of playfulness skills. Experiencing playfulness and sense of humor

at a young age, allows children to communicate with others and to show playfulness behaviors at later

ages (Youell, 2008).

The gender variable, whose effect has been widely investigated in studies on playfulness, did not

create a significant difference on the playfulness levels of children in the current study. While some

studies show that gender is a significant factor on children's playfulness levels (Barnett, 1991b;

Cornelli Sanderson, 2010; Saunders, Sayer, & Goodale, 1999; Tae-Hyung, Tae-Hyun, & Jae-Shin,

2014; Zachopoulou, Trevlas, & Tsikriki, 2004), some studies concluded that it has no effect (Keleş &

Yurt, 2017; Macun & Güvendi, 2019; Rentzou, 2013). The fact that gender has no effect on the

playfulness levels of children shows that playfulness is a personality trait (Howard, Bellin, & Rees,

2002; Rentzou, 2013). However, regarding the average scores that children got from the sub-

dimensions, the girls were observed to have higher averages than boys in all dimensions, except

physical spontaneity. Similar studies also found that boys had a higher average than girls in the

physical spontaneity subdimension of playfulness (Barnett, 1991b; Tae-Hyung, Tae-Hyun, & Jae-

Shin, 2014; Zachopoulou, Trevlas, & Tsikriki, 2004). Preferring more active games (Fabes, Martin, &

Hanish, 2003) and being physically more active than girls (Choi & Hyun, 2004) can be considered as

a factor for boys having higher scores in physical spontaneity.

Another variable that makes a significant difference on the playfulness levels of the children is the

duration of attending a pre-school education institution. The playfulness levels of children who

attended pre-school education for two years or more (22.01 ± 3.30) were higher than the children who

attended 1 year or less (20.27 ± 3.50) (p <.05). In their research, Kapıkıran, İvrendi, and Adak (2006)

found that children’s social skill behaviors develop positively as school attendance time increases.

Pre-school education offers children the opportunity to play with their friends. Children playing with

their friends in school environment regulate their behavior towards other children. Play tools in

schools also satisfy the needs of children (Brewer & Kieff, 1996). School experience at an early age


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



shows that children's behavior is affected by classroom experiences (Howard, Jenvey, & Hill, 2006).

In the study, children's school experiences were found to create a positive effect on their playfulness

levels.

In the study, the number of children in the family was observed to be insignificant on children’s

playfulness level. Regarding the differences in the sub-dimensions of the scale, the average scores

were observed to be close to each other, which led to the conclusion that the playfulness levels of

children with different number of siblings are similar. Similarly, Macun and Güvendi (2019)

concluded that the number of siblings did not make a significant difference on the playfulness level of

the children. In the research examining children's play behaviors, Öztürk and Ahmetoğlu (2018)

revealed that the number of siblings was not effective on the play behaviors. However, in some

studies, it was concluded that the number of siblings caused differences in some sub-dimensions of

the scale (Keleş & Yurt, 2017; Rentzou, 2013). The reason of these differences in the research results

may be due to the age or gender difference of the siblings. In their studies examining the effect of the

gender on children's playmate selection, Alexander and Hines (1994) found that children tend to

choose playmates of the same sex. Moreover, the age differences between siblings can create

differences on children's play skills (Youngblade & Dunn, 1995). While pre-school children mostly

prefer to play imaginary and symbolic games, they switch to play regular games in primary school

(Aksoy, 2014). Game preferences that differ with age can also change the level of sibling exposure.

Other variables addressed in the study (age, education level, working status of the mother and

profession of the father) did not create significant differences in children's playfulness levels.

Similarly, in the study of Macun and Güvendi (2019), education level and working status of the

mothers/fathers were not found to be effective on the playfulness levels of the children. In the study

examining children's play behaviors Camgöz (2010) concluded that the education level and

professional status of the parents have not created a significant difference. However, Öztürk and

Ahmetoğlu (2018) reported that the education level of the father had an effect on the children's play

behavior, while the age of the parents and the education level of the mother had no effect on the

children's play behavior. The differentiation of the study results according to family variables suggests

that different characteristics of the families may have different effects on the playfulness level of the

children. Alessandri (1992) observed that mothers who had experienced negative situations in the

past, had negative communication with their children while playing games. John, Halliburton, &

Humphrey (2012) reported that while playing with children, mothers tend to engage in empathic

conversations and teaching, while fathers tend to engage in physical play, act like they are in their

child's age, and follow the child’s play. Karaca, Gündüz, and Aral (2011) discovered that age and

education levels of families have an impact on children's positive social behavior. To better

understand the effect of the parents on the child's playfulness level, the correlations between the

characteristics of the families and the playfulness levels of the children should be further examined in

future researches.

Conclusion

The playfulness levels of the children in pre-school period provide important information to

educators. Knowledge of play and playfulness, which are among the basic elements of pre-school

education, allows to understand children’s play worlds and support the essence of playfulness by

freeing them (Singer, 2015). Understanding children's perceptions of play and playfulness approach

allows to transfer the play into classroom activities and integrate them into other activities (Howard,

Bellin, & Rees, 2002). In the study, the high playfulness levels of the children indicate that they

intrinsically have a playful mood (Young, 2008). The increase in children's ages and duration of pre-

school education make a positive difference on their playfulness levels, which shows that receiving

pre-school education from an early age will support children intrinsic playfulness feelings. In

addition, the lack of significant differences according to other variables revealed that children's

playfulness levels were based on internal emotions rather than external factors.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Limitations of the Study and Suggestions for Future Research

This study which has been carried out on children attending pre-school education institutions, has

expanded the scope of researches on children's playfulness level in Turkey. However, the study has

some limitations. Data were collected from 181 participants, who were attending a pre-school

educational institution in a province of Turkey. It should be considered that children’s playfulness

may vary according to cultural differences or demographic characteristics of the participants.

Considering that the participants were from similar environments, it should be considered that there

may be differences in the playfulness levels of the children living under different conditions. In

addition, the results should be supported and confirmed by other researches because it is one of the

few studies addressing the playfulness level of pre-school children in Turkey.

For future researches, conducting empirical studies in Turkey on different sample groups, in which

playing behavior of the children are also observed, is very important. In addition, it is suggested to

conduct longitudinal studies to better understand the change of children’s playfulness according to age

and school attendance; and investigate parents and teachers' attitudes by using interview and

observation methods to better understand the effect of the number of children in the family and the

characteristics of the parents as well as teachers (e.g. Carter, 1993; Pinchover, 2017; Trawick-Smith,

& Dziurgot, 2010) on children's playfulness levels.

REFERENCES

Aksoy, A. B. (2014). Çocuğun gelişimine bağlı oyun aşamaları ve oyun türleri [Game stages and game types depending on

the child's development]. Aksor, H. D., and Çiftçi, H. D. (Ed.), Erken Çocukluk döneminde oyun [Play in early

childhood], (36-57). Ankara: Pegem Publishing.

Aksoy, A. B., & Yaralı, K. T. (2017). Çocukların öz düzenleme becerileri ile oyun becerilerinin cinsiyete göre incelenmesi

[Examination of children's self-regulation skills and play skills by gender]. Trakya University Journal of Education

Faculty, 7(2), 442-455.

Alessandri, S. M. (1992). Mother-child interactional correlates of maltreated and nonmaltreated children's play behavior.

Development and Psychopathology, 4(2), 257-270.

Alexander, G. M., & Hines, M. (1994). Gender labels and play styles: Their relative contribution to children's selection of

playmates. Child Development, 65(3), 869-879.

Barnett, L. A. (1990). Playfulness: Definition, design, and measurement. Play & Culture, 3, 319-336.

Barnett, L. A. (1991a). The playful child: Measurement of disposition to play. Play & Culture, 4, 51-74.

Barnett, L. A. (1991b). Characterizing playfulness: Correlates with individual attributes and personality traits. Play &

Culture, 4, 371-393.

Barnett, L. A. (2007). The nature of playfulness in young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(4), 949-958.

doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.02.018

Barnett, L. A., & Kleiber, D. A. (1982). Concomitants of playfulness in early childhood: Cognitive abilities and gender.

Journal of Genetic Psychology, 141(1), 115–127. doi:10.1080/00221325.1982.10533462

Bateson, P., & Martin, P. (2013). Play, playfulness, creativity and innovation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Brewer, J. A., & Kieff, J. (1996). Fostering mutual respect for play at home and school. Childhood Education, 73(2), 92-96.

Broadhead, P., Howard, J., & Wood, E. (Eds.). (2010). Play and learning in the early years: From research to practice.

Newcastle upon Tyne: Sage.

Büyüköztürk, Ş., (2018). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı [Manual of data analysis for social sciences] (24th ed.).

Ankara: Pegem Publishing.

Camgöz, A. (2010). Ankara örneklemine Penn etkileşimli akran oyunu ölçeği’nin 60-72 aylık düşük sosyoekonomik

düzeydeki çocukların ebeveyn ve öğretmenlerine uyarlanması [Adapting the Penn interactive peer game scale to the

parents and teachers of 60-72 months old children with low socioeconomic status to the Ankara sample],

(Unpublished master's thesis). Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey.

Carter, M. (1993). Catching the spirit: Training teachers to be playful. Child Care Inf. Exch. 89, 37-39.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Choi, D. H., & Hyun, E. (2004). Examinations of young children’s gender-doing and gender-bending in their play

dynamics: A cross-cultural exploration. International Journal of Early Childhood, 36(1), 49-64.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.) Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates.

Cornelli Sanderson, R. (2010). Towards a new measure of playfulness: The capacity to fully and freely engage in play (PhD

dissertation, Paper 232). Chicago, IL: Loyola University Chicago. 8 June 2020 retrieved from http://ecommons.

luc.edu/luc_diss/232

Cukierkorn, J. R., Karnes, F. A., & Manning, S. J. (2007). Serving the preschool gifted child: Programming and resources.

Roeper Review, 29(4), 271-276 (EJ929839).

Fabes, R. A., Martin, C. L., & Hanish, L. D. (2003). Young children’s play qualities in same, other and mixed-sex peer

groups society for research. Child Development, 74(3), 921-932.

Gündüz, M., Aktepe, V., Uzunoğlu, H., & Gündüz, D. D. (2017). Okul öncesi dönemdeki çocuklara eğitsel oyunlar yoluyla

kazandırılan değerler [Values acquired by preschool children through educational games]. Muğla Sıtkı Koçman

University Journal of Education Faculty, 4(1), 62-70.

Howard, J. (2002). Eliciting young children's perceptions of play, work and learning using the activity apperception story

procedure. Early Child Development and Care, 172(5), 489-502.

Howard, J., Bellin, W., & Rees, V. (2002, September). Eliciting children’s perceptions of play and exploiting playfulness to

maximise learning in the early years classroom. Proceedings from BERA (British Educational Research

Association) Annual Conference, University of Exeter (pp. 11–12). 27 May, 2020 retrieved from

http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00002574.htm

Howard, J., Jenvey, V., & Hill, C. (2006). Children’s categorisation of play and learning based on social context. Early

Child Development and Care, 176(3-4), 379-393.

Huizinga, J. (1955). Homo ludens: a study of the play-element in culture. (First published in 1938). Boston: The Beacon

Press.

John, A., Halliburton, A., & Humphrey, J. (2013). Child-mother and child–father play interaction patterns with

preschoolers. Early Child Development and Care, 183(3-4), 483-497.

Jones, E., & Reynolds, G. (2011). The play’s the thing: Teachers’ roles in children’s play (2nd ed.). New York, NY:


Kalaycı, Ş. (2009). SPSS uygulamalı çok değişkenli istatistik teknikleri [SPSS applied multivariate statistics techniques].

Ankara: Asil Publisher.

Kangas, M., & Ruokamo, H. (2012). Playful Learning Environment(s): Effects on Children’s Learning. In N. Seel (Ed.),

Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning (pp. 2653-2655). New York: Springer. 17 May, 2020 retrieved from

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_756

Kapıkıran, N. A., Kapıkıran, N. A., İvrendi, A. B., & Adak, A. (2006). Okul öncesi çocuklarında sosyal beceri: Durum

saptaması [Social skills in preschool children: Determination of the situation]. Pamukkale University Journal of

Education, 19(19), 19-27.

Karaca, N. H., Gündüz, A., & Aral, N. (2011). Okul öncesi dönem çocuklarının sosyal davranışının incelenmesi

[Examining the social behavior of preschool children]. Journal of Theoretical Educational Science, 4(2), 65-76.

Karasar, N. (2008). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemi [Scientific research method]. Ankara: Nobel Publisher.

Karrby, G. (1989). Children’s conceptions of their own play. International Journal of Early Childhood Education, 21(2),

49-54.

Keleş, S., & Yurt, Ö. (2017). An investigation of playfulness of preschool children in Turkey. Early Child Development

and Care, 187(8), 1372-1387.

Lieberman, J. N. (1965). Playfulness and divergent thinking: An investigation of their relationship at the kindergarten level.

Journal of Genetic Psychology, 107, 219–224. doi:10.1080/00221325.1965.10533661

Lieberman, J. N. (1977). Playfulness: Its relationship to imagination and creativity. New York, NY: Academic Press.

Lobman, C. L. (2003). What should we create today? Improvisational teaching in play-based classrooms. Early Years, 23,

131-142. doi: 10.1080/0957514030 3104

Lobman, C. L. (2006). Improvisation: an analytic tool for examining teacher–child interactions in the early childhood

classroom. Early Childhood Research Quarterly. 21(4), 455-470. doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.09.004


http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00002574.htm

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_756

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Macun, B., & Güvendi, Ö. F. (2019). Okul öncesi dönem çocuklarının oynama eğilimlerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından

incelenmesi [The exemining of the tendency to play of children attending to preschool education ınstitutions in

terms of various variables]. EKEV Academic Review, 23(78), 79-98.

Masters, P. A. (2008). Play theory, playing, and culture. Sociology Compass, 2(3), 856-869.

McNabb, D. E. (2015). Research methods for political science: Quantitative and qualitative methods. London: Routledge.

Neuman, L. W. (2014). Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches (7th ed.). Essex: Pearson

Education Limited.

Öztürk, M. A., & Ahmetoğlu, E. (2018, 11-13 May). Okul öncesi eğitim kurumlarında grup ortamlarındaki oyunun

değerlendirilmesi [Evaluation of the game in group settings in preschool education institutions]. 8th International

Conference of Strategic Research on Scientific Studies and Education, Vienna, Austria.

Pinchover, S. (2017). The relation between teachers’ and children’s playfulness: A pilot study. Frontiers in psychology,

8(2214), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02214

Pramling Samuelsson, I., & Johansson, E. (2006). Play and learning-inseparable dimensions in preschool practice. Early

child development and care, 176(1), 47-65.

Rentzou, K. (2013). Greek preschool children’s playful behavior: Assessment and correlation with personal and family

characteristics. Early Child Development and Care, 183(11), 1733-1745. doi:10.1080/03004430.2012.752736

Román-Oyola, R., Figueroa-Feliciano, V., Torres-Martínez, Y., Torres-Vélez, J., Encarnación-Pizarro, K., Fragoso-Pagán,

S., & Torres-Colón, L. (2018). Play, Playfulness, and Self-Efficacy: Parental Experiences with Children on the

Autism Spectrum. Occupational Therapy International, Article ID 4636780, 10 pages.

https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4636780

Sapsağlam, Ö. (2018). Okul öncesi dönem çocuklarının değişen oyun tercihleri. Kırşehir Faculty of Education Journal

(JKEF), 19(1), 1122-1235.

Saunders, I., Sayer, M., & Goodale, A. (1999). The relationship between playfulness and coping in preschool children: A

pilot study. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 53(2), 221-226. doi:10.5014/ajot.53.2.221

Shepard, L., Kagan, S. L., & Wurtz, L. (1998). Principles and recommendations for early childhood assessments. Goal 1

Early Childhood Assessments Resource Group. Washington, DC: National Education Goals Panel. 03 May. 2020

retrieved from http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/negp/reports/prinrec.pdf.

Singer, E. (2013). Play and playfulness, basic features of early childhood education. European Early Childhood Education

Research Journal, 21(2), 172-184.

Singer, E. (2015). Play and playfulness in early childhood education and care. Psychology in Russia, 8(2), 27-35.

Tae-Hyung, Y., Tae-Hyun, C., & Jae-Shin, L. (2014). The affecting factor on the children’s playfulness in South Korea.

International Journal of Bio-Science and Bio-Technology, 6(5), 23-32.

Tekin, H. (2002). Eğitimde ölçme ve değerlendirme [Measurement and evaluation in education]. Ankara: Yargı Publisher.

Trevarthen, C. (2011). What young children give to their learning, making education work to sustain a community and its

culture. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 19, 173-193. doi:

10.1080/1350293X.2011.574405

Trawick-Smith, J., & Dziurgot, T. (2010). Untangling teacher–child play interactions: Do teacher education and experience

influence “Good-Fit” responses to Children's play?. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 31(2),

106-128. doi: 10.1080/10901021003781148

Tuğrul, B., Boz, M., Uludağ, G., Aslan, Ö. M., Çelik, S. S., & Çapan, A. S. (2019). Okul öncesi dönemdeki çocukların

okuldaki oyun olanaklarının incelenmesi [Examination of preschool children’ play opportunities in schools].

Trakya Journal of Education, 9(2), 185-198.

Youell, B. (2008). The importance of play and playfulness. European Journal of Psychotherapy and Counselling, 10(2),

121-129. doi:10.1080/13642530802076193

Youngblade, L. M., & Dunn, J. (1995). Individual differences in young children's pretend play with mother and sibling:

Links to relationships and understanding of other people's feelings and beliefs. Child Development, 66(5),

1472-1492. doi:10.2307/1131658

Zachopoulou, E., Trevlas, E., & Tsikriki, G. (2004). Perceptions of gender differences in playful behaviour among

kindergarten children. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 12(1), 43-53.



https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4636780

http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/negp/reports/prinrec.pdf

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



EFFECTS OF PERFORMANCE RANKING ON STUDENTS’ VOICE

AND AGENCY IN THE MATHEMATICS CLASSROOM

Samson Murithi NJIRU

PhD., Department of Education, University of Embu, Embu, Kenya


[email protected]

Simon KARUKU

PhD., Department of Education, University of Embu, Embu, Kenya


[email protected]


Suggested Citation:

Njiru, S. M., & Karuku, S. (2021). Effects of performance ranking on students’ voice and agency in the mathematics

classroom. International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 10(1), 137-147.


Abstract

The modalities of performance ranking in high stakes testing to a greater extent affect Mathematics teaching and learning.

While performance ranking has the potential of being a critical catalyst in the process of making Mathematics classrooms a

place of positive competition, it fails to balance the most crucial aspects in Mathematics discourses-the voice and agency of

teachers and students. The proactive engagement of all students and teachers equitably with the process of Mathematics

teaching and learning is a necessary condition for ensuring excellent students Mathematics learning outcomes. The purpose

of the study was to investigate the effects of performance ranking on voice and agency in Mathematics teaching and learning

in secondary schools in Embu, Kenya. The study employed a qualitative research approach. Six teachers and eight students

were randomly sampled for interviews, while three teachers and eighteen students were engaged in focus group discussions.

The data analyzed demonstrated that top ranked students become powerful independent learners who are capable of

critiquing work presented to them by their teachers while low ranked students are guided as to whom to seek help from by

the performance ranking data. This paper recommends that performance ranking should be used as a tool to give students

voice and agency by ranking students on the basis of marks scored on continuous assessment tests, students’ entry mark and

value addition.

Keywords: Performance ranking, mathematics, teaching, learning, voice, agency.

INTRODUCTION

Performance rankings in education have been a common feature all over the world. The government

and the news agencies of particular countries obtain and publish the rankings data in an attempt to

compare the relative performance of individual students (or schools) based on academic performance

(Ball, 2009, Hazelkorn, 2008; Leckie & Goldstein, 2019; Wilson & Piebalga, 2008). At the school

level, the rankings are at times published on school notice boards to compare the relative performance

of individual students in the same grade or the relative performance of sections (streams) in a given

grade.

Performance rankings are intended to serve several purposes for students, parents, teachers, school

administrators, policy makers, and politicians. To some, performance rankings are a mechanism for

providing feedback to those who provide resources to run the schools on those schools that are doing

well and those that require intervention. The rankings also enable parents make informed choices

about schools for their children, since such rankings provide a basis for making comparisons. The

rankings thus increase the transparency and the quality of educational processes, thus contributing to

academic excellence (Neves, Pereira, & Nata, 2014). They can also induce organizational changes in

schools that are underperforming (Neves, Pereira, & Nata, 2014) by borrowing the educational

practices and policies of the top-performing schools, or by performing a root cause analysis to uncover





IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



root causes for underperformance and correct deficiencies. They also provide incentives for behavioral

change by stimulating inter-school or inter-student competition.

Critics of performance rankings have several reservations. To begin with is the fact that though

performance rankings tend to change behavior positively, they are deleterious to the education

process. The rankings lead to having important areas in the syllabus ignored following the excessive

focus on improving the rank positions in the league tables.Thus, for example, there is evidence that

performance rankings encourage unethical practices such as grade inflation and exclusion of students

who would drag down the overall performance score of the school (Neves, Pereira, & Nata, 2014) to

the detriment of student choice. These practices, which are exacerbated by the publication of school

rankings, ultimately lead to growing disparities between schools. To be sure, there is a fundamental

distinction between public and private schools in their ability to choose their own students and in the

kind of incentives they may get from responding to market pressures. Private schools are particularly

more subject to market pressures than public schools, and this may contribute to their temptation to

engage in ‘gaming’ to improve their ranking. As a result, performance rankings have been criticized

for sustaining a hierarchy of power and interests that favor established interests (Kell & Kell, 2014;

Neves, Pereira, & Nata, 2014). Schools at the bottom of the rank in the school league tables attract

below average students and in experienced theachers, as the best performing schools siphon the above

average students and experienced teachers. Under these circumstances, rankings can be seen as a

contributing factor to affirming social division, negating the redistribution of resources designed to

redress inequity and social injustices (Kell & Kell, 2014)

Secondly, the validity and reliability of performance rankings have been put into question, owing to

the embedded methodological and philosophical shortcomings. In particular, the rankings have been

criticized for promoting unfair competition (for example, between public and private schools, or

between schools and/or students from different socioeconomic backgrounds) and, therefore,

reinforcing the existing inequalities. Performance rankings have also been criticized for glorifying

examination results at the expense of the authentic goals of education. Indeed, performance rankings

are said to use simplistic outputs as proxies for school quality, whereby the notion of efficiency is seen

as unproblematic, and methods are considered to be ideology-free. For example, league tables do not

consider the school’s context, as some serve the underprivileged students population doubling their

functions. In addition to providing good education they ensure students health is taken care of through

provision of well balanced diet. This impact negatively on the time and energy such schools can

dedicate to improvement of academic performance of students (Neves, Pereira, & Nata, 2014).

Therefore, the low ranked schools are stigmatized and their image in the public domain is often

irreversibly damaged. Instead of channeling resources to the low ranked schools for improvement

purposes the low performance is often accompanied by more punitive measures, more monitoring and

diminished resources. Such schools find themselves subject to uncertainty around government support

and are threatened with closure (Kell & Kell, 2014).

A number of methodologies for performance rankings for schools exist; some compare school average

scores, derived from students’ aggregate scores in high-stakes standardized tests. Others compare

schools using value-added measures of school performance, which is a measure of the progress made

by an individual student or a group of students in comparison to the average progress made by similar

students nationally between key stages. Still others compare schools using contextualized value-added

scores, which in addition to controlling for students’ prior attainment at earlier key stages, factors in a

wide range of non-school factors associated students’ progress such as age, gender, special educational

needs, and ethnicity (Foley & Goldstein, 2012; Leckie & Goldstein, 2019).

This paper focuses on an aspect of performance rankings that is rarely considered in the literature;

namely, the effect of performance rankings on students’ voice and agency. Whereas the notions of

voice and agency have been central to the scholarship on classroom discourse processes and

participatory structures that empower learners to engage in more authentic learning (Cook-Sather,

2006; Nel, 2017; van Lier, 2008), the relationship between performance rankings, on the one hand,


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



and students’ voice and agency, on the other has been under-researched. Cook-Sather (2006) defines

voice as “having presence, power and agency, the opportunity to speak one’s mind, be heard and

perhaps have an influence on outcomes” (p. 5). Agency on the other hand is, according to Van Lier

(2008), the ability to control one’s behavior, to engage in behavior that affects other entities and the

self and to produce actions that can be evaluated (p. 172). In the teaching-learning contexts, agency is

an action taken by a student in controlling classroom discourse on their behalf and on behalf of other

students (Nel, 2017). Hence, students’ voice and agency have an emancipatory role in the classroom

as they empower students to be actively engaged in the classroom discourse (Khuzwayo & Bansilal,

2012). It is thus critical for teachers to tailor their pedagogical strategies in a manner that support

students’ development of voice and agency in the classroom (Morgan, 2016). This can help in

development of positive attitudes by students, leading to good academic performance.

Regardless of the positive effects studies have shown that, performance ranking can have several

negative effects on teaching and learning. For instance, it can lead to the introduction of inequity in the

classroom through the use of instructional strategies that favour or promote voice of one student over

another. The favoured sections of students often perceive the classroom as being places for positive

competitions, while the other section finds it as a place of discrimination (Bicknell & Riley, 2012). On

the other hand, a student agency can act as an incentive or a deterrent depending on the student’s

position in performance rankings (Wilkins, 2012). This paper seeks to demonstrate that students are

socialized to demonstrate agency and voice in ways that resonate with their position in performance

rankings. The next section reviews the literature related to performance rankings as they related to

voice and agency in the classroom.

Literature Review

Critics of performance rankings have argued that the rankings promote educational inequalities as

some schools are viewed as better than others. This is because the rankings, though certainly not

perfect, are appropriate mechanisms for picking among thousands of schools and determining learning

options for children that are most in line with an individual's wants and needs. For example, rankings

build an institutional reputation by providing a list of top public and private schools in the country

(Hazelkorn, 2008). In this respect, prospective students and their parents identify their school of

choice based on the quality of academics, resources available, future career opportunities, and even

school popularity and reputation. Therefore, publication of performance ranking data may lead to

schools that are perceived to be doing well to enjoy the privilege of attracting students of high levels

of ability while those perceived to be doing badly attracting low achieving students (Kellaghan, 1996).

It may also lead to the transfer of more able teachers, lower morale in individual schools and create a

big achievement gap between secondary schools. Although Burgess, Propper and Wilson (2002) argue

that, provision of information on school performance is a pre-requisite for informed parental choice,

OECD (2012) observe that, where parents with social and/or economic advantage are encouraged to

support schools with good results, morale and performance in poorer performing schools can be

affected negatively.

Secondly, performance ranking builds the capabilities and confidence in top ranked teachers to

autonomously plan their teaching in response to learner’s abilities (Batra, 2005). According to

Andersson and Norén (2011), any practice in teaching and learning worthy of its name should

contribute to processes of subjectification that allow the teachers to become more autonomous and

independent in their thinking. Their decisions are embraced by the school administrators because they

have confidence in them. Being an incentive to them it encourages positive competition in that low

ranked teachers design their instructional techniques in order to obtain the top rank to enjoy teacher

agency in teaching. The dissemination of ranking data creates competition among teachers which in

turn motivate them to design their instructional practices for students’ learning (Chapman & Synder,

2000). Thus, performance ranking may help to raise academic standards, provide feedback on the

teacher’s effectiveness in teaching and student achievement. It also communicates to the students,

parents and others what has been taught (Amunga, Amadalo, & Maiyo, 2010).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Further, performance ranking puts the Mathematics students at the center of Mathematics discussions

so as to obtain the top rank as opposed to the traditional Mathematics classrooms which was the

domain of the teacher (Khuzwayo & Bansilal, 2012). In the traditional classrooms the teacher decides

the content and pedagogical strategies without involving the students. The picture changes when

learners are granted voice and agency in Mathematics classrooms. Thus, students are provided with an

opportunity to create their own knowledge and engage in strategic as opposed to executive help

seeking (Karabenick & Newman, 2013).

Finally, performance ranking in secondary schools is used in informing policymaking (Downes,

Vindurampulle & Victoria, 2007). For example, performance ranking data is utilized in the

identification of schools and students whose achievements are below average. High performing

schools can be used for benchmarking purposes and remedial efforts geared towards schools and

students who are struggling in terms of education gains. Further, the practice points out the areas the

schools are performing below expectations hence helps to direct resources in the schools affected to

ensure they are not left behind as far as education matters are concerned.

Opponents of performance ranking observe that it invites top ranked students voice at the expense of

the low ranked ones in Mathematics classrooms (Morrison, 2008). Students at the bottom of the rank

are viewed as weak and lazy by both students and teachers despite the effort they put in their studies

(Dunne, Humphreys, Sebba, Dyson, Gellannaugh, & Muijis, 2007). The class disrespect could lead to

teachers losing control of the classroom discourse. Besides losing control of the class, teachers fear

that top ranked students will not only take over learning but also deny the low ranked students’

opportunities of contributing ideas in the Mathematics classroom discourse (White, 2003). Moreover,

performance ranking invites the top ranked student’s dominancy in Mathematics lessons making them

ill prepared for the real world where they should learn to accommodate the will of others seeing their

needs going unmet (Morrison, 2008).

An additional constraint of performance ranking is the conventional system of ranking used in internal

and national examinations. The methodology of ranking which employs student’s raw scores is blind

to issues such as the socioeconomic conditions of the students, location of the schools and school

management styles. Thus, deflect teachers and students from creating personal meaning towards

teaching and learning instead focuses all their effort towards the incentives (Niesche & Keddie, 2016).

In other words teachers may tailor their instructional strategies towards test taking skills in order to

obtain a top rank because of the benefits associated with the top rank such as internal promotions.

Such kind of performance orientation complicates teacher-teacher relationship in the department and

in the institution at large. The low ranked teachers feel less powerful and act subserviently to avoid

being reprimanded. The low ranked teachers’ subservience manifests itself in not questioning or

challenging the top ranked teachers’ decisions (Morrison, 2008). Consequently, performance ranking

renders many teachers voiceless in Mathematics matters and dependent on the top ranked ones.

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of performance ranking on students and

teachers voice and agency in teaching-learning process in secondary schools in Kenya in the

participants’ natural settings.

METHOD

Participants and Context of the Study

The study adopted a qualitative approach and a case study design. Random sampling was used to

select the schools to be in the study. Mathematics students were chosen because they are directly

affected by performance ranking as far as voice and agency is concerned. Teachers were chosen

because they are key to major decisions as per the performance ranking outcomes.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



The study was carried out in Kenya. There are forty seven counties in Kenya and in each county there

two major categories of secondary schools namely; public and private. Public schools are further

categorized into four groups depending on students performance and learning resources available (

Makori, Onyura, Cheboiwo, Yegon, & Kandie, 2015) namely; National, Extra County, County and

Sub-County schools. The study was carried out in secondary schools in Embu County which has two

National, fourteen Extra County, twenty two County, one hundred and forty eight Sub-County and

eight private schools. Study participants were nine Mathematics teachers and twenty six students from

seven public and two private secondary schools in Embu County, Kenya.

Data Collection and Data Analysis

Multiple data collection methods were employed in this study namely; face to face semi-structured

interviews, focus group discussions and document analysis. Multiple data collection methods was for

triangulation purposes in order to ensure credibility and validity of the study findings (Plano Clark &

Creswell, 2008). Six interviews and one focus group discussion lasting between 40 to 60 minutes were

conducted with Mathematics teachers while eight interviews and three focus group discussions lasting

between 30 to 40 minutes were conducted with student-participants. The interviews were audio

recorded, transcribed and subjected to qualitative data analysis (Suter, 2012). Further, schools ranking

data, students group organization record and teacher duties and responsibilities record documents were

carefully read and re-read to trace the position in the performance data of those in leadership positions

(O’Leary, 2014). The study participants were guaranteed anonymity and quotations from the

interviews reported accordingly (Sim & Waterfield, 2019).

FINDINGS and DISCUSSION

The interviews and focus group discussions focused on a range of topics, from the methodology of

performance rankings, to their effects on voice and agency in Mathematics teaching and learning. In

brief four major themes emerged from the analysis of the interviews, focus group discussions and

document analysis: while (1) performance rankings are popular in guiding resources allocation to

students, (2) the ranking data guides in selection students’ group leaders since they need to be at the

forefront in Mathematics learning. In addition, (3) performance ranking has greater influence on

teacher promotion. Finally, (4) performance ranking present data that can be used to identify

successful and unsuccessful Mathematics classes hence provides opportunities for benchmarking.

Allocation of Mathematics Revision Resources

Teaching and learning resources provide students with curiosity and independence in Mathematics

classrooms (Kartika, 2018). The independence encourages arguments and disagreements in

Mathematics classrooms providing learners with opportunities to increase understanding of the subject

matter. Studies have shown that inadequate teaching and learning resources in secondary schools are

the cause of poor performance (Kaimenyi, 2013). According to Kaimenyi (2013), in classrooms where

the resources are adequate, students scored higher than in those classes which lacked the resources.

Therefore, the school management should ensure that the students have the necessary materials for

learning and revision during examination preparations (Kimeu, Ronoh, & Tanui, 2015). Such

materials include revision books, past papers, and sample examination papers.

While equitable provision of learning opportunities may seem to be an ultimate challenge,

Mathematics teachers play a crucial role in creating appropriate learning environment for students

through resources allocation. Through appropriate resource allocation strategies teachers can

accomplish remarkable feats thus improving students’ achievement in Mathematics. Performance

ranking of students is among strategies teachers employ in the allocation of resources.

Out of the teachers interviewed majority had no particular modalities of allocating Mathematics

resources. But even in the absence of any particular modalities, there are hints of problems in the

practice. The top ranked students enjoyed the privilege of getting a lion’s share in the resource

allocation whiles those who were at the bottom of the rank missed out in the allocation.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



In the allocation of Mathematics textbooks, there is no particular order because I share a

textbook between two students. But the revision books are given, to the top students in

Mathematics. If those at the bottom of the rank are given, they just keep them, and the rest of

the students will not have an opportunity to use them. In situations when those at the bottom of

the rank require the revision books, I give them, and I encourage them to share with the rest

of the students (Form 1 Teacher in an Extra County school).

The students interviewed had similar views to those of the teachers interviewed. In many occasions

Mathematics teachers availed Mathematics revision books in the classroom and encouraged the top

ranked students to pick them in order to score highly and support teachers’ efforts in Mathematics

teaching.

Mathematics revision resources are availed by the teacher and the best students in

Mathematics pick them from the Mathematics teacher. The top students are generous with

their knowledge and revision books. The majority of the students, especially the low achievers

in Mathematics are against having revision books because they are afraid of losing them

(Form 4 student in a Sub-County school).

…top students have the best Mathematics revision books. Immediately they learn of

availability of a new revision book they pester the Mathematics teacher to issue the book to

them… (Students FGD in an Extra county school).

Providing adequate Mathematics teaching and learning resources such as revision books to students at

the top of the rank is a motivation for them to continue working hard to improve their rank. The

practice encourages students’ voice and agency in Mathematics learning. They enjoy the privilege of

controlling all other students in the classroom during the Mathematics learning and group discussions.

Most importantly, students at the top of the rank are empowered in their learning through being able to

access Mathematics revision materials leading to un-even allocation among the students. The lack of

equity in the practice has a negative effect on Mathematics teaching and learning as the students at the

bottom of the rank feel left out thereby developing negative attitudes towards Mathematics teachers

and the subject (Mensah, Okyere, & Kuranchie, 2013).

Influence of Performance Ranking in Selection of Leaders in Mathematics Classrooms

In appointment of study group leaders, Mathematics teachers appoint group leaders considering their

performance in Mathematics. The idea behind the practice is to give the students at the top of the rank

agency in Mathematics classrooms in order to influence the other students to work hard. The move

keeps students on their toes, which lead to a high concentration in Mathematics lesson translating to

high scores in the subject.

In appointing study group leaders in Mathematics, I consider the performance of students in

Mathematics. The one in charge of the group should be at the top of the other students in

performance. This is because they have the command of the group and what they propose is

taken very seriously by the rest of the members (Form 1 teacher in a private school).

….When low achievers in Mathematics are appointed leaders in study groups, they often feel

insecure and threatened when told to lead in groups which comprise top achievers in

Mathematics. In case the Mathematics teacher insists, the students respond by withdrawing

from participation or looking to the teacher to give legitimacy to their responses within

groups due to lack of confidence( Form 2 teacher in a sub- County school).

The appointment into a leadership position in the Mathematics classrooms was given to those students

with leadership qualities. In most cases, students with leadership qualities were the ones at the top of

the rank because they were confident and focused. The low achievers in most cases were shy and

suffer from inferiority complex. Most importantly, the appointment was taken as a reward to the top

achievers. In tandem with the study findings, World Bank (2001) observed that as a result of


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



performance ranking, the teachers and the school management are able to identify low performing

students as well as those better performing which further guides them in the creation of study groups

bearing in mind the differences in performance among the students.

Teachers have a belief that students at the top of the rank should have voice and agency in

Mathematics learning thereby impart the spirit of working hard to other students. The result will be a

formation of motivated teams in Mathematics learning, translating into high concentration in

Mathematics lessons leading to an improvement of students’ scores in the subject.

Appointment/Promotion of Mathematics Teachers

Internal appointments in the Mathematics department provide teachers with voice in Mathematics

teaching. The policy guidelines on teacher appointment and promotion into administrative position

puts into considerations on teacher academic and professional qualifications, students' performance in

national examinations, participation in co-curricular activities and a teacher's professional conduct

(Republic of Kenya, 2005). The promotion and appointments give teachers agency in teaching in

various institutions.

Administrators use performance ranking in Mathematics in the appointment and promotion of

Mathematics teachers. The Head of the Mathematics Department is required to be at the forefront in

influencing the quality of Mathematics teaching among Mathematics teachers in the department. It is a

challenge for a Head of Department to devote enough time and energy in preparation for their classes

in addition to the administrative duties. The administrators promoted the hard-working Mathematics

teacher to head the department as far as students mean score was concerned.

Sometimes, I wish I could just teach - there is so much administrative work in the Mathematics

department, paperwork, and follow-up of discipline to do when you are ahead of the

department in Mathematics. Teaching suffers on account of this. Therefore, in internal

appointments in the department, performance ranking is considered to have the very

committed head of the Mathematics department. This is because if his/her classes mean score

is below those of other teachers somehow, the head of the department lacks the moral

authority to monitor standards if his/her own is lacking in rigor (Form 3 teacher in a national

school).

…… teacher whose classes perform better in comparison to the others is usually given

privilege in any appointments not necessarily in the Mathematics department. This is because

even the employers of teachers recognize and promote the teachers whose subjects are

performed well comparatively (form 4 teacher in an Extra- County school).

The findings are in line with views of Pope (2019) who found that performance ranking helps in

improving teacher performance and as a result, the best performing teachers are identified and

promoted into their various departments. Such school practices are considered a motivation to the

teacher so that they can inspire the rest of the staff to assist students in their studies creatively. Further,

the teacher at the top of the rank has great influence in the school as directives they issue are taken

seriously by the administrators and other teachers. They are considered to have great authority in the

subject they teach and considered to have the best Mathematics pedagogical strategies. Being the

leader in the department, they enjoy being at the forefront in the development of students

mathematical thinking (Boyd & Ash, 2018).

Identification of Benchmarking Classes and Schools

Identification of benchmarking classes gives teachers voice in the school because they at the center in

decision making as far as which direction Mathematics teaching should take in particular schools.

According to Nyaoga, Mundia, and Irungu (2013), education benchmarking is a study of how other

schools or classes carry out their day-to-day activities for students’ academic achievement.

Benchmarking, as a tool, can be utilized by secondary schools administrators to change performance

from low grade to high grade (Amunga, Ondigi, Ndiku, & Ochieng, 2013). The practice enables the


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



schools to identify their performance gaps and address them by sharing with the best performing

schools.

Performance ranking influences in the identification of the benchmarking classes in the school. It is

the duty of the school administrators to ensure that all efforts are geared towards ensuring that

students' performance is excellent in the subject. For instance, benchmarking with well-performing

schools to learn the strategies they employ in order to have exemplary results. Therefore, performance

ranking should be encouraged so that the well-performing schools are known and poor performing

schools can visit them for benchmarking.

Performance ranking in Mathematics is good because, through it, one can identify the

secondary schools which have a record of exemplary performance in Mathematics. Like last

year, my students performed poorly in Mathematics, and this year, I am planning to take them

to one of the schools which registered good performance so that they learn the tricks behind

the good performance. I believe they will register good grades this year (Form 4 teacher in a

sub-County school).

Learning is a continuous process, and therefore benchmarking in education is gainful to both the

students and teachers. Students get an opportunity to learn from the experience of other students and

teachers learn from the experience of other teachers handling the same subject. During the

benchmarking process, the students and teachers assess how the best performing schools get their

success. First, the process enables them to identify their performance gaps for continuous

improvement. Secondly, it enables the parties concerned to develop an improvement mindset and

understanding best practices for good results based on the benchmarking outcomes.

Similar to the study findings, Chemers, Hu, and Garcia (2011) opined that through performance

ranking, schools stakeholders can observe the best performing schools as well as those poorly

performing ones. The low performing schools get a chance to benchmark with those better-performing

schools to enhance their performance. Further, the class at the top of the rank in a school with more

than one stream is used for benchmarking within the school. The class enjoys agency in Mathematics

teaching and control the direction in which learning should proceed.

Conclusion

The aim of this paper was to demonstrate that performance ranking has influence on the voice and

agency in Mathematics teaching and learning. The paper has demonstrated that performance ranking

forms a basis in which the Mathematics teachers are evaluated and eventually appointed in leadership

positions in the school giving them voice in Mathematics teaching. Secondly, performance ranking

guides Mathematics teachers in the appointment of discussion group leaders. They do so based on the

students' abilities and leadership qualities. In most cases, the students with leadership qualities are the

ones at the top of the rank because they are confident and focused. Therefore performance ranking

outcomes are of help to the teachers because the leaders should be the ones to impart the spirit of

working hard to the other students. Most importantly, the appointment to student leadership position is

taken as a reward to the top achievers giving them agency in Mathematics learning. Therefore, using

the performance ranking, the teachers and the school management can identify low performing

students as well as those better performing hence forming study groups bearing in mind on the

differences in performance among the students. Further, performance ranking guides teachers in

allocating revision resources whereby the students at the top of the rank are provided with adequate

Mathematics resources in appreciation of their good work. The practice aimed at encouraging the

students to keep on working hard so that the class-mean score improves. Finally, performance ranking

influences in the identification of the benchmarking secondary schools in Mathematics in the county.

