- 171

RENATO NISBET∗

COPPER AGE WILD AND CULTIVATED PLANTS FROM PEŞTERA UNGUREASCĂ CAVE

(TRANSYLVANIA, ROMANIA)

RIASSUNTO – I resti vegetali selvatici e domestici dell’età del Rame dalla caverna di Peştera Ungurească (Transilvania, Romania). I livelli dell’età del Rame della grotta Peştera Ungurească (Gola di Cheile Turzii, Transilvania, Romania) sono stati oggetto di campagne di scavo nel 2003 e 2004. Essi hanno restituito numerosi materiali carbonizzati (frutti, semi, legno) oggetto del presente articolo. Le analisi mostrano l’antico utilizzo di un ampio spettro di risorse vegetali coltivate e spontanee. Tra le prime, numerosi cereali (frumenti diploidi, tetraploidi, esaploidi e orzo); tra le seconde, piante da olio e da frutto.

SUMMARY – Copper Age wild and cultivated plants from Peştera Ungurească cave (Transylvania, Romania). Charred fruits, seeds and carbonised wood were collected in the Copper age layers of Peştera Ungurească Cave (Cheile Turzii Gorge, Transylvania, Romania) during the 2003-2004 excavations. Their analyses show that a broad spectrum of resources both from wild and cultivated areas was exploited, and vegetal dietary supply was based on cereals (diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid wheat species, barley) and a variety of oil and nut plants.

Keywords: Romania, Cheile Turzii Gorge, Chalcolithic period, Toarte Pastilate Culture, archaeobotanical remains.

1. INTRODUCTION

The aim of this paper is to propose a reconstruction of some aspects of the on-site vegetation as shown by charcoal, charred fruits and seeds, collected in the years 2003-2004 in the Chalcolithic layers of Peştera Ungurească Cave in Cheile Turzii Gorge (Petreşti de Jos, Transylvania, central-western Romania). The cave, known for over a century with regard to its unique Holocene sequence, has shed light on a complex system of regional raw material circulation, showing evidence of a locally developed manufacture and gold processing (Biagi and Voytek, 2006; LazaroVici and LazaroVici, in press; Biagi et al., 2007). Moreover, new data are providing a better understanding of the local environment (Boschian, 2010; girod, 2010). Samples for archaeobotanical studies were collected during the excavations, some of which were submitted to Dr. E-B. Ciută for a preliminary study (Ciută, 2006; 2009).

Atti Soc. Preist. Protost. Friuli-V.G., Trieste, XVII, 2008-2009 (2010): 171-185

______________________________________

∗ Ca’ Foscari University, Venice (I)

172 -

The present paper is largely based on a previous report (nisBet, in press) read on occasion of the Symposium “Ten years after: the Neolithic of the Balkans, as uncovered by the last decade of research”, held in Timişoara (November 2007).

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The dig was carried out near the mouth of the cave over a surface of some 5 square metres. The sediment was transported with baskets down to the distant river, where it was water-sieved with a 1 mm grid. Altogether, 94 samples were processed in this way, resulting in 6.3 litres of charred material. Of these samples, 49 produced evidence of fruits and seeds, though in very different quantity. By far, the best represented culture belongs to the Middle Toarte Pastilate, with 24 samples, while Late Toarte Pastilate layers have provided one sample only. Given this uneven sample dispersion along the cultural sequence, care should be taken in discussing possible changes in the local environment or in the farming activities, although the emerging image seems firmly established, in its broad characters and over five radiocarbon centuries of human use of the cave.

The determination of charcoal was carried out, on fracture, using a BHM Olympus metallurgical microscope; a stereomicroscope was employed for the analysis of seeds and fruits. use

3. SITE SETTING

The cave opens at an altitude of about 500 m, some 100 m above the local base flow, and is located in a narrow gorge some 3 km long. It can be reached only from the valley bottom, today crossed by the Hăşdate River (fig. 1). The gorge is carved in a thick Mesozoic limestone, displaying a variety of habitats, due to the sharp morphology of the cliff, sudden changes in the exposition, variations in availability of water etc., up to the proximity of the cave. The upper part of the gorge leads into a vast karst plateau, although inaccessible from the cave nowadays. Further in the plain the meandering river and the high water table favour the setting of wet environments with mires and probably peat suitable for off-site archaeobotanical investigations.