Benchmarking with good performing school was found to be crucial to remain competitive and to

achieve better educational outcomes. In this paper, we have demonstrated that benchmarking is gainful

to both the students and teachers. Students get an opportunity to learn from the experience of other

students and teachers learn from the experience of other teachers handling the same subject. During


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



the benchmarking process, the students and teachers assess how the best performing schools acquire

their success. Further the process enables them to identify their performance gap for continuous

improvement as well as enabling the other parties concerned to develop an improvement mindset and


Recommendations

This study recommends that performance ranking should be used as a tool to give students voice and

agency in teaching and learning by ranking students and classes on the basis of marks scored on conti-

nuous assessment tests, students’ entry mark and value addition. The practice will help in identifying

the Mathematics classes and students at the top of the rank to act as a bench-mark. During the

benchmarking process, the students and teachers assess how the best performing schools acquire their

success. This process, therefore, enables them to identify their performance gap for continuous

improvement as well as enabling the other parties concerned to develop an improvement mindset and


Limitations of the study

Based on the findings from this study, the authors recommend further research to explore how

contextual value-added data may be used in the newly introduced competency based curriculum in

Kenya since the new curriculum de-emphasizes the standardized testing that was evident in the old

curriculum. In addition, one of the limitations of this study was that it did not consider other factors

that could contribute to the students’ and teachers’ agency and voice in the mathematics classroom,

including the teaching-learning environment. As such, there is need for further research that isolates

these other factors with a view to establish the actual contribution of performance ranking in the

teaching-learning process.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge the great support in gaining entry to the secondary schools in Embu

County to collect data by the office of the County Director of Education Embu County. The authors

are also grateful to the school administrators, Mathematics teachers and students who took part in the

study.

Disclosure Statement

The authors reported that there was no conflict of interest in this study.

REFERENCES

Amunga, J. K., Amadalo, M. M., & Maiyo, J. K. (2010). Ranking of secondary schools and students in national

examinations: The perception of teachers and students. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 20(15), 9-19.

Amunga, J., Ondigi, B., Ndiku, J., & Ochieng, P. (2013). Collaboration, benchmarking and secondary schools’ mean scores

in the Western region, Kenya: An analytical investigation. International Journal of Education and Research, 1(9), 1-

8.

Andersson, A., & Norén, E. (2011). Agency in Mathematics education. Proceedings from 7th conference for European

research in Mathematics education, (pp. 1389–1398). Stockholm: Stockholm University.

Ball, S. (2009). Privatising education, privatising education policy, privatising educational research: Network governance and

the ‘competition state’. Journal of Education Policy, 24(1), 83-99

Batra, P. (2005). Voice and agency of teachers: Missing link in national curriculum framework 2005. Economic and Political

Weekly, 40(40), 4347-4356.

Bicknell, B., & Riley, T. (2012). The role of competitions in a Mathematics programme. The New Zealand Journal of Gifted

Education, 17(1), 1-9.

Boyd, P., & Ash, A. (2018). Mastery Mathematics: Changing teacher beliefs around in-class grouping and mindset. Teaching

and Teacher Education, 75, 214-223.

Burgess, S., Propper, C., & Wilson D. (2002). Will more choice improve outcomes in education and health care? Evidence

from economic research. CMPO Report, University of Bristol.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Chapman, D. W., & Synder, C. W. (2000). Can high stakes National testing improve instructions? Reexamining conventional

wisdom. International Journal of Educational Development, 20(6), 457-474.

Chemers, M. M., Hu, L. T., & Garcia, B. F. (2001). Academic self-efficacy and first-year college student performance and

adjustment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1), 55-64.

Cook-Sather, A. (2006). Sound, presence, and power: ‘Student voice’ in educational research and reform. Curriculum

Inquiry, 36(4), 359-390.

Downes, D., & Vindurampulle, O. (2007). Value-added measures for school improvement. East Melbourne, Vic.: Dept. of

Education and Early Childhood Development.

Dunne, M., Humphreys, S., Sebba, J., Dyson, A., Gellannaugh, F., & Muijis, D. (2007). Effective teaching and learning for

pupils in low attaining groups. Annesley: Dept. for Children, Schools and Families.

Hazelkorn, E. (2008). Learning to live with league tables and ranking: The experience of institutional leaders. Higher

Education Policy, 21(2), 193-216.

Kaimenyi, N. E. (2013). Factors influencing the academic performance of students in Kenya Certificate of Secondary

Education in Imenti North District, Kenya. (Unpublished master's thesis). University of Nairobi, Kenya.

Karabenick, S. A., & Newman, R. S. (2013). Help seeking in academic settings: Goals, groups, and contexts. New York;

Routledge.

Kartika, H. (2018). Teaching and learning Mathematics through web-based resource: An interactive approach. MaPan:

Jurnal Matematika dan Pembelajaran, 6(1), 1-10.

Kell, M., & Kell, P. (2014). Literacy and language in East Asia: Shifting meanings, values and approaches. New York;

Springer.

Kellaghan, T. (1996). IEA studies and educational policy. Assessment in Education, Principles, Policy & Practice, 3(2), 143–

160.

Khuzwayo, H. B., & Bansilal, S. (2012). Granting learners an authentic voice in the Mathematics classroom for the benefit of

both the teacher and the learner. Pythagoras, 33(2), 1-7.

Kimeu, M, R., Ronoh, A., & Tanui, E. (2015). Influence of instructional resources on secondary school students’ academic

performance in Makueni County, Kenya. International Journal of Scientific Research and Innovative Technology,

2(1), 70-81.

Leckie, G., & Goldstein, H. (2019). The importance of adjusting for pupil background in school value-added models: A study

of Progress and school accountability in England. British Educational Research Journal, 45(3), 518-537.

Makori, A., Onyura, G., Cheboiwo, F., Yegon, J., & Kandie, J. (2015). Form one selection process, an encouragement or a

discouragement: Examining parents’ perceptions in Baringo County, Kenya. Merit Research Journal of Education

and Review, 3(7), 228-234.

Mensah, J. K., Okyere, M., & Kuranchie, A. (2013). Student attitude towards Mathematics and performance: Does the

teacher attitude matter? Journal of Education and Practice, 4(3), 132-139.

Morgan, C. (2016). Studying the role of human agency in school Mathematics. Research in Mathematics Education, 18(2),

120-141.

Morrison, K. A. (2008). Democratic classrooms: Promises and challenges of student voice and choice, part one. Educational

Horizons, 87(1), 50-60.

Nel, M. (2017). Student voice and agency in master’s thesis writing in a second language context: Beyond the use of

pronouns. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Stellenbosch University, South Africa.

Neves, T., Pereira, M. J., & Nata, G. (2014). Head teachers’ perceptions of secondary school rankings: Their nature, media

coverage and impact on schools and the educational arena. Education as Change, 18(2), 211-225.

Niesche, R., & Keddie, A. (2016). Leadership, ethics and schooling for social justice. New York, NY: Routledge.

Nyaoga, R. B., Mundia, C. M., & Irungu, I. (2013). The effect of benchmarking on performance in secondary schools in

Nakuru Municipality-Kenya. International Journal of Management, IT and Engineering, 3(2), 283-296.

OECD (Ed.). (2012). Equity and quality in education: Supporting disadvantaged students and schools. Paris: OECD

publishing.

O’Leary, Z. (2014). The essential guide to doing your research project (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications,

Inc.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Plano Clark, V. L, & Creswell, J. W. (2008). Student study guide to accompany Creswell’s educational research planning,

conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River N.J.: Pearson

Education.

Pope, N. G. (2019). The effect of teacher ratings on teacher performance. Journal of Public Economics, 172, 84-110.

Republic of Kenya (2005). Sessional paper No.1 of 2005 on a policy framework for education, training, and research.

Nairobi: Government Printer.

Sim, J., & Waterfield, J. (2019). Focus group methodology: Some ethical challenges. Quality and Quantity, 6(53), 3003-

3022.

Suter, W. N. (2012). Introduction to educational research: A critical thinking approach. Thousand Oaks: SAGE

Publications.

Van Lier, L. (2008). Agency in the classroom. In J. P. Lantolf and M. E. Poehner (eds.). Sociocultural theory and the

teaching of second languages, (p. 163-188). London: Equinox.

White, D. Y. (2003). Promoting productive mathematical classroom discourse with diverse students. The Journal of

Mathematical Behavior, 22(1), 37-53.

Wilkins, A. (2012). Push and pull in the classroom: Competition, gender and the neoliberal subject. Gender & Education,

24(7), 765-781.

Wilson, D., & Piebalga, A. (2008). Performance measures, ranking and parental choice: An analysis of the English school

league tables. International Public Management Journal, 11(3), 344-366.

World Bank (2001). Alternative schools and Roma education: A review of alternative secondary school models for the

education of Roma children in Hungary. Budapest, Hungary: World Bank Regional Office.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



EFFECTS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHER PERSONALITY AND

NETWORK INTENTIONS ON CHANGE: MEDIATING ROLE OF

PROFESSIONAL LEARNING

Emre ER

Assistant Professor, Yıldız Technical University, Turkey


[email protected]


Suggested Citation:

Er, E. (2021). Effects of primary school teacher personality and network intentions on change: Mediating role of professional

learning. International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 10(1), 148-159.


Abstract

This study aims to examine the mediating role of professional learning on change in teacher practice through the proactive

personality and network intentionality. This research also seeks to better comprehend and capture the antecedences and

consequences of the network intentions. 438 primary school teacher from 24 schools participated in the study from Istanbul.

Network intentionality scale, proactive personality scale, teacher professional learning scale, and change in teacher practices

scale were used to collect data. All the measures were conceptualized as individual-level constructs. The results of the study

show that there are positive correlations between proactive personality network intention, professional learning and change

in teacher practice. Also, the study revealed that proactive personality has positive effects on the network intentions; network

intentions has a both direct and indirect effect on the change in teacher practice. These results explicitly indicated that

change in teacher practice is closely associated with teacher professional learning, teacher personality, and network

intentions. Because of the change in teacher practice is closely related to group dynamics and learning, planning a change

strategy about understanding the role of learning and having a relationship with a colleague is so crucial for schools.

Keywords: Professional learning, network intention, proactive personality, change in teacher practice, primary education.

INTRODUCTION

During the last few decades, the social side of teachers’ professional learning has been a trend topic in

the field of educational management and administration (Baker-Boyle & Yoon, 2020; Baker-Boyle &

Yoon, 2018; Van Waes, Van den Bossche, Moolenaar, De Maeyer, & Van Petegem, 2015; Liou &

Daly, 2014; Yoon, Koehler-Yom, & Yang, 2017). Some scholars have stressed that developing

teacher learning programs is closely related to the extent to which teachers have the right to build

collegial relationships with other teachers (Baker-Boyle & Yoon, 2011; Diehl, 2020; Li & Krasny,

2020; Sinnema, Daly, Liou, & Rodway, 2020). Therefore, one of the promising ways conducive to

heightening teacher learning is to establish teacher collaboration networks. While teacher learning

plays a central role in elevating student learning outcomes, available research has shown that these

programs mostly remain ineffective in bringing significant change in teacher’s instructional practices

and thereby improving student learning (Burt & Keenan, 1998). Thus, this paper investigates the role

of “tendency to learning from peer network” and “proactive personality” in sustaining change in

practice and professional teacher learning.

Professional development efforts typically include a range of formal policies and procedures to

improve teacher performance. However, empirical evidence indicates that school-based and ongoing

teacher learning may yield higher quality student outcomes than the top-down and mandated learning

activities where teachers are sent randomly (Baker-Boyle and Yoon, 2010; Porter, Garet, Desimone,

Yoon, & Birman, 2000). Teacher networks have been shown to provide sustainable professional

support and are important sources of teacher knowledge (Lieberman, 2000). Despite the interest and

noted value of developing networks and professional communities, little research effort has been

devoted, so far, to investigating the structure of teacher networks and how they impact teachers’

active participation in professional development programs (Penuel & Riel 2007).




IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



In literature, teacher interaction is represented by several concepts such as professional learning

communities, organizational learning, and communities of practice, peer learning networks, and

advice networks. These concepts highlighted the importance of teachers learning through interaction.

Teachers’ professional learning and changing the instructional practices are the expected results of a

well-designed teacher development program. Thus, understanding the potential reasons for teachers to

change their instructional practices by using a personal network intention lends credence to

discovering more about the dynamics of the teacher learning communities.

Although there is an empirical association between teacher professional development and changing

practice, little is known about how and why teachers change their instructional practices (Boyle,

Lamprianou, & Boyle, 2005; Porter et al., 2000). Research also revealed that change in teacher

practice is mainly driven by teacher beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions on instruction rather than

knowledge. Thus, there are two mainstream teacher change approaches, namely one highlighting the

role of the structure and process of change, the so-called linear model. The other, called the complex

model, is a rather dynamic process that includes different points of view, interpretations, and actors'

connections. Such models are driven by the relationships between peers and represent an informal and

interactive perspective on teacher learning and change. While a range of educational scholars

acknowledges the importance of interpersonal relationships and social interaction for teacher

development (Daly, Moolenaar, Bolivar, & Burke, 2010; Martin & Dawson, 2009; Wubbels, Brok,

Tartwijk, & Levy, 2012), there is little evidence for the informal social interactions and their effects

on change in teachers practices.

Extant research has shown that personal characteristics may affect professional interactions and the

ability to share knowledge (Talebizadeh, Hosseingholizadeh, & Bellibaş, 2021). Although teachers’

personality traits have long been examined, little research effort has been spent investigating the role

of personality in teachers’ professional learning. Therefore, teachers’ proactive personality is a

potential construct to enhance or constrain teachers’ intentions on developing professional learning

networks. In this regard, there is a need for further analysis regarding teacher professional learning

networks, along with how these networks are associated with teacher personality and professional

learning and instructional practices. The current study seeks to contribute to the literature by

explaining the link between proactive personality and network intentions on change in teacher

practice, with the mediating role of teacher professional learning. The study has some potential

contributions to the literature in several ways. First of all, the changes in teachers' instructional

practices are examined in terms of network intention variables. In addition, the mediating level of

professional learning on the effect of personality and network intentions on change was examined.


Social network theory

Social network theory is important for educational science research, as it structurally enables original

evaluations of the whole network and each actor that makes up the network. Since the teaching

profession includes competence areas that can be gained through continuous professional

development on the job, it is predicted that continuous professional development should be achieved

by the efficient use of the school's own resources. The position of teachers in social networks and thus

their level of benefiting from the social capital of the school has determinant effects in the context of

developing learning and teaching practices (Penuel, Riel, Krause, & Frank, 2009). Social network

theory has significant potential for analyzing educational organizations. Especially since the 1990s,

with the spread of social networks primarily in the behavioral sciences field, it has also started to

attract attention in the educational sciences field (Er, 2017). The social network approach, which has

been popular in social sciences for a while, has been used later in educational sciences.

The use of social network theory and methods to understand how teacher collaboration can help or

constrain teaching and educational change is an evolving trend in teacher professional development

research (Coburn, & Russell, 2008; Daly, Moolenaar, Bolivar, & Burke, 2010; Datnow, 2012;


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Moolenaar, Sleegers, & Daly, 2012). However, as the professional networks of teachers affect student

success through collective competence (Moolenaar, Sleegers, & Daly, 2012), it plays an important

role in achieving a structure suitable for the purposes of the school. Social network analysis in

educational research typically provides an alternative way of addressing the teachers, not as isolated

actors but as individuals surrounded by others. Therefore, a social network approach offers a powerful

lens to examine the degree to which social systems influence individuals' emotions, behaviors, and

expectations (Siciliano, 2016). There are three avenues of studies that combine social network theory

and education. First, studies that include the structure and characteristics of social networks, second,

studies that address the results revealed by social networks, and finally, studies that examine the

variables that lead to the formation of social networks. An important strength of the current study is

that it covers the structure of social networks, the causes that arise, and the consequences of social

networks. In other words, this study examined the current structure of collaborative professional

learning networks between teachers, the change in professional learning and teaching practices as the

results of the proactive personality and social network structure that is thought to be effective in the

emergence of this structure.

Change in teacher practice

How teachers change their teaching practices and who are more effective in this change process is an

important area of educational research. A study conducted in the literature on the teaching practices of

teachers in the early years of the profession showed that the social networks in which teachers

participate in the process of making sense of new practice and moving from interpretation to practice

are decisive (Frank, Kim, Salloum, Bieda, & Youngs, 2020). Other studies have focused on the

change of teaching practices and the impact of school administrators' leadership (Özdemir, 2019;

Parise & Spillane, 2010).

In recent years, studies on teacher failure and the social aspect of professional learning and change

have been found in research on teacher change in educational sciences. In educational change

literature, it can often be said that teachers seen as only practitioners of change planning. According to

the social network approach, the main factor behind successful educational reforms is not well-

planned reforms or technical support but the intimate and constructive relationships that teachers

provide with their colleagues (Daly, 2010). In this context, it can be said that the colleagues with

whom teachers relate have a significant influence on the change in their professional practice.

Research that emphasizes the importance of social networks in teachers' professional changes presents

change-oriented behavior in a collective context, emphasizes the relationship between individual

views and group characteristics, and focuses on teacher failure (Moolenaar, Sleegers, & Daly, 2012;

Moolenaar, 2012; Spillane, Kim, & Frank, 2012).

Teacher professional learning

A growing body of educational researchers has related teacher professional development to the quality

of teachers’ instructional practices, and eventually, student learning outcomes (Meiers, 2007;

Timperley, & Alton-Lee, 2008). Effective professional development results in the changing daily

practices of the teachers and improvements in student learning outcomes (Darling-Hammond, Hyler,

& Gardner, 2017). The development of teachers in professional learning community studies discussed

in the context of the sharing of expertise and other resources among the social capital (Liou & Daly,

2014). In this sense, it is important for teachers to develop a common purpose in school and support

mutual professional sharing processes in their professional learning. In recent years, it has been

emphasized that individual variables, as well as school or group-level variables, have become

important, especially in studies on concepts that are considered effective in teachers’ professional

learning (Kılınç, Polatcan, Atmaca, & Koşar, 2021; Mockler, 2020).

Teacher proactive personality

The quality of educational systems is closely related to the professional development levels of

teachers. This situation is related to the organization of activities based on continuous and active

participation and the individual involvement of teachers in these activities. Accordingly, teachers with


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



personality traits that facilitate their professional learning and development will make it easier to

reach the expected educational goals. Personality is one of the important variables in understanding

the effectiveness of teachers (Rushton, Morgan, & Richard, 2007). Although many studies have been

conducted on the relationship between personality and the professional characteristics of teaching, it

is observed that the nature of the relationship teachers establish with their students and the increasing

expectation of leadership for teaching, especially on proactive personality, has been intensified.

Morgan & Richard, 2007). Although many studies have been conducted in which the relationship of

personality with the professional characteristics of teaching is discussed, it is seen that research on

proactive personality is intensified, especially with the nature of the relationship teachers establish

with their students and the expectation of leadership towards increased teaching. Proactive personality

traits include an individual's willingness to influence and change their environment (Bateman &

Crane, 1993). A proactive personality positively affects people's creativity by making it easier for

them to acquire new skills (Joo & Lim, 2009). Individuals with proactive personality traits try to

intervene in the environment for their own purposes rather than adapting to environmental conditions

(Bateman & Crane, 1993). However, it seems that proactive employees evaluate opportunities for

change, make more intensive efforts and take the initiative to achieve set change goals, and try

different ways to change results (Bateman & Crant, 1999). The proactive personality has been the

subject of many studies to reach organizations matches and predict employee performance

(Chackoria, 2019; Gevorkin, 2011; Huber, 2017; Ng, Eby, Sorensen, & Feldman, 2013; Patterson,

2018; Turner, 2003).

Teachers’ proactive personality traits positively influence school climate perceptions and creativity

levels (Gao, Chen, Zhou, & Jiang, 2020). Other studies have found associations with proactive

personality with problem-solving skills (Şener, 2019), perceived organizational support (Yan, 2015),

and access to organizational support networks (Chan, 2006). For reasons such as the difference in

problems encountered in the teaching profession, the need to produce alternative solutions, and the

development of students' original thinking skills inside and outside the classroom, proactive teacher

behavior has begun to be among the variables that need to be focused on. The study hypotheses are

given below:

H1: Proactive personality has positive effects on network intentions.

H2: Proactive personality has positive effects on the teacher's professional learning.

H3: Network intentions have positive effects on the teacher's professional learning.

H4: Network intentions have positive effects on the change in teacher practices.

H5: Teacher professional learning has positive effects on the change in teacher practices.

H6: Network intentions have positive effects for change in teacher practices and would be mediated by

teacher professional learning.

The summary of paths based on the hypotheses presented in the Figure 1.

Figure 1. Hypothetical model


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



METHOD

Sample and Context

A total of 24 elementary schools in Istanbul participated in this study. Stratified sampling technique

was used to determine the participants of the study. This method of sampling enable representing all

subgroups among the population (Büyüköztürk, Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz, & Demirel, 2021). Data

for this study were collected in all 24 elementary schools of the Istanbul European Side School

District, located in Turkey. Istanbul European School District is managed under 25 site administration

which coordinates resources and human capital. The schools in the district mostly are located in urban

areas, and while the schools in the district differed regarding students’ SES. We purposely selected

this large district to ensure data from multiple schools. Data were gathered in 2020 from 438 teachers

reflecting a response rate of 92.4%. Of the educators, 45.2% of the respondents were male and 54.8%

female. These numbers nearly represent the gender ratio in Turkish elementary education across the

country. While 364 (83.1%) of the teachers had a bachelor's degree, only 74 teachers (16.9%) had

completed a graduate degree. The average teaching year of the participants was 9.2, with a standard

deviation of (SD=8.3).

Instrumentation

All the measures were conceptualized as individual-level constructs. Each of four construct was

assessed using a Likert scale; network intentionality scale (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree)

proactive personality (1-totally disagree to 7-totally agree) teacher professional learning (1-totally

disagree to 5-totally agree), change in teacher practices (1-disagree to 4-agree).

Network intentionality

The original scale consists of 14 items and 4 sub-dimensions. Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient,

calculated from the total score of the scale in the validity and reliability study conducted by Cohen,

Klein, Daly, and Finnigan (2011). The Turkish adaptation of this scale was conducted by Er (2017).

In Turkish adapted form there are three sub dimensions. The scale evaluated the degree to which an

individual intends to sustain social relationships using four dimensions. The scale explains 66.3% of

the total variance. A sample item is “I actively seek new friendships across the organization.” The

Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient for total of the scale was calculated as .88. The sub

dimensions reliability scores were calculated as .83 for actively seeking relationships, .86 for having

the right set of relationships, assessing the relationships and .81 for liking to connect

Teacher proactive personality

The scale, developed by Bateman and Crant (1993), was adapted into Turkish by Akın, Abacı, Kaya,

and Arıcı (2011). Rising scores indicate increased proactivity. The measure is of the Likert Scale

(1=strongly disagree and 7=strongly agree). An example item is “I’m constantly looking for new ways

to improve my own life.” The Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient is calculated as .80.

Teacher professional learning

Perceptions of Professional learning of the teachers were measured with 27-item Teacher Professional

Learning Scale developed by Liu and colleagues (2016) and adapted into Turkish by Gümüş,

Apaydın, and Bellibaş (2018). A sample item is “I work together with colleagues to plan educational

activities.” The Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient is calculated as .91. The sub dimensions

reliability scores were calculated as .88 for collaboration, .82 for reflection, .85 for experimentation

and .84 for reaching the knowledge base.

Change in teacher practice

Change in teacher practice was measured by the extent to which teachers change their classroom

practices using borrowed items from Geijsel and colleagues (2009). The Turkish adaptation of this 8-

item scale was conducted by Polatcan (2020). A sample item is “I focus more on increasing pupils.”

The Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient is calculated as .83.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Analytic Strategy

Participants’ perceptions on the proactive personality, professional learning, and changing practice

were examined in regard of their network intentions. Cronbach's Alpha coefficients (α) and

descriptive statistics between the variables were calculated. Also, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)

was performed to ensure the construct distinctiveness of the proposed model. Two steps were taken to

test the hypotheses. First, correlation analysis was performed to examine the relationships between

teachers’ network intentions, proactive personality, professional learning, and change in teacher

practice. Second structural equation modeling was applied to test the relationships between variables.

RESULTS

CFA was performed to explain the goodness of fit of the study variables. Results of the analysis

illustrated that χ2/df, RMSEA, SRMR, CFI, GFI were at the acceptable level. Table 1 shows the CFA

results of the scales.

Table 1. CFA results

χ2/df RMSEA SRMR CFI GFI

Proactive personality 2.47 .07 .03 .89 .90

Teacher professional learning 2.49 .08 .02 .90 .93

Change in teacher practice 2.54 .06 .02 .92 .95

Network intention 2.57 .06 .03 .91 .91

Table 2 shows the means, standard deviations and correlation among variables

Table 2. Means, standard deviations and correlation among variables

Mean

SD.

PP

NI

Act.

Like

Bel.

Asse.

..

TPL

Col.

Ref.

Exp.

Reac

…….

CTP

PP 5.45 .92 -

NI 4.16 .49 .41** -

Act. 4.10 .66 .37** .88** -

Lik. 4.20 .53 .44** .92** .83** -

Bel. 4.01 .68 .40** .81** .76** .90** -

Asse. 3.98 .61 .27** .80** .81** .77** .84** -

TPL 3.90 .44 .24** .59** .48** .63** .57** .55** -

Col. 4.01 .54 .32** .62** .51** .67** .44** .47** .91** -

Ref. 3.89 .56 .20** .44** .47** .51** .33** .21** .88** .84** -

Exp. 3.97 .60 .19** .40** .35** .55** .34** .25** .93** .77** .90** -

Reac. 4.08 .71 .22** .33** .29** .47** .37** .35** .92** .80** .89** .88** -

CTP 3.20 .49 .36** .31** .30** .46** .29** .31** .50** .45** .48** .42** .50** -

**: Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed). SD: Standart deviation PP: Proactive personality, NI: Network

intention, Act: Actively seeking relationships, Like: Liking to connect, Bel: Belief in having the right relationships,

Asse: Assessing relationships, TPL: Teacher Professional learning, Col.: Collaboration, Ref.: Reflection, Exp.:

Experimentation, Reac.: Reaching the Knowledge Base, CTP: Change in teacher practices.

The mean scores show a high level of teacher proactive personality (Mean=5.45, SD=.92), teacher

network intention (Mean=4.16, SD =.49), teacher professional learning (Mean=3.90, SD=.44) and

change in teacher practice (Mean=3.20, SD=.49). At the same time there are positive and moderate

level relations between proactive personality and teacher network intention (r=.41, p<.01) and change

in teacher practice (r=.36, p<.01). In addition there are positive and moderate level relations between

teacher professional network and teacher professional learning (r=.59, p<.01). Finally there is a small

relationship between teacher professional network and change in teacher practice (r=.21, p < .01).

The fit indices, x2/sd=2.34, RMSEA=.06, AGFI=.92, GFI=.91, CFI=.91, IFI=.93, NFI=.91 yielded

acceptable compliance (İlhan & Cetin, 2014). It can be said that the theoretical model created in this

direction is compatible with the obtained data and is verified. The tested structural model is presented

in Figure 2.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Figure 2. SEM model results

Table 3 shows the standardized direct, indirect, and total effects on change in teacher practice.

Table 3. Standardized direct, indirect, and total effects on change in teacher practice

β SE p

Direct Effect

PPNI .32 .06 .00

PPTPL .18 .08 .00

NITPL .56 .12 .00

NITCP .15 .09 .00

TPLTCP .47 .11 .00

Indirect Effect

PPNITCP .04

PPNITPL .18

NITPLTCP .26

Total Effect

NI TCP .41

Total effects of teacher professional network on teacher on change in teacher practice is significant

(β=.41). This revealed that teacher professional learning shapes the change attitude. Additionally, this

study showed that there are some statistically significant indirect effects from proactive personality

and teacher professional network on change in teacher practice. Also, there is some evidence for

explaining the teacher professional learning by teacher professional network and proactive personality

traits.

In order to interpret these effects more accurately, Cohen's f2 analysis results (small=f2≥.02,

medium=f2 ≥.15, large=f2≥.35) were examined (Cohen, 1988). These results showed that the effect

sizes of proactive personality (f2=.32) on change in teacher practice and network intentions (f2=.41)

were large. These results revealed that current model was significant.


The study found a positive relationship between proactive personality and network intention. In the

literature, there are studies where proactive personality and professional learning are associated (Er &

Çalık, 2020; Tunca, Elçi, & Murat, 2018; Van der Heijden et al., 2015). However, in the current

study, proactive personality is associated with changes in teachers practice. Our findings also found


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



support from several pieces that evidenced a positive link between proactive personality and

innovation and change in the literature (Li, Liu, Liu, & Wang, 2017).

The results revealed a moderate association between participants' professional learning networks and

professional learning. The paradigm on the rise in teachers' professional learning emphasizes that

learning activities based on participatory, reciprocal relationships, and interaction and performed as

part of a community (Duncan‐Howell, 2010; Krutka et al., 2016; Sinnema et al., 2020). In this

context, it can be said that teachers can't learn independently of each other, and from the point of view

of educational organizations, learning should be considered collectively.

It is seen that positive relations have been achieved between the professional learning of teachers and

the change in teaching practices. Accordingly, it can be said that a positive and moderate link has

been established between learning and change. It is possible to establish similarities with studies in

the literature that have established a relationship between teacher exchange and professional learning

(Guskey, 2008; Timperley & Alton-Lee, 2008; Polatcan, 2020).

As part of the study, it is seen that teachers' professional learning networks have an impact on their

professional practice. Accordingly, the Professional Learning Network has a positive and decisive

impact on the exchange of teachers. In the literature, some studies establish a relationship between the

exchange of teachers and the learning network they participate in (Daly, Moolenaar, Bolivar & Burke,

2010). However, proactive personality traits were found to be effective in establishing a professional

learning network of teachers. In other words, the personality traits of teachers also affect community

participation and learning activities.

According to research results, teachers' professional learning has an impact on the change in their

practice. Accordingly, three variables can be listed as personality, learning, and networking among the

determining factors in changing teachers. According to the results obtained in this study, it is seen that

the proactive personality variable affects teachers' professional learning processes and that the

professional learning network affects the change in teaching practices.

Potentially, this study can make some significant contributions to practitioners and researchers in

terms of understanding the supporting factors for teacher learning, better understanding the structure

and results of teacher learning. In this context, it would be useful to consider vocational learning

based on research results by considering the individual characteristics of teachers and the structure of

the professional group in which they participate. As increasing the number of teachers with whom

teachers establish professional relationships affects professional learning and change, emphasis should

be placed on individual-group harmony. It is recommended to support original areas where teachers

can work together and produce.

The results obtained in the current study clearly show the impact of personality, network intentions,

and professional learning on changing teachers' professional practice. Accordingly, it is meaningful to

define a successful educational reform based on the relationship between learning and individual

variables. However, the study found that proactive personality traits influence teachers' network

intentions. This indicates the importance of personality traits in teachers' potential to learn from each

other. In other studies, teacher learning can be studied more extensively at the individual, group, and

school levels. However, the nature of teachers' professional learning networks is strongly associated

with the resources transferred between actors in the network. Therefore, change in educational

reforms can be seen as a result of strong professional interactions. Examining the change in teacher

practices through a series of time-based studies is important for achieving broader findings. In

addition, it is important to examine the teacher professional network structure, including the density,

reciprocity, and demographic composition of a social relationship pattern.

This study has some key implications for policy, practice, and research. This research has some

potential contribution to the Turkish Educational System’s school-based transformation process in

line with the “Turkey’s Education Vision 2023”. This study also sheds light on developing the school


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



principal’s leadership practices in regard to social capital and teachers’ individual professional

learning needs. Furthermore, this study provides an understanding of teachers’ interactions and

personality characteristics for explaining the professional learning and change.

Limitation of the study

The study has some limitations that should be taken into account when interpreting its results. First,

this study only including the data through self-reported measures. Therefore participants may falsify

the results of the study. Second, network intentions as a social construct were examined from an

individual perspective. However, there should be some dyadic data to confirm the results revealed

from individuals. Finally, change in teachers practice should be measured with a longitudinal

perspective because of the nature of the change phenomena.

REFERENCES

Akın, A., Abacı, R., Kaya, M., & Arıcı, N. (2011). Kısaltılmış Proaktif Kişilik Ölçeği’nin (KPÖ) Türkçe formunun geçerlik

ve güvenirliği. Paper presented at the ICES11 International Conference on Educational Sciences, June, 22-25,

Famagusta, Cyprus.

Baker‐Doyle, K. J., & Yoon, S. A. (2011). In search of practitioner‐based social capital: A social network analysis tool for

understanding and facilitating teacher collaboration in a US‐based STEM professional development program.

Professional Development in Education, 37(1), 75-93.

Baker-Doyle, K. J., & Yoon, S. A. (2018). Towards intentional network design: Applying what we have learned from

teachers’ social capital interventions. In S. A. Yoon, & K. J. Baker-Doyle (Eds.). Networked by design: Interventions

for teachers to develop social capital (pp. 215–227). New York, NY: Routledge.

Baker-Doyle, K. J., & Yoon, S. A. (2020). The social side of teacher education: Implications of social network research for

the design of professional development. International Journal of Educational Research, 101.

Bateman, T. S., & Crant, J. M. (1999). Proactive behavior: Meaning, impact, recommendations. Business Horizons, 42(3),

63-70.

Boyle, B., Lamprianou, I., & Boyle, T. (2005). A longitudinal study of teacher change: What makes professional

development effective? Report of the second year of the study. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 16(1),

1-27.

Burt, M., & Keenan, F. (1998). Trends in staff development for adult ESL instructors: ERIC Q & A. Washington, DC:

National Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy Education. Retrieved from

http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED423711&site=ehos t-live

Büyüköztürk, Ş., Çakmak, E., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, Ş., & Demirel, F. (2021). Eğitimde bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri

[Scientific research methods in education]. Ankara: PegemA.

Chackoria, J. (2019). Proactive personality, presenteeism, and future wellbeing. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Illinois

State University, Illinois.

Chan, D. (2006). Interactive effects of situational judgment effectiveness and proactive personality on work perceptions and

work outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 475.

Coburn, C. E., & Russell, J. L. (2008). District policy and teachers’ social networks. Educational Evaluation and Policy

Analysis, 30(3), 203-235.

Cohen J. E. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Cohen, A., Klein, K., Daly, A. J., & Finnigan, K. (2011). Out with the old, in with the new: When are leader successions

successful? New Directions in Leadership Annual Meeting. The Wharton School of Business University of

Pennsylvania.

Daly, A. J., Moolenaar, N. M., Bolivar, J. M., & Burke, P. (2010). Relationships in reform: The role of teachers' social

networks. Journal of Educational Administration, 48(3), 359-391.

Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., & Gardner, M. (2017). Effective teacher professional development. Palo Alto, CA:

Learning Policy Institute.

Datnow, A. (2012). Teacher agency in educational reform: Lessons from social networks research. American Journal of

Education, 119(1), 193-201.


http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED423711&site=ehos

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Diehl, D. (2020). The multiplexity of professional learning communities: exploring the co-evolution of teacher social

networks. Research Papers in Education, 35(5), 623-639.

Duncan‐Howell, J. (2010). Teachers making connections: Online communities as a source of professional learning. British

Journal of Educational Technology, 41(2), 324-340.

Er, E. (2017). Social network analysis of primary school administrators and teachers relations. (Unpublished Doctoral

Dissertation). Gazi University, Educational Sciences Institute, Ankara.

Er, E., & Çalık, T. (2017). The relationships between primary school teachers’ social network tendency and perceptions on

social network structure of the school. Gazi University Gazi Faculty of Education Journal, 37(3), 1061-1083.

Er, E. & Çalık, T. (2020). Examining the effects of proactive personality, perceived network and demographic features on

professional relationship with social network analysis. In F. G. Yilmaz, M. and Naillioğlu Kaymak (Eds.),

Educational Research 2020, E-ISBN: 978-975-2490-47-5.

Frank, K. A., Kim, J., Salloum, S. J., Bieda, K. N., & Youngs, P. (2020). From interpretation to instructional practice: A

network study of early-career teachers’ sensemaking in the era of accountability pressures and Common Core state

standards. American Educational Research Journal, 57(6), 2293-2338.

Gao, Q., Chen, P., Zhou, Z., & Jiang, J. (2020). The impact of school climate on trait creativity in primary school students:

The mediating role of achievement motivation and proactive personality. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 40(3),

330-343.

Geijsel, F. P., Sleegers, P. J., Stoel, R. D., & Krüger M. L. (2009). The effect of teacher psychological and school

organizational and leadership factors on teachers' professional learning in Dutch schools. The Elementary School

Journal, 109(4), 406-427. doi: 10.1086/593940.

Gevorkian, M. (2011). Relationships between proactive personality, networking, career satisfaction, and performance

perceptions. Doctoral dissertation, Alliant International University, Marshall Goldsmith School of Management, San

Diego.

Guskey, T. R. (2002). Professional development and teacher change. Teachers and Teaching, 8(3), 381-391.

Gümüş, S., Apaydın, Ç., & Bellibaş. M. Ş. (2018). Adaptation of teacher professional learning scale to Turkish: The validity

and reliability study. Journal of Education and Humanities: Theory and Practice, 9(17), 107-124.

Huber, A. F. (2017). Proactive personality and voluntary turnover: The moderating effects of development and perceived

career opportunities. (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Illinois State University, Illinois.

İlhan, M., & Çetin, B. (2014). LISREL ve AMOS programları kullanılarak gerçekleştirilen yapısal eşitlik modeli (yem)

analizlerine ilişkin sonuçların karşılaştırılması [Comparing the Analysis Results of the Structural Equation Models

(SEM) Conducted Using LISREL and AMOS]. Journal of Measurement and Evaluation in Education and

Psychology, 5(2), 26-42.

Joo, B. K., & Lim, T. (2009). The effects of organizational learning culture, perceived job complexity, and proactive

personality on organizational commitment and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies,

16(1), 48-60.

Kılınç, A. Ç., Polatcan, M., Atmaca, T., & Koşar, M. (2021). Teacher self-efficacy and individual academic optimism as

predictors of teacher professional learning: A structural equation modeling. Education and Science, 46(205).

Krutka, D. G., Carpenter, J. P., & Trust, T. (2016). Elements of engagement: A model of teacher interactions via professional

learning networks. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 32(4), 150-158.

Li, Y., & Krasny, M. E. (2020). Development of professional networks among environmental educators. Professional

Development in Education, 46(2), 337-353.

Li, M., Liu, Y., Liu, L., & Wang, Z. (2017). Proactive personality and innovative work behavior: The mediating effects of

affective states and creative self-efficacy in teachers. Current Psychology, 36(4), 697-706.

Lieberman, A. (2000). Networks as learning communities: Shaping the future of teacher development. Journal of Teacher

Education, 51(3), 221-227.

Liou, Y. H., & Daly, A. J. (2014). Closer to learning: Social networks, trust, and professional communities. Journal of

School Leadership, 24(4), 753-795.

Liu, S., Hallinger, P., & Feng, D. (2016). Supporting the professional learning of teachers in china: Does principal leadership

make a difference? Teaching and Teacher Education, 59, 79-91.

Martin, A. J., & Dowson, M. (2009). Interpersonal relationships, motivation, engagement, and achievement: Yields for

theory, current issues, and educational practice. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 327-365.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Meiers, M. (2007). Teacher professional learning, teaching practice and student learning outcomes: Important issues. In

Handbook of Teacher Education (pp. 409-414). Springer, Dordrecht.

Mockler, N. (2020). Teacher professional learning under audit: Reconfiguring practice in an age of standards. Professional

Development in Education, 1-15.

Moolenaar, N. M. (2012). A social network perspective on teacher collaboration in schools: Theory, methodology, and

applications. American Journal of Education, 119(1), 7-39.

Moolenaar, N. M., Sleegers, P. J., & Daly, A. J. (2012). Teaming up: Linking collaboration networks, collective efficacy,

and student achievement. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(2), 251-262.

Ng, T. W. H., Eby, L. T., Sorensen, K. L., & Feldman, D. C. (2005), Predictors of objective and subjective career success: A

meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 58, 367-408.

Özdemir, N. (2019). Principal leadership and students' achievement: Mediated pathways of professional community and

teachers' instructional practices. KEDI Journal of Educational Policy, 16(1), 81-104.

Patterson, M. N. (2018). Proactive personality benefits: The role of work-life salience, career encouragement, and career

satisfaction. Doctoral dissertation. San Jose State University, California.

Penuel, W. R., & Riel, M. (2007). The ‘new’ science of networks and the challenge of school change. Phi Delta Kappan,

88(8), 611-615.

Penuel, W. R., Riel, M. R., Krause, A., & Frank, K. A. (2009). Analyzing teachers’ professional interactions in a school as

social capital: A social network approach. Teachers College Record, 111(1), 124-163.

Polatcan, M. (2020). The adaptation of professional learning activities scale to Turkish: The validity and reliability study.

International Journal of Contemporary Educational Research, 7(2), 281-290. DOI:

https://doi.org/10.33200/ijcer.808721

Porter, A. C., Garet, M. S., Desimone, L. D., Yoon, K. S., & Birman, B. F. (2000). Does professional development change

teaching practice? Results from a three-year study: Executive summary. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Education, Office of the Undersecretary.

Rushton, S., Morgan, J., & Richard, M. (2007). Teacher's Myers-Briggs personality profiles: Identifying effective teacher

personality traits. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(4), 432-441.

Siciliano, M. D. (2016). It’s the quality not the quantity of ties that matters social networks and self‐efficacy beliefs.

American Educational Research Journal, 53, 227– 262. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831216629207

Sinnema, C., Daly, A. J., Liou, Y. H., & Rodway, J. (2020). Exploring the communities of learning policy in New Zealand

using social network analysis: A case study of leadership, expertise, and networks. International Journal of

Educational Research, 99, 101492.

Spillane, J. P., Kim, C. M., & Frank, K. A. (2012). Instructional advice and information providing and receiving behavior in

elementary schools: Exploring tie formation as a building block in social capital development. American Educational

Research Journal, 49(6), 1112-1145.

Şener, G. (2019). The predictive power of teachers' proactive personality traits on their problem solving skills. Pamukkale

University Journal of Education, 45(45), 175-189.

Talebizadeh, S. M., Hosseingholizadeh, R., & Bellibaş, M. Ş. (2021). Analyzing the relationship between principals’

learning-centered leadership and teacher professional learning: The mediation role of trust and knowledge sharing

behavior. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 68, 100970, 1-10

Timperley, H., & Alton-Lee, A. (2008). Reframing teacher professional learning: An alternative policy approach to

strengthening valued outcomes for diverse learners. Review of Research in Education, 32(1), 328-369.

Tunca, S., Elçi, M., & Murat, G. (2018). The effect of proactive personality structure and innovative behavior on task

performance. Adnan Menderes University Journal of Social Sciences Institutions, 5(1), 325-335.

Turner, J. E. (2003). Proactive personality and the Big Five as predictors of motivation to learn. Doctoral Dissertation, Old

Dominion University, Norfolk.

Van Waes, S., Van den Bossche, P., Moolenaar, N. M., De Maeyer, S., & Van Petegem, P. (2015). Know-who? Linking

faculty’s networks to stages of instructional development. Higher Education, 70(5), 807–826.

Van der Heijden, B. I., Van Vuuren, T. C., Kooij, D. T., & de Lange, A. H. (2015). Tailoring professional development for

teachers in primary education: The role of age and proactive personality. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 30(1),

22-37.



IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Wubbels, T., den Brok, P., van Tartwijk, J., & Levy, J. (Eds.). (2012). Interpersonal relationships in education: An overview

of contemporary research. Rotterdam: Sense.

Yan, Y. (2015). The effect of perceived organizational support and proactive personality on reentry adjustment for returned

teachers from university. International Journal of Research, 2(6), 16-23.