4. CHARCOAL ANALYSES

Among about 2,500 fragments, 19 tree taxa were recognised. They represent some aspects of the forest cover in the surrounding areas for no more than four or five centuries of the second half of the sixth millennium BP.

The radiocarbon dates for layers 2a-2b, Early/Middle Toarte Pastilate Culture (TP) (Biagi and Voytek, 2006), span between 5350 e 5100 uncal BP. The layer 3a2 has been dated as GrA-35701: 5275±35 uncal BP (Petreşti Culture).

Table 1 shows the distribution of charcoal fragments for taxon and for culture.

- 173

Fig. 1 - Cheile Turzi gorge, where the cave opens at the base of the cliff, on the left of the image (photograph by P. Biagi).

174 -

Most of the charcoal fragments, though stratigraphically positioned, are dispersed into the different layers, and could not be clearly related to any particular archaeological feature. Only a small part of the charred material (both wood and seeds) comes from close contexts, namely one pit, four fireplaces and one oven.

The wood could be brought into the cave for building, heating, cooking, lightening, baking clay or melting metals (Biagi and Voytek, 2006: 179 and 183). From these data some conclusions can be drawn (fig. 2). Apart from the older Petreşti period (fig. 2e), where oak is prevalent, in all upper layers the more frequent species is ash (Fraxinus sp.), followed by oak (deciduous Quercus sp.), maple (Acer sp.) and cornelian tree (Cornus cf. mas). Altogether, the diagrams give an idea of the broad spectrum of habitats exploited for the wood collection.

Looking at the distribution of taxa for cultural period, remarkable differences are evident (fig. 3). In the Petreşti layers 11 taxa are present; the number reduces to 7 in the Early

Coţofeni/TP LaTe TP MiddLe TP earLy TP PeTreşTi

Alnus sp. + - -

Betula sp. -

Corylus sp. + + ++ + -

Carpinus sp. -

Quercus sp. +++ ++ +++ + +++

Acer sp. ++ + +++ ++ ++

Ulmus sp. + + ++ - +

Fraxinus sp. +++ ++ +++ ++ ++

Maloideae + - ++ - +

Prunoideae - - - -

Prunus cf. spinosa - -

Prunus sp. - - +

Crataegus sp. -

Cornus mas ++ + +++ + +

Viburnum sp. -

Viburnum opulus -

cf. Cotinus/Prunus -

Euonymus europaeus -

Populus sp. -

Table 1 - Charcoal fragments from Peştera Ungurească, Bronze and Copper Age. -: <10; +: 10÷50; ++: 50÷100; +++: >100.

- 175

TP layers, increases at a maximum of 16 in the following Middle TP period. During the Late TP the taxa drop to 9, reaching eventually the number of 12 in the upper Coţofeni/TP layers.

It is possible that these variations in number of taxa, compressed in a short period of few centuries, do not necessarily reflect changes in the local wood composition, but rather a variation in the frequency of visits to the cave during time, or a change in the use of trees, at least partially related to grazing or animal feeding.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Alnus

Betula

Corylu

s

Carpin

us

Quercu

sAce

r

Ulmus

Fraxin

us

Maloid

eae

Prunoid

eae

Prunus c

f spin

osa

Prunus

Crata

egus

Cornus

Viburn

um

Viburn

um o

pulus

cf C

otinus/P

runus

Euonymus

Populus

%

a

Co�ofeni / TP - layer 1a

Middle TP - layers 2-2b1

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Alnus

Betula

Corylu

s

Carpin

us

Quercu

sAce

r

Ulmus

Fraxin

us

Maloid

eae

Prunoid

eae

Prunus c

f spin

osa

Prunus

Crata

egus

Cornus

Viburn

um

Viburn

um o

pulus

cf C

otinus/P

runus

Euonymus

Populus

%

c

Late TP - layer 1b

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Alnus

Betula

Corylu

s

Carpin

us

Quercu

sAce

r

Ulmus

Fraxin

us

Maloid

eae

Prunoid

eae

Prunus c

f spin

osa

Prunus

Crata

egus

Cornus

Viburn

um

Viburn

um o

pulus

cf C

otinus/P

runus

Euonymus

Populus

%

b

Early TP - layer 2b2

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Alnus

Betula

Corylu

s

Carpin

us

Quercu

sAce

r

Ulmus

Fraxin

us

Maloid

eae

Prunoid

eae

Prunus c

f spin

osa

Prunus

Crata

egus

Cornus

Viburn

um

Viburn

um o

pulus

cf C

otinus/P

runus

Euonymus

Populus

%

d

Fig. 2 (a-e) - Frequency of carbonised taxa from Peştera Peştera Ungurească, Copper Age.

ţ

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Alnus

Betula

Corylu

s

Carpin

us

Quercu

sAce

r

Ulmus

Fraxin

us

Maloid

eae

Prunoid

eae

Prunus c

f spin

osa

Prunus

Crata

egus

Cornus

Viburn

um

Viburn

um f

opulus

cf C

otinus/P

runus

Euonymus

Populus

%

e

Petre� tiPetreşti

Apart from the absolute values, there is an interesting, general trend towards a selection of oak and ash, two of the main trees whose foliage was (and still is in the mountains all-over Europe) used as fodder.

Oak prevails only in the lower, Petreşti layers, afterwards ash becomes dominant. This may suggest a selection of ash branches and leaves as fodder, as it has been demonstrated in other Copper Age cave- and rock-shelter sites in Europe since the Neolithic. Oak and ash – particularly the latter – are considered excellent plants for feeding herbivores in autumn or winter, and it is possible that a store of leaves was made in the cave in late summer for a later consumption. This case is strongly supported by the frequent presence, in all layers, of very narrow tree rings over a span of five to nine years, particularly on Fraxinus, Maloideae, Ulmus, Acer and Quercus, but mostly on ash and oak (fig. 4). These narrow, or extremely

176 -

narrow, rings can form as a consequence of several different reasons, determining a discontinuous cambial activity. Whatever the cause, recurrent defoliation through a series of years for fodder cannot be discarded, particularly in consideration of the fact that rearing of large size domestic herbivores is well documented in the cave deposit (Biagi and Voytek, 2006: 184), as the same authors found evidence of specific structures, such as enclosures and hut walls, as possibly shown by some “man-made structure delimited by an alignment of very

small post-holes” in the Early TP layers (Biagi and Voytek, 2006: 178), which could be referred to a recurrent use of the cave both for domestic purpose and for herbivore stabling.

Fig. 4 - Very narrow growth rings in oak (a) and ash (b) charcoal.

The charcoal assemblage gives the opportunity to appreciate at least some aspects of past vegetation in the surroundings of the cave (fig. 5).

The Petreşti layers show several kinds of vegetal associations. First is the mixed oak wood with ash, maple and whitebeam. Scatters of thermophilous shrublands are indicated by the presence of hazelnut, wig-tree or blackthorn and cornelian tree, whose fruits were all extensively exploited in the diet of the local communities. Fringe wood elements are shown by the light demanding hazelnut, Maloideae and Prunoideae, and along the river banks and on sandy and gravely terraces alder and ash could be easily collected.

In the following periods the wood composition stays unchanged and the same taxa – with few exceptions – are found at the bottom (Petreşti) and the top (Coţofeni/TP) of the sequence.

Open areas and degraded woodland with heliophilous vegetation may be represented in these later periods of occupation by very rare charcoal of birch (only one fragment in the Middle TP layer 2a) and perhaps, more consistently, of the white oak, Quercus pubescens, the latter possibly growing on the south facing side of the valley and even on the cliffs, where (and if) soil

N taxa / layer

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Petre� ti

Early TP

Middle TP

Late TP

Co�ofeni/TP

Fig. 3 - Variation in number of taxa for cultural Peştera Ungurească layer.