Yoon, S., Koehler-Yom, J., & Yang, Z. (2017). The effects of teachers’ social and human capital on urban science reform

initiatives: Considerations for Professional development. Teachers College Record, 119(4), 1-32.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



A RASCH MODEL ANALYSIS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’

CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING LEVELS OF THE CONCEPT OF

LIGHT

Hüseyin Cihan BOZDAĞ

Ministry of National Education, Buca Gazi Secondary School, İzmir, Turkey


[email protected]

Suat TÜRKOĞUZ

Assoc.Prof.Dr. Dokuz Eylul University, Buca Faculty of Education, İzmir, Turkey


[email protected]

Received: December 05, 2020 Accepted: March 08, 2021 Published: June 30, 2021

Suggested Citation:

Bozdağ, C. H., & Türkoğuz, S. (2021). A Rasch model analysis of primary school students’ conceptual understanding levels

of the concept of light. International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 10(1), 160-179.

This is an open access article under the CC BY 4.0 license

Abstract

The study determines the conceptual understanding levels of primary school students on the concept of light according to the

Rasch Model with a Four-tier Light Conceptual Understanding Test (LCUT). The participants were 355 (164 girls and 191

boys) primary school students studying at a public school in Izmir city center. In the study, the Rasch Model, which is

included in the Latent Trait Theory, was used. Also, the data regarding the answers given and the level of confidence in the

responses were associated with the Rasch analysis of LCUT. The results of Rasch analysis showed that LCUT was in full

harmony in the context of infit, outfit, and point measurement correlation statistics, and is a valid and reliable measurement

tool for conceptual understanding. Moreover, these results explained that the students' average conceptual understanding

ability regarding the Light unit was above the average item difficulty.

Keywords: Conceptual understanding, primary school, four-tier diagnostic test, light unit, Rasch model.

INTRODUCTION

The evaluation of the training process is as important as its planning and implementation.

Measurement and evaluation make a great contribution to the education process by determining the

development levels of individuals' knowledge and skills (Çetin, 2019). However, measurement and

evaluation in education is done indirectly with measurement tools consisting of multiple variables,

and therefore this contribution is possible with and data based on consistent, valid and reliable

measurement processes and measurement tools. Likewise, correct statistics, analysis and calculations

may the educational value of these data increase. After all, the sensitivity of the measurement data

increases with the quality of structural statistic analyzes used in the measurement tools and

contributes to the studies in educational assessment indirectly.

In the measurement and evaluation processes, two theories are used, namely, Classical Test Theory

(CTT) and Latent Trait Theory (LTT) (Kan, 2006; Keeves, 1998; Kelecioğlu, 2001). CTT is a

long-known theory where evaluation is made according to the whole test, not to each item (Bulut,

2018). Therefore, the contribution of different items to the individual's success is considered to be

equal (Anshel, Weatherby, Kang, & Watson, 2009). The search for an alternative theory for CTT has

started due to the following limitations: 1) the estimation of individuals' abilities based on their total

score, 2) the scores of the individuals depend on the test applied, 3) item statistics depend on the

characteristics of the group to which the test was applied (Bulut, 2018; Demirtaşlı, 1996; Hambleton

& Jones, 1993; Kelecioğlu, 2001). Accordingly, with the claim that it can overcome these limitations,

LTT was introduced at the end of the 1930s (Doğan & Tezbaşaran, 2003). According to LTT, there is

a relationship between the individuals' ability, which is not directly observed in a certain area, and


https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6735-7096


https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7850-2305



IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



their answers to the test items, consisting of questions that examine this area; this relationship can be

expressed mathematically (Kelecioğlu, 2001).

The two most widely used and open-to-develop models of LTT developed as an alternative to CTT

are the “Item Response Theory” (IRT) and the “Rasch Model” (RM) (Akın & Baştürk, 2012). IRT

assumes that a person's performance can be predicted in a test thanks to multiple features (Bulut,

2018). RM, on the other hand, is a technique developed by George Rasch in 1960 and evolved from

IRT (Doğru, 2019). RM determines the difficulty levels of the items and the ability levels of the

individuals. According to the model, it attempts to determine the probability of what an individual

with a certain ability level can do against the desired task (Rasch, 1961).

Although CTT is still widely preferred today in the analysis of a measurement tool, the biggest

limitation of CTT is that the characteristics of participants depend on the item and item characteristics

on the participant characteristics (Demirtaşlı, 1996). Accordingly, the contribution of different items

in predicting individuals' ability levels is equal. On the other hand, RM is different from many other

statistical models since it is a probabilistic model (Boone & Scantlebury, 2006). In RM, the

characteristics of an item can be calculated independently of the ability level of the participants, and

the ability levels of the participants can be estimated independently from the item sample they

answered. Also, the contribution of different items in predicting individuals' ability levels is not equal

(İlhan & Güler, 2017). According to RM, an individual with a higher ability than others is more likely

to correctly answer another item that measures the same structure. Similarly, a question that is easy

for any individual is likely to be answered correctly, and a difficult question is unlikely to be

answered (Bond & Fox, 2007). Accordingly, the mathematical expression describing the relationship

between the test items and the person is shown in Formula 1.

In the formula, (Bn) is a parameter that shows the person's ability. If a person with Bn ability answers a

test item with Di difficulty, it will simply either succeed or fail (Planinic, Boone, Susac & Ivanjek,

2019). Accordingly, the possibility of a person answering an item correctly (P) is related to the

person's ability (Bn) and the difficulty of the answered item (Di) (Boone & Scantlebury, 2006).

According to RM formula, the probability of a correct response is expressed as Bn-Di. If the person's

ability equals item difficulty (Bn=Di), then the probability of a correct response is 50%. If the

difference between person ability and item difficulty increases positively (Bn>Di), then the person has

a higher probability of a correct response to the question (Planinic, Ivanjek, & Susac, 2010; Xiao,

Han, Koenig, Xiong, & Bao, 2018).

Undoubtedly, in the analysis of a measurement tool with RM, associating the ability of the person

with each item (a) facilitates the development of tools that provide useful data, and (b) provides data

that can be safely used for both descriptive and parametric statistics (Boone & Noltemeyer, 2017).

Therefore, instead of evaluating the raw scores in the analysis of the questionnaires and tests

frequently used in education and social sciences, the analyses to be conducted with RM made it

possible to reach more objective measurement results that were stripped of many statistical limitations

(Boone & Noltemeyer, 2017; Gülkaya, 2018; Preece, 1979; Uzunsakal & Yıldız, 2018). This has

enabled RM to have a wide application area and accelerate studies, such as in the fields of health

studies, marketing, education, social sciences, and economics.

In studies on education, researchers have started to use RM widely recently (Baharun, Razi, Abidin,

Musa, & Mahmud, 2017; Boone & Noltemeyer, 2017; Çetin, 2019; İlhan & Güler, 2017; Maat, 2015;

Othman, Salleh, Hussein, & Wahid, 2014). In particular, RM is highly preferred in studies where

measurement tools are developed and analyzed in education (Boone & Scantlebury, 2006; Boone,

Townsend, & Staver, 2011; Planinic, Ivanjek, & Susac, 2010; Sondergeld & Johnson, 2014; Wei, Liu,

Wang, & Wang, 2012). Additionally, conceptual understanding levels can also be analyzed with RM

(Liu, 2010; Kauertz & Fischer, 2006; Mešić et al., 2019; Siang, 2011; Wei, Liu, & Jia, 2014).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



One of the integral parts and subjects of everyday life in the field of science is light. The light concept

is used as the primary tool in many fields from physics to biology, medicine to astronomy. Therefore,

students have difficulties in many scientific fields and subjects without understanding the light

concept and its properties (Djanette, Fouad, & Djamel, 2013). The studies related to the light concept

in the literature focuse on the framework of determining misconceptions (Aydoslu, 2018; Blizak,

Chafiqi, & Kendil, 2009; Epik et al., 2002; Fariyani, Rusilowati, & Sugianto, 2017; Galili & Hazan,

2000; Kaplan, 2017; Taşlıdere & Eryılmaz, 2015; Wahyuningsih, Rusilowati, & Hindarto, 2017),

determining the conceptual understanding levels within the framework of CTT (Andersson & Bach,

2005; Ayvacı & Candaş, 2018; Demirci & Ahçı, 2016; Kara, Avcı, & Çekbaş, 2008; Şahin, İpek, &

Ayas, 2008), mental models (Uzun & Karaman, 2016), cognitive structure (Apaydın, Akman, Taş, &

Peker, 2014; Özcan & Tavukçuoğlu, 2018), and teaching methods and techniques (Altun, 2006;

Benek & Kocakaya, 2012; Mazlum & Yiğit, 2017; Şenel, 2016). On the other hand, RM-based studies

on light are limited (Aminudin, Kaniawati, Suhendi, Samsudin, Coştu, & Adimayuda, 2019).

However, the literature has signed that there are not any studies focused on developing a measurement

tool on light and analyzing the conceptual level of understanding with RM.

The starting point of this study is the idea that RM provides statistically more reliable evaluation

results. The model explains how a person's performance for a particular feature can predict a person's

response (eg, true or false) in a particular test item containing that feature (Boone, 2016; Boone &

Scantlebury, 2006). These features that are taken into consideration, such as scientific learning,

scientific inquiry, or attitude toward science, are defined as "latent/implicit features" (Boone &

Scantlebury, 2006; Planinic, Boone, Susac, & Ivanjek, 2019; Xiao et al., 2018). The latent feature

used in the assessment of competencies often constitutes a skill. In this study, the latent feature is the

conceptual understanding ability about light subject. On the other hand, the quality, reliability, and

validity of the test tool used are closely related to the determination of the conceptual understanding

level. In this context, the study searches for answers to the questions below.

Research Questions

1- Is the conceptual understanding test developed on the Light unit a valid and reliable measurement

tool according to RM?

2- Can RM adequately explain students' conceptual understanding levels on the concept of light?

3- According to RM, what level are the students' conceptual understanding level on the concept of

light?

METHOD

Research Model

We analyze LCUT according to the “partial credit or point model” of RM. The model proposed by

Masters in 1982 is a suitable model for polytomous items that require multiple stages and are given

partial points if different stages are completed during the analysis process (Kaskatı, 2011; Yüksel,

2012). In the Partial Credit Model (PCM), each item has its own ordered scale structure (Gülkaya,

2018). In this model, instead of a binary result as yes/no for items, partial scores can be obtained by

considering the answers given when reaching the result (Uzunsakal & Yıldız, 2018). It is useful in

situations where students do not mark only as true or false; thus, student competencies can be

determined in more detail. So, in the study, we determine the competencies of students on the concept

of light from a basic level to a detailed level using PCM.

Participants

The participants were 355 students randomly selected, consisting of 164 girls (46.2%) and 191 boys

(53.8%) in the fifth-grade of a state primary school in İzmir city centre. In the study, we chose the

sample to represent the general population by using random sampling method from students with

similar socio-economic characteristics. The most important feature of this sampling method is that all

units in the general population have an equal and independent chance to be selected for the sample

(Büyüköztürk, Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz, & Demirel, 2014).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Development of Data Collection Tool

In the study, we developed the Four-tier Light Conceptual Understanding Test (LCUT) and analyze it

with RM. We used a 4D model (Defining, Designing, Developing, Disseminating), which helps the

researcher to design a product that will help the student develop their skills in the learning process

(Irawan, Nyoman Padmadewi, & Artini, 2018), in the development of LCUT. In the ‘defining’ stage,

we conducted a literature review on the subject of light and four-tier tests. During the ‘designing’

stage, we examined the structure of the four-tier test. The first tier of the four-tier test is the multiple

choice question tier; the third tier is the reasoning tier for the response to the first tier. The second and

the fourth tiers are the confidence tiers. There are six options which are rated between “1” and “6” in

the confidence tier, respectively: “Just guess”, “I'm not too sure”, “I'm not sure”, “I’m sure”, “I'm

pretty sure”, and “I'm absolutely sure.” The design of the four-tier test is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The design of Four-tier test

In the ‘developing’ stage, we considered studies on the literature about conceptual understanding

levels and misconceptions on the subject of light, achievements regarding the subject of light in the

curriculum of the science course, textbook, achievement tests, the suggestions of the course teachers

and experts, and the opinions of the students and the answers given in the open-ended exams. In this

stage, we developed LCUT consisting of fourteen questions and then we examined these items by the

opinions of a faculty member, a field expert, and two science teachers. Considering experts'

evaluations, we took into two questions determined to have the same content into the same question

root, and canceled one question. A Turkish teacher and 20 students in higher education examined

LCUT, which consisted of twelve questions, in terms of reading and understanding. In accordance

with the feedback of languege expert, we eliminated the deficiencies in the form of spelling errors and

we developed the final measurement tool. We applied LCUT to 355 fifth-grade students in

approximately one class hour. Sample questions related to the questions in LCUT are presented in

Figure 2. The distribution of the questions in LCUT according to the achievements of the science

education program (MNE, 2018) is given in Table 1.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 1. Achievement distribution of questions

UNIT SUBJECT ACHIEVEMENT QUESTION

SP

RE

AD

ING

TH

E L

IGH

T Spreading the light

1-Observing that the light coming from a source follows a linear path

in all directions, it shows with drawing.

Q1, Q10

Reflaction of light

1-Observes the reflactions of light on smooth and rough surfaces and

shows them by drawing.

Q4, Q6

2-Explains the relationship between the incoming beam, reflected

beam and the normal of surface.

Q2, Q3

Encounter of light

with a substance

1-Categorizes the substances according to their light transmittance

status.

Q7, Q8

Full shadow

1-Observes how the full shadow is formed and shows it with simple

beam drawings.

Q11, Q12

2-Discovers the variables that affect the full shadow with experiments. Q5, Q9, Q12

Figure 2. LCUT sample questios

Analysis of Data

Scoring Categories for LCUT

Due to the four-tier test, we gathered the answer combinations for the responses given to the tiers in

each test item under six categories as Scientific Knowledge, Misconception, Lucky Guess, False

Positive, False Negative, and Lack of Knowledge (See Table 2).

Table 2. Scoring Categories for LCUT

Although six scoring categories are used for four-tier tests, in the study, we determined the conceptual

understanding levels of students based on a Rasch analysis, and therefore, we arranged the 3 different

CATEGORY SK LG FP FN MC LK

1.TIER T T T T T F F T T T F F F F F F

2.TIER S S NS NS S S S S NS NS S S NS NS NS NS

3.TIER T T T T F T F F F F T F T T F F

4.TIER S NS S NS S S S NS S NS NS NS S NS S NS

SK: Scientific Knowledge, LG: Lucky Guess, FP: False Positive, FN: False Negative, MC: Misconception,

LK: Lack of Knowledge, T: True, F: False, S: Sure (Confident Level>3,5), NS: Not Sure: (Confident Level<3,5)


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



scoring categories for the correct answers given at each tier for RM: Conceptual Understanding,

Misconception, and Confidence Level (See Table 3).

Table 3. Scoring categories for Rasch analysis

CATEGORY TIER SCORE EXPLANATION

CO

NC

EP

TU

AL

UN

DE

RS

TA

ND

ING

1.Tier 1 If the student responds correctly to 1. Tier (Question Tier)

0 If the student responds incorrectly to 1.Tier

3.Tier 1 If the student responds correctly to 3. Tier (Reasoning Tier)

0 If the student responds incorrectly to 3.Tier

1. and 3. Tier 1 If the student responds correctly to 1.and 3. Tier

0 In all other alternatives

All Tiers 1 When the student responds correctly to 1. and 3.Tier with confidence


MIS

CO

NC

EP

TIO

N

1.Tier 1 If the student responds incorrectly (accompanied by misconception) to 1. Tier

0 If the student responds correctly to 1.Tier

3.Tier 1 If the student responds incorrectly (accompanied by misconception) to 3. Tier

0 If the student responds correctly to 3.Tier

1. and 3. Tier 1 If the student responds incorrectly to 1. and 3. Tier


All Tiers 1 If the student responds incorrectly to 1. and 3.Tier with confidence


CO

NF

IDE

NT

LE

VE

L

2.Tier 1 CL >3.5 (Sure)

0 CL < 3.5 (Not Sure)

4.Tier 1 CL >3.5 (Sure)

0 CL < 3.5 (Not Sure)

2. and 4. Tier 1 CL >3.5 (Sure) for 2, and 4. Tier


CL: Confident Level, The threshold value was considered as 3,5 to determine CL

Table 3 shows that since a certain score is taken based on the responses given in each tier of each test

item, PCM was used in the analyses to be conducted. Within the framework of PCM, partial scores

can be obtained based on the responses given for the tiers of each item of the four-tier test. Therefore,

we converted response alternatives related to the tiers in each test item specified in Table 2 were

converted into partial scoring in line with the scoring categories in Table 3.

Table 4. PCM scoring key

CATEGORY SCORES

Conceptual Understanding Misconception Confident Level

SK 4 0

LG 3 0

FP 1 1

FN 1 1

LK (Alternatives with correct answers) 1 1

LK (Alternatives with wrong answers) 0 3

MC 0 4

S 3

PS 1

NS 0

SK: Scientific Knowledge, LG: Lucky Guess, FP: False Positive, FN: False Negative, MC: A Misconception,

LK: Lack of Knowledge, S: Sure (Confident Level [CL]>3.5 for 2-4.tiers), NS: Not Sure: (CL<3.5 for 2-4 tiers),

PS: Partial Sure (CL>3.5 for 2.tier, CL<3.5 for 4.tier or vice versa)


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



As a result, the scoring key (0-1-3-4) for conceptual understanding, misconception, and confidence

level was created for the four-tiers (See Table 4).

Rasch Model Analysis Findings

We analysed by the data through WINSTEPS software to answer research questions. In the first part,

we tested LCUT's reliability and its validity. In the second part, we examined students' responses on

LCUT in the scope of conceptual understanding, misconception, and trust level.

Findings on Validity and Reliability

In this part, we evaluated LCUT's reliability and its validity through WINSTEPS software. In Rasch

analysis, reliability is examined under two headings: person reliability and item reliability. Person

reliability refers to the consistency of student responses and item reliability refers to the quality of test

items. Accordingly, Table 5 shows the analysis results on person reliability for students and item

reliability for LCUT's items.

Table 5. Rasch analysis results about person and item for LCUT

PERSON Total

Score

Count Measure Model

S.E.

Infit

Mnsq

Infit

ZSTD

Outfit

Mnsq

Outfit

ZSTD

MEAN 28.8 12.0 52.48 2.23 1.01 .0 1.02 .1

P. SD 9.9 .0 4.41 .65 .38 1.0 .68 .8

S. SD 10.0 .0 4.42 .65 .38 1.0 .68 .8

MAX. 47.0 12.0 66.39 7.48 2.56 2.5 5.67 3.1

MIN. 8.0 12.0 43.06 1.90 .18 -2.9 .17 -1.9

REAL RMSE=2.51, TRUE SD=3.63, SEPARATION=1.45, Person RELIABILITY=.68, S.E.of Person Mean=.24

MODEL RMSE=2.53, TRUE SD=3.75, SEPARATION=1.61, Person RELIABILITY=.72

ITEM Total

Score

Count Measure Model

S.E.

Infit

Mnsq

Infit

ZSTD

Outfit

Mnsq

Outfit

ZSTD

MEAN 866.1 355.0 50.0 .41 .98 -0.1 1.02 .4

P. SD 264.3 .0 4.10 .08 .13 1.7 .26 1.7

S. SD 276.1 .0 4.28 .08 .13 1.7 .27 1.7

MAX. 1300.0 355.0 55.94 .60 1.19 2.7 1.39 2.9

MIN. 456.0 355.0 42.33 .36 .81 -3.1 .54 -1.9

REAL RMSE=.42, TRUE SD=4.08, SEPARATION=9.62, Item RELIABILITY=.99, S.E. of Item Mean = 1.24

MODEL RMSE=.42, TRUE SD=4.08, SEPARATION=9.80, Item RELIABILITY=.99

The results in Table 5 show that while the person reliability for LCUT is in the range of .68-.72, the

Cronbach alpha value is .76 and the item reliability for LCUT is .99. In this case, are the results

reliable or not? To decide to this, the ideal value of person reliability should be greater than .80 (Bond

& Fox, 2007; Linacre, 2014), however, the values greater than .60 can be accepted as reliable,

repeatable, and valid for measurement (Zain, Mohd, & El-Qawasmeh, 2011), and even values greater

than .67 can be considered reasonable (Fisher (2007). Moreover, person reliability is also equivalent

to Cronbach alpha (KR-20), which is CTT reliability (Linacre, 2014). For a measurement tool to be

considered reliable, the Cronbach alpha coefficient must be greater than .70 (Büyüköztürk et al.,

2014). In additon, item reliability, the acceptable value should be greater than .80, and values in the

range of .67-.80 may be reasonable (Fisher, 2007; Linacre, 2014). Overall, the results in Table 5 show

that the person, Cronbach's alpha and item reliability coefficients for the measurement reliability of

LCUT can be accepted within the range of the reliability criteria.

A Rasch analysis allows person and item separation coefficients to evaluate internal consistency of a

test. The person separation coefficient refers to the range of measured ability scores, and the item

separation coefficient refers to the spread of item difficulty levels. Separation coefficient values are

between 0 and infinite, and higher values indicate better separation (Boone & Noltemeyer, 2017).

Linacre (2019) states that the item separation coefficient should be 3 or above. In terms of person

separation coefficient, 1.50 is weak, but acceptable, 2.00 is good, and 3.00 is considered excellent

(Duncan et al., 2003; Fisher, 2007; Linacre, 2019). Therefore, Table 5 shows that both the person

(1.61) and item (9.80) separation coefficients of RM are appropriate and acceptable for the test's

internal consistency.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



The determining that the scores of a measurement tool are meaningful, useful, and purposeful by

analyzing the construct validity results in RM is likely. The point measurement correlation (Ptmea

Corr), infit mnsq and outfit mnsq statistics in the analysis of RM can determine the construct validity

of a test. Table 6 shows that the results of the Ptmea-Corr analysis on each item in LCUT.

Table 6. Item analysis results based on RM for LCUT’s construct validity

ITEM TOTAL

SCORE

TOTAL

COUNT

MEASURE MODEL

S.E

INFIT OUTFIT PTMEA-AL EXACT

MATCH

MNSQ ZSTD MNSQ ZSTD Corr. Exp. OB% EXP%

S1 1300 355 42.33 .60 .82 -1.2 .54 -1.9 .36 .27 76.6 73.2

S2 664 355 53.00 .36 1.06 .9 1.09 .9 .52 .55 23.4 23.7

S3 1068 355 47.48 .40 .87 -1.8 .83 -1.1 .49 .43 42.2 37.4

S4 1006 355 48.43 .38 .81 -3.1 .76 -1.9 .53 .46 40.8 33.8

S5 456 355 55.94 .39 1.11 1.5 1.39 2.8 .50 .57 24.3 32.1

S6 1269 355 43.35 .54 .82 -1.5 .69 -1.3 .39 .30 70.5 65.0

S7 782 355 51.46 .36 1.15 2.3 1.16 1.6 .48 .53 21.7 21.1

S8 840 355 50.70 .36 1.02 .4 1.02 .2 .52 .51 19.9 20.6

S9 776 355 51.54 .36 1.02 .3 1.04 .4 .51 .53 22.3 20.6

S10 1058 355 47.64 .40 .95 -.6 1.36 2.2 .43 .44 36.1 35.1

S11 657 355 53.09 .36 .96 -.6 .98 -.1 .56 .55 21.7 23.7

S12 517 355 55.02 .38 1.19 2.7 1.36 2.9 .48 .56 18.5 27.2

Mean 866.1 355 50.00 .41 .98 -.1 1.02 .4 34.8 34.4

P.SD 264.3 4.10 .08 .13 1.7 .26 1.7 19.0 16.6

In Table 6, the Ptmea-Corr values are in the range of .36-.56 for LCUT's items. While Bond and Fox

(2007) stated that the correlation coefficient should have values greater than .30, Othman et al. (2014),

on the other hand, stated that values less than .35 mean weak and low correlation, values between .36-

.67 mean moderate and reasonable correlations, values between .68-1.00 represent strong and high

correlation values. The results in Table 6 explain that the Ptmea-Corr values have a moderate and

reasonable correlation in comparison with these threshold values (Bond & Fox, 2007). This means

that each test item can distinguish the ability of the participants.

Fit statistics in RM were also evaluated for determining the construct validity. Linacre (2002) states

that fit statistics values between .50-1.50 are suitable values for measurement. Considering these

statistics in Table 6, the values of infit mnsq statistics are in the range of .82-1.19 and outfit mnsq

statistics in the range of .54-1.39. In addition, the standardized z values (ZSTD) in Table 6 are

between -3.1/2.7 for infit, and are between -1.9/2.9 for outfit. ZSTD values should be between -

2.0/2.0, but ZSTD values that are not within the desired limits can be ignored if infit and outfit mnsq

statistical values have acceptable values (Bond & Fox, 2007; Linacre, 2014). Therefore, these results

indicate that all the items in LCUT are in harmony for the measurement in the range of Linecra's fit

statistics values.

RM is based on the unidimensionality of the test items. In other words, the test is expected to measure

a single structure. Linacre (2006) suggests to check the multidimensional of test. In this case,

Principal Compenent Analysis (PCA) should be performed to evaluate dimensionality. So, the data

obtained from the Winsteps software were applied PCA. Consequently, the raw variance explained by

measures for LCUT was 42.3% and, the eigenvalues of the unexplained variance in 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and

4th contrasts were 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, and 1.1, respectively. The results verify that data have a

unidimensionality within the criteria determined by Linacre (2006). Overall, we can suggest that the

conceptual understanding test (LCUT) developed on the concept of light is a valid and reliable

measurement tool according to RM.

Findings on Person-Item Wright Map

RM allows the comparison of difficulty levels of each test item with the person’s ability level in a

common metric unit of measurement. Therefore, the Winsteps software allowed the association of

item difficulty level with person ability levels by converting them into common measurement values.

Thus, a common measurement unit on the same linear scale called Person-Item Map (Wright Maps)


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



can explain person ability and item difficulty measurements (Bond & Fox, 2007). Accordingly, the

person-item map in Figure 3 shows the distribution of test items and persons in a common

measurement metric. The person-item map is arranged in two vertical histograms. The right side is for

participating students, and the left side is for test items. Vertical movement on the person-item map

indicates that the ability of the participants ranked from highest to lowest in the right side, and test

items ranked from hardest to easiest in the left side. “M”, on the separation line in the middle of the

person-item map, means the average of item difficulty and person ability, “S” (Single) means one

standard deviation distance from the average, “T” (Twice) means two standard deviations from the

average.

Figure 3. Conceptual understanding person-item map

Figure 3 shows a great distribution of the test items according to difficulty level and the person ability

level. This distribution indicates that the item and person separation are high and test difficulty is

appropriate. On the other hand, since the Winsteps software determines a common measurement

value, it makes possible to compare the average values of person ability and item difficulty.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Accordingly, the average measurement values in the distribution is 50 for item difficulty and is 52 for

person ability. Consequently, these values are quite close to each other. This indicates that the range

of test items is suitable for the group of participants, that is, test items are not too difficult or too easy

for students. According to the person-item map, the questions below the average item difficulty (S1-

S3-S4-S6-S10) are relatively easy questions, while the questions above the average item difficulty

(S2-S5-S7-S8-S9-S11-S12) are relatively difficult questions. On the basis of person's ability, we

determined that the questions equal to and above the average person ability were the items coded as

S2, S5, S9, S11, S12 (difficult for students), and also the most difficult questions were S5 and S12.

On the other hand, although items coded as S7 and S8 are above the average item difficulty, they

remain below the average person's ability. Accordingly, items coded as S1, S3, S4, S6, S7, S8 and

S10, which are below the average person ability, are easy questions for students. The questions coded

as S1 and S6, which all participants responded correctly, are below the lowest person ability.

Undoubtedly, this assessment is likely to conduct in the context of average person ability and item

difficulty measurement for each person. Therefore, these findings of Rasch analysis indicate that RM

allows to determine the conceptual understanding level regarding the subject of light.

Findings on Students' Conceptual Understanding Levels

The person-item maps can help to identify students with the highest ability and lowest ability. For

example, Figure 3 shows that the ability level of many students is even above the item coded as S5,

which is determined to be the most difficult question. Therefore, the ability level of students who are

above the item coded as S5 in Figure 5 is above the difficulty level of all questions and is at a level

that can answer all questions correctly. Among the students who are above the item coded as S5, a

total of nine students coded as O42, O65, O72, O160, O196, O207, O248, O288, and O337, have the

highest conceptual understanding level. On the other hand, the student coded as O325, which is at the

bottom of the person-item map, has the lowest ability.

In Figure 3, the number of students at and above average person ability is 207. Accordingly, 58.3% of

the students (207/355*100=58.3) are at or above the level of average person ability. Considering this

result, the conceptual understanding level of students about the concept of light is at a medium level.

While the questions above the average person ability (S2-S5-S9-S11-S12) are relatively difficult for

students, the questions below the average person ability (S1-S3-S4-S6-S7-S8-S10) are easy questions.

In the evaluation of the achievement distribution of the questions, the students have low conceptual

understanding abilities in terms of full shadow (S5-S9-S11-S12) and reflaction laws (S2), while they

have high conceptual understanding abilities in light diffusion (S1-S10) and the reflaction of light

(S3-S4-S6). In addition, the conceptual understanding abilities in the subject of light with a substance

(S7-S8) are relatively moderate because the fact that question items coded as S7 and S8 are below the

average ability level.

RM also provides a comparison of students’ ability with other variables. Figure 4 shows that

comparison of students' ability levels with confidence levels. In the Figure 4, the dashed blue lines

show the relationship between the students, while the dashed red lines indicate the relationship

between the questions.

Figure 4 explains that 275 students (77.5%) answered all questions with a high level of confidence.

According to the conceptual understanding person-item map, 58.3% of the students were evaluated in

the scientific knowledge category by answering the questions correctly with a high level of

confidence. This means that there are students who think that the wrong answers are correct within the

group of students with a high level of 77.5% confidence. Students in this group are evaluated in the

category of misconception due to their wrong answers.

When Figure 4 was examined in the context of questions, items coded as S1 and S6 are at the lowest

difficulty level and were responded highly confidently by all students. In fact, there is a similar

situation in questions coded as S3, S4, and S10. Students responded to items coded as S3, S4, and


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



S10, which were not difficulty to answer, with a high level of confidence. On the other hand, although

items coded as S5, S9, S11, and S12 were difficult questions, many students responded these items

with a high level of confidence. Responding by students with high confidence in difficult items as

well as in easy items indicates that the level of conceptual understanding in these questions is low, but

the possibility of misconceptions is high.

Figure 4. Comparison of conceptual understanding and confidence level person-item maps


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Figure 5. Comparison of Conceptual Understanding and Misconception Person-Item Maps


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



As a result of the comparison of conceptual understanding and confidence level for person ability in

Figure 4, students coded as O42, O65, O72, O160, O196, O207, O248, O288, and O337 have the

highest person ability and confidence level. This high connection shows that students are at a high

cognitive level in terms of conceptual understanding, that scientific knowledge is fully and accurately

placed in their cognitive structures, and therefore they are very confident in their responses. On the

other hand, student coded as O325 has the lowest ability level and a medium level of confidence in

terms of conceptual understanding. This low connection indicates that student coded as O325 does not

reach correct answers in terms of conceptual understanding, but is confident in most of the answers to

the questions in the test.

As a result of the comparison of conceptual understanding and confidence level’s person item maps,

achieving the result that students are sure of their answers, even if they respond incorrectly, required a

comparison on the misconception person-item map in the continuation of this study.

Figure 5 provides a comparison of the conceptual understanding person-item map and the

misconception person-item map. In the evaluation map of the conceptual understanding, the

questions that are difficult to answer by the students are at the left top of the map, the questions that

are easy to answer are at the left bottom. Moreover, in the misconception person-item map, the

questions that are answered incorrectly (the questions with the misconception) are below in right of

the map.

According to Figure 5, the question, which is the most difficult to answer and best determines the

misconception, is the test item coded as S5. In other words, the students answered the item coded as

S5 with the highest rate of misconception. Additionally, the questions that are difficult to answer

correctly and that best determine the misconception are the test items coded as S11 and S12 after the

question item coded as S5. On the other hand, the questions, which are the easiest questions under all

students' abilities and unable to detect the misconception, are the test items coded as S1 and S6. These

data coincide with the data obtained from the person-item map analysis.

In Figure 5, students coded as O42, O65, O72, O160, O196, O207, O248, O288, and O337 have high

ability in terms of conceptual understanding and have the lowest potential in terms of misconception.

Similarly, the findings show that student coded as O325 has the lowest conceptual understanding

ability and the highest potential misconceptions, and different student coded as O206 has the highest

misconception potential and the lowest conceptual understanding.


In this study, we preferred RM, which provides a detailed analysis of the data obtained from the

measurement tools and allows the researchers to convey the test-scale performance in the best way

(Boone & Noltemeyer, 2017). In this context, we developed a four-tier LCUT with RM and then

analyzed the data obtained from this scale. In the development process of LCUT, we provided

LCUT's validity and reliability with RM.

In terms of validity, RM analysis provides appropriate data on the construct validity of the

measurement tool (Wei, Liu, Wang, & Wang, 2012). Accordingly, we evaluated infit and outfit mnsq

statistics to determine the construct validity. All these statistics were in the range of .54-1.39. These

results show that all the items in LCUT are in the appropriate range for measurement (Linacre, 2002),

and are in harmony. Additionally, we analyzed Ptmea Corr statistics for the consistency between the

scores of the students in the test items and their ability measurements. As a result of the analysis, we

determined that all items were in the desired range (in the range of .36-.56) and positive. According to

the infit and outfit mnsq statistics, all items fit RM very well. As a matter of fact, since Rasch

measurement is based on individual response models that reflect individuals' reasoning skills, good

model-good data compliance shows that students' reasoning about the measurement tool items is

consistent (Wei, Liu, Wang, & Wang, 2012).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



When the data fit RM, the test items measure the intended unidimensional structure (Wei, Liu, Wang,

& Wang, 2012). RM is a unidimensional measurement model (Eggert & Bögeholz, 2010; Linacre,

2006; Planinic, Ivanjek, & Susac, 2010); unidimensionality is the basic condition of construct validity

(Rasch, 1961). In this context, we conducted a unidimensional assessment with the PCA for

determining the construct validity of LCUT. Since the results obtained for the explained variance and

the unexplained variance are within the specified criteria, we determined that the data showed a

unidimensional feature.

To determine the measurement reliability of LCUT, we examined person and item reliability, and also

separation coefficient values. First, we determined that the person reliability was .68-.72. We

interpreted this reliability in the same way as traditional Cronbach Alpha (Linacre, 2014), and

concluded that it was reliable, repeatable, and reasonable value in the .67-.69 measurement range

(Fisher, 2007; Zain, Mohd ve El-Qawasmeh, 2011), and therefore the person reliability of IKAT was

satisfactory level. In fact, considering CTT perspective, this reliability value may indicate the

existence of a strong relationship between the observed person scores and the true scores without

errors (Cronbach alpha=.76). Second, we found that item reliability for the quality of test items was

.99. In the literature, values of .80 and above are accepted appropriate for item reliability (Fisher,

2007; Linacre, 2014), and therefore we decided that the item reliability of LCUT was appropriate

value. The separation coefficient is the spread estimate of items and ability, since they are expressing

statistically different levels of performance-difficulty. In the study, we observed that the separation

coefficient was 1.61 for the person and 9.80 for the item. In addition, according to Linacre’s (2016)

guidelines, it is possible to make an assessment by associating the reliability of the person with the

level of performance that the test can distinguish (separation unit 3-4 for .90, separation unit 2-3 for

.80 and separation unit 1-2 for .50). The person separation coefficient determined as 1.61 indicates

that people can be evaluated at two performance levels. Therefore, we can talk about the existence of

a match between the person reliability coefficient (.68-.72) and the determined performance levels.

Consequently, the fact that the person and item spread estimations specified as the separation

coefficient are within the specified criteria also contributes to the reliability of the measurement tool

(Duncan et al., 2003; Fisher, 2007; Linacre, 2019).

Rasch analysis has many advantages in determining students' competencies. The most important

advantages are the representation of the person and test items on the same equal linear scale (Bond &

Fox, 2007). In this way, RM enables the comparison of the ability level of the participants and

difficulty level of the test items by matching them to the determined theoretical latent feature with

positioning in a common metric (Clements, Sarama, & Liu, 2008). The common metric where the

ability level and test items are located is defined as the "Wright Map." In the conceptual

understanding person-item map, it was determined that 207 of 355 students were above the average

ability level, and that the conceptual understanding level was 58.3%. Therefore, on the map, we

observed that the ability level of more than half of the students is above the difficulty level of the

questions. Rasch analysis can help to determine the conceptual understanding level with item

difficulty level in its model (Wei, Liu & Jia, 2013). Considering this opinion, we found that the

students’ ability is above the average item difficulty level, that the majority of the students match the

items difficulty level very well. In other words, the vast majority of the students have the ability to

understand the latent feature to be measured (Baharun et al., 2017). On the other hand, it is possible

to find the study findings that the difficulty of the item is higher than the person's ability, and

therefore the participants have low conceptual understanding ability (Siang, 2011). In limited studies

conducted with Rasch analysis on the concept of light (Aminudin et al., 2019; Mesic et al., 2019),

results indicated that the average difficulty level was above the average ability, and the students were

at a low conceptual understanding level. Therefore, the study results that were based on the analysis

of the four-tier test with RM are important in terms of contributing to the limited study findings in the

literature.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



The literature emphasizes the need to conduct a confidence level analysis to see to what extent

students believe in their abilities (Aminudin et al., 2019). In the confidence level analysis of the study,

students answered the questions with a 77.5% confidence level throughout the test. In this context, the

study results indicate that students' confidence levels in their answers were quite high. On the other

hand, the clear difference between the proportion of students who are evaluated at the scientific

knowledge level by responding correctly to all tiers (58.3%) and the confidence level in the test

(77.5%) indicates that some students are quite sure of these answers, even if they responded

incorrectly. This difference points out the existence of students who are evaluated in the

misconception category as well as highly skilled students among high-confidence students. In a

comparison of the conceptual understanding person-item map with the misconception person-item

map, we determined that the data on the maps confirm each other, and that there was a linear

relationship between the students' confidence level and their misconceptions. Indeed, Aminudin et al.

(2019) determined that high-ability students are at a low level of misconception and low ability

students at a high level of misconception as a result of their studies.

In the comparison of the conceptual understanding level and the difficulty levels of the items, we

determined that the students had difficulty in answering some questions of the test (S5-S12), so the

difficulty level of these questions was above the ability level of most students. On the other hand, all

students answered two questions (S1-S6) of the test, correctly. In other words, the ability level of all

students are above the difficulty level of these questions. As a matter of fact, according to the Rasch

analysis, the person is more likely to respond to a lower item on the scale and less likely to respond to

a higher item on the scale (Boone, 2016). On the other hand, it is possible to determine the students

with the lowest and highest conceptual understanding on person-item maps (Bond & Fox, 2007). In

this aspect, we determined that the student with the lowest ability in terms of conceptual

understanding was student coded as O325, and the students with the highest ability were students

coded as O42, O65, O72, O160, O196, O207, O248, O288, and O337. Wright maps allow item

difficulty and person ability to be compared (Liu, 2010). As a matter of fact, thanks to the person-item

maps showing the data of both participants and test items, the most difficult and easiest questions of

the test can be easily determined without the need for another calculation.

In the person-item map of the conceptual understanding, we determined that the seven questions that

were above the average item difficulty were the questions that the students had difficulty in

answering. We listed these questions in the turn of items coded as S5, S12, S2, S11, S9, S7, and S8

starting from the most difficult one. Items coded as S1, S3, S4, S6, and S10 that are below the average

item difficulty level, are the questions that the students have no difficulty in answering. Four

questions (S5-S9-S11-S12) in LCUT are to measure students' the conceptual understanding of full

shadows. These questions have difficult to answer, therefore, students' conceptual understanding is the

lowest level in this test items. As a matter of fact, studies on the concept of light indicate that students

have lacks of knowledge about shadow formation and shape (Blizak, Chafiqi & Kendil, 2009; Epik et

al., 2002; Galili & Hazan, 2000; Taşlıdere & Eryılmaz, 2015), and factors affecting the shadow

formation (Galili & Hazan, 2000), and a full shadow. On the other hand, the most basic concepts in

the light diffusion unit are the diffusion and reflaction of light. In this context, the light, which is an

integral part of our daily life, and connected concepts are fully and correctly must understand.

However, studies display that student’s experience mental confusion about light and have low levels

of conceptual understanding due to the missing experiences they have in daily life (Ayvacı & Candaş,

2018; Şahin, İpek & Ayas, 2008). In the results of Rasch analysis for LCUT, the ability level of

question items coded as S3 (about normal of the surface), S4 and S6 (about reflaction of light on

smooth and rough surfaces) are below the average difficulty level. Inadditon, the ability level of

question item coded as S2 (about the laws of reflaction) is above the average difficulty level and is

challenges for students. These results support the findings of the studies in the literature, which

students have a lack of knowledge about the reflaction of light and the laws of reflaction (Aydoslu,

2018, Fariyani, Rusilowati & Sugianto, 2017; Kaplan, 2017; Wahyuningsih, Rusilowati & Hindarto,

2017). For example, Fariyani, Rusilowati, & Sugianto (2017) and Wahyuningsih, Rusilowati, &


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Hindarto (2017) determined that students with a low level of conceptual understanding have

alternative concepts in terms of laws of reflaction, incoming beam, reflected beam, and normal of

surface.

If light encounters a substance, the substances are classified as transparent, translucent, and opaque

according to their light transmission. However, the results of study point out that student has lack

knowledge in the context of classification of substances to light transmittance. As a matter of fact, in

the results of Rasch Analysis, the items coded as S7 and S8 (about light transmission status) are the

questions on average item difficulty, but below the average person's ability. Accordingly, we conclude

that the students' conceptual understanding level for item coded as S7 and S8 is at a medium level.

This result of the study coincides with the studies in the literature and indicates that students have

difficulty in classifying substances according to light transmission (Kaplan, 2017). On the other hand,

the ability level of question items coded as S1 and S10 (about the diffisuon of light) indicates that

students are at a very high level of conceptual understanding.

RM is a theory-based approach to scale development through hypothesis testing (Clements, Sarama &

Liu, 2008). The construct validity of the measurement tool is ensured when the data fit RM. To

answer the first question of the study, we examined infit and outfit mnsq, point measurement

correlation, and reliability statistics. As a result, we observed that these statistical values were within

the desired limits. Accordingly, LCUT is a useful measurement tool with measurement reliability and

validity that allows measuring the level of conceptual understanding of light. In conclusion, we

determined that students' level of conceptual understanding toward the concept of light is above

medium level. Overall, the results on the conceptual understanding level by Rasch analysis for LCUT

are coherent with studies related to conceptual understanding on light in literature and so, will

contribute to the field with this aspect.