ş

ţ

- 177

Fig. 5 - Main sources of wood as inferred by charcoal data.

conditions were more favourable. The occurrence of a mixed oak forest is further indicated by the presence of elm (Ulmus sp.) maple and (very rare) hornbeam (Carpinus sp.), and the wood fringe is represented by the presence of charcoal of Viburnum cf. opulus, the guelder rose, and fragmented shells of hazelnut (Corylus sp.), curiously absent in the carbonised wood samples.

The existence of dry, open patches is suggested, apart from the previously mentioned species, by Cotinus/Prunus bushes, while the poplar could be collected on the river banks, along with ash.

5. SeedS and frUiTS

Of 94 samples, 49 yielded evidence of seeds, cereal chaff and fruits (fig. 6). These materials are present in all periods, but mostly in the Middle TP period. Table 2 lists all the identified taxa, and Table 3 shows the presence of the taxa in the samples for every period (ubiquity).

Only few remains can be associated with fireplaces and ovens, usually they are randomly dispersed at a low density. They are frequently fragmented or somewhat worn, probably due to trampling or solifluction. The same feature affects the shells found in the sediment (girod, 2010).

5.1. CereaLS The more frequent class of remains consists of cereals, 40% of which are hulled wheats;

7% are both six-rowed and two-rowed barley (Hordeum vulgare and H. distichon) and only 4% are bread/club wheat. About 50% are undetermined wheats and barley (table 3).

Wood sources

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Mixed oak forest Fringe vegetation Thermophiloustrees

River banks,swamping lands

Open spaces, lightdemanding trees

nu

mb

er o

f ta

xa

178 -

The main crop consisted of emmer (Triticum dicoccum) (28% of the total grains). Einkorn (Triticum monococcum) is by far less abundant (7%) and very rare is the “new glume wheat”, represented only by a few spikelet forks. In addition are present, probably as weed, grains and chaff of oat (Avena sp.). The chaff consists mostly of glume bases and spikelets forks from the hulled wheat.

In the Petreşti layers, the cereals are not abundant, but all species are present. Excluding the more problematic identifications, but adding chaff remains to the grains, emmer is still the commonest crop found in these layers, with 24% of the total, followed by einkorn (12%), barley (5%) and free-threshing wheat (4%). Only traces of the “new glume wheat” (1%) are present. In the interpretation of these data, it must be considered that about 50% between grains and chaff are not determined at a species level.

During the whole TP layers, the crop composition does not change in respect to the Petreşti period. Emmer is still more frequent (21%), einkorn gets the 9%, the new glume wheat the 5% and the free-threshing wheat is less common, with 3% of the total. Undetermined glume wheat reaches 11% and the barley (both hulled and naked grains) the 4%. Undetermined barley and wheat grains attain 46%.

In the upper layers, belonging to the Coţofeni/TP cultures, with 13 samples, the emmer stands again as the commonest crop (23%), and the other wheat species follow in the same order as previously found. Only barley (two- and size-rowed files) grows to 12%.

If we take into consideration only the cereal grains, the distribution for cultural period is shown in fig. 7.

Fig. 6 - Copper Age seeds and fruits from Peştera Ungurească Cave. 1: Triticum dicoccum grains; 2: twisted awns of Avena sp.; 3: “new glume wheat” fork; 4: undetermined branch with bud; 5: Cornus mas stones; 6: Prunus spinosa stone; 7: Pyrus malus fruit and seed.

- 179

Table 2 - List of all the identified taxa.

Pete

ra U

ngur

easc

, Che

ile T

urzi

i

Arc

haeo

logi

cal c

hron

olog

ySa

mpl

es1

23

45

67

89

Cer

eal c

haff

Triti

cum

dic

occu

m sp

ikle

t for

ks.

1.

..

..

..

Triti

cum

dic

occu

m/N

GW

spik

let f

orks

.1

..

..

..

.Tr

iticu

m m

onoc

occu

m/N

GW

spik

let f

orks

..

..

..

..

.Tr

iticu

m m

onoc

occu

m sp

ikle

t for

ks.

..

.1

..

..

Triti

cum

NG

W sp

ikle

t for

ks1

..