Possible Research Limitations

There are some potential limitations of the current study. First, RM was used instead of CTT in

determining the level of conceptual understanding, but only fifth-grade students and fith-grade Light

Unit were preferred for rasch analysis. The results indicate that the measurement tool developed for

determining the conceptual understanding level is a valid and reliable measurement tool according to

RM, and that the conceptual understanding level can be determined by RM. However, it would be

appropriate to compare the analyses with the Light unit and other units, and at other grade levels

regarding the effectiveness of RM. On the other hand, multi-tier tests in the literature mostly diagnose

misconceptions and present them to the educator. However, in the study, we examined the test

parameters of RM on LCUT and so did not diagnose misconceptions. Therefore, the data of the study

were limited by the statistical parameters of RM, and RM was not used to determine misconceptions.

Suggestions for Future Research

In line with the findings and comments of the research, we suggested in the following:

Should be given priority to the use of the analyses that is free from the limitations of CTT,

conducted within the framework of LTT instead of the analyses based on CTT, as it gives

clearer results during the evaluation of the participants.

Increasing the use of Wright Maps in evaluations based on Rasch analysis will provide

satisfying results in terms of evaluation of tests.

Analysis results based on RM can be confirmed with exploratory and confirmatory factor

analyses in the future research.

The frequent use of multi-tier tests, such as four-tier tests, where the participants can be

assessed about how confident they are with their answers rather than multiple-choice tests,

will provide more accurate and reliable results in the diagnosis of conceptual understanding

and misconceptions.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



It will be beneficial to employ various methods and techniques in order to make the

knowledge gained by students' daily life activities permanent in subjects such as light, which

is an integral part of daily life.

Since the data obtained from multi-tier tests are used in the diagnosis of misconceptions, it

will be appropriate to conduct the analyses based on RM regarding possible misconceptions.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon

reasonable request.

REFERENCES

Akın, Ö. & Baştürk, R. (2012). The evaluation of the basic skills in violin training by many facet rasch model. Pamukkale

University Journal of Education, 31(31), 175-187.

Altun, D. G. (2006). Effect of sound and light unit prepared using multiple intelligence theory to the student success, level of

retaining, attitudes towards science and multiple intelligence theory. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Institute of

Science, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey

Aminudin, A. H., Kaniawati, I., Suhendi, E., Samsudin, A., Coştu, B., & Adimayuda, R. (2019). Rasch analysis of multitier

open-ended light-wave ınstrument (MOLWI): Developing and assessing second-years sundanese-scholars alternative

conceptions. Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists, 7(3), 557-579. doi:10.17478/jegys.574524

Andersson, B., & Bach F. (2005). On designing and evaluating teaching sequences taking geometrical optics as an example.

Science Education, 89, 196-218. doi:10.1002/sce.20044

Anshel, M. H., Weatherby, N. L., Kang, M., & Watson, T. (2009). Rasch calibration of a unidimensional perfectionism

inventory for sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(1), 210-216. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.07.006

Apaydın, Z., Akman, E., Taş, E., & Peker, E. A. (2014). Analysis of knowledge structures about light concept of first level

elementary students according to conceptual change theories. Journal of Computer and Education Research, 2(3),

44-68. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/jcer/issue/18615/196501

Aydoslu, M. (2018). Determination of cognitive structures and misconceptions of middle school students about the concepts

of light and reflection by using alternative measurement and evaluation techniques. (Unpublished master’s thesis).

Institute of Science, Kırıkkale University, Kırıkkale, Turkey

Ayvacı, H. S., & Candas, B. (2018). Students’ understandings on light reflection from different educational level. Journal of

Computer and Education Research, 6(11), 1-32. doi:10.18009/jcer.309748

Baharun, N., Razi, N. F. M., Abidin, R. Z., Musa, N. A. C., & Mahmud, Z. (2017). Measuring students’ understanding in

counting rules and its probability via e-learning mode: a Rasch measurement approach. Journal of Fundamental and

Applied Sciences, 9(6S), 429-441. doi:10.4314/jfas.v9i6s.33

Benek, İ., & Kocakaya, S. (2012). Students’ opinion on learning in stations technique. Journal of Research in Education

and Teaching, 1(3), 2146-9199. Retrieved from http://www.jret.org/FileUpload/ks281142/File/02z.benek.pdf

Blizak, D., Chafiqi, F., & Kendil, D. (2009). Students misconceptions about light in Algeria. In Education and Training in

Optics and Photonics (p. EMA5). Optical Society of America. doi:10.1364/etop.2009.ema5

Bond, T. G & Fox, C. M. (2007). Applying the Rasch model: Fundamental measurement in the human sciences (2nd ed.).

New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Inc. Publishers

Boone, W. J. (2016). Rasch analysis for instrument development: why, when, and how?. CBE-Life Sciences

Education, 15(4), rm4.1-7. doi:10.1187/cbe.16-04-0148

Boone, W. J., & Noltemeyer, A. (2017). Rasch analysis: A primer for school psychology researchers and

practitioners. Cogent Education, 4(1), 1416898. doi:10.1080/2331186x.2017.1416898

Boone, W. J., & Scantlebury, K. (2006). The role of Rasch analysis when conducting science education research, utilizing

multiple choice tests. Science Education, 90(2), 253-269. doi:10.1002/sce.20106


https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/jcer/issue/18615/196501

http://www.jret.org/FileUpload/ks281142/File/02z.benek.pdf

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Boone, W. J., Townsend, J. S., & Staver, J. (2011). Using Rasch theory to guide the practice of survey development and

survey data analysis in science education and to inform science reform efforts: An exemplar utilizing STEBI self

efficacy data. Science Education, 95(2), 258-280. doi:10.1002/sce.20413

Bulut, G. (2018). Açık ve uzaktan öğrenmede şans başarısı: Klasik test kuramı (KTK) ve madde tepki kurama (MTK)

temelinde karşılaştırmalı bir analiz. Açıköğretim Uygulamaları ve Araştırmaları Dergisi, 4(1), 78-93. Retrieved from

https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/auad/issue/35189/390471

Büyüköztürk, Ş., Çakmak, E. K., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, Ş., & Demirel, F. (2014). Scientific research methods. Ankara:

Pegem Publications.

Clements, D. H., Sarama, J. H., & Liu, X. H. (2008). Development of a measure of early mathematics achievement using the

Rasch model: The research based early maths assessment. Educational Psychology, 28(4), 457-482.

doi:10.1080/01443410701777272

Çetin, Ş. (2019, November). Analysis of open-ended questions with many facet Rasch model. In 4th International

Symposium on Innovative Approaches in Health and Sports Sciences. Samsun, Turkey

Demirci, N., & Ahçı, M. (2016). University students’ conceptual understanding on the subjects of light and optics. Necatibey

Faculty of Education Electronic Journal of Science and Mathematics Education 10(1), 142-181.

doi:10.17522/nefefmed.39726

Demirtaşlı, N. Ç. (1996). New approaches in test development: The latent trait theory-basic features, assumptions, models

and limitations. Ankara University Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences, 28(2), 161-173.

doi:10.1501/Egifak_0000000298

Djanette, B., Fouad, C., & Djamel, K. (2013). What thinks the university's students about propagation of light in the

vacuum? European Scientific Journal, 9(24), 197-213.

Doğan, N. & Tezbaşaran, A. (2003). Klasik test kuramı ve örtük özellikler kuramının örneklemler bağlamında

karşılaştırılması [Comparison of classical test theory and latent traits theory by Samples]. Hacettepe University

Journal of Ecucation, 25(25), 58-67.

Doğru, Ş. C. (2019). The comparison of classical test theory and Rasch model in determining the psychometric properties of

mixed tests. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Institute of Science, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey

Duncan, P. W., Bode, R. K., Lai, S. M., Perera, S., & Glycine Antagonist in Neuroprotection Americas Investigators (2003).

Rasch analysis of a new stroke-specific outcome scale: the stroke impact scale. Archives of Physical Medicine and

Rehabilitation, 84(7), 950-963. doi:10.1016/s0003-9993(03)00035-2

Eggert, S., & Bögeholz, S. (2010). Students' use of decision making strategies with regard to socioscientific issues: An

application of the Rasch partial credit model. Science Education, 94(2), 230-258. doi:10.1002/sce.20358

Epik, Ö., Kalem, R., Kavcar, N., & Çallıca, H. (2002). Investigation of student views on the concepts of light, image

formation and image observation. Buca Faculty of Education Journal, 14, 64-73

Fariyani, Q., Rusilowati, A., & Sugianto, S. (2017). Four-tier diagnostic test to identify misconceptions in geometrical

optics. Unnes Science Education Journal, 6(3), 1724-1729. doi:10.15294/USEJ.V6I3.20396

Fisher, W.P. Jr (2007). Rasch measurement transaction. Rasch Measurement Transactions 21(1), 1087-1096

Galili, I., & Hazan, A. (2000). Learners' knowledge in optics: interpretation, structure and analysis. International Journal of

Science Education, 22(1), 57-88. doi:10.1080/095006900290000

Gülkaya, D. (2018). Rasch analysis and its application. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Institute of Science, Süleyman

Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey

Hambleton, R. K., & Jones, R. W. (1993). An NCME instructional module on: Comparison of classical test theory and item

response theory and their applications to test development. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 12(3),

38-47. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.1993.tb00543.x

Irawan, A. G., Nyoman Padmadewi, N., & Artini, L. P. (2018). Instructional materials development through 4D model.

In SHS Web of Conferences, 42. doi:10.1051/shsconf/20184200086

İlhan, M., & Güler, N. (2017). Testing the agreement between ability estimations made through classical test theory and the

ones made through Rasch analysis in likert type scales. Ege Journal of Education, 18(1), 244-265.

doi:10.12984/egeefd.289576

Kan, A. (2006). An empirical study on the comparison of predicted item parameters with respect to classical and item

response test theories. Mersin University Journal of the Faculty of Education, 2(2), 227-235. Retrieved from

https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/mersinefd/issue/17389/181743


https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/auad/issue/35189/390471

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Kaplan, E. (2017). Determination of sixth grade students misconceptions on, the light and sound unit with concept test,

concept cartoons, and semi-structured interviews. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Graduate School of Educational

Sciences, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey

Kara, İ. Avcı, D., & Çekbaş, Y. (2008). Investigation of the science teacher candidates’ knowledge level about the concept

of light. Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Journal of Education Faculty, 8 (16), 46-57

Kaskatı, O. (2011). Development of computer adaptive testing method using with Rasch models for assessment of disability

in rheumatoid arthritis patients. (Unpublished doctorate thesis). Institute of Health Science, Ankara University,

Ankara, Turkey

Kauertz, A., & Fischer, H. E. (2006). Assessing students’ level of knowledge and analysing the reasons for learning

difficulties in physics by Rasch analysis. In X.Liu &W.J.Boone (Eds.) Applications of Rasch measurement in science

education, (pp. 212-246). Maple Grove.MN: Jam Press

Keeves, J. P. (1998). Educational research, methodology and measurement: An international Handbook. Oxford: Pergamon

Pres

Kelecioğlu, H. (2001). Relationship between b and a parameters in latent trait theory and p and r statistics in classical test

theory. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 20, 104-110

Linacre, J.M. (2002). What do infit and outfit, mean-square and standardized mean? Rasch Measurement Transactions,

16(2), 878. Retrieved from https://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt162f.htm

Linacre, J. M. (2006). Data variance explained by Rasch measures Rasch Measurement Transactions, 20(1), 1045. Retrieved

from https://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt201a.htm

Linacre, J. M. (2014). Reliability and separation of measures. A user’s guide to Winsteps Ministep Rasch-model computer

programs (version 3.81.0). Retrieved from http://www.winsteps.com/winman/reliability.htm

Linacre, J. M. (2019). A user guide to winsteps ministep Rasch model computer programs: Program manual 4.4.7. Retrieved

from https://www.winsteps.com/a/Winsteps-Manual.pdf

Liu, X. (2010). Using and developing measurement instruments in science education: A Rasch modeling approach. IAP

Information Age Publishing

Maat, S. M. (2015). Psychometric evaluation on mathematics beliefs instrument using Rasch model. Creative

Education, 6(16), 1797-1801. doi:10.4236/ce.2015.616183

Mazlum, E. & Yiğit, N. (2017). Examining indicators of knowledge of light concept through peer tutoring applications.

Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 32(2), 295-311. doi:10.16986/HUJE.2016019933

Mešić, V., Neumann, K., Aviani, I., Hasović, E., Boone, W. J., Erceg, N., Grubelnik, V., Sušac, A., Glamočić, D.S., Karuza,

M., Vidak, A., Alihodžić, A., & Repnik, R. (2019). Measuring students’ conceptual understanding of wave optics: A

Rasch modeling approach. Physical Review Physics Education Research, 15(1), 010115(20).

doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.15.010115

Ministry of Education (MNE) (2018). Primary education institutions (primary and secondary schools) science course

(3,4,5,6,7,8. Grades) curriculum. Ankara: Ministry of Education, Board of Education and Discipline

Othman, N. B., Salleh, S. M., Hussein, H., & Wahid, H. B. A. (2014). Assessing construct validity and reliability of

competitiveness scale using Rasch model approach. In Proceedings of the 2014 WEI International Academic

Conference (pp. 113-120)

Özcan, Ö., & Tavukçuoğlu, E. (2018). Investigating the high school students’ cognitive structures about the light concept

through word association test. Journal of Education and Future, (13), 121-132. doi:10.1063/1.5025996

Planinic, M., Ivanjek, L., & Susac, A. (2010). Rasch model based analysis of the force concept inventory. Physical Review

Special Topics-Physics Education Research, 6(1), 010103(20). doi:10.1103/physrevstper.6.010103

Planinic, M., Boone, W. J., Susac, A., & Ivanjek, L. (2019). Rasch analysis in physics education research: Why

measurement matters. Physical Review Physics Education Research, 15(2), 1-14.

doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.15.020111

Preece, P. F. W. (1979). Objective measurement in education: The Rasch model. School Science Review, 60(213), 770-73.

ERIC ID. EJ207029

Rasch, G. (1961, July). On general laws and the meaning of measurement in psychology. In Proceedings of the fourth

Berkeley symposium on mathematical statistics and probability. Berkeley, USA.


https://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt162f.htm

https://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt201a.htm

http://www.winsteps.com/winman/reliability.htm

https://www.winsteps.com/a/Winsteps-Manual.pdf

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Siang, L. K. (2011). Developing a profile of conceptual understanding and misconceptions in Newtonian mechanics: Rasch

modelling approach. In International Conference on Measurement and Evaluation in Education, University of

Malaya. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Sondergeld, T. A., & Johnson, C. C. (2014). Using Rasch measurement for the development and use of affective assessments

in science education research. Science Education, 98(4), 581-613. doi:10.1002/sce.21118

Şahin, Ç., İpek, H., & Ayas, A. (2008, June). Students' understanding of light concepts primary school: A cross-age study.

Asia-Pacific Forum on Science learning and teaching, 9(1), 1-119. Retrieved from https://www.eduhk.hk/apfslt/

Şenel, S.Ö. (2016). Activities based on multiple intelligence theory related on learning and effects about the 7th grade

subject light. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey

Taşlıdere, E. & Eryılmaz, A. (2015). Assessment of pre-service teachers’ misconceptions in geometrical optics via a three-

tier misconception test. Bartın University Journal of Faculty of Education, 4 (1), 269-289.

doi:10.14686/buefad.2015111057

Uzun, E. & Karaman İ. (2015). An analysis of prospective science teachers’ mental models about light and sound. Ekev

Akademi Dergisi. 20(65), 141-154. doi:10.17753/Ekev549

Uzunsakal, E. & Yıldız, D. (2018). A comparison of reliability tests in field researches and an applicatıon on agricultural

data. Applied Social Sciences Journal of Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, 2(1), 14-28. Retrieved from

https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/iuusbd/issue/38311/399621

Xiao, Y., Han, J., Koenig, K., Xiong, J., & Bao, L. (2018). Multilevel Rasch modeling of two-tier multiple choice test: A

case study using Lawson’s classroom test of scientific reasoning. Physical Review Physics Education

Research, 14(2), 020104(14). doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.14.020104

Wahyuningsih, S., Rusilowati, A., & Hindarto, N. (2017). Analysis of misconception to science literacy using three tier

multiple choice test in the materials of characteristic of light. Unnes Science Education Journal, 6(3), 1736-1743.

doi:10.15294/USEJ.V6I3.20426

Wei, S., Liu, X., & Jia, Y. (2014). Using Rasch measurement to validate the instrument of students’ understanding of models

in science (sums). International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 12(5), 1067-1082.

doi:10.1007/s10763-013-9459-z

Wei, S., Liu, X., Wang, Z., & Wang, X. (2012). Using Rasch measurement to develop a computer modeling-based

instrument to assess students’ conceptual understanding of matter. Journal of Chemical Education, 89(3), 335-345.

doi:10.1021/ed100852t

Yüksel, S. (2012). Analyzing differential item functioning by mixed rasch models which stated in scales. (Unpublished

doctorate thesis). Institute of Health Education, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey

Zain, J. M., Mohd, W. M. W., & El-Qawasmeh, E. (Eds.). (2011). Software engineering and computer systems. In

Proceedings of Second International Conference, ICSECS 2011, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia


https://www.eduhk.hk/apfslt/

https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/iuusbd/issue/38311/399621

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



CLASSROOM TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON THE PHYSICAL LEARNING

ENVIRONMENTS OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN TURKEY

Mehmet GÜLTEKİN

Prof.Dr., Anadolu University, Faculty of Education, Primary Education Department, Eskişehir, Turkey


[email protected]

Gözde ÖZENÇ İRA

Res.Assist., Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Primary Education Department, Ankara, Turkey


[email protected]

Received: September 02, 2020 Accepted: March 19, 2021 Published: June 30, 2021

Suggested Citation:

Gültekin, M., & Özenç Ira, G. (2021). Classroom teachers’ views on the physical learning environments of primary schools

in Turkey. International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 10(1), 180-192.

This is an open access article under the CC BY 4.0 license

Abstract

School buildings with inadequate infrastructure and old-fashioned architectural styles cause problems, especially in

developing countries. This study aims to examine the views of primary school teachers on the physical learning environments

of primary schools. A case study method was adopted in this study. The participants of the study consisted of 14 classroom

teachers working in rural and urban areas. The synchronous online focus group interviews were conducted using Zoom, a

commercial web conference service, as a data collection method. A content analysis method was used in the analysis of the

data. The analyses of the semi-structured interviews with the classroom teachers produced four categories-i.e.,

planning-related shortcomings, infrastructure deficiency, child-friendly schools, and the advantages of these schools.

Responses of classroom teachers working in urban areas mostly focused on the crowding of schools. On the other hand, the

answers from the classroom teachers working in rural areas mostly focused on the physical infrastructure of primary schools.

Furthermore, suggestions from all participants pointed out that primary schools must have a more child-friendly

characteristic. The physical learning environments of primary schools require compliance with the needs of modern

pedagogy. In light of the findings, some suggestions were have been made for primary schools in Turkey.

Keywords: The physical learning environment, primary school, school buildings.

INTRODUCTION

The term “learning environment” refers to visual, auditory, and kinesthetic factors enhancing the

physical aspects of human comprehension (Kopec, 2006). The learning environment influences human

behavior and has both direct and indirect impacts on learning and teaching performance

(Higgins, Hall, Wall, Woolner, & McCaughey, 2005; Stricherz, 2000; Şensoy & Sağsöz, 2015;

Trosper, 2017), which can contribute to holistic development of children (Nair & Fielding, 2013). The

learning environments of modern school buildings have been described as aesthetic, appealing, child-

friendly, and providing learning pathways (Craissati, Devi Banerjee, King, Lansdown, & Smith, 2007;

Higgins et al., 2005), which attracts more attention in the literature and in the school reform initiatives.

Within the growing shifts in school facilities, the physical environments of the school include the

whole physical spaces of the school where intentionally support comprehension and teaching

(Churchill, 2014). From this perspective, stereotyped old-fashioned schools do not allow for multiple

interactions between space and pedagogy. Only schools embracing new learning environments could

allow to social and individual learning (OECD, 2013). These schools have a powerful effect on

developing specific teaching strategies or the discipline in a way that stereotyped old-fashioned

schools could not (Wright, Thompson, & Horne, 2021). Therefore, the pedagogy, cognition, and

perception play a vital role in the function of the physical learning environment of schools (Pereira,

Kowaltowski, & Deliberador, 2018).





IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



The pedagogy plays a decisive role in remodeling school buildings and the function of school places.

Today, constructivist approaches (i. e. student-centered education) are adopted, which impacts on the

teacher role and the style of use of the physical space. Constructivist approaches focus on the

subjective nature of knowledge, individual experience, constructivist activity, teacher-student

interaction, and social activity (Stipanovic & Pergantis, 2018). The constructivist approach supports

deliberate interactions between students and, in turn, affects the styles and strategies of teaching, like

group work and individual work, affecting the physical spaces and places of schools which play a role

in facilitating or restricting human actions (Benade, 2019). Thus, modern pedagogy has an extensive

demand for redesigning physical learning environments. Nair and Fielding (2013) stressed that the

current physical environments of schools should meet the following learning approaches (p.19):

Independent study, peer tutoring, team collaborative work, one-on-one learning with teachers,

project-based learning, technology-based learning with mobile computers, distance learning, research

via the internet with wireless network, student presentations, performance and music-based learning,

seminar-style instruction, community service learning, naturalist learning, social/emotional learning,

art-based learning, learning by building.

As mentioned above, the current learning environments need common areas where students can work

together. In specific corners of the school, students can relax, do reading activities and work

independently. Learning areas such as science and art centers and workshops can certainly enhance

student’s learning. Therefore, the physical learning environments of schools should be developed

within the entire school infrastructure. Modern schools that allow the development of 21st-century

skills to learners have flexible learning spaces and sustainable design, and provide meaningful

community participation (Hanover Research, 2011). Aiming to be more flexible, inclusive, and

sustainable, 21st-century school buildings often feature open learning spaces rather than traditional

square-shaped classrooms. Physical learning environments are used as optimized by combining

various activity areas or replacing them in a multi-purpose way (Bardone & Gargiulo, 2014).Despite

improved understanding of the modern school buildings and learning environments, school buildings,

having inadequate infrastructure and old-fashioned architectural styles, remain problematic in

developing countries such as Turkey (Akbaba & Turhan, 2016; OECD, 2018). However, some school

reform initiatives in Turkey have gained momentum in recent years. Some steps have been taken by

the Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education to improve the schools. The Private Education

Institutions Standards Directive, including the optional and compulsory spaces in primary schools, is

one of them (Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education, 2020). The Let Schools Be Life

Project, like the other, aimed to make schools a livable and safe area as a social center. For this

purpose, amongst the Ministry of National Education the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, the

Union of Municipalities of Turkey was signed a protocol and was given to the coordination of the

Ministry of National Education General Directorate of Lifelong Learning, located in all provinces in

Turkey and has been active since the 2011 school year. Let Schools Be Life Project aimed to open

schools affiliated with the Ministry of Education to the service of parents and the neighborhood, to

transform students and parents into living safe areas, to use schools for sports, cultural and social

services, and to reorganize school gardens with afforesting (Republic of Turkey Ministry of National

Education, 2020a). Furthermore, Educational Buildings Minimum Design Standards Guide was

revised by the Republic of Turkey the Ministry of Education in 2015. This guide stated that its goal

was to “construct repaired education and training facilities to meet the expectations and needs of

today, by developments in technology in education and training, by the current legislation, region, and

plot conditions, in a safe, economical, aesthetic, and accessible environment for everyone to improve

the quality of education” (Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education, 2015, p. 2). In the

Republic of Turkey Ministry of Education's 2015-2019 Strategic Plan, the priorities of education

venues were to provide sufficient areas for sports and cultural activities (Directorate of Strategy

Development, 2015). In addition to these studies, in the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Education’s

2019-2023 Strategic Plan document, "school building, garden, gym, laboratories, and other such


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



facilities” have been stated in the priority areas (Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education,

2019b).

Although given educational policies can evaluated as positive developments, the literature indicated

the need to improve the physical conditions of primary schools in Turkey (Başar, 2000; Akbaba &

Turhan, 2016; Radmard, Karataş, & Öksüz-Gül, 2021; Yılmaz, 2012). Schools need to meet the

requirements of modern education. The school buildings are typical and old-fashioned. Schools should

be restructured to develop individualized education and to support teaching and learning since the

functionality of the learning environment depends on how it is structured and organized. A well-

designed school encourages better student performance and makes a strong statement to the general

public about the importance of education. For this reason, school buildings are a crucial factor in

educational growth (Mcmichael, 2004). Given the importance for educational growth of the physical

learning environments, restructuring of current school buildings is essential and this study sought to

understand the classroom teacher’s views that might help to alleviate the problem of school

reconstruction. Although an increasing number of scientific studies focusing on the importance of

physical conditions of schools, knowledge on the conditions of primary schools (according to rural

and urban schools) is insufficient. Correspondingly, this study aimed to examine the views of primary

school teachers on the conditions of physical learning environments of primary schools. To this end,

the authors sought to answer the following questions:

What are the views of classroom teachers working in a rural area and those working in an

urban area about the conditions of physical learning environments of primary schools?

What do classroom teachers working in a rural area and those working in an urban area

suggest for enhancement of physical facilities of primary schools?

METHOD

Research Design

In this study, a qualitative approach was adopted to provide a deeper understanding of the views of

classroom teachers regarding the conditions of the physical learning environments of primary schools

in Turkey. The study was designed by a case study method, exploring a bounded system or multiple

bounded systems (Merriam, 2009). This methodology allows for researchers to understand the case

themselves through an interpretation of the data (Creswell, 2007). This is why, in this study, each

condition of rural and urban primary schools is specified as ‘the case’. A case study requires the study

of a real-life, a contemporary context or setting; because of that, interview techniques, focus group

interviews, and document analysis are used predominantly (Creswell, 2013).

Participants

The participants of the study consisted of 14 primary school teachers who participated voluntarily. The

participants were chosen using maximum variation sampling, one of the purposeful sampling

strategies, providing ‘high-quality, detailed descriptions of each case useful for documenting

uniqueness, and important shared patterns that cut across cases and derive their significance from

having emerged out of heterogeneity’ (Patton, 2002, p. 235). The participating teachers were

determined through criterion sampling. The study inclusion criteria for participants were (1) voluntary

participation, and (2) serving as a classroom teacher in rural and urban areas. The participants of the

study were divided into two groups as those working in a rural area and those working in an urban area

in order to be able to compare the views of the participants more clearly. The descriptive information

of the participants was presented in Table 1.

According to Table 1, three of the participants were women. Six participants have completed a

master's degree. All participants have been teaching primary school students for at least four years. Six

of them have been working in rural areas. Primary school teachers from the western and eastern

regions of Turkey participated in the study.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 1. Participant’s descriptive information

Participant Gender Grade Education

Level

Professional

Experience (Year)

Location

Emrah Male 1 BSc 13 Adıyaman (in an urban area)

Serhat Male 4 MSc 16 Adıyaman (in a rural area)

Hasan Male 3 BSc 18 Adıyaman (in an urban area)

Çağrı Male 4 BSc 4 Ağrı (in a rural area)

Suat Male 2 MSc 4 Ağrı (in a rural area)

Özge Female 1 BSc 11 Çanakkale (in an urban area)

Seniha Female 2 BSc 13 Çanakkale (in an urban area)

Gökhan Male 4 BSc 36 Çanakkale (in an urban area)

Mehmet Male 3 BSc 30 Çanakkale (in an urban area)

Faruk Male 3 BSc 10 Gaziantep (in a rural area)

Murat Male 4 MSc 16 Gaziantep (in an urban area)

Aslı Female 2 MSc 16 İstanbul (in an urban area)

Kenan Male 2 MSc 13 Kahramanmaraş (in an urban area)

Veli Male 4 MSc 15 Malatya (in an urban area)

* The names of the participants replaced with pseudonyms.

Data collection

In the study, an introductory form and standardized interview techniques were used to collect data.

The interview questions were prepared by the researchers after literature reviews. In the literature,

21st-century learning environments are depicted as a social environment, physical environment, and

digital environment (EDUSPACES21, 2016). In the study, the interview questions focused on the

physical learning environments of primary schools. The interview consisted of five open-ended

questions.

The synchronous online focus group interviews were conducted using Zoom, a commercial web

conferencing service, as a data collection method. The focus group interview was used to obtain in-

depth information through a discussion and unstructured interview, using the effect of group dynamics

in an environment where individuals can express themselves freely. The focus group interview aims to

collect rich data in a social context (Patton, 2002). The interviews lasted 90 minutes, totaling 180

minutes. Interviews were finished once data saturation had been achieved. All interviews were

videotaped and transcribed with the permission of participants.

Data analysis

In this study, a content analysis method was used, referring to 'any data reduction and sense-making

effort that takes some qualitative material and attempts to identify core consistencies and meanings'

(Patton, 2002, p. 453). When analyzing the data, the researchers followed three steps as suggested by

Merriam (2009); creating categories, sorting categories, and naming categories. After all interviews

were transcribed to the Microsoft Word program, the researchers independently encoded the data, and

categorized it according to themes to ensure reliability. Second, they reviewed their codes and themes

together. Lastly, codes and themes were edited and interpreted. In order to provide internal validity of

the study, the member control technique was used during data collection. Direct quotes from

classroom teachers were added to study to ensure external validity.

FINDINGS

In this section, the themes emerging from the data within the scope of the research questions were

presented under two topics; views on the physical learning environments of primary schools, and

suggestions for enhancement the physical facilities of primary schools.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Views on the physical learning environments of primary schools

The teachers were asked what their views were regarding the physical learning environments of

primary schools. The analysis of their responses shows that the responses from both groups can be

divided into four categories: planning-related shortcomings, infrastructure deficiency, child-friendly

schools, and the advantages of these schools. The views on the physical learning environments of

primary schools were presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Views on the physical learning environments of primary schools

Primary school teachers working in urban area Primary school teachers working in rural area

Answers f Answers f

Planning-related shortcomings

Schools with shared yards

2

Planning-related shortcomings

Schools with shared yards

2

Transforming secondary and high schools into primary

schools

2 Adding a new school building to the school area 1

Overcrowded schools 4 Overcrowded schools 2

Total 8 School location 1

Infrastructure deficiency Total 6

Acoustic insulation 1 Infrastructure deficiency

Classrooms and other physical learning areas (art,

sport, and welcoming areas)

11 Classrooms and other physical learning areas (art,

sport, and welcoming areas)

6

Heating 2 Heating 3

Technology 1 Technology 2

Equipment 5 Equipment 5

Security 2 Hygiene 2

Total 22 Total 18

Child-friendly schools Child-friendly schools

Attractiveness 5 Attractiveness 4

Green spaces and soil at the school courtyard 7 Green spaces and soil at the school courtyard 2

Child-scale areas 4 Child-scale areas 1

Community-connected areas 1 Community-connected areas 2

A building with minimal floors 3 Sports, culture, and arts 2

Total 26 Total 13

Advantages Advantages

Technology 3 Technology 1

Large playground 1 A building with minimal floors 1

Hygiene 1 Indoor sports hall 1

Indoor sports hall 1 Total 3

Visual art room 1

Drama room 1

Total 8

The answers about planning-related shortcomings pointed out primary and secondary school buildings

with shared yards, transforming secondary and high schools into primary schools, overcrowded

schools, and adding a new school building to the school area. The participants stated that the proximity

of primary and secondary school buildings create some problems for all students to benefit from the

playground. The answers given by Çağrı, and Emrah were as follows:

The primary school and secondary school, unfortunately, share the same building. We see the

disadvantages of this, especially during the breaks, that primary and secondary school

students cannot move comfortably (Çağrı).

We use the playground with middle school. We are experiencing the troubles that middle

school students suffer. All students find it challenging to benefit from the same playground

(Emrah).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Transforming secondary and high schools into primary schools also causes primary school children to

be educated in a school that does not meet their developmental needs. A similar planning issue

restricting to meet the developmental needs of students is to add a new school building to the school

area, causing the schoolyards to shrink. In addition, the location and environmental conditions of the

school are mentioned in the teacher response. The answers from Murat, and Serhat were as follows:

Our school was first a high school building. It became primary school later. The trucks are

passing in front of our school (Murat).

The population of Kahta district is 80,000-90,000. Although some regions are newly

developed, there is no detailed planning. For example, a new school building is added to a

standard schoolyard (Serhat).

The overcrowding of schools is the main problem affecting directly students’ learning and childhood

development. The participants' views demonstrate that primary schools in an urban area are the most

affected by this problem. Overcrowding of schools can restrict the provision of education and training

in classrooms, resulting in insufficient playgrounds areas and security problems. The responses of

participants show that schools were more crowded in urban areas. The answers given by Serhat and

Veli were as follows:

There are 20 classrooms in our school. Several classes overlap as students step onto the

playground for physical education class (Serhat).

Especially in Adıyaman, Urfa, and Gaziantep, there is an increase in the number of students

due to immigration. Besides, there is migration from villages to cities. The number of students

in village schools is fewer, and the number of students in central schools is very high (Veli).

The place that causes bullying among students at school is mostly the school canteen. In the

school canteen, older students challenge younger students. In our school, living spaces are

lacking, with constantly limited opportunities, there is inevitably tension among the children at

school. There are 700-800 students in primary school. The school capacity is not enough for

this number of students. We cannot do education and training under these circumstances.

When the bell rings, it becomes very difficult to observe our students due to the crowd

(Kenan).

The answers about infrastructure insufficiency of primary schools include acoustic insulation,

inadequate physical learning environments, heating, technology, equipment, security, and hygiene.

The lack of infrastructure of primary schools in rural and urban areas points to crucial points regarding

the effective learning and teaching practices in schools. The answers from the participants were as

follows:

Since our school building is older, physical environments are not sufficient. The school was

built in 1975. There is no place for sports, artistic performances, storage (Mehmet).

We did not have a library at the school. We have only an archive room. We are trying to get

our radiators repaired (Suat).

There are no empty classrooms or rooms in our school. There were three under the stairs to

store the belongings found in our school, we organize them as storage. We even arranged the

staircase on the ground floor like a tea room. Unfortunately, we do not have any room for a

playground, or library or any activity outside the classroom (Faruk).

There are 11 stair ramps on five floors of the school. Therefore it is not safe. Students

occasionally fall and get injured. The school is old and not earthquake-proof. In the last two

or three years, There have been major earthquakes in Elazığ and Malatya in the last 2-3

years. Our school was also affected by these earthquakes. The cracking occurred in the walls.

The inspectors stated that this was okay (Hasan).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



We don't have a place for theater or music at school. However, the families in the school

where I work are sending their children to courses outside of school because of the high

economic situation, and make up for this deficiency of the school (Kenan).

According to teachers' views, child-friendly schools include attractiveness, green spaces and soil at the

school courtyard, children-scale areas, community-connected areas, a building with minimal floors, as

well as sports, culture, and arts. The views of participants were presented as follows:

The school is built as a rectangular box and the school architecture is unappealing. Right and

left classes are lined up, the classic school is here (Hasan).

More vivid and interesting colors should be used in primary schools. The classroom

environment should be transformed into environments where the imagination and creativity of

children are supported by removing only the table and the board (Özge).

In our student days, the classes turned it into reinforced concrete due to the mud. This was

good for cleaning but not for children's games (Kenan).

We have a 6-storey building. The playground covered by asphalt is a problem for children.

There is no green space in our school (Aslı).

The desks in the classrooms are quite old, some high and some low; they are not suitable for

students. There is only one basketball hoop in the playgrounds and it is not suitable for

children. For this reason, children do not enjoy the game they play (Kenan).

I think the school where I work is small and has few floors, which is suitable for primary

school children (Seniha).

We can only host parents in our classrooms or use areas such as a warehouse. This situation

affects parents' opinions about the school. We do not have an area where we can organize

activities with parents outside of school, and we do not have such a point of view (Kenan).

The participants’ responses point out how primary schools in urban areas have more advantages in

terms of physical learning environments. Many schools in the city have a sports halls, drama rooms,

and libraries. The participants’ answers about the advantages of their schools are as follows:

There is an English class, gym class, painting class. I think these areas are beneficial for

children (Seniha).

There is a theater area (stage) in the basement of the school. We use this scene on certain

days and weeks (Aslı).

It is an advantage that our school has two floors. Children do not have difficulty entering the

classroom during break. The school where I used to work was a five-storey school. It was not

a suitable building for primary school students. Compared to other schools in the district

center, our school has enough school courtyards (Hasan).

In recent years, large investments such as Fatih Project have been made by the government to

improve the physical and technological infrastructure of schools. However, it is still not

enough. The technological infrastructure of schools in rural areas needs to be improved

(Veli).

We bought projectors and computers for our classes with our own means. Many teachers at

my school use their own projectors and computers. By the way, there is an effort to bring

smart boards to the classrooms within the Fatih Project, and this is a good development

(Hasan).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Suggestions for enhancement of physical facilities of primary schools

The answers of participants delineated that although primary schools in urban areas were more

crowded, rural primary schools have more infrastructure deficiency. Child-friendly areas are needed

for both schools. To minimize these problems, suggestions for improving the physical facilities of

primary schools were given in Table 3.

The participants’ suggestions are as follows:

We cannot provide the education we want due to the physical inadequacy of the school. We

can provide classical/traditional education (Gökhan).

We organize competitions, trips to support children's social interactions. We arrange folk

dances, choir, gymnastics courses, and intelligence games. With these activities, the physical

conditions of our schools have improved over the last five years (Mehmet).

There is no point in having a single school entry. An entire building should have more than

one exit door. It doesn't make much sense to me that children enter and exit the same door in a

restricted way. If there is more than one exit door, it will provide us much more comfort for

evacuation in an event such as an earthquake (Kenan).

Table 3. Suggestions for improving the physical facilities of primary schools

Primary school teachers working in urban area Primary school teachers working in rural area

Answers f Answers f

Elimination of physical infrastructure deficiencies 7 Elimination of physical infrastructure deficiencies 4

Supporting the physical environments to modern

education approaches 2 Supporting the physical environments to modern

education approaches 2

Renovation, the rebuilding of the school Renovation, the rebuilding of the school

Increasing teacher competencies for effective use of

learning spaces 2 Increasing teacher competencies for effective use of

learning spaces 2

Not rushing to open schools if the infrastructure is not

completed. 2 Not rushing to open schools if the infrastructure is not

completed. 1

Tracking the shortcomings of newly opened schools 2 Tracking the shortcomings of newly opened schools 1

Determining the number of students in schools

according to the capacity of the school 4 Supporting the curriculum the effective use of learning

spaces 1

Schools have multiple entrances 2 Areas reserved for out-of-class activities 1

Taking stakeholders' views in the design of school

buildings 2 Total 12

Covering the school floor with soft material 2

The playgrounds in kindergartens for primary schools 1

Wider classes 1

Using every area of the school as a learning area 1

Reflection of regional features to the architectural

structure 1

Teachers' room where students can be observed 1

Total 30


Today, the developing understanding of physical learning environments has provided the basis for the

restructuring of schools around the world. Nevertheless, there are steps that must be taken in primary

school buildings, especially in developing countries, to support the physical learning environments to

encourage the development of children. This study aimed to investigate primary school teachers' views

on the physical learning environments of primary schools. For this purpose, six classroom teachers

working in urban areas, and eight classroom teachers working in rural areas were interviewed.

Teachers' views on the physical learning environments of primary schools are divided into four

categories: as planning-related shortcomings, infrastructure deficiency, child-friendly schools, and the

advantages of these schools. The answers from the classroom teachers working in urban areas mostly


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



focused on the crowding of schools and classrooms. On the other hand, the answers of classroom

teachers working in rural areas generally focused on the physical infrastructure of primary schools.

The participating teachers specifically cited the deficiency of physical infrastructure facilities. This

result is compatible with PISA 2015 report results emphasizing the lacking of educational materials

and the physical infrastructures of schools of Turkey. This report pointed out that the lack or

insufficiency of textbooks, technology equipment, library, or laboratory materials and the physical

infrastructure of the school disrupt the educational activities (Hacettepe University, 2020). A vast body

of research utters a truism about the importance of the school infrastructure to meet the needs of

modern schools. Even though scientific studies do not indicate a direct link between student

achievements and advanced facilities, it indicate that student achievement is lower in poor school

infrastructure (Stricherz, 2000). It is alarming that the findings reflect the quantitative fact about

school facilities over a decade ago and implicate urgent needs of school infrastructures.

A key finding from this study that multi-storey school buildings, the transformation of high schools or

secondary schools into primary school buildings, and the lack of large space allocated for schools,

crowded student population minimize the use of the physical learning environments effectively. These

findings are very valuable in that the physical structure of the school can affect students' attitudes and

behaviors as well as social interaction (Frith, 2015). Various studies conducted in Turkey pointed to

similar results obtained from this study. Highlights of the literature with the results of this research

include; insufficient support of physical learning areas to learning (Akbaba & Turhan, 2016; Yılmaz,

2012); technological infrastructure deficiency (Göçen, Eral, & Bücük, 2020), crowded schools (Köse

& Barkul, 2012); the deficiencies of playgrounds (Akbaba & Turhan, 2016; Işıkoğlu-Erdoğan &

Şimşek, 2014; Şişman & Gültürk, 2011). The findings of the study revealed that the school was

crowded in indoor circulation areas. Furthermore, the responses of the participants pointed out that the

indoor circulation areas of the schools should be large and allow for freedom of movement.

Furthermore, physical spaces should allow for flexible arrangements in the classroom to minimize

infrastructure problems and make the optimum use of school and (or) classroom spaces. Şensoy and

Sağsöz (2015) on the design of flexible classrooms; proposed that two classrooms can be combined as

needed, and that physical space arrangement can be made for collaborative work through moving

walls to better implement the constructivist teaching approach in learning areas. These results reveal

that the building structure characteristics of primary schools in both rural and urban areas strongly

impact the provision of contemporary education and training. The answers from the teachers on the

advantages pointed out that the FATİH project contributed to schools in terms of the technological

infrastructure.

As another critical finding of the study is that primary school buildings should have a structure that

supports the physical, affective, cognitive, kinesthetic, and intellectual development of primary school

children, that is; primary school buildings should be child-friendly. Child-friendly schools envisage

making a physical arrangement that meets the needs of the child for different learning styles and

physical characteristics. For this, there should be areas, classrooms, and equipment suitable for

children between the ages of 6-10 in primary schools. A child who has just started primary school

should be able to participate in a wide learning community with the school's facilities. Schools should

support the interaction between children and adults positively to adapt to social life. The prominent

concept at this point is that spaces allow interaction, in other words, they contain community-related

areas (Nair & Fielding, 2013). Schools allow direct or conscious interactions with the community,

making it easier for children and adults to be included in the school community on certain days and

events. The community-related areas of school can make it easier for children to model school

belonging and positive behavior patterns. Similarly, Güner and Kartal (2020) recommend that the

physical learning environments of schools should support teacher-child-family interaction.

Another critical finding of the study is attractiveness. Teachers stated that primary school-age children

do not perceive schools as attractive places. The teachers reported that they paid attention to the

attention of children in terms of classroom layout, color of the cabinets, shape and color of the


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



materials used. Additionally, the answers from teachers showed that the architectural characteristics of

the school are not very suitable for children. The fact that schools are arranged attracted and suitably is

related to a positive attitude towards schools (Adıgüzel, 2012), which in turn, has the potential to

enhance student learning (Higgins et al., 2005). It can be stated that after pre-school education,

primary schools are a less attractive and motivating place for pupils in Turkey. Similarly, Göçen, Eral,

and Bücük’s (2020) study reveal that the architecture of buildings and the characteristics of physical

learning environments should encourage children to develop positive attitudes towards learning. Thus,

these results provide important clues for redesigning primary schools according to the aesthetic tastes

of the child.

The findings of the study also revealed that the most important learning area emphasized by the

participants emerges as the playground, where children socialize by playing. It was emphasized by the

participants that the playgrounds should be especially rich in equipment; the ground should be covered

with soft surfaces such as grass, soil or rubber. Many participants reported that there were no toys or

benches in the playgrounds. One participant (Aslı) stated that having a park-like playground in

kindergartens would be very valuable for primary school children. The participants stressed that the

playgrounds should provide opportunities for children to learn about ecology and nature. The Turkish

primary school curricula aim to develop knowledge, skills and attitudes about science literacy of

children. For this purpose, out of school activities such as planting seedlings and growing vegetables

in playgrounds have the potential to support children's learning in various ways. However, further

understanding of the potential contribution of this subject to the child development in primary school

contexts is needed. Thus, Radmard, Karataş, and Öksüz-Gül (2021) stressed that to improve students’

environmental literacy and to provide more sustainable schools and ecological learning concepts

should have a more prevalent place in academic works in Turkey. Primary schools should create

opportunities for the implementation of eco pedagogy.

The last findings of the study were suggestions offered by teachers to improve the quality of physical

learning environments of primary schools. All participating teachers agreed that physical infrastructure

deficiencies should be eliminated, physical learning areas should support modern educational

approaches, and old schools should be rebuilt. Furthermore, teacher competencies should be increased

to benefit from learning areas in the most effective way. In this context, the views of the participants

revealed the security problem of schools, crowdedness, and improvement of the playground. The

participants expressed the views on reflecting regional features to the architectural structure, taking the

views of teachers in the design of the physical learning environments of the schools, and the children's

scale of the schools (small, low-rise, the suitability of the materials to children). It has been reported

that the curriculum should especially support activity areas where children can interact with the

community. These results are compatible with the literature. The scientific studies indicated that the

arrangement of primary school buildings and classrooms contributes the development of students'

basic language skills (Tanner, 2009), and wider and more orienting corridors resulted in better learning

progress. Thus, the physical areas of school should be wider to movement and circulation. In this

study, participants stated the importance of wider scale areas for student development. Besides,

participants indicated the using of individual display to promote child’s interest for school. Previous

studies have confirmed that individual display also plays a role in developing a sense of belonging of

children, and the layout of classroom impacts on attitudes to express of children, and the importance of

environmental arrangements for individual differences (Barrett, Davies, Zhang, & Barrett, 2015).

Finally, the findings of this study pointed out the conflict between the current teaching approach and

learning environments, similar to the findings of previous studies (Mellor, 2016).

Limitations of the Study

Although this study descripts the views of classroom teachers, it had some limitations. First of all, the

study was designed with a case study; the data collection method was focus group interviews only.

The data triangulation may contribute to achieving a broad picture of the conditions of primary

schools. The second limitation of the study is the sample size. Despite the maximization of participants


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



working in rural and urban schools from the east and west regions of Turkey have the potential to give

some common and exclusive findings, the sample size (the participants) could be larger to provide a

higher level of data saturation. Despite the qualitative study allow analytical generalization to draw

theoretical inferences from the findings (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2016), fewer participants can be at risk

for data saturation.

Implications and Recommendations

The following implications can be given for the physical learning environments of primary schools:

First of all, the infrastructure problems of the schools should be solved and the schools should

be restructured.

Classes should be large enough to accommodate individual and group work.

Primary schools should not be crowded.

Primary school buildings should have minimal floors.

Primary schools should be an area of interest for students. Therefore, students' views should

be taken into account in the architectural and physical space arrangements of the school. 21st-

century schools can be the basis for necessary adjustments.

Primary schools should be an area where students socialize. For this, the playground,

classrooms and common areas of the school should meet the social needs of the students.

Schools must be safe. Safe schools should not be thought of as places only monitored by

cameras. Furthermore, the fact that the interactive environments in the school allow social

interaction, adult support, and more activities for children to help create a safe school.

The school and the ground should be environmentally compatible and sufficient to facilitate

the curriculum.

Cafeterias should be large enough to reduce crowded accommodation.

There should be special areas in the school that welcome parents.

Playgrounds should be large so that primary and secondary school students can be separated

from each other.

Teachers should be informed about the arrangement of learning environments so that they can

effectively benefit from all areas of the school.

Ethical Considerations

An ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee to conduct the study (Project number:

E-30237869-050.99-66327).

REFERENCES

Adıgüzel, A. (2012). The validity and reliability study about school attitude scale. Electronic Journal of Social Sciences,

11(40), 30-45.

Akbaba, A., & Turhan, M. (2016). Investigating teachers’ views about physical problems of primary schools (Van sample).

Karadeniz Technical University Institute of Social Sciences Journal of Social Sciences. 6(12), 341-357.

Bardone, A., & Gargiulo, C. (2014). Learning in twenty-first century schools: Norms and costs of school infrastructure.

Inter-American Development Bank.

Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y., & Barrett, L. (2015). The impact of classroom design on pupils' learning: Final results of

a holistic, multi-level analysis. Building and Environment, 89, 118-133.

Başar, M. A. (2000). İlköğretim okullarının işgören ve fiziki olanakları [Employment and physical facilities of primary

schools]. Pamukkale University Journal of Education, 8, 134-140.

Benade, L. (2019). Flexible learning spaces: Inclusive by design? New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 54, 53–68.

Craissati, D., Devi Banerjee, U., King, L., Lansdown, G., & Smith, A. (2007). A human rights based approach to education

for all. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund.

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative enquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage Publications.

Creswell, J. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. California, CA: SAGE.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Dejong, W. (1997). Building change into new buildings. School Administrator, 54(6), 10-13.

Directorate of Strategy Development. (2015). Ministry of National Education 2015-2019 strategic plan [Millî Eğitim

Bakanlığı 2015-2019 stratejik planı]. Ankara: MoNE.

EDUSPACES21. (2016). Physical and architectural learning environment: Educational spaces 21. open up!. Warsaw:

Center for Citizenship Education Foundation.

Frith, K. (2015). Inside school design: The role of interior design in cultural change. (Unpublished doctoral thesis).

Swinburne University of Technology: Melbourne, Vic. Retrieved from http://hdl. handle. net/1959.3/414201.

Göçen, A., Eral S. H., & Bücük, M. H. (2020). Teacher perceptions of a 21st century classroom. International Journal of

Contemporary Educational Research, 7(1), 85-98. doi: https://doi.org/10.33200/ijcer.638110

Güner, F., & Kartal, H. (2020). Review of classroom teachers’ standpoints for elementary schools in the context of schools’

readiness. Education and Science, 45(203), 411-437. doi: 0.15390/EB.2020.8681

Hacettepe University, the Faculty of Education. (2020). PISA and Turkey (2000-2018). Ankara. Retrieved from

http://www.egitim.hacettepe.edu.tr/belge/pisaveturkiye.pdf

Hanover Research. (2011). School structures that support 21st century learning. Washington DC. Retrieved from

https://www.apsva.us/wp-content/uploads/legacy_assets/www/bda59d16b8-School_Structures.pdf

Higgins, S., Hall, E., Wall, K., Woolner, P., & McCaughey, C. (2005). The impact of school environments: A literature

review. London: Design Council, available at:

https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.231.7213&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Işıkoğlu-Erdoğan, N., & Şimşek, Z. C. (2014). Investigation of school readiness of first grade children, parents and teachers.

International Journal of New Trends in Arts, Sports & Science Education, 3(2), 62-70.

Kopec, D. (2006). Environmental psychology for design. NY: Fairchild Publication.

Köse, Ç., & Barkul, Ö. (2012). A study on the problems of the implementation of project type primary structures. Megaron

Architecture, 7(2), 94-102.

Mcmichael, C. A. (2004). Perspectives of school planners and architects and professional educators regarding elementary

school facility design characteristics (Doctoral dissertation). The University of Georgia, Athens. Retrieved from

https://athenaeum.libs.uga.edu/handle/10724/22179

Mellor, J. E. (2016). An Action Research investigation into the innovation of a creative pedagogic approach within a

secondary school Building Schools for the Future project. (Unpublished Doctoral dissertation), University of

Leicester, UK.

Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-

Bass.

Nair, P., & Fielding, R. (2013). The language of school design: Design patterns for 21st century schools (3rd ed.).

Minneapolis, USA: Designshare.com.

OECD. (2018). PISA 2015: Results in focus. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Pereira, P. R. P., Kowaltowski, D. C. C. K., & Deliberador, M. S. (2018). Analysis support for the design process of school

buildings. Ambiente Construído, 18(3), 375-390. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1678-86212018000300287

Radmard, S., Karataş, İ. H., & Öksüz-Gül, F. (2021). The design and aesthetics of school structure: A content analysis of

national and international perspectives. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 36(2), 406-429.

Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education. (2015). Educational buildings minimum design standards guide.

Retrieved from

http://erbaa.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2016_12/06090414_2015_egitim_yapilari__asgari_tasarim_standartlari__

_klavuzu.pdf

Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education. (2019b). 2019-2023 strategic plan. Retrieved from

http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2020_03/31150840_stratejik_plan_2019_2023.pdf

Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education. (2020a). Schools get life. Retrieved from

http://okullarhayatolsun.meb.gov.tr/?

Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education. (2020b). Special education institutions standards directive. Retrieved

from



http://dx.doi.org/10.15390/EB.2020.8681

http://www.egitim.hacettepe.edu.tr/belge/pisaveturkiye.pdf

https://www.apsva.us/wp-content/uploads/legacy_assets/www/bda59d16b8-School_Structures.pdf

https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.231.7213&rep=rep1&type=pdf

https://athenaeum.libs.uga.edu/handle/10724/22179

https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf

http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1678-86212018000300287

http://erbaa.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2016_12/06090414_2015_egitim_yapilari__asgari_tasarim_standartlari___klavuzu.pdf

http://erbaa.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2016_12/06090414_2015_egitim_yapilari__asgari_tasarim_standartlari___klavuzu.pdf

http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2020_03/31150840_stratejik_plan_2019_2023.pdf

http://okullarhayatolsun.meb.gov.tr/

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



http://ookgm.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2020_03/13113722_OZEL_OYRETYM_kURUMLARI_STANDARTL

AR_YONERGESY_11.03.2020_tarihli_ve_5331494_sayYlY_Makam_Oluru.pdf

Stipanovic, N., & Pergantis, S. I. (2018). Inclusive education for international students: Applications of a constructivist

framework. The International Education Journal: Comparative Perspectives, 17(1), 37-50.

Stricherz, M. (2000). Bricks and mortarboards. Education Week, 20(14), 30–32.

Şensoy, S. A., & Sağsöz, A. (2015). Relation between pupils academic achievement and pyhsical conditions of classrooms.

Kırşehir Faculty of Education Journal (JKEF), 16(3), 87-104.

Şişman, E. E., & Gültürk, P. (2011). A research on primary schoolyards in terms of landscape planing and design: Tekirdag.

Journal of Tekirdag Agricultural Faculty, 8(3), 53-60.

Tanner, C. K. (2009). Effects of school design on student outcomes. Journal of Educational Administration, 47(3), 381-399.

Trosper, S. T. (2017). Safe school building characteristics in Virginia’s elementary schools: architect and principal

perspectives (Doctoral dissertation). The Virginia Polytechnic Institute, USA. Retrieved from

https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/bitstream/handle/10919/85258/Trosper_ST_T_2017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Wright, N., Thompson, T., & Horne, T. (2021). Talking spaces: Architects and educators. New Zealand Journal of

Educational Studies, 1-15, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40841-021-00193-5

Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2018). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri [Qualitative research methods in the social

sciences] (11. Ed.). Ankara: Seçkin Publishing.

Yılmaz, A. (2012). The evaluation of the primary schools’ physical structure in terms of education. Balikesir University The

Journal of Social Sciences Institute, 15(28), 78-107.


http://ookgm.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2020_03/13113722_OZEL_OYRETYM_kURUMLARI_STANDARTLAR_YONERGESY_11.03.2020_tarihli_ve_5331494_sayYlY_Makam_Oluru.pdf

http://ookgm.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2020_03/13113722_OZEL_OYRETYM_kURUMLARI_STANDARTLAR_YONERGESY_11.03.2020_tarihli_ve_5331494_sayYlY_Makam_Oluru.pdf

https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/bitstream/handle/10919/85258/Trosper_ST_T_2017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40841-021-00193-5

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



INVESTIGATION OF THE VIEWS OF PRE-SERVICE TURKISH

TEACHERS IN TERMS OF SPEED READING

Hulusi GEÇGEL

Assoc.Prof.Dr., Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Education, Çanakkale, Turkey


[email protected]

Fatih KANA

Assist.Prof.Dr., Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Education, Çanakkale, Turkey

ORCID: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-1087-4081

[email protected]

İlknur YALÇIN AKKAŞ

Turkish Language Teacher, Ministry of Education, Çanakkale, Turkey

ORCID: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0001-8497-9161

[email protected]

Received: June 25, 2020 Accepted: September 19, 2020 Published: June 30, 2021

Suggested Citation:

Geçgel, H., Kana, F., & Yalçın Akkaş, İ. (2021). Investigation of the views of pre-service Turkish teachers in terms of speed

reading. International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 10(1), 193-206.


Abstract

The aim of this study is to reveal the views of pre-service Turkish teachers in terms of the speed reading. To that extent, case

study design was adopted in the research. The study group consists of 85 3rd and 4th grade pre-service teachers from a state

university in the West of Turkey. A semi-structured interview form was used as a data collection tool in the research. The

descriptive analysis method was used in the data analysis of the research. Accordingly, speed reading is a requisite in

Turkish teacher education. Most of the pre-service teachers consider speed reading as an essential ability. Some participants

stated that they had a high concentration level when reading. The participants claim that speed reading will improve their

exam performance, allow them to save time and, to read more books, and it will also contribute them in their future

professions.

Keywords: Reading, speed reading, reading speed, pre-service Turkish teachers.

INTRODUCTION

Today, there is a great deal of information that needs to be accessed in an extremely limited time.

Books, newspapers, magazines, articles, business-related reports, e-mails have become indispensable

parts of daily life as well as the internet and social media. People need new methods that will help

individuals to save time to spend for all these responsibilities in a 24-hour time slot, and one of these

methods is speed reading. When speed reading is mentioned, biases come into people’s mind and a

reading type independent from comprehension is recalled. However, reading cannot be thought

without comprehension. To better understand speed reading, it is necessary to know the concept of

reading well first.

According to Gündüz and Şimşek (2011), reading is an activity of seeing, perceiving, understanding,

and making sense of words, sentences or a text with all its elements. They do not mean basic reading,

but functional reading, which enhances one's world of feeling and thought. In this respect, reading

makes important contributions to the development of personality and the enrichment of individual and

social life. Reading is an activity that enables knowledge, development, and fun. It consists of the

functions of the brain such as vision, perception, vocalization, comprehension, and configuration.

Harris and Sipay (1990, p. 10) describe reading as meaningfully interpreting the language of writing.

Dökmen (1994, p. 15) states that reading is not all about seeing words and sentences, but that mental






IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



activities must occur for reading to take place. Güneş (2009, p. 3) referred to reading as decoding

writings. In addition to this statement, he expressed that reading is about capturing the generic

meaning and so fronted silent reading. According to the constructivist educational approach applied in

the Turkish language curriculum since 2005, reading has been treated as a process that improves

mental structure.

According to the constructivist approach, reading is an active process in which the individual creates

new meanings by integrating the information in the texts one reads with preliminary information and

expands vocabulary. In this process, individuals explore, interpret and remake sense of the meaning of

the writings. The process of reading is mental and complex. Accordingly, individuals use various

mental processes such as sorting, classifying, associating, questioning, analysis-synthesis, evaluation.

The information passed through these processes is re-interpreted with the preliminary information of

the individual and subjected to a new process (Güneş, 2009, p. 3). Reading is the best way to manage

the reading process. A good reader determines the important information in the text s/he reads,

integrates the new information with his / her preliminary information, makes inferences, interprets and

relates it to daily life (Ateş, Güray, Döğmeci, & Gürsoy, 2016). Individuals need to have high-level

thinking skills to make inferences from the text (Özdemir & Kiroğlu, 2019).

Gündüz and Şimşek (2011:145-161) define speed reading as a text length and a type of visual reading

that can be done in unit time. Arıcı (2012) defines speed reading as reading many words in a given

time. According to Ruşen (2006), speed reading increases the level of comprehension of individuals

by the number of words they read. Maviş (2006: 73) describes reading speed as the duration of

reading by understanding a text and states that reading speed is determined by the reader's purpose,

comprehension strength, the difficulty level of the subject and material. Speed reading is known in

society as the number of words an individual reading in a minute. In the constructivist approach,

speed reading is the research, discovery, interpretation, re-interpretation of lines, which are called

writing, and their configuration in the mind. Speed reading is not a simple form of reading, but a

process that works as a mental process by understanding (Güneş, 2009, p. 5). Research on speed

reading (Akçamete, 1989; Dökmen, 1994; Tazebay, 1997; Avcıoğlu, 2000; Coşkun, 2002; Dedebali,

2008; Karadağ, Keskin, & Arı, 2019) focused on the number of words read by the individual.

Richadeau, Gauquelin, and Gauquelin (1990, p. 39-40) express that our eyes move forward by making

leaps and pauses on the text.

Kavcar, Oğuzkan, and Sever (1995) and Ruşen (2006) emphasize that eye training and visual

perception are important in speed reading. Akyol (2007) emphasizes habits in speed reading, while

Brook (1936) emphasizes that line length is important. Ruşen (2006, p. 49) states that the basis of

reading is the individual's desire to acquire new knowledge or the idea that previous knowledge must

be reinforced. In addition to speed of reading, it is also important to understand what is read (Tazebay,

1995; Güneş, 2000; Garland & Çalışkan 2004). When the post-graduate research on speed reading are

examined (Dedebali, 2008; Bozan, 2012; Ciftcibasi, 2013; Kaçar, 2015; Soysal, 2015; Ilter, 2018;

Torppa, Vasalampi, Eklund, Sulkunen, & Niemi, 2018; Astari, 2019; Babayiğit, 2019; Çelik, 2019;

Mergen, 2019; Muñoz, Vejarano, & Vargas, 2019; Yurdakal, 2019; Bergmann, & Bristle, 2020;

Durukan, 2020) many studies with secondary school and high school students were conducted. In

contrary, no study was conducted at universities. In this respect, this study aims to determine the

opinions of pre-service Turkish teachers about fast reading. For this purpose, answers to the following

questions have been investigated in this study:

1. What is the reading speed of pre-service Turkish teachers?

2. What is the perception of pre-service Turkish teachers about their own level of reading?

3. What kind of activities do pre-service Turkish teachers intend to do about speed reading?

4. Is speed reading seen as a need for pre-service Turkish teachers?

5. What do pre-service Turkish teachers think about the articles that should be read in a short

time?

6. What are the reading concentration levels of preservice Turkish teachers?


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



7. How is the relationship between preservice Turkish teacher reading speeds and

comprehension levels?

8. What are the opinions of preservice Turkish teachers on speed reading?

METHOD

Research Design

The case study design was used in this research. The case study is expressed as an in-depth

investigation and description of a current situation (Merriam, 2013, p. 40). In a case study, there is a

case of an intensive study of an event about how and why questions are being answered in case

studies. In the study, the opinions of the pre-service teachers about speed reading were examined

which is one of the methods of reading skills included in the four basic language skills. When pre-

service teachers start their profession following their graduation, they will give their students speed

reading techniques and ask them to read and understand texts quickly. Getting their opinion on speed

reading before they start their profession will allow them to experience awareness regarding this

process.

Research Group

In the study, a simple random sampling method was used (Büyüköztürk, Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz,

& Demirel, 2014). In this study, 85 pre-service Turkish teachers who studied during the 2019-2020

academic year were selected as a sampling group.

Data Collection

A semi-structured interview form was presented to the students in the study. The interview form

consists of questions which has been prepared by the researchers and reviewed by the faculty

members who experts in their field. A semi-structured interview form was administered to the

students after the interview questions were received from the field experts. In accordance with the

feedback received from the student, the questions were revised and modified.

Data Analysis

The data in the study was obtained by interview form. Then, the codes were analyzed by considering

categories. Descriptive analysis was used to evaluate interview forms. Descriptive analysis is the

encoding of qualitative data based on a predetermined framework (Büyüköztürk et al., 2014, p. 240).

The data obtained in the research were analyzed in accordance with the pre-determined themes.

Validity and Reliability of Research

To ensure the structural validity of the research, pre-service teachers with different grade point

averages and different levels were included in the research. The data obtained in the study were

analyzed by different researchers, ensuring that the findings and analyses were consistent with each

other. To ensure the internal validity of the study, the data obtained from the study group were

included in the findings section via extracts. The findings of the study were generalized to ensure the

external validity. To ensure the internal reliability of the research, some other researchers examined

and verified the data (Merriam, 2013).

Ethical Consideration

The permission of the Ethics Committee for the research was obtained by the resolution of the Social

Sciences and Educational Sciences Ethics Committee at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University dated

16.04.2020 No. 03. Besides, the participants of the study declared that they participated voluntarily in

the research.

RESULTS

In this part of the study, the views of pre-service Turkish teachers in terms of speed reading were

examined.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Speed Reading Competencies

Table 1. Opinions of pre-service Turkish teachers about their reading speed competency

Codes f (79)

Yes, I consider my reading speed is sufficient. 45

No, I do not consider my reading speed is sufficient 30

I consider it is partly sufficient/ It could be a lit bit quicker/Average 10

When Table 1 was examined, it was seen that pre-service Turkish teachers (n=45) find their reading

speed enough. In contrary, some students do not find their reading speeds enough (n=30), some others

find their reading speed partially enough. Those who said, "Yes, I consider my reading speed

sufficient." expressed their opinion as:

“Yes, I consider it is sufficient. For example, I can finish a novel book in average thickness. I do not

have any problem with solving paragraph questions” (A12).

“I consider it is sufficient. When I start to read a book, I can finish it in a very short time. I did not

have any difficulty in finishing the exams that I had in the past.” (A15).

“I do not consider it is sufficient. I consider I can read neither quick or slow. I think that I have

stabilized my reading skill as I can understand what I read” (A18).

“I consider my reading speed is sufficient because I can solve questions very quickly. The only

problem with my reading is that I do not understand what I read. I mean, the questions that I solve

after a quick reading are often wrong.” (A25).

“I consider it is sufficient because I read for fun. As I read the books that I like, I have no intention to

read them very quickly. Just opposite, I like reading them slowly, having fun.” (A24).

Those who said “No, I do not consider my reading speed is sufficient.” express their opinion as

follows:

“I am not a good reader. I do not consider I am sufficient in that because it requires too many

different texts.” (A1).

“I do not consider it is sufficient for exams, but I am very comfortable when I am reading a novel. I

feel nervous when I must compete in exams; therefore, I may not understand what I read. I am not

concerned with how fast I read when I am reading books. I am engrossed in the book and forget about

all the rest.” (A22).

“I do not consider it is sufficient because I cannot understand what I am reading when I read fast. I

spend time as much as necessary for reading rather than spending more. I do not have much time to

go back when I am solving questions or reading book.” (A23).

Those who said "I consider it is partly sufficient/it could be a little bit faster/average" expressed their

opinion as:

“I consider my reading speed is at an average level. I consider my reading speed satisfactory when I

am reading and having fun. However, I do not consider my reading speed is enough especially when I

have to finish reading something in a very limited time.” (A9).

“I consider it is partly sufficient although it is not too slow because human always wants to be faster

no matter how fast they are. I also want to be faster.” (A44).

Although pre-service teachers consider their reading speed enough, there are also pre-service teachers

who do not see their reading speed enough.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



The Level of Being Reader

Table 2. Opinions of pre-service teachers regarding being a reader no matter if they are a good or bad

one

Codes f (85)

I fell myself as a good reader. 53

I fell myself as a bad reader. 15

I fell myself as an average reader. 14

It changes based on time and condition. 1

I find it useless to put myself in a category. 2

When the table 2 was examined, pre-service Turkish teachers (n=53) express that they consider

themselves to be good readers. Some pre-service teachers think of themselves as bad readers (n=15)

and who think they are average readers (n=14). Some think it differs based on time and conditions if

they are good or bad readers, and some do not put themselves in any category. Those who said I

consider I am a good reader” expressed their opinions as follows:

“I am a good reader because I never give a break when I am reading. If I have started, I finish it.

Then I immediately start a new book. I cannot stay away from books.” (A3).

“I consider that I am slightly a good reader. The reason why I say “slightly” is that I cannot spare

much time to reading. Except those, I can read long texts on various topics. There are news sources I

keenly follow.” (A22).

“I consider I am a good reader. There have been no exams which I took and failed to finish all the

questions on time. My immediate friends also say that I read fast. In general, I am a good reader

because I immediately buy or find a new book when I do not have any to read. I am very careful about

finishing a book that I have started.” (A36).

“I consider I am a good reader. The advantage that it brings about is that I am studying at the

department. To be honest, I was the kind of person who liked reading before I started to study at this

department.” (A44).

Those who said “I consider I am a bad reader” expressed their opinions as:

“I am generally a bad reader. It is not a habit for me to read. The books that I read are not various.”

(A5).

“I do not consider it is insufficient. This makes me neither good nor bad because it limits me in the

things that I plan to do even if it satisfies me. Therefore, it is not sufficient.” (A16).

Those who said “I consider I am an average reader” expressed their opinions as:

“I am not one of the bad readers. I do not avoid reading. I like reading and talking about what I have

read, but I cannot claim that I am a very good reader. There are better readers than I am.” (A15).

“I consider I am an average reader. The book series I like consists of three books and I finished it in

two days. I consider it was normal considering that the average page number of each was 300.

However, it took me weeks to finish a thin book (Açlık Oyunları), which was made obligatory by the

school (Sergüzeşt) (A19).

Those who said “It changes based on time and conditions” expressed their opinion as:

“My mind regarding these changes from time to time because I sometimes read very much, and I feel

I read very fast and I am a good reader. However, I feel my reading speed went back.” (A2).

When the opinions of the teacher candidates are examined, the teacher candidates generally see

themselves as good readers.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Speed Reading Activities

Table 3. Opinions of pre-service teachers regarding the activities they have executed, or they plan to

improve their reading speed.

Codes f (84)

I participated. 5

I participated; I am thinking of participating. 1

I participated; I do not think that I will participate. 1

I did not participate. 4

I did not participate; I do not think I will participate 44

I did not participate; I do not think I will participate. 29

When Table 3 was examined, pre-service Turkish teachers (n=44) were found not to have participated

in any seminar, congress, course etc., and they did not intend to participate in the future. Some pre-

service teachers have not previously participated in an activity related to speed reading and are not

considering participating (n=29). Those who said: “I participated; I don't think I will participate."

expressed their opinions as:

“The thing that I do about speed reading is normal reading because I speed up reading and my

vocabulary treasure extends.” (A3). “There were such activities when I was in secondary and high

school. Therefore, I can claim that am a speed reader. I received training on speed reading.” (A28).

“I received training on speed reading. I benefitted a lot from it. But I do not care about reading fast

very much. I prefer reading and interpreting the meaning to speed reading. I think everything is fast

enough. I prefer to be left alone and read.” (A69).

Those who said “I did not participate; I think I will participate” expressed their opinions as:

“I never thought about it before. I am trying to improve it by reading a lot. However, I have started

to think about receiving training on speed reading. I only need to see the outcomes of the training that

I would receive.” (A9).

“I thought about it when I was in high school. There was a training session on speed reading. My

reading speed was not so slow at those times. However, I still thought that I needed to improve it.

However, I did not receive any training on that. Now I am thing about it. Why not?” (A16).

“I am not thinking about participating anything paid. I would participate in any seminar or congress

if they are on education if they teach me how to read fast, how I can be more beneficial to my

students, advantages and disadvantages. If I believe that they would be beneficial upon such briefing,

I can receive such training, but they should be free of charge, you know we are students.” (A19).

Those who said “I did not participate; I do not think I will participate” expressed their opinion as:

“I have never thought about any activity. I can improve myself reading more.” (A4).

“Speed reading is a need for me, not a target. I do not feel any need to participate in such activities as

I read for fun.” (A24).

The pre-service teachers did not participate in activities related to speed reading and do not think to

participate.

Need for Speed Reading

Table 4. Opinions of pre-service teachers regarding speed reading

Codes f (84)

Yes, I feel it is a need. 67

No, I do not think it is a need. 12

I am neutral. 2

Partly. 2

Sometimes. 1


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



When Table 4 was examined, pre-service Turkish teachers (n=67) consider speed reading necessary.

Some do not consider speed reading necessary (n=12). Some are neutral about the need for speed

reading, those who partly or sometimes consider it as a need. Those who said “Yes, I consider it as a

need" expressed their opinion as:

“I think speed reading is necessary for every individual. I want to be able to read fast especially in

important exams to save time.” (A5).

“Maybe, this outcome will contribute positively to me. In the exam, I can be faster especially in

paragraph type questions and have an advantage over others. Thus, I have a chance to go back to the

unanswered questions." (A67).

“I certainly consider it is a need. We use reading skill in every aspect of our life. As we, as teachers,

will be responsible for helping our students gain these skills, we are supposed to have such skills first.

We save more time in this way.” (A23).

“Speed reading is a need in today's conditions because there is too much information that we need to

learn and there are many books to read. Due to the other responsibilities that we are supposed to

fulfil, speed reading techniques may facilitate our task.” (A80).

“Yes, I consider. Because I think that there are many things that I do not know about speed reading

techniques. It helps me be more conscious. I can teach my students when I become a teacher.” (A13).

“It is not an urgent need actually, but it is a need which may be beneficial to everyone as it is to me.

Speed reading is a habit which may help me gain psychomotor skills. It is also helpful in improving

thinking skills” (A16).

Those who said “No, I do not consider it is a need” expressed their opinions as:

“No. I can read as fast as I need. I do not need more than that. Speed reading is not important but the

quality of reading and understanding what you read is.” (A24).

“I think it will open new doors to my personal development rather than being need.” (A31).

“Speed reading is not a need. But it may be beneficial in personal development by saving time.”

(A58).

Those who said “partly” expressed their opinions as:

“Partly. I spend too much time reading. I do not have so much time. But I have no concern about

reading and finishing a book very quickly. I have fun reading both novel and history book. The time

that I spend is very valuable.” (A14).

“Speed reading helps us in exams. Except for exams, I consider it is better to read slowly and

understand what you read rather than speed reading.” (A79).

When the opinions of the teacher candidates were examined, it was stated that the pre-service teachers

saw speed reading as a need.

Text Reading Processes

Table 5. Opinions of pre-service Turkish teachers regarding long texts which need to be read in a

very short time

Codes f (83)

Yes, it bores. 52

No, it does not bore. 13

It bores sometimes. 18

When Table 5 was examined, it is seen that some think that "texts, articles, books, etc., which they are

too long to read and need to be read in a short time are boring” (n=52); those who do not think that


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



they are boring (n=13), and those who sometimes find it boring (n=18). Those who said “Yes, it

bores” expressed their opinions as:

“It bores. Because a book of a text can be free when it is read. The books that are read as they have

been assigned as homework may push people away from reading.” (A3).

“Yes, some texts bore me out. The reason for that is that they contain too many terminologies specific

to some fields, and difficult language used in texts may negatively affect readers.” (A5).

“Yes, because I prefer reading at the time and place which I want. I do not like anything beyond my

control, as I do not like reading the things which are beyond my interest. I cannot focus on what I

read” (A16).

Those who said "No, it does not bore" expressed their opinion as:

“It does not bore me out as I have the habit of reading. I have experienced such cases before, and I

read all of them sparing enough time for each.” (A27).

“If I have to read this, and if I am aware of its necessity, it does not bore me out. If the topic is

beautiful and attracts me, it does not bore me.” (A28).

Those who said "Sometimes it bores" expressed their opinion as:

“It does not bore me as I like reading a lot. I may get bored if I read long and boring texts.” (A20).

“It sometimes bores and sometimes does not because it changes depending on whether the text is of

my interest or not or my preparedness.” (A23).

“I feel bored sometimes but if the text is of my interest or an attracting one, I cannot even understand

how fast I read” (A29).

The preservice teachers stated that long texts bored them. While the pre-service teachers and students

are reading texts, they pay attention to the length of the texts.

Level of Focusing on the Read Texts

Table 6. Opinions of pre-service Turkish teachers regarding the level of concentration that they have

Codes f (85)

High level. 13

Enough. 8

Average level. 14

Low level. 15

Changing. 35

When Table 6 was examined, it was seen that there are those (n=35) who think that their

concentration level varies according to situation and conditions, those who find their concentration

level high (n=13), those who find their concentration level sufficient (n=8), average (n=14), and low

(n=15) those who said "high level" expressed their opinion as:

“I have deep concentration when I am reading because of the topic and way of writing are important

factors for me. I do not want to miss any of them.” (A3).

“I completely get isolated from the outer world when I am reading. I act as the third person watching

the events in the book. I do not have any problem with concentrating on what I read." (A16).

“I do not see or hear any distractor around me when I am reading. After I start reading, if it is a

book, I completely concentrate on the book. If it is a paragraph, I concentrate on it at the time when I

start reading. But I may have to read two or more times in exams because of the stress I have to have

full concentration.” (A19).

Those who said Average level” expressed their opinions as:


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



“I think my concentration level is average. It changes depending on the text that I read.” (A66).

Those who said “low level” expressed their opinion as:

“I lose my concentration very easily. I have a concentration problem. My concentration level is a

little bit problematic.” (A25).

“I do not think that I have good concentration, I can easily lose my concentration.” (A62)

Those who said “changing.” expressed their opinion as:

“It changes depending on what I read. I can easily concentrate if it is something short to read. My

concentration level decreases when I read long texts.” (A1).

“My concentration level changes depending on the situation I am in. If I am at a comfortable level

with a peaceful mind, I can concentrate and read better. I think I am better at that.” (A8).

“The language used in a book is the most determining factor. I read a good book very carefully and

curiously.” (A14).

Pre-service Turkish teachers stated that their concentration levels generally changed. Each pre-service

Turkish teacher stated that their level of concentration on the texts they read is different.

Reading Speed and Comprehension Levels

When Table 7 was examined, it was seen that pre-service Turkish teachers (n=28) think that there is

an inverse proportion between reading speed and comprehension level. Some think that there is

parallelism between reading speed and comprehension level (n=26), that reading at normal speed will

help them understand better (n=15), and that this relationship is variable.

Table 7. Opinions of pre-service Turkish teachers regarding the relationship between their reading

speed and their comprehension levels

Codes f (84)

Reading speed and comprehension is parallel with one another. 26

There is an inverse proportion between reading and speed. 28

I understand better at normal speed. 15

Good 5

The relationship between reading speed and comprehension is changeable. 10

Those who said, "Reading speed and comprehension rate are parallel." expressed their opinion as:

“My reading speed and comprehension level are directly proportional, so as I read faster, I do not

löse anything in comprehension and I have more fun reading.” (A8).

“When I have full concentration, my reading speed and comprehension level come to a balance. I

understand every word and sentence when reading. I can have a mental image of what I have read.”

(A16).

“I believe that I have improved my reading speed with the book that I bought and read last summer.

Therefore, I can read faster, and I have realized that I understand faster and more comfortable when I

read fast.” (A27).

“My reading speed and comprehension level are directly proportional. As my reading speed

increases, my comprehension level also increases.” (A29).

Those who said “there is an inverse proportion between reading speed” expressed their opinion as:

“Reading fast sometimes affects my comprehension level. I fail to achieve reading fast and storing

what is important in the read text” (A1).

“When my reading speed sometimes exceeds my comprehension level, I tend to reread texts. I happen

to waste time because of that.” (A5).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Those who said "I understand well at normal speed" expressed their opinion as:

“Without reading fast, I can understand words and sentences, paragraphs in the first reading. This is

closely related to how interesting the text is. I think I can read a hundred-page book in one hour or 80

minutes.” (A19).

“I start to ruminate if I read slowly. I go back and reread, which causes a waste of time. If I read very

fast, I cannot fully understand the content. I feel that I can fully understand what I read when I read at

an average speed.” (A46).

Those who said the relationship between reading speed and comprehension is changeable” expressed

their opinion as:

“When I concentrate on the text that I am reading, I can both read fast and understand what I am

reading. If I ski through a text which is not of my interest as my perception level decreases.” (A2).

“If the topic and content are very interesting, my reading and comprehension level increase.” (A14).

Pre-service teachers have different opinions about reading speed and comprehension rate. They stated

that the relationship between speed and comprehension rate varies. They think they will understand

when they read fast.

Advantages of Speed Reading

Table 8. Views of pre-service Turkish teachers regarding the advantages of speed reading

Codes f (152)

I read more books. 31

My performance in exams increase. 30

It helps save time. 29

My comprehension level increases. 10

It is beneficial. 9

It helps my personal development. 4

My speaking ability improves. 4

It provides Professional advantage and it is a necessity. 4

It provides an advantage. 3

I feel bored less when I am reading. 2

It improves my communication skills. 2

My vocabulary treasure improves. 2

My point of view is developed. 2

My imagination power improves. 2

I can think practically and make up my mind very quickly. 2

My interest in reading increases/my reading speeds up 2

I can find the answers very practically. 1

It helps me think fast. 1

It increases my life quality. 1

It facilitates my life. 1

It improves my thinking skill. 1

My achievement increases in many fields. 1

The joy I have from reading increases and become more intellectual. 1

MY reading skills improve. 1

My comprehension skill improves. 1

I can study more. 1

My reading skill improves. 1

I can read the homework, article etc. better faster. 1

I feel better. 1

My self-confidence increases. 1

When Table 8 was examined, pre-service Turkish teachers (n=31) think that speed reading will bring

the advantage of more book reading. Some think that speed reading will improve their exam

performance (n=30), save their time (n=29), increase their level of comprehension (n=10), be useful

(N=9).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



The opinions of pre-service teachers regarding this issue are as follows:

“If I read fast, I feel more motivated to read more and I also save time. Speed reading provides me

with many advantages. In brief, it makes life easier. Of course, it is a necessity of my profession.”

(A1).

“I believe that it will bring any contributions in the short term and long term. I believe that it will

contribute to my exam performance positively.” (A7).

“Reading fast and understanding what you read brings many advantages for readers. The increase in

comprehension level, thinking very practical quick decision making etc. contribute to us in many

ways.” (A8).

“It saves time. It improves thinking skill. It supports imagination power. It helps gain reading habit.

All of this help teach both students and their parents as part of our profession.” (A16).

“We will take the KPSS exam very soon. The faster we read questions in the exam and the better we

understand them, the more beneficial they will be. In addition to these, there are many books and texts

that we need to read as tur Turkish teachers of the future. Speed reading will help us to accomplish

all these.” (A18).

“It will help me overcome the stress resulted from the KPSS exam and time management in the exam.

In the long run, it helps me speed up my reading and helping more students get informed about speed

reading, reading books and articles.” (A23).

The preservice teachers stated that fast reading has many advantages. They stated that they can be

successful both in their lessons and in their private lives thanks to these advantages.


Speed reading is a skill of training. For the sake of being a fast reader, it is not desirable to increase

reading speed superficially (Güneş, 2009: 11). The pre-service teachers who participated in the

research stated that they considered themselves enough in speed reading. They state that they have

lost their ability to read fast in the environments such as noise, distraction and stress while skimming

through the texts with many words with their eyes and solving the paragraph questions. In an

overview of the research results (Karadağ, Keskin & Arı, 2019; Bergmann & Bristle, 2020), it is seen

once again that the reading rate and accurate word recognition are critical for a qualified skill of

reading/comprehension. Speed develops more quickly in the training of speed-reading techniques, and

comprehension follows it. Speed reading exercises should be performed for at least twenty-one days

for comprehension to take place and the speed to settle permanently. Harris and Sipay (1990), who

think that speed reading can be taught, state that for this, we must know some of the characteristics of

the student population that we have.

Pre-service teachers who consider themselves good reader claim that they do not give break while

reading, and they prefer to qualify works, write long articles on different subjects. Pre-service teachers

have stated that they do not receive professional support for speed reading, that vocabulary is

important in speed reading, and that they are considering taking special courses on the issue. Some

pre-service teachers state that everything in their lives is fast, and reading does not need to be so fast.

According to Dökmen (1994), the reading speed of high school students was determined to be 136.4

words per minute and the reading speed of university students was found to be 145.4 words per

minute. The findings of researches (Akçamete, 1989; Coşkun, 2002; Babayiğit, 2019; Bergmann &

Bristle, 2020; Durukan, 2020) revealed that the text type was effective at the reading speed and

comprehension level of the students. Bozan (2012) and Bergmann & Bristle (2020) stated that the

reading speed and reading comprehension levels of the students involved in the study were found to

be low and that there was a great need for further studies on this subject.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Pre-service teachers think that speed reading is a need to be able to take exams more quickly and

become better equipped for their profession. Students preparing for exams, people who must follow

the printed press, professionals who want to improve themselves, especially teachers, anyone who is

anxious to manage time more efficiently, who competes with time, can participate in speed reading

training. It is possible for students who often take exams to succeed in exams using their time

allocated for each question appropriately (Gündüz & Şimşek 2011; Ilter, 2018; Mergen, 2019; Muñoz,

Vejarano & Vargas, 2019). Pre-service teachers state that they read more books thanks to speed

reading, their exam performance increases, they save time, and their comprehension levels increase.

Pre-service Turkish teachers feel that they get bored when they must read too long texts, too tick

books and too long articles. They claim that nobody can be forced to read, some texts have a difficult

language, so they cannot read fast, and they can't concentrate on the texts they read. They state the

most important reason for their inability to concentrate on the texts they read as a distraction. In a

research conducted by Kemiksiz (2019) and Astari (2019), pre-service teachers with positive

perceptions of speed reading emphasized the facilitative role of speed reading in one's life and stated

that those who use this skill can improve themselves and compete with other people through this

development.

As a result, speed reading is a skill training. Speed reading techniques can be applied to improve

reading speed and readers’ comprehension rate. Many of the pre-service Turkish teachers who find

their reading speed enough or who do not find it enough also see speed reading as a need. A few of

the participants stated that they had a high concentration level when reading. Participants claimed that

speed reading would improve their exam performance, save time, and benefit from professional and

personal development.

Many pre-service Turkish teachers who find their reading speed enough compare themselves to their

surroundings. What makes them feel they are enough or fast is they are reading faster or more books

than those around them. They use a subjective criterion by evaluating in this way. However, there are

no clear values or objective criteria for reading speeds.

Some pre-service Turkish teachers who previously received training on speed reading and those who

did not are also in doubt about the realization of speed reading and how useful it will be. Some of

them think, “I read for pleasure, speed reading is unnecessary”, while others think, “I already read

regularly, so I can increase my reading speed by reading more." However, research shows that reading

speed will be increased by 30% by reading more. Speed reading techniques can increase their speed at

least twice, while those who receive good training on these techniques and work to improve their

skills increase their reading speed more than twice or even 1000 words per minute.