..

11

..

Triti

cum

sp.,

spik

let f

orks

..

..

..

..

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iticu

m d

icoc

cum

, glu

mes

..

..

..

..

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iticu

m d

icoc

cum

/NG

W, g

lum

es.

..

..

..

..

Triti

cum

mon

ococ

cum

, glu

mes

..

..

..

..

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iticu

m m

onoc

occu

m/d

icoc

cum

, glu

mes

..

..

..

..

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iticu

m m

onoc

occu

m/N

GW

, glu

mes

..

..

..

..

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iticu

m N

GW

, glu

mes

..

..

..

..

.C

erea

lia, s

tem

..

..

..

..

.C

erea

l gra

ins

Hor

deum

vul

gare

hex

astic

hum

..

..

..

1.

.H

orde

um v

ulga

re d

istic

hum

3.

..

..

1.

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orde

um v

ulga

re2

22

.1

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1.

Hor

deum

vul

gare

, hul

led

..

..

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..

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um v

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re n

aked

..

..

..

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m a

estiv

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urum

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um.

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11

1.

Triti

cum

dic

occu

m.

38

15

13

..

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cum

cf d

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cum

4.

2.

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iticu

m m

onoc

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m.

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Triti

cum

sp5

41

11

1.

11

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cum

/Hor

deum

(fra

gms)

..

1.

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17.

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lia u

ndiff

..

1.

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Cro

p w

eeds

- w

inte

r an

nual

sA

vena

sp.,

awn

frgm

s.

..

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na sp

., gr

ain

..

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us s

ecal

inus

..

..

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rop

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ds -

sum

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uals

Gal

ium

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rine

..

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d fib

re p

lant

sLi

num

usi

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sim

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..

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ts/N

uts

Cor

nus

mas

..

1.

2.

8.

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oryl

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vella

na.

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29

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cf. C

oria

ndru

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ativ

um.

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us m

alus

..

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runu

s sp

inos

a.

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padu

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us fr

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ubus

idae

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bucu

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bucu

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alk

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..

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eral

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nts

Med

icag

o lu

pulin

a.

..

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Cot

ofen

i/Toa

rte P

astil

ate

Pol

ygon

um p

ersi

cari

a1

..

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er w

ild ta

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sp.

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rolit

hs.

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Late

TP

1011

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..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

11

143

.2

54

14.

..

..

..

..

142

66

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

11

3.

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

.2

2.

..

..

..

..

1.

1.

.1

1.

1.

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

.1

11

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

Mid

dle

TP

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

12

..

.1

1.

..

..

..

..

..

.2

1.

3334

3536

3738

3940

4142

4344

2.

.1

..

..

1.

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

3.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

2.

..

1.

..

..

..

4.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

..

..

1.

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

1.

1.

1.

11

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

5.

..

..

..

.1

..

..

41

22

..

22

22

2.

..

..

..

2.

..

11

1.

..

1.

.2

13

9.

13.

..

.3

.10

99

.2

..

..

..

1.

..

.8

..

..

4.

..

..

..

1.

.13

..

..

..

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

1 .

..

..

..

..

63

10.

353

.2

2212

11

4.

..

.5

..

364

..

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

4.

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

11

..

..

..

2.

11

..

..

..

..

..

..

Early

TP

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.2

..

2.

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

1.

..

4546

4748

49

..

..

.10

..

..

.6

.1

..

.6

..

..

.17

..

..

.17

..

..

.13

..

..

.10

.1

..

.3

1.

..

.5

..

..

.1

..

..

15

..

..

.10

..

..

.5

..

..

.2

..

..

.4

1.

.1

.27

..

..

.1

..

..

.2

1.

.1

.22

3.

23

212

3.

..

..

32.

..

1.

387

12

..

141

..

..

.13

0.

..

..

15

..

..

.15

..

..

.2

..

..

.2

..

..

.1

..

..

.1

18.

11

.19

53

.1

.2

120

..

..

.1

..

.5

.5

..

..

.4

..

..

.1

..

..

.17

..

..

.1

5.

.2

.33

..

..

.7

..