Many pre-service Turkish teachers who find their reading speed enough or who do not find it enough

also see speed reading as a need. Very few of the participants stated that they had a high concentration

level when reading. Participants say that speed reading will improve their exam performance, save

time, read more books, and benefit from their professional and personal development.

Pre-service Turkish teacher stated that they did not receive speed reading training at the university.

Education about speed reading should be given in teacher training. Experimental studies about speed

reading should be done. It should be noted that the texts in Turkish textbooks should not be too long.

REFERENCES

Akçamete, G. (1989) Üniversite öğrencilerinin okumalarının değerlendirilmesi [Evaluation of university students' reading].

Ankara University Journal of Educational Sciences, 22(2), 735-753. https://doi.org/10.1501/Egifak_0000001416

Akçamete, G., & Güneş, F. (1992). Üniversite öğrencilerinde etkili ve hızlı okumanın geliştirilmesi [Improving effective and

fast reading among university students]. Ankara University Journal of Educational Sciences, 25(2), 463-471.

https://doi.org/10.1501/Egifak_0000000597

Akyol, H. (2007). Reading. A. Kırkkılıç and H. Akyol (Ed.). In Turkish teaching in primary education. Ankara: PegemA

Publishing.




IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Arıcı, A. F. (2012). Reading education Ankara: PegemA Publishing.

Astari, N. W. A. (2019). Pengaruh model pembelajaran directed reading thinking activity (DRTA) terhadap keterampilan

membaca cepat siswa. Journal of Education Technology, 3(2), 119-125. https://doi.org/10.33330/icossit.v1i1.750

Ateş, S., Güray, E., Döğmeci, Y., & Gürsoy, F. F. (2016). Öğretmen ve öğrenci sorularının gerektirdikleri zihinsel süreçler

açısından karşılaştırılması [Comparison of questions of teachers and students in terms of level]. Research in Reading

& Writin Instruction (RRWI), 4(1), 1-13.

Avcıoğlu, H. (2000). İlköğretim ikinci kademe öğrencilerinin okuma becerilerinin değerlendirilmesi [Evaluation of primary

school second grade students' reading skills]. Education and Science, 25(115), 10-17.

Babayiğit, Ö. (2019). Yarıyıl tatili öncesinde ve sonrasında ilkokul öğrencilerinin sesli okuma hızlarının karşılaştırmalı

olarak incelenmesi [Investigation of the reading speeds of primary school students before and after the half term].

Ordu University Journal of Social Science Research, 9(2), 327-334

Bergmann, M., & Bristle, J. (2020). Reading fast, reading slow: The effect of interviewers’ speed in reading introductory

texts on response behaviour. Journal of Survey Statistics and Methodology, 8(2), 325-351,

https://doi.org/10.1093/jssam/smy027

Bozan, A. (2012). Hızlı okuma eğitiminin 10. sınıf öğrencilerinin okuma hızlarına ve anlama düzeylerine etkisi [The effect

of rapid reading education on reading speed and levels of understanding of 10th grade students] (Unpublished master

thesis). Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale.

Brooks, T. D. (1936). Okumanın tatbik edilmiş psikolojisi [The applied psychology of reading] (Trans. R. İ. Kolçak).

İstanbul: Şirketi Mürebbiye Publishing.

Buzan, T. (2005). Hızlı okuma [Speed Reading]. İstanbul: Alfa Publishing.

Büyüköztürk Ş., Çakmak K. E., Akgün E. Ö., Karadeniz Ş., & Demirel F. (2014). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri [Scientific

research methods] (18th Edition). Ankara: PegemA Publishing.

Coşkun, E. (2002). Lise hızlı okuma teknikleri öğretim programı ve uygulamalarının değerlendirilmesi [Evaluation of high

school speed reading techniques curriculum and applications]. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 3(9),

41-51.

Coşkun, E. (2003). Çeşitli değişkenlere göre lise öğrencilerinin etkili okuma becerileri ve bazı öneriler [Effective reading

skills of high school students according to various variables and some suggestions]. Journal of Turkology Research,

13, 101-130.

Çelik, E. C. (2019). İlköğretimde Türkçe ve öğretimi dersinde sınıf içi okuma çalışmaları [Turkish and teaching in primary

educationin-class reading studies]. The Journal of Internaitonal Social Research, 12(67), 668-676.

http://dx.doi.org/10.17719/jisr.2019.3755

Çiftçibaşı, M. C. (2013). Effects of speed reading techniques on sight reading skills in music education. (Unpublished

doctoral thesis). Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Institute of Educational Sciences, Burdur.

Dedebali, N. C. (2008). Hızlı okuma tekniğinin 8. sınıf öğrencilerinin okuma hızlarına ve okuduğunu anlama düzeylerine

etkisi [The effects of rapid reading technique on the eighth graders? reading speed and levels of reading

comprehension]. (Unpublished master thesis). Adnan Menderes University, Aydın.

Dedebali, N. C., & Saracaloğlu, A. S. (2010). Hızlı okuma tekniğinin sekizinci sınıf öğrencilerinin okuma hızlarına ve

okuduğunu anlama düzeylerine etkisi [The effects of rapid reading technique on the eighth graders’reading speed and

levels of reading comprehension]. Pamukkale University Journal of Education, 27(27), 171-183.

Dökmen, Ü. (1994). Okuma becerisi, ilgisi ve alışkanlığı üzerine psiko-sosyal bir araştırma [A psycho-social research on

reading skills, interests and habits]. İstanbul: MEB. Publishing.

Durukan, E. (2020). Impact of speed reading training on reading speeds and comprehension skills of secondary school

students. Cypriot Journal of Educational Science,15(2), 184-193. https://doi.org/10.18844/cjes.v15i2.4491

Gündüz, O., & Şimşek, T. (2011). Anlama teknikleri 1 uygulamalı okuma eğitimi el kitabı [Comprehension techniques 1

handbook of practical reading instruction]. Ankara: Grafiker Publishing.

Güneş, F. (2000). Uygulamalı okuma-yazma öğretimi [Practical teaching of reading and writing]. Ankara: Ocak Publishing.

Güneş, F. (2009). Hızlı okuma ve anlamı yapılandırma [Reading fast and structuring meaning]. Ankara: Nobel Publishing.

Harris, A. J., & Sipay, E. R. (1990). How to increase reading ability: A guide to developmental & remedial methods (9th

Edition). London: Longman Publishing.


https://doi.org/10.33330/icossit.v1i1.750

https://doi.org/10.1093/jssam/smy027

http://dx.doi.org/10.17719/jisr.2019.3755

https://doi.org/10.18844/cjes.v15i2.4491

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



İlter, B. (2018). Hızlı okuma teknikleri eğitiminin 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin okuma hızlarına ve anlama düzeylerine etkisi [The

effects of rapid reading techniques on the fifth graders' reading speed and levels of reading comprehension].

(Unpublished master thesis). Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale.

Kaçar, K. (2015). The effect of speed reading training on secondary school 7th graders' reading comprehension skills and

attitudes on reading. (Unpublished master thesis). Fırat University Institute of Educational Sciences, Elazığ.

Karadağ, Ö., Keskin, H. K., & Arı, G. (2019). Mediatory effect of reading skill in the rapid automatized naming/reading

comprehension relationship. Education and Science, 44(197). 353-366. http://dx.doi.org/10.15390/EB.2019.7684

Kavcar, C., Oğuzkan, F., & Sever, S. (1995). Türkçe ve sınıf öğretmenleri için Türkçe öğretimi [Teaching Turkish for

Turkish and classroom teachers]. Ankara: Engin Publishing.

Kemiksiz, Ö. (2019). Metaphor perceptions of pre-service Turkish teachers towards "speed reading" skills. Journal of Social

Sciences of Mus Alparslan University, 7(1) 71-84. https://doi.org/10.18506/anemon.410178

Maviş, A. (2006). Anlayarak hızlı okuma ve öğrenme teknikleri [Understanding speed reading and learning techniques].

İstanbul: Hayat Publishing.

Mergen, S. (2019). The effect of speed reading technique on reading speeds and reading comprehension levels of second

grade students. (Unpublished master thesis). Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey.

Merriam, S. B. (2013). A guide to qualitative research design and practice (Trans. Ed. S. Turan). Ankara: Nobel Publishing.

Muñoz, L., Vejarano, L., & Vargas, L. (2019, October). ICT-based, fast-reading learning. In 2019 International Conference

on Inclusive Technologies and Education (CONTIE) (pp. 174-1745). IEEE.

Özdemir, Y. & Kıroğlu, K. (2019). Okuduğunu anlama becerilerinin gelişimine uzamsal bir bakış [Developing reading

comprehension skills a longitudinal view]. Amasya Education Journal, 8(1), 85-124.

Richadeau, F., Gauquelin, M., & Gauquelin F. (1990). Very fast reading techniques (Trans. A. Sarp). Ankara: Nil

Publishing.

Ruşen, M. (2006) Hızlı okuma [Fast reading]. İstanbul: Alfa Publishing.

Soysal, T. (2015). The effects of rapid reading techniques on the fifth graders' reading speed and comprehension levels

(Unpublished master thesis). Abant İzzet Baysal University Institute of Educational Sciences, Bolu.

Tazebay, A. (1995). The effect of third fourth graders' reading skill on their comprehension. (Unpublished doctoral thesis).

Hacettepe University, Institute of Social Sciences, Ankara.

Tazebay, A. (1997). İlkokul öğrencilerinin okuma becerilerinin okuduğunu anlamaya etkisi [The effect of primary school

students' reading skills on reading comprehension]. Ankara: MEB Publishing.

Torppa, M., Vasalampi, K., Eklund, K., Sulkunen, S., & Niemi, P. (2020). Reading comprehension difficulty is often distinct

from difficulty in reading fluency and accompanied with problems in motivation and school wellbeing. Educational

Psychology, 40(1), 62–81. doi:10.1080/01443410.2019.1670334

Yurdakal, H. İ. (2019). Investigation of the 4th grade primary school students' attitudes towards reading in the scope of

different variables. World Journal of Education, 9(3), 46-52. https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v9n3p46

Westbrook, J., Sutherland, J., Oakhill, J., & Sullivan, S. (2018). ‘Just reading’: The impact of a faster pace of reading

narratives on the comprehension of poorer adolescent readers in English classrooms. Literacy, 53(2), 60-68.

https://doi.org/10.1111/lit.12141


http://dx.doi.org/10.15390/EB.2019.7684

https://doi.org/10.18506/anemon.410178

https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v9n3p46

https://doi.org/10.1111/lit.12141

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



EXAMINATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NATURALISTIC

TEACHING EDUCATION PROGRAM DEVELOPED FOR

PRE-SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TURKEY

Seçil ÇELİK

Dr., Anadolu University, Faculty of Education, Department of Special Education, Eskişehir, Turkey


[email protected]

İbrahim Halil DİKEN

Prof.Dr., Anadolu University, Faculty of Education, Department of Special Education, Eskişehir, Turkey


[email protected]

Hasan GÜRGÜR

Prof.Dr., Anadolu University, Faculty of Education, Department of Special Education, Eskişehir, Turkey


[email protected]

Received: September 17, 2020 Accepted: January 11, 2021 Published: June 30, 2021

Suggested Citation:

Çelik, S., Diken, İ. H., & Gürgür, H. (2021). Examination of the effectiveness of naturalistic teaching education program

developed for pre-school teachers in Turkey. International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 10(1), 207-234.


Abstract

In the current study, face-to-face and web-based naturalistic teaching teacher education program for pre-school teachers

(NTEPP), who are among the main stakeholders of inclusive education, was developed and examined its effectiveness on

teacher outcomes (naturalistic teaching knowledge level, interactional behavior levels, and level of using naturalistic

teaching strategies in the education processes). In addition, opinions the targeted teachers on the programs were gathered. A

total of 30 teachers in the Face-to-Face (Experimental-1=14) and Web-based (Experimental-2=16) NTEPP groups

participated in the study, which was designed with the "embedded design, one of the mixed research methods." In the study,

face-to-face and web-based programs were found to be effective in increasing teachers' total scores for naturalistic teaching

knowledge, interactional behaviors, and naturalistic teaching strategies used in leisure time and art activities. However, the

results revealed that the face-to-face education program had a more permanent effect on the total scores for naturalistic

teaching knowledge and naturalistic teaching strategies used in leisure time activities compared to the web-based program.

Accordingly, it was determined that web-based programs, the contents of which were designed with visual and written

materials, could be as effective as face-to-face programs on teachers' targeted performance levels. Finally, it was observed

that teachers' opinions on the programs were quite positive.

Keywords: Inclusive education, inclusive pre-school education, naturalistic teaching approach, professional development.

INTRODUCTION

Naturalistic teaching is defined as an approach/process in which teaching is embedded in the natural

daily lives of children (e.g., daily routine, activities and transitions for school and home settings;

Charlop-Christy, LeBlanc, and Carpenter, 1999; Halle, Albert, and Anderson, 1984; Koegel, O’Dell,

and Koegel, 1987). This approach is an “evidence-based” practice and is based on “developmentally

appropriate principles” (National Professional Development Center [NPDC], 2014; National Autism

Center [NAC], 2015). This approach has increasingly become important in inclusive pre-school

education in recent years in that it can be easily implemented without disrupting the education

process, includes appropriate principles for child development, and ensures the easy reinforcement

and generalization of skills and behaviors (Allen & Cowan, 2008; Dunst, Raab, & Trivette, 2011;

McWilliam, 2016; Rakap, 2019; Rakap & Parlak-Rakap, 2011). According to the results of studies,

the lack of knowledge and education of teachers is among the main systemic problems experienced in

the inclusive pre-school education and that the naturalistic teaching approach is among the key issues


https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1393-3382


https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5761-2900


https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4016-4048



IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



on which knowledge and education are needed (Bruder, 2016; Sucuoğlu, Bakkaloğlu, İşçen-Karasu,

Demir, & Akalın, 2013). Therefore, especially in recent years, in order to eliminate their lack of

knowledge and education in the process, researchers aimed to develop programs including the

teaching of evidence-based practices such as naturalistic teaching to pre-school teachers in inclusive

education (Aldemir, 2017; Dick, 2017; Rakap, 2019; Storie, Grygas-Coogle, Rahn, & Riggie-Ottley,

2017; Ünal, 2018).

In recent years, it has begun to be discussed which components and presentation forms should and to

what the content of teacher education programs should be prepared (Bruder, 2016). In fact, “face-to-

face” education programs that were called as traditional methods in the early years have been replaced

by different forms of presentation such as "web-based programs". In addition, education programs

have turned into "multi-component" programs supported by several ways such as coaching,

counseling, and providing feedback on performance (Aldemir, 2017; Dick, 2017; Gianoumis,

Seiverling, & Sturmey, 2012; Harjusola-Webb, & Hess Robbins, 2012; Pianta, Mashburn, Downer,

Hamre, & Justice, 2008; Tate, Thompson, & McKerchar, 2005; Ünal, 2018). In this context,

web-based programs, which are independent of time and space, can be followed individually and can

spread all over the countries, have increasingly gained momentum (Storie et al., 2017; Ünal, 2018).

Moreover, “web-based education programs,” an alternative education approach, have been becoming

more important since the education and training process is being conducted at home due to the

COVID-19 pandemic, and in such cases that may occur later. At this point, the contents of these

programs designed in different ways have also started to be supported with many different visual and

written materials (Dick, 2017; Harjusola et al., 2012; Rakap, 2019). Furthermore, although the effects

of these programs designed with different forms of presentation and various materials on targeted

teacher behaviors have been compared in recent studies, which practices are more "maintened",

"efficient" and "useful/functional" has started to be discussed (e.g., Dick, 2017; Frantz, 2017; Rakap,

2019; Stahmer, Rieth, Lee, Reisinger, Mandell, & Connell, 2015; Ünal, 2018). However, both in the

international literature and Turkish literature, there is no study in which natural teaching strategies,

methods and techniques were used as a “package teacher training program” with guidebooks, expert

and sample application videos, and the effect of this package program has been examined.

Furthermore, there is no study compare the effectiveness and maintenance of the naturalistic teaching

teacher education program which was developed with two different presentation styles (face-to-face

and web-based), with the data obtained from many quantitative and qualitative data collection

procedures. Such a study can be a guide for how pre-school teachers in inclusive education will be

able to improve their professional skills with regard to evidence-based practices such as naturalistic

teaching in the best way. In addition, this study may contribute to the development of quality proceses

in inclusive pre-school education institutions. The aim of the current study was to develop to evaluate

the effectiveness of a "Face-to-Face and Web-based Pre-School Naturalistic Teaching Teacher

Education Program (NTEPP)" for pre-school teachers in inclusive education in Turkey. In line with

this aim, answers to the following research questions were sought:

1. What are the opinions of pre-school teachers regarding their knowledge and experience in

inclusive education and the naturalistic teaching process?

2. Is there a significant difference between the total scores for naturalistic teaching knowledge of

pre-school teachers in inclusive education, who participated in the Face-to-Face NTEPP

(Experimental-1 group) and Web-based NTEPP (Experimental-2 group), in the pre-test, post-

test and follow-up measurements in-group and between-group?

3. Is there a significant difference between the total scores for interactional behaviors of

pre-school teachers in inclusive education, who participated in the Face-to-Face NTEPP

(Experimental-1 group) and Web-based NTEPP (Experimental-2 group), in the pre-test, post-

test and follow-up measurements in-group and between-group?

4. Is there a significant difference between the total scores for naturalistic teaching strategies

used in the classrooms of pre-school teachers in inclusive education, who participated in the


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Face-to-Face NTEPP (Experimental-1 group) and Web-based NTEPP (Experimental-2

group), in the pre-test, post-test and follow-up measurements in-group and between-group?

5. What are the opinions of pre-school teachers in inclusive education about the NTEPP (social

validity) offered in two different ways: face-to-face and web-based?

METHOD

Research Design

This study was designed with the "embedded design, one of the mixed research methods." This study

was based on a quasi-experimental process. The qualitative data collection techniques were embedded

in this process to support and diversify quantitative data (e.g., focus group interviews), and thus, multi

quantitative and qualitative data were collected simultaneously in the process. The formulized

expression of the research method is Quantitive (+qualititative) (Cresswell, 2011; 2014; Morse, 1991).

The embedded design scheme of the study is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The embedded design scheme of the study (adapted to study from Creswell, 2011, p. 541.)

The research process, the visual of which is presented in Figure 1, can be summarized as follows:

Focus group interviews were conducted with the participants before and after the implementation of

the education programs. In the pre-implementation interviews, the prior knowledge, opinions and

experiences of the participants regarding inclusive education and naturalistic teaching practices were

determined, and the need for education programs was revealed. In the post-implementation

interviews, experience, opinions, suggestions regarding the completed education programs were

received; thus, social validity data were also obtained. Simultaneously with this process, the

participants' naturalistic teaching knowledge levels were measured with NTP-KT in three different

measurements consisting of pre-test, post-test and follow-up, and the practices they performed in their

classrooms were video-recorded in two different activities, leisure time and art activities. During the

implementation of the programs, data were collected through weekly reflective diaries related to the

participants' experiences on naturalistic teaching practices in the education processes. Furthermore,

quantitative log records were kept for the Web-based NTEPP participants' duration of following the

programs. Moreover, the researcher took field notes and wrote his observations on the whole process.

In the data analysis stage, all quantitative and qualitative data collected were analyzed separately and

integrated in the writing of results.

* Quantitive (+qualititative)


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Participants and the Setting

A total of 30 pre-school teachers (Experimental-1=14, Experimental-2=16), who were working in two

independent kindergartens in Eskişehir province in Turkey and were involved in the inclusive

education process, constituted the participants of the study. In the follow-up sessions of the study, one

teacher was appointed to another school within the province. Therefore, follow-up data could not be

collected from one participant. Consequently, the pre-test measurement of the study included 30

individuals, the post-test measurement included 30 individuals, and the follow-up measurement

included 29 individuals.

Table 1a. Descriptive statistics on the demographic characteristics of the participants (ntotal=30)

f: Frequency, %: Percentage values, ASD: Autism Spectrum Disorder, ADHD: Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder

Group Variables f %

Ex

per

imen

tal-

1 (

Fa

ce-t

o-F

ace

NT

EP

P)

N=

14

Age Group Provided with Education (Mean=4.36, Std.Dev.=.745)

3-4 years 2 14.3

4-5 years 5 35.7

5-6 years 7 50.0

Professional Seniority (Mean=8.57, Std.Dev.=3.251)

4 years 1 7.1

5 years 2 14.3

7 years 2 14.3

8 years 2 14.3

9 years 3 21.4

10 years 1 7.1

11 years 2 14.3

17 years 1 7.1

Inclusive Education Experience (Mean=5.29, Std.Dev.=4.375)

2 years 5 35.7

3 years 1 7.1

4 years 3 21.4

6 years 2 14.3

9 years 1 7.1

11 years 1 7.1

17 years 1 7.1

Number of Students Involved in Inclusive Education

0 student 3 21.4

1 student 8 57.1

2 students 2 14.3

3 students

1 7.1

Diagnoses of Students Involved in Inclusive Education

ASD 8 57.1

Speech and Language Disorder 2 14.3

Visual Disability 1 7.1

Number of Undiagnosed Students with Special Needs

1 student 11 78.6

2 students 3 21.4

Types of Developmental Disabilities in Classrooms

Language and Speech Disorder 10 71.4

ADHD 3 21.4

Disability in Social Skills 1 7.1

Seminars Received

Special Education Seminar 8 57.1

Teaching with Simultaneous Prompting 1 7.1


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



f: Frequency, %: Percentage values, ASD: Autism Spectrum Disorder, ADHD: Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder

While determining the participants, prerequisite features were first determined, and then, the Eskişehir

Odunpazarı Counseling and Research Center (CRC) was contacted. Thus, the numbers of independent

kindergartens affiliated to Odunpazarı district in the city center, pre-school teachers working in these

schools, students with special needs and undiagnosed developmental disabilities in inclusive

education were reached. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with kindergarten principals and the

list of schools and teachers volunteering to participate in the study was prepared. The conditions of

voluntary schools such as the numbers of classrooms and students with special needs and undiagnosed

developmental disabilities in inclusive education were evaluated. At the end of the process, two

schools with higher numbers of classrooms and students with special needs and undiagnosed

developmental disabilities in the inclusive education process compared to other schools were selected

Table 1b. Descriptive statistics on the demographic characteristics of the participants (ntotal=30)

Group Variables f %

Ex

per

imen

tal

-2 (

Web

-ba

sed

NT

EP

P)

N=

16

Age Group Provided with Education (Mean=4.19, Std.Dev.=.750)

3-4 years 3 18.8

4-5 years 7 43.8

5-6 years 6 37.5

Professional Seniority (Mean=10.63, Std.Dev.=4.097)

5 years 2 12.5

6 years 2 12.5

8 years 2 12.5

9 years 1 6.3

11 years 2 12.5

12 years 2 12.5

14 years 2 12.5

15 years 1 6.3

16 years 1 6.3

18 years 1 6.3

Inclusive Education Experience (Mean=5.81, Std.Dev.=5.115)

1 year 2 12.5

2 years 6 37.5

5 years 2 12.5

6 years 1 6.3

10 years 2 12.5

13 years 1 6.3

14 years 1 6.3

16 years 1 6.3

Number of Students Involved in Inclusive Education

0 student 7 43.8

1 student 8 50.0

2 students 1 6.3

Diagnoses of Students Involved in Inclusive Education

ASD 4 25.0


Mental+Visual Disability 1 6.3

Physical Disability 1 6.3

Cerebral Palsy 1 6.3

Number of Undiagnosed Students with Special Needs

0 student 4 25.0

1 student 8 50.0

2 students 4 25.0

Types of Developmental Disabilities in Classrooms


Learning Disability 1 6.3

ADHD 1 6.3

Disability in Social Skills 1 6,3

Seminars Received

Special Education Seminar 9 56.3


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



to collect a large number of quantitative and qualitative data in a valid and reliable manner. In the

final step, these two schools were randomly assigned to the Experimental-1 and Experimental-2

groups. The prerequisite features required in the selection of the participants are listed below, and the

demographic characteristics of the participants are presented in Table 1a, Table 1b.

Working as a pre-school teacher in kindergartens,

The kindergartens, where the participants work, are located in the same socio-economic

region,

The presence of students with diagnosed with developmental disabilities or undiagnosed

(students with typical development) involved in the inclusive education process in the

classrooms of the participants,

Participants' non-participation in any in-service training on naturalistic teaching,

The presence of internet connection of Web-based NTEPP participants at their homes and

schools,

Web-based NTEPP participants' possession of skills to use information and communication

technologies.

The characteristics of the study setting are as follows: The schools, where teachers in the

Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups work, are both in an environment with a mild-socio-

economic level. While the Experimental-1 group school consisted of 14 classrooms, including 7

morning classrooms and 7 afternoon classrooms, the Experimental-2 group school consisted of 15

classrooms, including 7 morning classrooms and 9 afternoon classrooms. In the classrooms, there are

basic learning centers such as block, playing house, book corner included in the Preschool Education

Program. The size of each class varied between 15 and 25. While the daily course of education of the

Pre-school Education Program is flexible by its nature, the half-day education course is conducted in

schools within the scope of the basic draft program in Table 2.

Table 2. Half-day education courses of pre-schools

List of Sequentially Functioning Activities of the Morning and Afternoon Groups

Time of Free Play (Start Time of Day)

Gathering and Cleaning

Breakfast Time

Gathering and Cleaning

Art Activity

Reading-Writing/Science and Nature/Experiment/Game and Music Activities

General Evaluation of the Day, Gathering Time, Preparations for Going Home

Dependent Variable

In the study, the effectiveness of the Face-to-Face and Web-based NTEPP on multiple dependent

variables was tested. Dependent variables were the participants' naturalistic teaching knowledge level,

interactional behavior levels, and level of using naturalistic teaching strategies in their classrooms.

Data Collection Tools

In this study, many quantitative and qualitative data collection tools were used.

Quantitative Data Collection Tools

Naturalistic Teaching Process Knowledge Test (NTP-KT): Pre-test, post-test and follow-up

measurements of pre-school teachers' naturalistic teaching knowledge levels were measured with

"Natural Teaching Process Knowledge Test (NTP-KT)". The NTP-KT is a knowledge test prepared in

cooperation with the The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey 1001 project team

under the leadership of the first author. This knowledge test contains information, definitions, and

case study questions. It consists of 58 questions and can be solved in an average of 70 minutes. Each

item of the test consists of five options, and these options include a correct answer. The lowest and

highest scores to be obtained from the test are 0 and 58, respectively. The increase in the scores

obtained from the test indicates an increase in natural teaching knowledge levels, and the decrease in

the scores indicates a decrease in the knowledge levels.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



The steps of "determining the scope of the test," "determining target behaviors," "writing questions

and placing them in the table of signs," "arrangement of test questions," "implementation and scoring

of the test," "performing validity and reliability studies and finalizing the test as a result of the

analyses" were conducted, respectively, while preparing the knowledge test (Şeker & Gençdoğan,

2006). During these steps, the following studies were conducted: The content/scope of this test is

parallel to the content of education programs and contains the topics of “Definition and

Characteristics of the Types of Developmental Disabilities," "Naturalistic Teaching Process,”

"Qualified Adult-Child Interaction Strategies," "Naturalistic Teaching Strategies," and

"Environmental Arrangements." The "Renewed Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain"

consisting of "remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating and creating" dimensions

was used to measure which target behaviors pre-school teachers gained after the education programs

(Bloom, 2001). The opinions of two domain experts were consulted for the content and face validity

of the questions, and the questions were rearranged in line with these opinions. Item analyses were

performed for item discriminant validity. In this context, 27% sub-super groups were determined from

the data obtained from the participants' responses to the test items, and the differences between the

items mean scores were tested using the independent samples t-test. The test items that were found to

have low discrimination were excluded from the test.

Parental/Adult Behavior Rating Scale (PBRS-TV): In the pretest, posttest and follow-up

measurements, the levels of interactional behaviors established by pre-school teachers with children

were evaluated by the PBRS-TV. This scale, which was developed and used by Gerald Mahoney was

also used with teachers under the name of the Maternal Behaviors Rating Scale (MBRS) in 2008,

aims to measure the levels of interactional behaviors established by adults with children in the play

setting. The validity and reliability studies of the scale in Turkey were performed with 123 mother-

child dyads by Diken, Topbaş, and Diken (2009). The PBRS-TV consists of three subscales, including

"Sensitivity-Responsivity," "Affect-Expressiveness," and "Achievement-Orientation." There is a total

of 12 items under three subscales. These items are being sensitive, being responsive, being effective,

and being creative in the subscale of "Sensitivity-Responsivity" and acceptance, enjoyment, using

verbal reinforcers, being warm, and being emotionally expressive in the subscale of "Affect-

Expressiveness." The "Achievement-Orientation and Directiveness" subscale includes the items of

being achievement-oriented, directive, and interaction pace (Diken, Topbaş, & Diken, 2009).

Naturalistic Teaching Process (NTP) Video Analysis Form: The intended use of the form is to watch

participants' videos containing their leisure time and art activities during the pre-test, post-test and

follow-up measurements, and to write the naturalistic teaching strategies used in the activities

watched on the form and to convert them into total frequency values. In the preparation of the form,

the strategies to be included in the form and the formal structure of the form were first determined by

a detailed literature review. The strategies, methods, and techniques to be included in the form are

parallel with the content of the education programs developed in the study, and its physical structure

includes the sections in which explanations about the implementation process of the strategies (start

and end time intervals, context and transcriptions of the strategies used by teachers in classrooms),

and the observations in the video recording will be written. This form was designed to get total

scores/frequencies from the main/basic strategies because naturalistic teaching strategies are an

integrated process consisting of many sub-methods and techniques. Thus, by avoiding performing

many different tests on the many methods and techniques included in the main/basic strategies, it was

attempted to prevent results from becoming complicated and to prevent the study from moving away

from its aim. Finally, the opinions of two domain experts were obtained for the content and formal

structure of the form, then, the form was rearranged in line with these opinions, and a pilot study was

carried out on whether the form worked or not by watching five videos of teachers' activities.

Log Records: "Access log records" were used to determine the number and time of displaying the

education site and guide resources of the Web-based NTEPP participants.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Qualitative Data Collection Tools

Focus Group Interviews: The prior knowledge, opinions, and experiences of the participants

regarding inclusive education and the naturalistic teaching process were determined before the

implementation, and their opinions and experiences regarding the programs were determined through

focus group interviews after the implementation. The reason for selecting this type of interview was to

obtain participants' opinions that emerged interactively in depth and to understand and describe them

(Kruger & Casey, 2000; Patton, 2002).

Figure 2. The preparation process for focus group interviews

It is necessary to make some preparations before conducting focus group interviews (Kruger and

Casey, 2000; Patton, 2002). These preparations and the steps followed are presented in Figure 2. As a

result of the preparation process, pre-implementation focus group interview questions consisted of

three basic topics including "students with special needs and their characteristics," "inclusive

pre-school education experiences," and "practices carried out in the daily education process," and

post-implementation focus group interview questions consisted of three basic topics including

"content and implementation processes," "contributions," and "aspects requiring improvement" of the

education programs.

Video Recordings: Videos were collected to evaluate the naturalistic teaching strategies used by the

participants in leisure time (an unstructured activity) and art activities (a structured activity) at three

different times (pre-test=30, post-test=30, follow-up=30, a total of 178 videos). These activities were

selected because leisure time was the most important unstructured activity in pre-school education

programs, and the participants included structured art activities in their daily plans almost every day.

Leisure time activities were recorded for approximately 10-15/20 minutes, and art activities were

recorded until the end of the activities because it is indicated in the literature that interactional

behaviors can be analyzed by recording them for an average of 15-20 minutes, and it is possible to get

an impression on free play times during this period (Karaaslan and Mahoney, 2013; Karaaslan, Diken

and Mahoney, 2013; Mahoney and Perales, 2003). The interruption of art activities that were carried

out as a whole, during video shoots was not found appropriate by domain experts. The videos

recorded enabled the authors to check the codings they made by watching videos repeatedly and to

perform reliability studies. All video recording data were written on the “NTP Video Analysis Form”

and used to convert them into total frequency values.

Naturalistic Teaching Process (NTP) Reflective Diary Form: Participants' experiences of participating

in weekly education programs were collected through the “NTP Reflective Diary Form." This form is

a semi-structured document prepared by the researcher. The reason for this was that teachers did not

have the experience and time to write a reflective diary every week and that data could be collected

from teachers in a focused and easy way. In the preparation stage, face and content validity studies

were performed by receiving the opinions of two domain experts. The content of the form included

questions about “knowledge gained from education on a weekly basis,” “reflecting the knowledge

gained to the class/implementing it in the class,” and “the contributions of knowledge to students.”


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Field Notes: The researcher wrote down everything she observed during the whole process and took

field notes. She used these data to support and diversify the results of the study.

Independent Variable and Research Process

The independent variables of the study were the Face-to-Face and Web-based NTEPP. The Face-to-

Face and Web-based NTEPP are five-week teacher education programs. The contents of the education

programs, which were in parallel with each other, were presented to the Experimental-1 group

through face-to-face sessions conducted by the researcher and to the Experimental-2 group through

the website. Nevertheless, this study consisted of five basic stages: preparation, pre-test,

implementation, post-test, and follow-up. All of these stages are presented in Figure 3, and the process

of developing education programs that constituted the basis of the study is explained in the next

section.

Figure 3. Research Process

Development Process of the Education Programs

The program development model used in the development process of the education programs is the

TABA Model (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2008). This model consists of the basic steps of determining the

need for an education program through pre-implementation focus group interviews, determining

general and special objectives, creating the program content, and implementing and evaluating the

program based on the "deductive approach." The content of the program consisted of the following 5-

week content with the data obtained from a detailed literature review and focus group interviews:

1. Definition and Characteristics of the Types of Developmental Disabilities (Intellectual

Disability, Down Syndrome, Hearing Disability, Visual Disability, Speech and Language

Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder, Cerebral

Palsy)

2. Introduction to the Naturalistic Teaching Process

3. Qualified Adult Behavior Strategies

3.1. Being Sensitive-Responsive (Being Sensitive, Being Responsive, Being Effective, Being

Creative)

3.2. Being Emotionally Expressive (Acceptance, Enjoyment, Being Warm, Using Verbal

Reinforcers)


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



3.3. Being Achievement-Oriented-Directive (Being Achievement-Oriented, Being Directive,

Interaction Pace)

4. Naturalistic Teaching Strategies

4.1. Modeling

4.1.1. Modeling without Expecting a Response

4.1.1.1. Bombardment of Words

4.1.1.2. Parallel Speech

4.1.1.3. Self-speech

4.1.2. Making choice

4.1.3. Modeling by using expansion

4.1.3.1. Expansion by adding words

4.1.3.2. Expansion by correcting/displacing

4.1.4. Mand-modeling

5. Environmental Arrangements (Making Inaccessible, Leaving Missing, Giving Limitedly/In

Pieces, Creating Surprising/Unexpected Conditions)

The Face-to-Face and Web-Based NTEPP consists of various basic tools and materials. They are five

guide booklets prepared based on the topics in the content, and 221 expert and sample application

videos. These tools and materials were embedded in a website in the Web-Based NTEPP, and all the

contents of these tools and materials were embedded in PowerPoint presentations and presented to the

participants through face-to-face sessions in the Face-to-Face NTEPP. The website of the program

can be accessed at https://www.dogalogretimprojesi.com/

Analysis of Data

The frequency and average values obtained by encoding the NTP-KT and all recorded videos in the

pre-implementation, post-implementation and follow-up measurements through the PBRS-TV and

NTP Video Analysis Form were analyzed by parametric and non-parametric tests. The analyses were

performed on the total scores obtained from three different measurements. The normal distribution

condition of each data set was evaluated before deciding on the tests to be performed. In this context,

kurtosis and skewness values, graphical methods (histogram, box plot diagram, stem-leaf diagram, Q-

Q graph and P-P graph, etc.) and statistical tests (Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests, etc.

compliance tests) were used (Huck, 2008; Pallant, 2011; Tabacknick & Fidell, 2007). All focus group

interviews were analyzed by content analysis (inductive thematic analysis) method, and then all

related results were combined. The content analysis allowed the researcher to interpret the data by

creating themes within the data (Patton, 2002). The qualitative data obtained from reflective diaries

and field notes that were analyzed by the macro analysis method, which provides a holistic and wide

view of a lot of data, played a supportive role for all results (Patton, 2002).

Reliability and Validity Studies

The “Inter-Observer Reliability” data were collected on whether the total score, average and

frequency values calculated for the dependent variables of the study (naturalistic teaching knowledge

level, interactional behavior levels, and levels of naturalistic teaching strategies used in classrooms)

were correct, and the "Implementation Reliability" data were collected to determine whether the

independent variables (education programs) were implemented as planned. These data calculated

using the formula of “Consensus/Consensus + Dissensus X 100” ranged from 85.8% to 98.6%. In the

validity studies, while time, external factors, measurement/testing before the experiment, separate

measurement tools and testing, biased grouping and the loss of participants were considered to ensure

the internal validity of quantitative data, measurement-independent variable interaction, biased

selection-independent variable interaction, test response interaction of independent variables (Karasar,

2011) were considered for external validity. Long-term interaction, depth-oriented data collection,

triangulation, expert review, participant confirmation and contrast case analysis factors were taken

into account in the internal validity of qualitative data, and detailed description and detailed sampling

factors were taken into account in their external validity (Daymon & Halloway, 2010; Patton, 2002).


https://www.dogalogretimprojesi.com/

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Research Ethics

The ethical considerations that were considered during the research process were as follows:

Obtaining the necessary permissions, protection of the confidentiality of the participants' identities,

non-corruption of the nature of the place investigated, respecting the institution/school culture, clear

transfer of research aims to the participants, respecting the groups with sensitivity to various situations

(inclusive students, etc.), being aware of possible hierarchical power relations in the data collection

process (relations between the researcher-school principals and teachers, etc.), and informing the

participants about the results of the study (Cresswell, 2011).

RESULTS

By the nature of the mixed research method, the results were presented in a supportive and integrated

manner. The results are explained by the order of the research questions.

Determination of the Participants' Knowledge, Opinions, and Experiences Regarding Inclusive

Education and the Naturalistic Teaching Process before the Implementation

Four main themes and ten sub-themes were reached by inductive analysis from the data obtained from

the focus group interviews before the implementation. All themes are presented in Figure 4, and then

these themes are explained in paragraphs.

Figure 4. List of themes and sub-themes resulting from the analysis of focus group interviews

before the implementation

During the interviews, it was observed that the vast majority of the participants emphasized that

inclusive education, which is a legal right in international and national legislation and plays a

significant role in the acceptance of individual differences, is a system that should be present in

Turkey. In addition to the need for inclusive education, the participants also mentioned many

contributions of inclusive education to students, families, teachers, and peers. In the analysis, it was

found that the emphasis was placed, especially on “recognizing and accepting differences” within the

context of contributions. The teachers emphasized that they play a unique role in ensuring the social

acceptance of students with special needs and that their acceptance of students with special needs

quickly reaches other individuals (students, families, etc.) included in inclusive education by creating

a snowball effect. According to the opinions of the participants who described themselves with the

metaphor "We are not Superman!" in the theme of the problems experienced, their lack of

knowledge about approaches/methods such as naturalistic teaching was addressed as one of the main


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



problems in conducting the inclusive education process. According to the opinions, this lack of

knowledge and education is attempted to be solved through individual efforts. It was considered that it

was difficult, even impossible, to overcome the lack of methodological knowledge in this way.

Furthermore, these studies based on individual efforts lead to a significant loss of time and

occupational burnout, which makes the acceptance of students with special needs difficult, and this

behavior may adversely affect the perspectives of other stakeholders (students, students' families, etc.)

in the system towards students in inclusive education. In the theme of teachers' solution proposals for

the problems, the need for preparing education programs on approaches/methods such as naturalistic

teaching should be among primary suggestions. Thus, the atmosphere of the class will be positively

affected, and the social acceptance of students with special needs in the classroom and other settings

will become easier, which may result in the happiness of all stakeholders with the process. In line with

these results, it is observed that the need referring to the subject of the study was also revealed. The

summarized visual of all these issues associated with each other is presented in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Issues associated with the main theme of problems in inclusive education

Effect of the Education Programs on the Participants' Naturalistic Teaching Knowledge Levels

The 3x2 mixed-design ANOVA (split-plot design ANOVA) test was performed to determine whether

the interactions of the measurement time, group, measurement time, and group factors, which are the

variables of the study, led to a significant difference in the participants' total scores for the NTP-KT.

The descriptive results related to mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values of the

total scores of the groups included in the analysis are presented in Table 3, and the results of the

mixed design ANOVA analysis are presented in Table 4.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics related to the total scores for the NTP-KT of the Experimental-1 and

Experimental-2 groups

Group Measurement Time N Mean SD Minimum Maximum

Experimental-1

Face-to-Face NTEPP

Pre-test 14 40.714 3.851 36.00 47.00

Post-test 14 49.928 5.327 41.00 57.00

Follow-up 14 47.574 4.569 40.00 55.00

Experimental-2

Web-Based NTEPP

Pre-test 16 41.687 4.269 32.00 49.00

Post-test 16 47.312 3.772 39.00 53.00

Follow-up 15 43.800 3.648 38.00 52.00

SD: Standard deviation, N: Number of People

According to the descriptive statistics, results revelaed that the total mean scores for the NTP-KT of

the Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups increased from pre-test to post-test and decreased from

post-test to follow-up.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 4. Mixed Design ANOVA Results of the pre-test/post-test/follow-up total scores for the NTP-

KT of the Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups

Source of Variance SS df MS F p np2

Intergroup

Group 74.287 1 74.287 2.064 .162

Error 971.897 27 35.996

Intragroup

Measurement time 771.869 2 385.934 40.306 .000* .599

Measurement*group 96.558 2 48.279 5.042 .010* .157

Error 517.051 54

Total 1.914,611 32

*p<.05, SS: Sum of Squares, df: Degree of freedom, MS: Mean of Squares, np2= Partial Effect Size

When the ANOVA summary chart was examined, it was observed that the change in the total mean

scores for the NTP-KT in the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up measurements did not differ by groups

(F(1,27)=2.064, p>.05). This result can be interpreted that changes in the groups at different

measurement times were similar. Furthermore, a significant difference was found between the mean

scores for the NTP-KT in the repeated measurements of the participants, regardless of the groups

(F(2,54)=40.306; p<.05; np2=.599). According to Cohen (1988) and Huck (2008), while an effect size

value of .01-.06 refers to a small effect, a value of .06 and above refers to a medium effect, and a

value of 0.14 and above refers to a large effect. Accordingly, it can be said that the measurement time,

in other words, both education programs had a large effect on the participants' scores for the NTP-KT.

Finally, it was determined that the measurement time and group interaction were statistically

significant and had a significant effect on the participants' scores for the NTP-KT (F(2,54)=5.042;

p<.05; np2=.157). This result can be interpreted that participation in the face-to-face and web-based

programs had different effects on the participants' total scores for the NTP-KT in at least one of the

three measurement times.