..

.1

..

..

.14

..

..

.1

Petre�ti

..

..

.3

..

..

.1

..

..

11

..

..

.1

..

..

.2

..

..

.2

1.

..

121

..

..

.15 1209

180 -

Table 2 - continues.

Pete

ra U

ngur

easc

, Che

ile T

urzi

i

Arc

haeo

logi

cal c

hron

olog

ySa

mpl

es1

23

45

67

89

Cer

eal c

haff

Triti

cum

dic

occu

m sp

ikle

t for

ks.

1.

..

..

..

Triti

cum

dic

occu

m/N

GW

spik

let f

orks

.1

..

..

..

.Tr

iticu

m m

onoc

occu

m/N

GW

spik

let f

orks

..

..

..

..

.Tr

iticu

m m

onoc

occu

m sp

ikle

t for

ks.

..

.1

..

..

Triti

cum

NG

W sp

ikle

t for

ks1

..

..

11

..

Triti

cum

sp.,

spik

let f

orks

..

..

..

..

.Tr

iticu

m d

icoc

cum

, glu

mes

..

..

..

..

.Tr

iticu

m d

icoc

cum

/NG

W, g

lum

es.

..

..

..

..

Triti

cum

mon

ococ

cum

, glu

mes

..

..

..

..

.Tr

iticu

m m

onoc

occu

m/d

icoc

cum

, glu

mes

..

..

..

..

.Tr

iticu

m m

onoc

occu

m/N

GW

, glu

mes

..

..

..

..

.Tr

iticu

m N

GW

, glu

mes

..

..

..

..

.C

erea

lia, s

tem

..

..

..

..

.C

erea

l gra

ins

Hor

deum

vul

gare

hex

astic

hum

..

..

..

1.

.H

orde

um v

ulga

re d

istic

hum

3.

..

..

1.

.H

orde

um v

ulga

re2

22

.1

.1

1.

Hor

deum

vul

gare

, hul

led

..

..

..

..

.H

orde

um v

ulga

re n

aked

..

..

..

..

.Tr

iticu

m a

estiv

um/d

urum

/com

pact

um.

.1

..

11

1.

Triti

cum

dic

occu

m.

38

15

13

..

Triti

cum

cf d

icoc

cum

4.

2.

..

..

.Tr

iticu

m m

onoc

occu

m.

.2

..

.1

..

Triti

cum

sp5

41

11

1.

11

Triti

cum

/Hor

deum

(fra

gms)

..

1.

..

17.

.C

erea

lia u

ndiff

..

1.

..

..

..

Cro

p w

eeds

- w

inte

r an

nual

sA

vena

sp.,

awn

frgm

s.

..

..

..

..

Ave

na sp

., gr

ain

..

..

..

..

.B

rom

us s

ecal

inus

..

..

..

..

.C

rop

wee

ds -

sum

mer

ann

uals

Gal

ium

apa

rine

..

..

..

..

.O

il an

d fib

re p

lant

sLi

num

usi

tatis

sim

um.

..

..

..

..

Frui

ts/N

uts

Cor

nus

mas

..

1.

2.

8.

.C

oryl

us a

vella

na.

.1

.1

29

.1

cf. C

oria

ndru

m s

ativ

um.

..

..

..

..

Pyr

us m

alus

..

..

..

..

.P

runu

s sp

inos

a.

..

.1

..

..

Pru

nus

padu

s.

..

..

..

..

Rub

us fr

utic

osus

..

..

..

..

.R

ubus

idae

us.

..

..

..

..

Sam

bucu

s eb

ulus

..

..

.1

..

.Sa

mbu

cus

nigr

a.

..

..

..

..

Sam

bucu

s eb

ulus

/nig

ra.

..

..

..

..

Phy

salis

alk

eken

gi1

..

..

..

..

Rud

eral

pla

nts

Med

icag

o lu

pulin

a.

..

..

..

..

Cot

ofen

i/Toa

rte P

astil

ate

Pol

ygon

um p

ersi

cari

a1

..

..

..

..

Oth

er w

ild ta

xaM

edic

ago

sp.