A series of independent samples t-tests were performed to determine whether there was a significant

difference in the total mean scores for the NTP-KT in each measurement between the groups. All

results of the analyses are presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Independent samples t-test results in which the total scores for the NTP-KT obtained from

three measurements were examined by groups

Measurement Time Group N Mean SD df t p n2

Pre-test Experimental-1 14 40.714 3.851

28 -.652 .520 - Experimental-2 16 41.684 4.269

Post-test Experimental-1 14 49.928 5.327

28 1.567 .128 - Experimental-2 16 47.312 3.772

Follow-up Experimental-1 14 47.571 4.569

27 2.465 .020* .183 Experimental-2 15 43.800 3.648

Experimental-1 Face-to-Face NTEPP, Experimental-2 Web-Based NTEPP

*p<.05, N= Number of People, SD= Standard deviation, df= Degree of freedom, n2= Effect Size

It was found that there was no significant difference in the pre-test and post-test between the follow-

up test total mean scores for the NTP-KT of the groups. However, there was a statistically significant

difference in the follow-up test, and this value indicated a large effect (t(27)=.020; p<.05, η2=.183).

When these results were interpreted, it can be stated that both education programs were effective in

increasing the naturalistic teaching knowledge levels of the participants. Furthermore, the results

indicated that a significant difference in the joint interaction between the measurement time and group

variables observed in the mixed design ANOVA analysis occurred in the follow-up measurement.

This result can be interpreted that the knowledge obtained from the Face-to-Face NTEPP was more

permanent compared to theWeb-Based NTEPP. The findings obtained from the analysis of focus


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



group interviews, reflective diaries, and field notes also support these results. For example, teacher

Eda summarized that the programs increased their naturalistic teaching knowledge levels by stating,

"You caught us at the point where we were missing because we, as pre-school teachers, are unaware

of many topics and practices in inclusion. With this education, we have learned a lot of scientific and

practical information we didn't know…”. These results are presented graphically in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Effect of the interaction between the measurement time and education group on the total

mean scores for the NTP-KT

Effect of the Education Programs on the Participants' Interactional Behavior Levels

While seeking an answer to the third question of the study, the presence of more than one dependent

variable first suggested the mixed design MANOVA analysis, based on the presence of two different

education groups, three different measurement times, and three subscales of the PBRS-TV. However,

there are many prerequisites for performing mixed design MANOVA analysis, such as sample size,

normality, and linearity (Pallant, 2011; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). In the study, due to a small

sample size, the presence of a correlation of less than 0.60 between univariate and multivariate

normality and the dependent variables, nonlinear distributions of the dependent variables at

independent variable levels, and failure to meet the homogeneity conditions of the variance-

covariance matrix, multiple 3x2 mixed design ANOVA analyses were performed instead of this

analysis. This method can be preferred by many researchers (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).

The descriptive results related to mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values of the

total scores of the Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups from the subscales of the PBRS-TV at

different measurement times are presented in Table 6. The mixed design ANOVA analyses performed

separately for each subscale are presented in Table 7, and the results of Sidak's multiple comparison

test, which was performed to determine between which measurement times the significant differences

found in the total scores obtained from the scales occurred, are indicated in the source of difference in

Table 6.

When the data were analyzed, it was found that the total mean scores of the participants in both the

Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups from the three subscales of the PBRS-TV increased from

pre-test to post-test and that these scores in the post-test were preserved in the follow-up test. The

participants were expected to get a mean score of 3 from the "Achievement-Orientation-

Directiveness" subscale and a mean score of 5 from other subscales. In this context, it can be said that

both education programs increased the participants' total mean scores obtained from three subscales


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



from pre-test to post-test at an average value, which was quite close to the desired level, which also

preserved in the follow-up measurement.

Table 6. Descriptive statistics related to the total scores of the Experimental-1 and Experimental-2

groups in three subscales of the PBRS-TV

Group Subscales Measurement Time N Mean SD Minimum Maximum

Ex

per

imen

tal-

1

Fa

ce-t

o-F

ace

NT

EP

P Being Sensitive-

Responsive

Pre-test 14 1.57 .852 1 3

Post-test 14 3.36 1.008 2 5

Follow-up 14 3.36 1.151 2 5

Being Emotionally

Expressive

Pre-test 14 1.79 .975 1 4

Post-test 14 3.43 1.016 2 5

Follow-up 14 3.36 1.216 2 5

Being Achievement-

Oriented-Directive

Pre-test 14 1.64 .929 1 3

Post-test 14 2.93 .616 2 4

Follow-up 14 2.71 .914 1 4

Ex

per

imen

tal-

2

Web

-Ba

sed

NT

EP

P Being Sensitive-

Responsive

Pre-test 16 1.56 .727 1 3

Post-test 16 3.38 1.025 2 5

Follow-up 15 3.07 1.100 1 4

Being Emotionally

Expressive

Pre-test 16 1.50 .730 1 3

Post-test 16 3.38 1.025 2 5

Follow-up 15 3.07 1.100 1 4

Being Achievement-

Oriented-Directive

Pre-test 16 1.88 1.088 1 5

Post-test 16 3.06 .680 2 4

Follow-up 15 2.67 .976 1 5

SD: Standard deviation, N: Number of People

When the mixed ANOVA summary chart was examined, it was observed that the change in the total

mean scores obtained from the “Sensitivity-Responsivity” subscale of the PBRS-TV did not differ by

groups (F(1,27)=.066; p>.05). Similar results were also achieved for the subscales of “Affect-

Expressiveness” (F(1,27)=.372) and “Achievement-Orientation-Directiveness” (F(1,27)=.005) (p>.05).

These results can be interpreted that changes in the groups at different measurement times followed a

similar path for all three subscales. Furthermore, it was found in the analyses that measurement and

group interaction was not statistically significant in all three subscales, respectively (F(2,54)=.424;

F(2,54)=.278; F(2,54)=.061; p>.05).

These results can be interpreted that two education programs did not have a different effect on the

total mean scores obtained by the participants from three subscales according to the measurement

time. At this point, it is possible to say that both programs were effective in increasing and

maintaining the interactional behavior levels of the participants.

The findings supporting these results were also achieved in the focus group interviews conducted after

the implementation, weekly reflective diaries, and the researcher's field notes. In the analysis of the

interviews, it was found that both education groups mentioned a number of contributions through

which the knowledge obtained from the programs was transferred to the practices in the education

process (start of using quality interaction and other naturalistic teaching strategies in the education

process, etc.). For example, teacher Gamze exemplified that she started to be a sensitive-responsive

teacher rather than exhibiting directive behaviors after the education by stating, "For example, the

child was standing in the middle, I was directing him right away, go there, play here. But now, I pay

much attention to what he cares about. I name what he is interested in and what he touches and

shows…”. A sample field note taken is as follows: “He was a very exhausted and unenthusiastic

teacher. Now I see that he participates in children's plays and follows their interests warmly. The

power of a teacher comes from love!”


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 7. Mixed ANOVA results of the total scores of the Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups

from the PBRS-TV

Source of Variance SS df MS F p np2 Source of Difference

Sen

siti

vity

-

Res

po

nsi

vity

Intergroup

1<2

1<3

Group .116 1 .116 .066 .799

Error 47.263 27 1.750

Intragroup


Measurement*group .514 2 .257 .424 .656

Error 32.727 54 .606

Total 137.456 86

Aff

ect-

Ex

pre

ssiv

enes

s

Intergroup

1<2

1<3

Group .788 1 .788 .372 .547

Error 53.143 27 2.116

Intragroup



Error 28.124 54 .521

Total 135.738 86

Ach

ieve

men

t-O

rien

tati

on

-

Dir

ecti

ven

ess

Intergroup

1<2

1<3

Group .005 1 .005 .005 .945

Error 30.730 27 1.138

Intragroup



Error 22.937 54 .425

Total 81.362 86

*p<.05, SS= Sum of Squares, df: Degree of freedom, MS: Mean of Squares, np2= Partial Effect Size

Source of Difference =1:Pre-test, 2:Post-test, 3:Follow-up measurement

Effect of the Education Programs on the Participants' Use of Naturalistic Teaching Strategies in

Education Processes

Leisure Time Activities: The Friedman test analyses were performed to examine the change in the

total scores for naturalistic teaching strategies of the two education groups within themselves from the

pre-test, post-test, and follow-up measurements of leisure time activities. The descriptive results

related to mean, standard deviation, median, minimum and maximum values of the total scores of the

groups analyzed are presented in Table 8, and the Friedman test results are presented in Table 9.

Table 8. Descriptive statistics related to the total scores for Naturalistic Teaching Strategies of the

Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups from three different measurements of leisure time

activities

Group Measurement Time N Mean SD Mv Minimum Maximum

Experimental -1

Face-to-Face NTEPP

Pre-test 14 3.64 5.486 1.50 0 19

Post-test 14 29.50 23.167 23.50 2 70

Follow-up 14 30.93 25.254 20.50 1 74

Experimental -2

Web-Based NTEPP

Pre-test 16 1.56 4.211 .00 0 17

Post-test 16 15.25 13.621 11.50 0 44

Follow-up 15 6.40 8.131 2.00 0 26

N= Number of people, SD= Standard deviation, Mv= Median values


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



When the descriptive data were analyzed, the results revealed that there was an increase of 26 points

in the total mean scores of the Experimental-1 group from pre-test to post-test and there was an

increase of 14 points in the Experimental-2 group and that there was a decrease of 1 point in the

Experimental-1 group from post-test to follow-up and there was a decrease of 9 points in the

Experimental-2 group.

Table 9. Friedman test results related to the total scores for Naturalistic Teaching Strategies of the

Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups from the measurements of leisure time activities at three

different times

Group Measurement

Time N Mean R. χ2 df p Kendall’s W

Experimental-1

Face-to-Face NTEPP

Pre-test 14 1.21 33.138 2 .000* .473

Post-test 14 3.79

Follow-up 14 4.07

Experimental-2

Web-Based NTEPP

Pre-test 16 1.87 26.574 2 .000* .354

Post-test 16 4.00

Follow-up 15 2.93

*p<.05, N= Number of People, Md= Median; Mean R.= Mean rank, χ2= Chi-square value, df: Degree of freedom, Kendall’s

W= Kendall's coefficient of concordance

In the Friedman test results, it was found that there was a significant difference between the total

scores for naturalistic teaching strategies of the Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups in the

leisure time activity in three different measurements and that this difference indicated a large effect

[χ2 (2, n=14)=33.138, p<.05, Kendall’s W=.473; χ2(2, n=15)=26.574, p<.05, Kendall’s W=.354].

These results can be interpreted that both education programs led to a significant difference between

the total scores at any two measurement times. The results of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test that was

performed to determine the source of the significant difference that emerged, in other words, between

which measurements it occurred, are presented in Table 10. Since pairwise comparisons were

performed between the measurements on the same data sets obtained from three different

measurements of the groups in these tests, the Bonferroni correction (p=.05/3=.017) was performed

by dividing the value of significance by three for each analysis to reduce the possibility of finding

significant results by chance. Thus, it was aimed to reject a truly correct null hypothesis, in other

words, to control Type 1 error (Alpha error), which means finding something that is not really

significant significant (Pallant, 2011, p. 237).

In the Wilcoxon signed-rank test results, it was determined that there was a significant difference

between the pre-test/post-test (z=-3.296; p<.017; r=.88) and pre-test/follow-up total scores for

naturalistic teaching strategies (z=-3.297; p<.017; r=.88) obtained by the Experimental-1 group from

the measurement of leisure time activities, and that there was no significant difference between the

pre-test/follow-up total scores for naturalistic teaching strategies. When the mean rank and totals of

the difference scores were taken into consideration, this difference was observed to be in favor of

positive ranks, in other words, the post-test scores. Similar results were also achieved for the

Experimental-2 group.

Table 10. Wilcoxon signed-rank test results related to the total scores for Naturalistic Teaching

Strategies of the Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups obtained from leisure time activities

Group N Mean R. Sum of R. z p r

Ex

per

imen

tal-

1

Fa

ce-t

o-F

ace

NT

EP

P

Post-test/Pre-test

Negative Rank 0 .00 .00 -3.296 .001* .88

Positive Rank 14 7.50 105.00

Equal 0

Follow-up/Post-test

Negative Rank 7 7.00 49.00 -.220 .826 -


Equal 0


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Follow-up/Pre-test

Negative Rank 0 .00 .00 -3.297 .001* .88


Equal 0

Ex

per

imen

tal-

2

Web

-Ba

sed

NT

EP

P

Post-test/Pre-test

Negative Rank 2 2.00 4.00 -3.184 .001* .79


Equal 1

Follow-up/Post-test

Negative Rank 10 7.85 78.50 -2.310 .021 -


Equal 2

Follow-up/Pre-test

Negative Rank 1 3.00 3.00 -2.695 .007* .69


Equal 4

*p<0.017 (Bonferroni correction), N= Number of People, Mean R.= Mean rank, Sum of R.= Sum of ranks, Effect Size

r=z/

A series of the Mann-Whitney U tests were performed for the intergroup comparison of the total

scores for naturalistic teaching strategies used in leisure time activities in the pre-test, post-test, and

follow-up measurements.

Table 11. Mann-Whitney U test results in which the total scores for Naturalistic Teaching Strategies

obtained from the measurement of leisure time activities at three different times were compared by

groups Measurement

Time

Group N Mean R. Sum of R. U z p r

Pre-test Experimental-1 14 18.36 257.00

72.000 -1.782 .075 -

Experimental-2 16 13.00 208.00

Post-test Experimental-1 14 18.29 256.00 73.000 -1.624 .104 -


Follow-up Experimental-1 14 20.00 280.00 35.000 -3.064 .002* .81


* Experimental-1= Face-to-Face NTEPP, Experimental-2= Web-Based NTEPP *p<.05, N= Number of People, Mean

R.=Mean rank, Sum of R.= Sum of ranks, U=Mann-Whitney U value, Effect Size r=z/

In the analyses, it was observed that there was a significant difference between the total scores for

naturalistic teaching strategies of the groups measured in the same activity, and this difference

indicated a large effect (U=35.000; z=-3.064; p<.017, r=.81). In brief, the fact that no significant

difference was found between the total scores for naturalistic teaching strategies measured in the

leisure time activities of the groups in the pre-test and post-test can be interpreted that both education

programs were effective in increasing the initial total scores of the participants. However, it can be

said that the Face-to-Face NTEPP had a more permanent effect on the total scores for leisure time

naturalistic teaching strategies of the participants.

Art Activities

The change between the total scores for naturalistic teaching strategies obtained by the Experimental-

1 and Experimental-2 groups from the measurement of art activities at three different times was

analyzed by the Friedman test analyses. The descriptive results related to mean, standard deviation,

median, minimum and maximum values of the total scores of the groups included in the analysis are

presented in Table 12, and the Friedman test results are presented in Table 13.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 12. Descriptive statistics related to the total scores for Naturalistic Teaching Strategies obtained

by the Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups from the measurement of art activities at three

different times

Group Measurement

Time

N Mean SD Md Minimum Maximum

Experimental-1 Face-

to-Face NTEPP

Pre-test 14 15.71 13.903 15.00 0 43

Post-test 14 40.50 31.334 37.00 4 110

Follow-up 14 26.71 21.265 20.50 5 78

Experimental-2

Web-Based NTEPP

Pre-test 16 5.13 10.138 3.00 0 42

Post-test 16 18.88 18.195 19.00 0 66

Follow-up 15 14.73 10.089 15.00 1 35

N= Number of People, SD= Standard deviation, Md= Median values

It was found that there was an increase of 35 points in the total mean scores of the Experimental-1

group from pre-test to post-test and there was an increase of 14 points in the Experimental-2 group

and that there was a decrease of 14 points in the Experimental-1 group from post-test to follow-up and

there was a decrease of 4 points in the Experimental-2 group.

Table 13. Friedman test results related to the total scores for art activity Naturalistic Teaching

Strategies of the Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups measured at three different times

Group Measurement

Time N Mean R. χ2 Df p Kendall’s W

Experimental-1

Face-to-Face NTEPP

Pre-test 14 1.36 9.571 2 0.008* 0.342

Post-test 14 2.50

Follow-up 14 2.14

Experimental-2

Web-Based NTEPP

Pre-test 16 1.37 9.390 2 0.009* 0.313

Post-test 16 2.23

Follow-up 15 2.40

*p<.05, N= Number of People, Md= Median; Mean R.= Mean rank, χ2= Chi-square value, Df: Degree of freedom, Kendall’s

W= Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance

It was determined that there was a significant difference between the total scores for art activity

naturalistic teaching strategies of the Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups in three different

measurements within themselves and that this difference indicated a large effect [χ2(2, n=14)= 9.571,

p<.05, Kendall’s W=.342; χ2(5, n=15)=9.390, p<.05, Kendall’s W=.313]. The results of the Wilcoxon

signed-ranks tests that were performed to determine between which measurements this difference

occurred are presented in Table 14, and it is observed in the results that there was a difference with a

significant and large effect.

Table 14a. Wilcoxon signed-rank test results related to the total scores for Naturalistic Teaching

Strategies of the Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups obtained from art activities

Group N Mean R. Sum of R. z p r

Ex

per

imen

tal-

1

Fa

ce-t

o-F

ace

NT

EP

P

Post-test/Pre-test

Negative Rank 2 5.00 10.00 -2.671 .008* .71


Equal 0

Follow-up/Post-test

Negative Rank 9 9.33 84.00 -1.978 .048 -


Equal 0

Follow-up/Pre-test

Negative Rank 3 7.17 21.50 -1.947 .052 -


Equal 0


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 14b. Wilcoxon signed-rank test results related to the total scores for Naturalistic Teaching

Strategies of the Experimental-1 and Experimental-2 groups obtained from art activities

Ex

per

imen

tal-

2

W

eb-B

ase

d N

TE

PP

Post-test/Pre-test

Negative Rank 4 3.75 15.00 -2.557 .011* .64


Equal 1

Follow-up/Post-test

Negative Rank 7 10.36 72.50 -0.710 .478


Equal 0

Follow-up/Pre-test

Negative Rank 2 7.75 15.50 -2.529 .011* .65


Equal 0

*p<.017 (Bonferroni correction), N= Number of People, Mean R.= Mean rank, Sum of R.= Sum of ranks, Effect Size

r=z/

A series of Mann-Whitney U tests were performed for the intergroup comparison of the total scores

for art activity naturalistic teaching strategies of the participants measured at three different times.

Table 15. Mann-Whitney U test results in which the total scores for art activity Naturalistic Teaching

Strategies measured at three different times were compared by groups

Measurement Time Group N Mean R. Sum of R. U z p r

Pre-test Experimental-1 14 19.04 266.50 62.500 -2.073 .038* .37


Post-test Experimental-1 14 19.54 273.50 55.500 -2.351 .019 -


Follow-up Experimental-1 14 17.50 245.00 70.000 -1.532 .126 -


Experimental-1: Face-to-Face NTEPP, Experimental-2: Web-Based NTEPP

*p<.05, N= Number of People, Mean R.= Mean rank, Sum of R.= Sum of ranks, U=Mann-Whitney U value, Effect Size

r=z/

When Table 15 was examined, it was found that there was a significant difference between the total

pre-test naturalistic teaching strategies scores measured in the art activities of the Experimental-1 and

Experimental-2 groups and that this difference indicated a large effect (U=62.500; z=-2.073; r=.37;

p>.05). This situation, which can also be observed in descriptive statistics values, can be interpreted

that the total naturalistic teaching strategy levels used by both groups in the art activities were not

similar before the implementation. However, it was considered that this situation that was observed

only in this data set and analysis of the study might be due to the fact that the "total scores for

naturalistic teaching strategies obtained by several participants from the art activity had extreme

values in the data." In the literature, this incident is expressed among the limitations of the "quasi-

experimental design," and it is indicated that the extreme values taken by several participants may

affect the results of the analysis performed with a group having a small sample size (Cresswell, 2011).

To make a decision according to the split-plot in such a data set, or to equalize the groups by

extracting extreme values from the data are among the recommended methods (Pallant, 2011;

Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). However, since studies were conducted with a special and small target

group in this study, the choice of non-foreign intervention to the test process, and the fact that it was

observed that the difference in the intergroup pre-test scores found only in this analysis was not very

big on the chart, no reduction was made in the data by deleting the extreme values, and the analyses

were performed with normal data.

When all the results are summarized, it is possible to state that both education programs had an effect

on the participants with regard to using and maintaining naturalistic teaching practices in art activities.

The findings supporting these results were also achieved in the focus group interviews conducted after


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



the implementation, weekly reflective diaries, and the researcher's field notes. In the analysis of the

interviews, one of the topics that were observed to be discussed within the professional contributions

acquired by the participants from the programs was the use of naturalistic teaching strategies in daily

education and training process after the education. The participants exemplified and stated that they

started to use both environmental arrangements and other naturalistic teaching strategies in their daily

activities after the teaching education process. For example, teacher Leyla, one of the Web-Based

NTEPP participants, exemplified that she started to use making inaccessible, one of the environmental

arrangement strategies, and expansion and bombardment of words from other naturalistic teaching

strategies in the education process by stating, "In the art activity, I give the paper to students and wait

for them to ask for their paint…they come and either raise their fingers or ask me to give it. I

immediately expand it by saying, give the paint. I say what they cannot say in the form of

bombardment during the day." Finally, a sample field note regarding this issue was as follows: "Is this

a teacher just sitting in his chair during a leisure time activity that I have seen? It makes me surprised

that he makes children's plays fun by creating surprising situations, presents linguistic models to

children by naming what they do, and expands their reactions. The power of this teacher comes from

his effort to reflect what he has learned into practice.

Examination of the Participants' Opinions and Experiences on the Education Programs

Figure 7. List of Themes and Sub-themes for Post-implementation Focus Group Interviews

At this stage, focus group interviews were conducted with the participants as before the

implementation. As a result of the analysis from the interview data, a total of three main themes and

eleven sub-themes showed in Figure 7 were achieved. First, it was revealed in the analyses that all

participants acquired a large number of contributions through which they could obtain knowledge

about the naturalistic teaching process from the programs professionally, and then they could transfer

this knowledge to various practices. These contributions were better observing students and directing

students and their families to institutions that make a diagnosis or evaluation when required, naming

naturalistic teaching practices that were performed in the daily education process and realizing these

practices in a more conscious way, and starting to use newly learned practices. The participants of

both programs indicated that with these practices they implemented, children became more active in

their classrooms, and a more entertaining atmosphere was formed. Under the main theme of

"Opinions about the content of the programs and implementation processes," it was found that all

participants in both education groups considered the content of the programs as holistic, interrelated


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



and sufficient, and they considered the materials used as linguistically clear and understandable

materials with visuals, many colors, and case study consisting of pill knowledge. Furthermore, it was

observed that the participants generally described education programs with the words of “effective,”

“successful,” “touching education,” and “fun.” Moreover, it was determined that the education

programs were described by the metaphor of "life buoy." The opinions of teacher Aslı about this

subject are as follows: “… the seminar has provided things that will save our lives in practice. It has

become a life buoy for us. In other seminars, they just tell us, clap your arm, you can swim. I can't

swim… I will somehow go ashore now, but in the meantime, I will have learned to swim...” Along

with these positive opinions, it was observed that the participants also provided some opinions

regarding the aspects of the programs that needed to be developed and the problems experienced

during the implementation process. The participants who attended both the face-to-face and web-

based programs stated that they had difficulty in following the programs due to their personal

responsibilities, that they needed “repetition of knowledge, application practice, and therefore, time”

in order to internalize the naturalistic teaching strategies they learned from the programs and to

specialize in practice, and that a large class size and the lack of auxiliary staff in practice were

complicating factors. These results make it necessary to consider the variables that will increase

motivation in participation in education programs prepared for teachers, and the factors affecting the

functioning of teacher education programs in the inclusive education process in Turkey.

The suggestions for the solution of these problems mentioned by the participants in the analysis of the

interviews were listed as the implementation of programs during the seminar period, the inclusion of

more sample videos that may contribute to the implementation processes and coping strategies with

classroom management/problem behaviors in the programs, and the operation of the coaching system.

Furthermore, it was remarkable that the participants associated their suggestions for the problems

experienced in the implementation of evidence-based applications such as naturalistic teaching in the

education processes with the functioning of inclusive pre-school education in Turkey. In this context,

the participants emphasized that the inclusive school education system, which is functioning

systematically in our country, should be developed, that class sizes should be reduced for the qualified

functioning of this system, that supports for auxiliary staff and materials should be provided, that

different teacher education programs on evidence-based practices such as naturalistic teaching should

be developed, and that the cooperation processes with families and CRC should be accelerated. For

example, teacher Deniz, one of the Face-to-Face NTEPP participants, stated, "...they should assist

each other...The main problem is that there is no inclusive system understanding. Applications and

problems are reflected in the parts of the whole system. If these problems are resolved, teacher

training programs work in a more qualified manner".

In conclusion, the results of this study have formed a basic frame regarding the functioning of

inclusive early childhood education in Turkey and teacher education programs from support services

in this process.


In the study, the prior knowledge, opinions, and experiences of pre-school teachers regarding

inclusive education and the naturalistic teaching process were first examined before the

implementation, and thus, the need for professional education programs was also revealed. The first

main conclusion obtained from the study is that pre-school teachers indicated that inclusive education

is a system that should be present in Turkey and made a lot of contributions to them, students, and

families with regard to many issues such as recognizing and accepting differences. These results

suggested that teachers might basically have a moderate approach to inclusive education.

Nevertheless, it was determined that the moderate approaches of teachers towards inclusive education

could be affected by various factors. The participants listed these factors as stakeholders, education

and training setting, insufficient support services and problems related to the political system at the

upper level, especially the lack of knowledge about students with special needs and their


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



characteristics, and practices that can be easily applied in classrooms such as the naturalistic teaching

approach. It was indicated that the improvement of the participants' lack of knowledge through

professional development programs could result in the “social acceptance process” of children with

special needs and their families spreading from teachers, students, and families to the society. All

these results that are associated with each other are also supported by many research results in the

international and national literature (Bailey & Winton, 1987; Bozarslan & Batu, 2014; Diamond &

LeFurgy, 1994; Emam & Mohamed, 2011; Kasari, Freeman, Bauminger, & Alkin, 1999; Krischler,

Pit-ten Cate & Krolak-Schwerdt 2018; Rakap, Parlak-Rakap, & Aydın, 2016; Rakap & Rakap, 2014;

Sucuoğlu, Bakkaloğlu, Akalın, Demir, & İşçen-Karasu, 2015; Sucuoğlu et al., 2013; Winton,

Turnbull, Blacher, & Salkind, 1983). In the studies, teachers' lack of knowledge and education on

evidence-based practices that they can transfer into education processes is considered as one of the

biggest systemic problems experienced in inclusive education, and it is considered that a solution to

the problem of methodological knowledge can be produced through professional development

programs including visual and written materials (Boyd, Kucharczyk, & Wong, 2016; Bruder, 2016).

According to one of the main results of the study, the five-week face-to-face and web-based programs

developed were effective in increasing the participants' total scores for naturalistic teaching

knowledge, interactional behaviors established by them with children, and naturalistic teaching

strategies they used in leisure time and art activities. However, it was found that the face-to-face

education program had a more permanent effect on the participants' total scores for naturalistic

teaching knowledge and naturalistic teaching strategies used in leisure time activities compared to the

web-based program. When the literature is reviewed, it is possible to find studies in which the effects

and permanency of both face-to-face and web-based programs on targeted teacher behaviors are

examined independently of each other (Christensen-Sandfort, & Whinnery, 2013; Harjusola-Webb &

Robbins, 2012; Kohler, Anthony, Steighner, & Hoyson, 2001; Malmskog & McDonnell, 1999;

Marsicano, Morrison, Moomaw, Fite, & Kluesener, 2015; Wolery, Anthony, Caldwell, Snyder, &

Morgante, 2002). However, there was no study in which the effects and permanency of naturalistic

teaching-based face-to-face and web-based education programs in the pre-school inclusive education

process on the targeted performances of participants were compared. The results of the

aforementioned studies revealed that both web-based and face-to-face education programs had a

successful effect on the targeted performance levels of participants. In the literature, it is remarkable

that the features of face-to-face or web-based practices such as their permanence and forms of

presentation were discussed rather than their effects. At this point, it is discussed that face-to-face

education programs have limitations, such as the fact that they may be time-consuming for researchers

and participants. With regard to permanence, there are research results revealing that services such as

counseling and coaching provided with web-based programs or longer-term education may have a

more effective and permanent effect on the knowledge, skills, and behaviors that are aimed to be

acquired by participants and may result in the transfer of the practices learned to the education process

with a higher level of reliability (Kohler et al., 2001; Stahmer et al., 2015; Tate et al., 2005). In

accordance with these results, it can be said that web-based programs, the contents of which were

designed with visual and written materials, could be as effective as face-to-face programs on teachers'

targeted performance levels; however, with which components and in which forms the programs on

permanence should be presented to teachers is on the agenda of scientific discussion. In the focus of

the discussions, it is suggested in the literature that multi-component education programs can be

designed, and it is also emphasized that these designs depend on the situations of the country, the

researcher and the participants such as source, time and motivation (Frantz, 2017; Dick, 2017; Han,

2012; Hemmeter, Snyder, Kinder, & Artman, 2011). In this study, the fact that the face-to-face

education program had a more permanent effect on the participants' naturalistic teaching knowledge

levels compared to the web-based program was considered to be due to systemic (infrastructure-

based) problems in Turkey, along with the individual and motivational issues affecting the

participants' time periods to follow the web-based program. In this context, it was revealed that the

internet infrastructure should be developed, or the videos should be prepared in accordance with this


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



infrastructure so that teachers working in schools affiliated to the Ministry of Education in Turkey can

watch the videos in the prepared web-based program without interruption. It is recommended to find

the factors that will increase motivation with respect to teachers' more frequent participation in web-

based programs.

Another result obtained from the study was that the teachers' opinions about the programs were quite

positive. In the literature, it was also remarkable that social validity data were collected in the studies

on teacher education programs, and in these data, it was observed that teachers found both face-to-

face and web-based education programs prepared with written and visual materials effective and

successful (Dick, 2017; Frantz, 2017; Gianoumis et al., 2012; Marsicano et al., 2015). Nevertheless,

in the interviews, it was indicated that some problems, such as excessive class size, the lack of

auxiliary staff and materials, and inadequate cooperation with stakeholders, were experienced in the

transfer of knowledge obtained from the programs into practice, and that these problems could be

basically solved by transforming inclusive pre-school education in Turkey into a more functional and

qualified system. In the studies in the literature, inclusive pre-school education was discussed as an

ecological system approach, and it was stated there were many factors that affect the quality of the

system (Odom, 2002; 2016; Odom et al., 1996; Odom et al., 2002). It is observed that these factors

that affect and are affected by each other include issues such as legal regulations, cooperation between

stakeholders, providing support services, and arrangement of the education and training setting and

process (Odom, 2016). It is overemphasized that any problem occurring in these factors, which are

described as inseparable parts within the system, grows like a snowball and disrupts the holistic and

qualified functioning of practices (Odom, 2002; 2016; Odom et al., 1996; Odom et al., 2002).

In brief, it is observed that web-based programs, the content of which is designed with visual and

written materials, can be as effective as face-to-face programs on the targeted performance levels of

teachers and have gained importance with their functionality in recent years. Nowadays, when the

COVID-19 epidemic covering the whole world is experienced, it is observed that web-based

programs, which can be followed at home and can spread all over the countries, have increasingly

gained momentum and that these programs will continue to gain momentum in the future. However, it

can be said that with which components, and in which forms the programs on permanence should be

presented to teachers is on the agenda of scientific discussion. Nevertheless, it can be stated that the

knowledge obtained from teacher education programs can be better reflected in classroom settings by

resolving the infrastructural and systemic problems in Turkey.

The results of this study should be interpreted with some of its limitations. It is important to be able to

ensure control in a lot of quantitative and qualitative data that should be collected due to the nature of

the mixed method (Cresswell, 2014). Therefore, this study was carried out with a quasi-experimental

design with 30 pre-school teachers who were a special study group and voluntarily agreed to

participate in the education programs in Eskişehir province (limited sample size) in Turkey. Based on

the need to focus on examining the effects of teacher education programs on targeted teacher

behaviors and to provide time control, the effects of programs on child outcomes and families could

not be examined. Furthermore, naturalistic teaching is a holistic approach containing many strategies,

methods, and techniques. Therefore, in the study, which of the strategies, methods, and techniques

included in the naturalistic teaching approach were used most or least by teachers was not compared

with each other, and all analyses were performed on the total scores obtained from naturalistic

teaching practices.

Within the context of the problems mentioned above, some suggestions that can be made for a more

qualified functioning of the international inclusive education system and inclusive education system

in Turkey and for further studies can be listed as follows: In the literature, inclusive education is

discussed as an “ecological system,” in which many individuals and services (stakeholders, physical

arrangements, support special education services, etc.) should work together. In this context, it is quite

important to develop a qualified and functioning system for inclusive education both in Turkey and in

other developing countries. Within the system, it is recommended to carry out studies on issues such


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



as preparing various professional development programs for the solution of the lack of knowledge and

education of teachers, developing a physical environment and material opportunities, planning the

services to be provided to children with special needs and their families, and increasing cooperation

between stakeholders. In order to find solutions to the lack of knowledge and education in inclusive

pre-school education, it may be suggested to develop and implement various education programs on

different evidence-based practices such as naturalistic teaching for teachers and families and to make

them widespread. There is a limited number of studies on the relevant subject in the international

literature and in the literature in Turkey, and it is possible to carry out different scientific studies in

which the effects and permanence of naturalistic teaching approach-based face-to-face and web-based

teacher education programs on teachers, children, and families' performances are compared.

Professional development programs on different evidence-based practices can be developed, and their

effectiveness and permanence can be evaluated.

Acknowledgments This study is a part of the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK)

1001 Program project no.114K164 and was supported within the scope of the Anadolu University

Scientific Research Projects (BAP) project no.1505E433. This study is part of the first author's

doctoral thesis.

REFERENCES

Aldemir, Ö. (2017). Okul öncesi öğretmenlerince sunulan gömülü öğretimin kaynaştırma öğrencilerinin hedef davranışlarını

edinmelerindeki etkileri [The effects of embedded teaching provided by preschool teachers on the acquisition of

target behaviors by inclusive students]. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation thesis). Anadolu University, Eskişehir.

Allen, K. D., & Cowan, R. J. (2008). Naturalistic teaching procedures. In J.K. Luiselli, D.C. Russo, W.P. Christian, & S.M.

Wilczynski (Eds.), Effective practices for children with autism (pp. 213-240). New York: Oxford University Press.

Bailey, D. B., & Winton, P. J. (1987). Stability and change in parents’ expectations about mainstreaming. Topics in Early

Childhood Special Education, 7, 73-88.

Boyd, B. A., Kucharczyk, S., & Wong, C. (2016). Implementing evidence-based practices in early childhood classroom

settings. In B. Reichow, B.A. Boyd, E.E. Barton, & S.L. Odom (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood special

education (pp. 335-347). Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

Bozarslan, B., & Batu, E. S. (2014). Özel anaokullarında çalışan eğiticilerin okul öncesi dönemde kaynaştırma ile ilgili görüş

ve önerileri [Opinions and suggestions of educators working in private kindergartens about inclusion in the

pre-school period]. Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University Journal of Faculty of Education, 14(2), 86-108.

Bruder, M. B. (2016). Personnel development practices in early childhood intervention. In B. Reichow, B. A. Boyd, E. E.

Barton, & S. L. Odom (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood special education (pp. 289-333). Switzerland: Springer

International Publishing.

Charlop-Christy, M. H., LeBlanc, L. A., & Carpenter, M. H. (1999). Naturalistic Teaching strategies (NATS) to teach speech

to children with autism: Historical perspective, development, and current practice. The California School

Psychologist, 4(1), 30-46.

Christensen-Sandfort, R. J., & Whinnery, S. B. (2013). Impact of milieu teaching on communication skills of young children

with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 32(4), 211-222.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum

Associates.

Cresswell, J. W. (2011). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research

(4th ed.). Pearson Publishing.

Cresswell, J. W. (2014). A Concise introduction to mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Daymon, C., & Halloway, I. (2010). Qualitative research methods in public relations and marketing communications (2nd

ed.). Routledge Publishing.

Diamond, K. E., & LeFurgy, W. G. (1994). Attitudes of parents of preschool children toward integration. Early Education

and Development, 5, 69-77.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Dick, K. J. (2017). Effects of a coaching intervention on teacher’s implementation of naturalistic strategies to promote

communication in children. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation thesis). University of Kentucky, Lexington,

Kentucky.

Diken, Ö, Topbaş, S., & Diken, İ. H. (2009). Ebeveyn Davranışını Değerlendirme Ölçeği (EDDÖ) ile Çocuk Davranışını

Değerlendirme Ölçeği (ÇDDÖ)’nin geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışmaları [Validity and reliability studies of the

Parental Behavior Rating Scale (PBRS) and the Child Behavior Rating Scale (CBRS)]. Ankara University Faculty

of Educational Sciences Journal of Special Education, 10(2), 41-60.

Dunst, C. J., Raab, M., & Trivette, C. M. (2011). Characteristics of naturalistic language intervention strategies. Journal of

Speech-Language Pathology and Applied Behavior Analysis, 5(3-4), 8-16.

Emam, M. M., & Mohamed, A. H. H. (2011). Preschool and primary school teachers' attitudes towards inclusive education

in Egypt: The role of experience and self-efficacy. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 29, 976-985.

Frantz, R. J. (2017). Coaching teaching assistants to implement naturalistic behavıoral teaching strategies to enhance social

communication skills during play in the preschool classroom. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation thesis).

University of Oregon, United States.

Gianoumis, S., Seiverling, L., & Sturney, P. (2012). The effects of behavior skills training on correct teacher implementation

of natural language paradigm teaching skills and child behavior. Behavioral Interventions, 27, 57-74.

Halle, J., Albert, C. L., & Anderson, S. L. (1984). Natural environment language assessment and intervention with severely

impaired preschoolers. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 4, 36-56.

Han, S. P. (2012). Professional development that works: Shifting preschool teachers’ beliefs and use of instructional

strategies to promote children’s peer social competence. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 33, 251-

268.

Harjusola-Webb, S. M., & Robbins, H. (2012). The effects of teacher-implemented naturalistic intervention on the

communication of preschoolers with autism. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 32(2) 99-110.

Hemmeter, M. L., Snyder, P., Kinder, K., & Artman, K. (2011). Impact of performance feedback delivered via electronic

mail on preschool teachers’ use of descriptive praise. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26, 96-109.

Huck, S. W. (2008). Reading statistics and research (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson. In W. Damon & R. Lerner (Series Eds.) & R.

M. Lerner (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol 1: Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., pp.

793-828.). New York Wiley.

Karaaslan, O., & Mahoney, G. (2013). Effectiveness of responsive teaching with children with Down syndrome. Intellectual

and Developmental Disabilities, 51, 458-469.

Karaaslan, O., Diken, I. H., & Mahoney, G. (2013). A randomized control study of responsive teaching with young Turkish

children and their mothers. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 33, 18-27.

Karasar, N. (2011). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri [Scientific research methods] (22nd ed.). Ankara: Nobel Publishing.

Kasari, C., Freeman, S. F. N., Bauminger, N., & Alkin, M. C. (1999). Parental perspectives on inclusion: Effects of autism

and Down syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29, 297-305.

Koegel, R. L., O’Dell, M. C., & Koegel, L. K. (1987). A natural language paradigm for teaching non-verbal autistic children.

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 17, 187-199.

Kohler, F. W., Anthony, L. J., Steighner, S. A., & Hoyson, M. (2001). Teaching social interaction skills in the integrated

preschool: An examination of naturalistic tactics. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 21(2), 93-103.

Krischler, M., Pit-ten Cate, I. M., & Krolak-Schwerdt, S. (2018). Mixed stereotype content and attitudes toward students

with special educational needs and their inclusion in regular schools in Luxembourg. Research in Developmental

Disabilities, 75, 59-67.

Kruger, R. A., and Casey, M. A. (2000). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (3rd ed.). Thosand Oaks:

Sage.

Malmskog, S., & McDonnell, A. P. (1999). Teacher-mediated facilitation of engagement by children with developmental

delays in inclusive preschools. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 19(4), 213-216.

Marsicano, R. T., Morrison, J. Q., Moomaw, S. C., Fite, N. M., & Kluesener, C. M. (2015). Increasing math milieu teaching

by varying levels of consultation support: An example of analyzing intervention strength. Journal of Behavioral

Education, 24, 112-132.

McWilliam, R. A. (2016). Birth to three: Early intervention. In B. Reichow, B. A. Boyd, E. E. Barton, & S. L. Odom (Eds.),

Handbook of early childhood special education (pp. 75-347). Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Morse, J. M. (1991). Approaches to qualitative-quantitative methodological triangulation. Nursing Research, 40, 120-123.

National Autism Center [NAC]. (2015). Findings and conclusions: National standards project, phase 2. Randolph, MA:

Author.

National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorder [NPDC]. (2014). What are evidence-based

practices? Retrieved from https://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/evidence-based-practices.

Odom, S. L. (2016). The role of theory in early childhood special education and early intervention. In B. Reichow, B. A.

Boyd, E. E. Barton, & S. L. Odom (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood special education (pp. 21-37).

Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

Odom, S. L. (Ed.). (2002). Widening the circle: Including children with disabilities in preschool programs. New York, NY:

Teacher College Press.

Odom, S. L., Peck, C. A., Hanson, M., Beckman, P. J., Kaiser, A. P., Lieber, J., … Schwartz, I. (1996). Inclusion of

preschool children with disabilities: An ecological systems perspective. SRCD Social Policy Report, 10(2-3), 18-

30.

Odom, S. L., Wolery, R., Leiber, J., and Hanson, M. J. (2002). Social policy and preschool inclusion. In S. L. Odom (Ed.),

Widening the circle: Including children with disabilities in preschool programs (pp. 120-136). New York, NY:


Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (2008). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues (5th ed.). Allyn & Bacon

Publishing.

Pallant, J. (2011). SPSS survival manual. A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS (4th ed.). Allen & Unwin.

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thosand Oaks: Sage.

Pianta, R. C., Mashburn, A. J., Downer, J. T., Hamre, B. K., & Justice, L. (2008). Effects of web-mediated professional

development resources on teacher-child interactions in pre-kindergarten classrooms. Early Childhood Research

Quarterly, 23. 431-451.

Rakap, S. (2019). Re-visiting transition-based teaching: Impact of pre-service teacher's implementation on child outcomes.

Learning and Instruction, 59, 54-64.

Rakap, S., & Parlak-Rakap, A. (2011). Effectiveness of embedded instruction in early childhood special education: A

literature review. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 19(1), 79-96.

Rakap, S., & Rakap, S. (2014). Parent-implemented naturalistic language interventions for young children with disabilities:

A systematic review of single-subject experimental research studies. Educational Research Review, 13, 35-51.

Rakap, S., Parlak-Rakap, A., & Aydın, B. (2016). Investigation and comparison of Turkish and American preschool teacher

candidates’ attitudes towards inclusion of young children with disabilities, International Journal of Inclusive

Education, 20(11), 1223-1237.

Stahmer, A. C., Rieth, S., Lee, E., Reisinger, E. M., Mandell, D., & Connell, J. E. (2015). Training teachers to use evidence-

based practices for autism: Examining procedural implementation fidelity. Psychology in the Schools, 52(2), 181-

195.

Storie, S., Coogle, C. G., Rahn, N., & Ottley, J. R. (2017). Distance coaching for pre-service teachers: Impacts on children’s

functional communication in inclusive preschool classrooms. Early Childhood Education Journal, 45, 735-743.

Sucuoǧlu, B., Bakkaloğlu, H., İşçen-Karasu, F., Demir, Ş., & Akalın, S. (2013). Inclusive preschool teachers: Their attitudes

and knowledge about inclusion. International Journal of Early Childhood Special Education, 5(2), 107-128.

Sucuoğlu, B., Bakkaloğlu, H., Akalın, S., Demir, Ş., & İşçen-Karasu, F. (2015). The effects of the preschool inclusion

program on teacher outcomes in Turkey. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 36(4), 324-341.

Şeker, H., & Gençdoğan, B. (2006). Psikoloji ve eğitimde ölçme aracı geliştirme [Developing a measurement tool in

psychology and education] (2. bs.). Ankara: Nobel Publishing.

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). New York: Allyn and Bacon.

Tate, T. L., Thompson, R. H., & McKerchar, P. M. (2005). Training teachers in an infant classroom to use embedded

teaching strategies. Education and Treatment of Children, 28(3), 206-221.

Ünal, F. (2018). Okul öncesi öğretmenlerine gömülü öğretime dayalı web ortamında sunulan danışmanlığın öğretmenlerin

gömülü öğretim becerileri ve öğrencilerinin hedef davranışları öğrenim düzeyi üzerindeki etkililiği [The

effectiveness of counseling provided to pre-school teachers in the web environment based on embedded teaching

on teachers' embedded teaching skills and students' levels of learning target behaviors] (Unpublished doctoral

dissertation thesis). Anadolu University, Eskişehir.


https://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/evidence-based-practices

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Winton, P., Turnbull, A. P., Blacher, J. B., & Salkind, N. (1983). Mainstreaming in the kindergarten classroom: Perspectives

of parents of handicapped and nonhandicapped children. Journal of the Division for Early Childhood, 6, 14-20.

Wolery, M., Anthony, L., Caldwell, N. K., Snyder, E. D., & Morgante, J. D. (2002). Embedding and distributing constant

time delay in circle time and transitions. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 22(1), 14-25.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



INVESTIGATION OF VERBS USED BY PRE-SERVICE PRIMARY

SCHOOL TEACHERS IN THE CONTEXT OF HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

WITH THE SOM-WARD METHOD

İlyas YAZAR

Assoc.Prof.Dr., Department of Elementary Education, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6784-289X

[email protected]

Dilek HAZAR

Department of Mathematics Education, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey


[email protected]

Cenk KEŞAN

Prof.Dr., Department of Mathematics Education, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey


[email protected]

Mehmet ÖZER

Assist.Prof.Dr., Department of Elementary Education, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey


[email protected]

Received: June 04, 2020 Accepted: February 24, 2021 Published: June 30, 2021

Suggested Citation:

Yazar, I., Hazar, D., Keşan, C., & Özer, M. (2021). Investigation of verbs used by pre-service primary school teachers in the

context of hierarchy of needs with the SOM-Ward method. International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 10(1),

235-250.


Abstract

The current study examines the verbs used by pre-service primary school teachers in everyday language in the context of the

hierarchy of needs using the SOM-Ward clustering method. The study group of this survey research consists of 271 pre-service

primary school teachers studying at a public university in Turkey. In this research, pre-service primary school teachers were

asked to list the most 10 frequently used verbs in everyday language. Descriptive analysis was conducted by coding the verbs

according to the themes of the hierarchy of needs. The intercoders reliability was calculated as 96 percent. The mean ranks

were calculated on the data obtained according to this coding. Through the SOM-Ward clustering analysis, it was observed that

the pre-service primary school teachers were separated into four clusters. Although not hierarchic, the C1 cluster is compatible

in terms of basic needs; biological and physiological needs were preferred, and then the personal preferences of individuals

were prioritized in determining the needs. Individual preferences prevent the hierarchical approach in determining the needs of

the C2-C3-C4 clusters; it was seen that the love, safety and the aesthetic needs of those who formed these clusters are far greater

than their basic needs. This reveals that there may be greater and higher priority life needs than biological and physiological

needs in an individual. In addition, it was determined that the needs of esteem and superiority shown in the pyramid did not

play a decisive role in the clusters since they did not make a significant impact.

Keywords: SOM-Ward analysis, verb, hierarchy of needs, primary school.

INTRODUCTION

Language is accepted as the greatest ability that people acquire unconsciously and also it is a nested

system which is shaped by the communities. The communities use it, and the language forms the basis

of the agreements that society considers appropriate. Although the carrier characteristics of the common

culture come to the fore in the formation of this basis, it is not possible to explain many differences

regarding the use of language within the same cultural structure by using a random approach. As a result

of the combination of human creativity and flexibility brought by individual language, which is unique







IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



to the person, emerging of these differences is quite normal in terms of daily language. The language

usage patterns of each individual in every society throughout history have been different. These forms

of use contain many clues that have not been explicitly stated but noticed about the individual using

them. Signs such as the spoken words, the chosen words, and the phonetic and morphological features

of the language produced are included as aids which identify the language user. For example, while

speaking on the phone, it is possible to make inferences about the speaker’s age, gender, mood,

education level, society in which he grew up, and culture, even if the speaker himself does not say these

things. In this regard, the examination and understanding of the differences in everyday language use

are primarily related to the knowledge of the individual who uses the language and the language used.

In today's world, it is seen that studies are conducted for the different uses and subtleties of language,

and functional features of a language are emphasized in this context. Within this approach, language is

seen as a part of daily activities and evaluated in these relations. Everyday linguists study language

considering variables such as the orientation and actions of the speaker and the listener. Austin (2009)

mentions that this language, which is used for everyday purposes such as betting, has an indispensable

value for human life since everyday language has a long historical background and it uses the features

of everyday language for different purposes while making various distinctions in the historical process

(Austin, 2009, p. 16). It is seen that human beings can distinguish the male from the female, the living

being from the abiotic, the friend from the enemy, and the good from the bad, thanks to daily language,

which is one of the most natural elements as a means of communication in its great variety of forms in

the universe of life. These distinctions, which extend almost to infinity in everyday language, are not

without reason and support. In every distinction and awareness created, humanity's everlasting worldly

efforts have a purpose, reflection and trace (Çelebi, 2014, p. 74-77).

In our study, while evaluating the factors related to individual’s daily language, basic needs and analyses

related to Maslow's classification were taken into consideration, rather than reasons such as mental

association, socio-economic status or educational level differences. Because human beings exist in the

historical process, they continue their lives as social beings in relation to the dynamic structure and

perception of the value of the society they live in today. The individual has been living in a programmed

way from the first moment he was born in order to meet his needs and to adapt to the conditions of his

universe. Especially, the feeling of hunger in the first moment the individual opens his eyes to the world

clearly shows the individual's need for nutrition. Vital findings reveal the unlimited efforts of the

individual to meet their needs from birth to death. The individual, who must meet his needs due to his

physiological structure, must live in production and consumption to fulfill the requirements that have a

vital function for life. From past to present, individuals have been trying to meet their needs primarily

to produce and consume. In this context, since the individual must meet his physiological needs, s/he

focuses primarily on basic needs such as nutrition and shelter. Besides physiological needs, needs such

as security, love, esteem and self-actualization are among the goals that the individual wants to achieve.

Today, no matter how unlimited the individual's needs are, human beings can only meet their needs at a

certain level according to their situation. For example, while the primary need for a child living in Africa

is only nutrition, the needs in different geographies may reflect different variables.

The individual fulfills his needs in certain steps. It is not expected for the individual to meet the need

for security or love and esteem without fulfilling the need for nutrition and shelter. In this regard,

Maslow has made some insights by creating a hierarchy of needs. According to these findings, it was

underlined that each goal determined in the context of the hierarchy of needs is related to the other, and

the target or need that has the best probability in this context is a preliminary step that must be fulfilled

in the required conditions. According to Maslow, it is predicted that the individual who meets the needs

or needs at any step will be satisfied with the target in the next step of the hierarchy. In this context, in

terms of the hierarchy of needs, the individual cannot move to the need for security without meeting his

physiological needs. This situation also reveals that the needs of individuals are conducted in steps (Shi

& Lin, 2021; Toker, 2007, p. 94-95; Walsh, 2011, p. 791).


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



The hierarchy of needs was originally introduced as a five-step structure including "physiological-

biological needs, security needs, love-belonging needs, esteem needs and self-actualization," but over

time, it was transformed into an eight-step structure with the addition of "cognitive needs, aesthetic

needs and transcendence" (Maslow, 1970, p. 176). Physiological-biological needs are our basic needs

such as food, water, air, sleep, warming and reproduction, which are necessary for us to continue our

lives. These needs are more important than any other needs. The need for security means safety/security

so we can survive; we need a home, a neighborhood, an economy, and our health security. The feeling

of being loved, accepted, the desire to belong, and the need to be alone are included in the step of the

needs for love-belonging. These needs are met by friendship, family relationships, and membership in

social groups. Every person should feel valued, respected and confident. These esteem needs are met by

participating in social activities, acquiring hobbies, and achieving academic success. The need for

self-actualization is the state of self-realization of the person completely. Realizing every need may

bring about the state of being. For a person to do this, they must have fulfilled their above needs

completely. With these determinations, Maslow contributed to psychology by directing the attention to

the positive aspects of human nature, aspects which give mental health and focus on human potential

(Kleinman, 2014, p. 137-142). However, differences can be put forward in the hierarchy of needs for

each culture because the situation of providing priority for the needs and their satisfaction caused by

different cultures or significantly differentiating environmental adaptation problems may change the

priority of advancement in the steps of the hierarchy of needs (Abdullah & Gallagher, 1995; Hagerty,

1998; Hofstede, 1980; Martinez, 2020; Montag, Sindermann, Lester, & Davis, 2020; Nevis, 1983, Rama,

Harris, Speegle, Nelson, Moen, & Harris, 2020; Taormina & Gao, 2013; Ye, Ng, & Lian, 2015). For

example, the Chinese hierarchy of needs is composed of belonging, physiology, safety, self-actualization

in the service of society, respectively, as explained by Nevis (1983). While Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

stems from Western culture and focuses on the inner needs of individuals, the Chinese hierarchy of

needs stems from Eastern culture and focuses on requirements of the social order (Awanis,

Schlegelmilch, & Cui, 2017; Nevis, 1983; Scheffer & Heckhausen, 2018; Schwartz, 1990). Different

ethnic groups in Iran emphasized basic needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization as interpreted by

Mousavi and Dargahi (2013).

The individual primarily uses the communication elements in meeting his needs. This process, which

starts with body language communication with the individual's arrival in the world, moves to verbal

communication in proportion to psycho-motor and physical developments over time, and written

communication channels can be used eventually. The ability of the individual to use language

proficiency in expressing himself is extremely important.

Today, generations that grow up in the age of information and communication, adopting the technology-

oriented life philosophy can reveal negative results in the development of language skills. The increase

in the number of digital natives who are unable to express their troubles, explain their curiosity and have

difficulty in putting together three or five sentences because of the onset of the information age may be

among the most important problems of societies in this century. This situation should be evaluated as a

corruption, both in the individual and in the culture of a society. Together with the changing world, our

needs also change. According to Nair (2020), the hierarchy of needs for the 21st century is composed of

physiological needs, psychological needs, spiritual needs, self-esteem and existential needs.

In this context, this study is important because it determines and expresses individual needs of

pre-service primary school teachers, uses different language skills such as reflection and presentation,

and shows what language proficiency and everyday language vocabulary mean to the individual and

how much these things are kept in mind and how and to what extent they can be used.

The verbs we use during conversation find a parallel in the different steps in the eight-tier structure of

the hierarchy of needs. For example, while the verbs of hunger and shopping show the behaviors of the

biological-physiological need level, understanding is an example of the behaviors of the aesthetic needs

level and dancing is an example of the cognitive needs level.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



The verbs that individuals use in everyday language and the existence of clusters with similar

characteristics according to these verbs are questioned within the scope of this research. When the verbs

are evaluated according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, what behaviors are seen in clusters with similar

characteristics, their usage frequency, and their hierarchical structures are also revealed.

SOM-Ward Clustering Method

Self-Organizing Maps (SOM) is an effective software tool in which the results obtained using nonlinear

relations between the multi-dimensional input data and the geometric connections between the data are

usually converted into two-dimensional images. This method can also be considered an abstraction

process, as it shortens information while preserving the most important topological-metric properties of

key data components. The process consists of visualization and abstraction stages in which complex

processes such as process analysis, machine detection, control and communication are evaluated

(Kohonen, 1990).

Figure 1. SOM structure

As shown in Figure 1, SOM consists of two interconnected layers, the input layer and the Kohonen

layer. The number of neurons in the input layer is equivalent to the number of attributes of the objects,

and each neuron in the input layer has a feedforward link with every neuron in the Kohonen layer. After

the input data are normalized, inputs are calculated in the Kohonen layer with 𝑦𝑗 = ∑ 𝑤𝑗𝑖𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑖=1 . Here wji

is the weight value of the communication from the input neuron at i to the output neuron at 𝑗 in the

Kohonen layer. Under a winner-takes-all paradigm, the neuron in the Kohonen layer with the biggest 𝑦𝑗

value will be chosen as the winner neuron (Gan, Ma, & Wu, 2007). The SOM algorithm starts by being

initialized with all the connection weights in the network having small random values. Then, the

algorithm continues with the competition, cooperation and adaptation processes (Haykin, 1999).

In the competition process, an object is randomly selected from the input layer 𝑥 = (𝑥1, 𝑥2, … , 𝑥𝑑)𝑇 (d is

the size of the input layer). 𝑑∗ is the total number of neurons in the Kohonen layer, and the weight vector

of the neuron at the j in the Kohonen layer is determined by 𝑤𝑗 = (𝑤𝑗1, 𝑤𝑗2, … , 𝑤𝑗𝑑∗)𝑇 , 𝑗 = 1,2, … , 𝑑∗.

The winner neuron of the input object is denoted by 𝑖(𝑥) = arg 𝑚𝑖𝑛‖𝑥 − 𝑤𝑗‖ , 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑑∗.

The collaboration process is the process of determining the topological neighborhood so that the winner

neuron is at the center of collaborative neurons. The winning neuron is t, and its topological

neighborhood is determined by ℎ𝑗,𝑡. 𝑑𝑡,𝑗 is shown as the distance between the winner neuron t and the

stimulated neuron j.

ℎ𝑗,𝑡 is the symmetry of the maximum point defined by 𝑑𝑡,𝑗 = 0. The width of ℎ𝑗,𝑡 decreases regularly

compared to the adjacent neighborhood of 𝑑𝑡,𝑗 and drops to zero in the case of 𝑑𝑡,𝑗 → ∞. The lateral

distance is defined by 𝑑𝑡,𝑗 = |𝑡 − 𝑗| in lattice. 𝑟𝑡 and 𝑟𝑗 are discrete vectors that determine the positions

of the stimulated neuron 𝑡 and the winner neuron 𝑗 in the two-dimensional lattice model, and the

adjacent neighborhood of 𝑑𝑡,𝑗 is determined by 𝑑𝑡,𝑗 = ‖𝑟𝑡 − 𝑟𝑗‖.

In the adaptation process, 𝑤𝑗 that is the weight vector of the neuron 𝑗 varies according to input object x.

When the learning rate parameter is 𝜂(𝑠) = 𝜂0 exp (−𝑠

𝜏2) , 𝑠 = 0,1,2, … and 𝜎(𝑠) = 𝜎0(−

𝑠

𝜏1), the

neighborhood function is defined as ℎ𝑖𝑗(𝑥)(𝑠) = exp (−𝑑𝑖(𝑥),𝑗

2

2𝜎2(𝑠)) , 𝑠 = 0,1,2, …. If the given weight vector of


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



neuron j is 𝑤𝑗(𝑠), the new weight vector is determined by 𝑤𝑗

(𝑠+1) = 𝑤𝑗(𝑠) + 𝜂(𝑠)ℎ𝑖𝑗(𝑥)(𝑠)(𝑥 −

𝑤𝑗(𝑠)). Constants can be taken as 𝜂0 = 0.1, 𝜎0 = 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝜏1 =

1000

log 𝜎0, 𝜏2 = 1000 (Haykin, 1999).

The current study works to order pre-service primary school teachers by their overall similarity

according to the verbs they use most frequently in daily life. For this purpose, the verbs used by

pre-service primary school teachers in daily life were evaluated according to Maslow's hierarchy of

needs. The most frequently used hierarchy steps in daily life were determined according to the verbs

evaluated by using Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Pre-service primary school teachers with similar

characteristics were divided into clusters using the nonparametric regression method. Thus, the study

aims to determine needs most frequently expressed by pre-service primary school teachers in Turkish

culture today and to examine the characteristics of the groups formed according to the priority of the

needs. This study is important in terms of examining the needs and priorities shaped by cultures,

especially changing Turkish culture, and analyzing the characteristics of the pre-service primary teacher

groups that have been ordered by overall similarity concerning prior needs.

METHOD

The research examines the groups formed by those who have similar characteristics, classifying the data

obtained according to the hierarchy of needs by identifying the verbs used in daily life by students

studying in the primary school teaching program. In this context, the study is a survey study. Field

survey studies are conducted to determine the current status of the event or problem to be investigated

(Çepni, 2018). The survey method requires a sample, data collection, data analysis, and construction of

quantitative descriptors of the sample of study (Groves, Fowler, Couper, Lepkowski, Singer, &

Tourangeau, 2009).

Study Group

The study group of the research consisted of 271 undergraduate students studying in a public university

in the faculty of education in the primary school teaching program.

Data Collection Tool

“Write down the top ten verbs you use most frequently in your daily life in order of priority.” was the

instruction given to the students. They wrote the most frequently used verbs in daily life from first to

tenth. The implementation of the data collection tool took about 20 minutes. When the data were

examined, those who did not write ten of the most frequently used verbs in daily life were not taken into

consideration, and the first ten verbs of those who wrote more than ten were evaluated.

Data Analysis

The data, that is, the verbs that students use in daily life, are classified themes according to the steps of

the hierarchy of needs. Descriptive analysis was performed. The coding process for the themes

determined according to Maslow was carried out independently by five researchers who are experts in

their field. The reliability coefficient that shows the internal validity between coders was calculated

using the formula 𝛥 = ∁ ÷ (∁ + 𝜕) × 100 (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Here, 𝛥 refers to the coefficient

of reliability, ∁ is the number of terms with which consensus is reached, 𝜕 is the number of terms with

which there is no consensus. The adjustment among coders is expected to be at least 80% (Patton, 2002).

As a result of the calculations, it was seen that the percentages of adaptation ranged between 51 and 96

percent and the highest compliance percentage of coders was used. The explanation of the themes is

given in Table 1.

Table 1. Themes (Maslow, 1970)

Theme Explanation

Biological and physiological needs Air, food, water, shelter, temperature, sexuality, sleep

Security needs Protection from natural events, safety, order, law, stability, fearlessness

Love and belonging needs Friendship, sincerity, trust and acceptance, love and interest exchange,

attachment, belonging to a group (family, friend, work)


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Esteem needs (i) Self-respect (dignity, success, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire

to be respected by others (for example, position, prestige)

Cognitive needs Knowledge and understanding, curiosity, discovery, search for meaning and

predictability

Aesthetic needs Seeking beauty and knowing its value, balance, shape, etc.

Self-actualization Realizing personal potential, striving for personal satisfaction, personal

development and culmination

Transcendence The individual is motivated by values beyond his own self (mystical and

certain experiences related to nature, aesthetic experiences, sexual

experiences, service to others, science engagement, religious belief, etc.)

These themes were then coded numerically for each student's answer, respectively. Some examples of

these coding are in Table 2.

Table 2. Examples of themes

Theme Examples

Biological and physiological needs to be hungry

to cry

to touch to handwash

Security needs to keep up to cheat to kill to escape

Love and belonging needs to appreciate

to fall in love to be moved to break up

Esteem needs to arrange

Cognitive needs to understand to express to know to explore

Aesthetic needs to paint to do personal care to draw to brush hair

Self-actualization to play basketball to go to events to read news to learn English

Transcendence to pray to render to break the fast to do sahur*

(* Sahur means a meal before dawn during Ramadan)

The numerical data of five students, which are coded according to the high compatible coding of

researchers being expert in their fields, are shown in Table 3:

Table 3. Examples of coding

Student A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10

S1 1 1 1 1 3 5 1 6 1 1

S2 1 1 1 1 3 2 7 1 1 5

S3 2 1 1 1 2 5 1 2 1 1

S4 1 1 1 2 1 1 5 1 3 2

S5 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 7

The numbers 1-8 refer to the biological and physiological needs theme, security needs theme, love and

belonging needs theme, esteem needs theme, cognitive needs theme, aesthetic needs theme,

self-actualization theme and transcendence theme in Table 3, respectively. To make the data

mathematically meaningful, the mean ranks of the answers were calculated. The answers given by each

student are coded according to the themes. As an example, the codes of the five students are as in Table

3. Then, the rows with the codes in each student (in each line) were added, and the data were calculated

as in Table 4. For example, in Table 3, the columns representing the order in which theme 1 is in line

S1 are calculated as 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 7 + 9 + 10=36 and expressed in Table 4.

Table 4. Rank sum

Student Biological and

physiological

needs

Security

needs

Love and

belonging

needs

Esteem

needs

Cognitive

needs

Aesthetic

needs

Self

actualization

Transcendence

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8

S1 36 0 5 0 6 8 0 0

S2 27 6 5 0 10 0 7 0

S3 35 14 0 0 6 0 0 0

S4 25 14 9 0 7 0 0 0

S5 42 3 0 0 0 0 10 0


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Then, how many times the student wrote each theme (in each line) was calculated according to Table 3

(Table 4). For example, the first student wrote verbs on theme 1 in seven rows, no verb was written for

themes with codes 2, 4, 7, and 8 and one verb was written for themes with codes 3, 5, and 6. As a result,

the first row of Table 5, 7,0,1,0,1,1,0,0, respectively, was calculated. These calculations were made for

other students and the data of the first five students are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Number of themes

Student Biological

and

physiological

needs

Security

needs

Love and

belonging

needs

Esteem

needs

Cognitive

needs

Aesthetic

needs

Self

actualization

Transcendence

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8

S1 7 0 1 0 1 1 0 0

S2 6 1 1 0 1 0 1 0

S3 6 3 0 0 1 0 0 0

S4 6 2 1 0 1 0 0 0

S5 8 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

Then, the rank-sum values in Table 4 were divided by the number of themes in Table 5 and the mean

ranks of themes were obtained and is shown in Table 6. Instead of undefined values (0 ÷ 0), 0 was

written.

Table 6. Mean rank of themes

Student Biological and

physiological

needs

Security

needs

Love and

belonging

needs

Esteem

needs

Cognitive

needs

Aesthetic

needs

Self

actualization

Transcendence

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8

S1 5.142857 0 5 0 6 8 0 0

S2 4.5 6 5 0 10 0 7 0

S3 5.833333 4.666667 0 0 6 0 0 0

S4 4.166667 7 9 0 7 0 0 0

S5 5.25 3 0 0 0 0 10 0

For the answers given by students to be meaningful in accordance with the order (since ten answers

were given), each numerical value was subtracted from 11 and made ready for analysis. The first five

students belonging to these data are shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Optimized data for analysis

Student Biological

and

physiological

needs

Security

needs

Love and

belonging

needs

Esteem

needs

Cognitive

needs

Aesthetic

needs

Self

actualization

Transcendence

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8

S1 5.857143 0 6 0 5 3 0 0

S2 6.5 5 6 0 1 0 4 0

S3 5.166667 6.333333 0 0 5 0 0 0

S4 6.833333 4 2 0 4 0 0 0

S5 5.75 8 0 0 0 0 1 0

All these calculations are done in Excel. SOM-Ward cluster analysis was applied to the data obtained

from Excel using the Viscovery SOMine program.

The SOM-Ward method, one of the nonparametric regression techniques, creates a nonlinear

representation of data distribution by reducing multidimensional data spaces to lower dimensions and

helps define visually homogeneous data groups (Augustin et al., 2018). Pre-service primary school

teachers were ordered by their overall similarity regarding their frequently used verbs coded according

to the hierarchy of needs. Clusters were generated by using SOM-Ward cluster analysis. Converting into

lower-dimensional abstraction process was carried out by using the two-sided t-test with a confidence


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



of 95% to identify each cluster of all pre-service primary teacher characteristics that differ significantly

from the study sample. Thus, we can see visual clusters with homogeneous data. Viscovery also

automatically calculated the absolute profile median, frequency, mean, standard deviation for

quantitative variables, percentage for discrete variables, t-test scores, and p-value for the t-test.

RESULTS

As a result of the analyses, there are four clusters that show similar characteristics with the pre-service

primary school teachers’ daily life verbs coded according to the hierarchy of needs. These clusters are

named C1, C2, C3, and C4. The number (N), absolute profile median, frequency, and mean of the eight

themes in these four clusters are shown in Table 8:

Table 8. Characteristics of clusters

N Absolute

profile

median

Frequency x1 x2 x6 x7 x3 x5 x4 x8

C1 123 .3223 45.39 6.211 1.95 .09 3.60 .54 2.50 .00 .016

C2 74 .3680 27.31 5.348 7.42 .05 2.51 .74 3.58 .122 .34

C3 63 .9620 23.25 5.926 4.00 .07 1.70 6.44 2.31 .00 .00

C4 11 2.4844 4.05 5.669 2.03 5.91 3.27 1.82 2.82 .00 .00

Through processing the data in SOM-Ward analysis, 45.93, 27.31, 23.25 and 4.06 percent constituted

C1, C2, C3, and C4 clusters, respectively. With the map obtained from SOM-Ward analysis, the

sequence of verbs of the students also reveals in which cluster they will occur. The map of the clusters

is given in Figure 2.

Figure 2. SOM-Ward cluster map

Table 9. Analysis results of C1

Mean Std.Dev. Diff. mean Profile p t-test

x1 6.211 .75 5.5 .3223 .00 5.053

x2 1.95 2.13 -50.3 -.6149 .00 11.13

x6 .09 .41 -71.3 -.1739 .0088 2.639

x7 3.60 2.96 26.4 .2617 .0001 4.038

x3 .54 1.34 -73.1 -.5099 .00 8.63

x5 2.50 3.15 -9.5 .0836 .2105 1.255

x4 .00 .00 -100 -.0607 .3629 .9114

x8 .016 .180 -83.8 -.1032 .1218 1.552


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 10. Cluster profile values of C1

Characteristic Attribution Profile Value Mean of Cluster Cluster Profile Comparison

The largest cluster is C1. This cluster with 123 students constitutes 45.93 percent of the entire sample.

Analysis results for each attribute in cluster C1 are in Table 9. The calculations here are calculated at

the level of p=.05 (95%) significance. According to the t-test, the hierarchy of needs levels with p <.05

(x1, x2, x3, x6, x7) were the features that differ significantly from the sample of the whole study while

determining the characteristics of the C1 cluster. When the situations with p<.05 are evaluated, the verbs

regarding biological-physiological needs (x1), self-actualization (x7), security needs (x2), aesthetic needs

(x6) and the need for love-belonging (x3) in the cluster are significantly different from other clusters.

According to the profile value comparison in Table 10, it is seen that while biological-physiological

needs and the need for self-actualization are positively distinct, the need for safety, aesthetics and love-

belonging are negatively distinct in C1. Therefore, it is seen that the C1 cluster is composed of students

who use verbs for biological-physiological and self-fulfillment needs more frequently and use verbs less

often for the need for safety, aesthetic needs and love-belonging.



x1 5.348 .859 -9.2 .5362 .00 5.719

x2 7.42 1.92 89 1.0894 .00 14.76

x6 .05 .23 -82.7 -.2016 .0417 2.046

x7 2.51 2.96 -12 -.1184 .2329 1.196

x3 .74 1.58 -63.2 -.4413 .0000 4.618

x5 3.58 3.20 29.5 .2604 .0084 2.657

x4 .122 1.046 266.2 .1617 .1029 1.637

x8 .340 1.522 239.3 .2946 .0028 3.017


Characteristic Attribution Profile

Value

Mean of Cluster Cluster Profile Comparison

C2 is the second largest cluster of the sample. This cluster, which has 73 students, constitutes 27.31

percent of the sample. The analysis results for each attribute in the C2 cluster are shown in Table 11.

According to the t-test, the hierarchy of needs levels with p<.05 (x1, x2, x3, x5, x6, x8) were the features


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



that differ significantly from the sample of the whole study while determining the characteristics of the

C2 cluster. The calculations here are calculated at the level of p=.05 significance. Verbs regarding

biological-physiological needs, safety needs, aesthetic needs, love and belonging needs, cognitive, and

transcendence needs were significantly determinative in C2 (p<.05). When the profile value comparison

is considered in Table 12, while the security needs, cognitive needs and transcendence were positively

effective, biological and physiological needs, aesthetic and love-belonging needs came out as negative

in C2. From this viewpoint, student teachers in the C2 cluster use verbs more frequently for security

needs, cognitive and transcendence needs but fewer verbs for biological and physiological needs,

aesthetic needs and love-belonging needs.



x1 5.926 1.253 .7 .0383 .7290 .3469

x2 4.00 2.75 2 .0242 .8271 .2186

x6 .07 .28 -77.1 -.1880 .0885 1.709

x7 1.70 2.13 -40.2 -.3978 .0003 3.687

x3 6.44 1.74 218.7 1.5261 .0000 25.54

x5 2.31 2.81 -16.5 -.1457 .1874 1.322

x4 .000 .000 -100.0 -.0607 .5830 .5496

x8 .000 .000 -100.0 -.1231 .2654 1.116



C3 is the third-largest cluster of the sample. This cluster, with 63 students, constitutes 23.25 percent of

the sample. The analysis results for each attribute in the C3 cluster are shown in Table 13. According to

the t-test, the hierarchy of needs levels with p<.05 (x3, x7) were the features that differ significantly from

the sample of the whole study while determining the characteristics of the C3 cluster. Verbs regarding

the need for self-realization and love-belonging were significative in the C3 cluster (p <.05). According

to the profile value comparison in Table 14, it is seen that the verbs for the love-belonging need are

positively while self-fulfillment needs are negatively decisive in the C3 cluster. It is seen that C3 consists

of students who use verbs for the love-belonging needs of the C3 cluster more frequently and use fewer

verbs for the need of self-realization.



x1 5.669 1.315 -3.7 -.2168 .4638 .7336

x2 2.03 2.55 -48.3 -.5911 .0451 2.013

x6 5.91 2.30 1795.1 4.3777 .0000 34.29

x7 3.27 2.83 14.9 .1481 .6170 .5006

x3 1.82 2.40 -10.1 -.0704 .8121 .2379

x5 2.82 3.57 1.9 -.0168 .9549 .0566

x4 .000 .000 -100.0 -.0607 .8375 .2053

x8 .000 .000 -100.0 -.1231 .6775 .4163


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org





C4 is the last set of the sample. This cluster, which has 11 students, constitutes 4.06 percent of the

sample. The analysis results for each attribute in C4 are found in Table 15. According to the t-test, the

hierarchy of needs levels with p<.05 (x6) was the feature that differs significantly from the sample of the

whole study while determining the characteristics of the C4 cluster. The verbs-regarding the safety and

aesthetic needs in C4 were significant (p<.05). When the profile value comparison in Table 16 is

examined, it is seen that the verbs for aesthetic needs are positively decisive in C4, while the verbs for

safety needs are negatively decisive. It is seen that it consists of students using verbs more frequently

for aesthetic needs and using fewer verbs for security needs in C4.

These clusters are examined according to the hierarchy of needs in the following figures. The

distribution of clusters according to biological-physiological needs is shown in Figure 3:

Figure 3. The distribution of verbs for biological physiological needs in clusters.

According to Figure 3, it is seen that the frequency of use of verbs for biological-physiological needs is

indicated in green in all clusters. Regions marked in blue in C2, C3, C4 show the frequency of use is

low. This situation also lowers the mean of the cluster. It has been shown with the statistical data above

those verbs for these needs are more decisive in C1. Frequent use of verbs for biological-physiological

needs in all clusters (i.e., all students) is compatible with being the first step of Maslow’s hierarchy of

needs.

In Figure 4, the red and green regions show that verbs for security needs are used less often in C1, while

they are used more frequently in C2. Verbs for security needs are more decisive in C2 as shown (Figure

4). Security needs are felt the most intensely and take priority in C2, while they are at the lowest level

in the C1 and C4 clusters.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



When Figure 5 is examined, it can be understood from the intensity of the blue colors that the verbs for

love-belonging needs are used less frequently in clusters C1, C2 and C4; however, the intensity of the

green and red colors shows they are used more frequently in C3. It is seen that students who use the

verbs for their love-belonging needs more frequently are significantly effective in forming C3.

Figure 4. The distribution of verbs for

security needs in clusters.

Figure 5. The distribution of verbs

regarding love-belonging needs in clusters.

When Figure 6 is examined, it is seen that verbs for respect needs are not used frequently by the students

in the sample. This situation is the same in all clusters, and verbs for this theme have not been decisive

in the formation of clusters. It has been observed that verbs related to respect needs are not used

frequently in students' daily lives.

When Figure 7 is examined, it can be seen that the verbs for cognitive needs are used in all clusters at

low and medium levels, and frequently used by students in the C1 and C2 clusters (displayed in red).

Considering the mean and descriptive statistics of the clusters in themselves (Tables 11-12), it is seen

that verbs for this theme play an important role in the formation of C2.


esteem needs in clusters


security needs in clusters


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



When Figure 8 is examined, it is seen that the verbs for aesthetic needs are not used frequently in clusters

C1, C2, and C3, but they are used more frequently in cluster C4. When the data in Tables 15-16 are

examined, it is seen that students who use the verbs for aesthetic needs more frequently play a

statistically significant role in the formation of the C4 cluster.

When Figure 9 is examined, it is seen that the students who use the verbs for the need of self-

actualization more frequently gather in C1. When Tables 9-10 are analyzed, it is seen that students who

use verbs for this theme more frequently are statistically significant in forming C1. According to Tables

13-14, it is seen that the usage of verbs for self-actualization needs played a statistically significant role

in the formation of the C3 cluster, but students used these verbs less.


aesthetic needs in clusters

Figure 9. The distribution of verbs for self-

actualization needs in clusters

When Figure 10 is examined, it is seen that the frequency of using the verbs for transcendence needs of

students is low. The C2 cluster has red and green areas due to the usage of the more frequent verbs of

some students. According to Tables 11-12, it is seen that the verbs of this theme are statistically

significant in the formation of C2.

Figure 10. The distribution of verbs for transcendence needs in clusters


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org




As a result of the evaluation of the study carried out for the pre-service primary school teachers to

determine the most frequently used verbs in daily life in the order of priority and within the given period

in the context of the hierarchy of the needs with SOM-Ward Cluster Analysis, it was observed that the

verbs for biological-physiological needs were used by all students at a medium level. According to the

students' similarity in the verbs they use more frequently, the SOM-Ward Cluster Analysis method was

evaluated, and clusters were created by assembling similar students according to their attributes. When

the four clusters formed in this way are examined, the following conclusions are reached:

The first cluster (C1) consists of students who use biological-physiological and self-realization needs

more frequently. Considering that the realization levels of needs are also hierarchical according to

Maslow's approach, the expected hierarchical progress did not occur despite the students forming the

C1 cluster providing basic level proficiency; instead, there was a leap to the highest level that the

individual prioritized. It reveals that students in C1 are selective after meeting their basic needs. The

second cluster (C2) consists of students who use verbs for security and biological-physiological needs

more frequently. Although those in this group have identified security needs first, there is not a

significant difference compared to biological-physiological needs. However, awareness has been raised

in the identification and hierarchy of needs. The third cluster (C3) consists of students who use verbs

more about love and belonging needs. The needs of the students in this cluster reflect a priority of

individual preferences rather than a hierarchical structuring. It was also noteworthy that the love and

belonging needs were significantly prioritized over biological-physiological needs in this cluster, while

self-actualization needs were not felt. The fourth cluster (C4) consists of students who use the verbs for

aesthetic needs more frequently. In this cluster, there was a situation which was in contradiction to the

hierarchy of needs, where individual preferences come to the fore rather than the hierarchical approach

of the needs. The preference of aesthetic needs in this cluster as the primary and sole choice, while

making an obvious difference as they are never used in the other clusters, reveals the characteristic

attitude of the individuals forming this cluster. The needs of the sample of the study are incompatible

with Maslow's hierarchy of needs in general (Abdullah & Gallagher, 1995; Hagerty, 1998; Hofstede,

1980; Martinez, 2020; Montag et al., 2020; Mousavi & Dargahi, 2013; Nair, 2020; Nevis, 1983; Rama

et al., 2020; Taormina & Gao, 2013; Ye et al., 2015). The reason for it may be the change in prior needs

of pre-service primary school teachers, the prior needs of individuals of Turkish culture or the prior

needs of our age.

The approach put forward by Maslow's hierarchy of needs is compatible with cluster C1 in our study,

although the expected stages do not follow the most basic need; biological and physiological needs were

preferred, and then personal preferences of individuals were prioritized in determining the needs.

According to the pyramid, those in the clusters of C2, C3 and C4 do not comply with the theoretical

approaches proposed in the context of the hierarchy of needs; individual preferences take priority over

the hierarchical approach in determining needs. It has been observed that the safety, love-belonging and

aesthetic needs of those who form these clusters are beyond the basic needs step. It reveals that there

can be greater and higher priority needs in an individual’s life other than biological and physiological

needs.

It was determined that the needs of esteem and transcendence did not play an important role in the

clusters since they did not make a significant difference. It suggests that the individuals involved in the

study do not adequately reflect the verbs based on the need for esteem or transcendence in their daily

lives, and this situation has negative effects on professional life and social life.

According to results of the study, the following suggestions could be implemented: The deficiencies in

the most basic needs in the hierarchy of needs should be met in those whose experience a lack in these

needs; activities such as courses, seminars, and social events on an institutional basis should be

developed in order to overcome the deficiencies in the need for self-actualization; solutions for issues

such as safety, law, stability, fearlessness, and shelter should be found to address the security concerns


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



of those who make the first step of the hierarchy such concerns by identifying the need for security as a

priority; the reason why the need for respect is hardly mentioned should be examined and an awareness

that this is a need and significant value in education, professional life, and society should be created,

and attitudes and behaviors which support it should be developed; the need for superiority, which is not

found in the clusters and which constitutes a significant deficiency in the students' individual lives

should be met through efforts that make individuals aware of values beyond their own self in various

fields such as mystical experiences, nature-related experiences, aesthetic experiences, service to others,

science engagement, and belief.

REFERENCES

Abdullah, A., & Gallagher, E. (1995). Managing with cultural differences. Malaysian Management Review, 30(2), 1-18.

Augustin, I. M., Spruit, M. A., Houben-Wilke, S., Franssen, F. M., Vanfleteren, L. E., Gaffron, S., ... & Wouters, E. F. (2018).

The respiratory physiome: Clustering based on a comprehensive lung function assessment in patients with COPD.

PLoS One, 13(9), e0201593. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0201593

Austin, J. L. (2009). How to do things with words (Trans. R. L. Aysever), Istanbul: Metis Publications.

Awanis, S., Schlegelmilch, B. B., & Cui, C. C. (2017). Asia’s materialists: Reconciling collectivism and materialism. Journal

of International Business Studies, 48(8), 964-991.

Celebi, V. (2014). Ordinary language philosophy and Austin’s Theory of Speech Acts. Beytulhikme an International Journal

of Philosophy, 4(1), 73-89.

Cepni, S. (2018). Arastırma ve proje calısmalarına giris [Introduction to research and project work]. Trabzon: Pegem

Publishing.

Gan, G., Ma, C., & Wu, J. (2007). Data clustering theory, algorithms and applications (Asa-Siam series on statistics and

applied probability). Canada: SIAM Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics Publishing.

Groves, R. M., Fowler, F. J., Couper, M. P., Lepkowski, J. M., Singer, E., & Tourangeau, R. (2009). An introduction to survey

methodology. Survey methodology. Wiley Series in Survey Methodology. 561 (2 ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John

Wiley & Sons.

Hagerty, M. R. (1999). Testing Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: National quality-of-life across time. Social Indicators Research,

46, 249–271.

Haykin, S. (1999). Neural network: a comprehensive foundation. (2 ed.), New Jersey: Prentice Hall International.

Hofstede, G. (1980). Motivation, leadership and organization: Do American theories apply abroad?. Organization Dynamics,

Summer, 9(1), 63-68.

Kleinman, P. (2014). Psiko 1001 (trans. H. Kaplan). Istanbul: Okyanus Publications.

Kohonen, T. (1990). The self-organizing map. Proceedings of IEEE, 78(9), 1464-1480.

Kohonen, T. (2001). Self-organizing maps. New York: Springer.

Martinez, D. (2020). Eudaimonic and hedonic wellbeing among Bangkokians: A qualitative study of Maslow’s needs, intrinsic

and extrinsic values. ASEAN Journal of Management & Innovation, 7(2), 17-47.

Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row.

Miles, M, B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. (2 ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage Publications.

Montag, C., Sindermann, C., Lester, D., & Davis, K. L. (2020). Linking individual differences in satisfaction with each of

Maslow's needs to the Big Five personality traits and Panksepp's primary emotional systems. Heliyon, 6(7), 1-9,

e04325.

Mousavi, S. H., & Dargahi, H. (2013). Ethnic differences and motivation based on Maslow’s theory on Iranian employees.

Iranian Journal of Public Health, 42(5), 516-521.

Nair, M. (2020). Handbook of daily movement. Retrieved from: https://www.handbookofdailymovement.com

Nevis, E. C. (1983). Using an American perspective in understanding another culture: toward a hierarchy of needs for the

people’s Republic of China. The Journal of Applied Behavioural Science, 19(3), 249-264.

Patton. M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3 ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.


https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.%20pone.0201593

https://www.handbookofdailymovement.com/

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Rama, C. R., Harris, V. W., Speegle, K., Nelson, N., Moen, D., & Harris, H. J. (2020). Familismo: How eight categories of

needs are met in Hispanic American families within the context of familism. Advances in Social Sciences Research

Journal, 7(7), 348-370.

Scheffer, D., & Heckhausen, H. (2018). Trait theories of motivation. In J. Heckhausen & H. Heckhausen (Eds.), Motivation

and action (p. 67–112). New York, NY: Springer.

Schwartz, S. H. (1990). Individualism-collectivism: Critique and proposed refinements. Journal of Cross-Cultural

Psychology, 21(2), 139-157.

Shi, Y., & Lin, X. (2021). A test of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs concept by a correlational model among adult learners.

American Association for Adult and Continuing Education Inaugural 2020 Conference Proceedings (Online, October

27-30, 2020), ED611534.

Toker, B. (2007). The effects of demographic factors on job satisfaction: An application on five- and four-star hotels in Izmir.

Journal of Dogus University, 8(1), 92-107.

Walsh, P. R. (2011). Creating a “values” chain for sustainable development in developing nations: Where Maslow meets

Porter. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 13(4), 789-805.

Ye, D., Ng, Y., & Lian, Y. (2015). Culture and happiness. Social Indicators Research, 123(2), 519-547.


Copyright © IOJPE - DergiPark

Documents

Transcript of Copyright © IOJPE - DergiPark