..

..

..

..

.R

anun

culu

s sp

..

..

..

..

..

Pol

ygon

um s

p..

..

..

..

..

Rum

ex s

p..

1.

..

..

..

Vic

ia s

p..

..

..

..

..

Non

det

.1

..

..

11

.1

Cop

rolit

hs.

1.

14

..

..

Late

TP

1011

1213

1415

1617

1819

20

..

..

1.

1.

..

..

1.

..

.1

11

..

..

..

..

..

11

..

1.

.3

.2

13

.3

..

..

2.

13

1.

..

6.

..

..

..

12

.2

..

1.

.2

1.

..

..

..

.1

.1

..

.2

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.2

12

..

..

..

..

..

..

.

..

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

21

..

1.

.2

1.

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

21

..

.2

..

24

2.

101

44

..

..

2.

.4

..

51

..

2.

2.

2.

12

2.

.6

14.

..

..

3.

..

..

..

22.

15.

8.

11.

..

1.

..

.1

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

.

..

..

..

..

..

.

..

..

..

..

..

.

29

11

4.

6.

11

.3

41

.3

.2

10.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

21

..

4.

11

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

3.

33

41

..

..

.1

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

.2

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

2.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.2

..

13

.1

..

..

..

.5

..

.

2122

2324

2526

2728

2930

3132

.1

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

.2

..

..

..

12

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

1.

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

2.

2.

..

11

..

.2

..

..

..

.5

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

12

..

..

.1

.1

.3

210

17.

..

.11

41

1.

1.

42

.1

1.

..

..

..

31

.2

42

.1

26

..

.1

.2

113

87

..

1214

24.

.3

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

11

143

.2

54

14.

..

..

..

..

142

66

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

11

3.

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

.2

2.

..

..

..

..

1.

1.

.1

1.

1.

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

.1

11

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

Mid

dle

TP

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

12

..

.1

1.

..

..

..

..

..

.2

1.

3334

3536

3738

3940

4142

4344

2.

.1

..

..

1.

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

3.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

2.

..

1.

..

..

..

4.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

..

..

1.

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

1.

1.

1.

11

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

5.

..

..

..

.1

..

..

41

22

..

22

22

2.

..

..

..

2.

..

11

1.

..

1.

.2

13

9.

13.

..

.3

.10

99

.2

..

..

..

1.

..

.8

..

..

4.

..

..

..

1.

.13

..

..

..

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

1 .

..

..

..

..

63

10.

353

.2

2212

11

4.

..

.5

..

364

..

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

1.

4.

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

11

..

..

..

2.

11

..

..

..

..

..

..

Early

TP

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

.2

..

2.

..

..

..

..

.1

..

..

..

..

1.

..

4546

4748

49

..

..

.10

..

..

.6

.1

..

.6

..

..

.17

..

..

.17

..

..

.13

..

..

.10

.1

..

.3

1.

..

.5

..

..

.1

..

..

15

..

..

.10

..

..

.5

..

..

.2

..

..

.4

1.

.1

.27

..

..

.1

..

..

.2

1.

.1

.22

3.

23

212

3.

..

..

32.

..

1.

387

12

..

141

..

..

.13

0.

..

..

15

..

..

.15

..

..

.2

..

..

.2

..

..

.1

..

..

.1

18.

11

.19

53

.1

.2

120

..

..

.1

..

.5

.5

..

..

.4

..

..

.1

..

..

.17

..

..

.1

5.

.2

.33

..

..

.7

..

..

.1

..

..

.14

..

..

.1

Petre�ti

..

..

.3

..

..

.1

..

..

11

..

..

.1

..

..

.2

..

..

.2

1.

..

121

..

..

.15 1209

- 181

0

20

40

60

80

100

A B C D E

1 2 3 4 5Fig. 7 - Percentage of the different wheat species as grains. A: Petreşti; B: Early TP; C: Middle TP; D: Late TP; E: Coţofeni/TP. 1: Triticum monococcum; 2: Triticum cf. dicoccum; 3: Triticum undiff.; 4: Triticum dicoccum; 5: Triticum aestivum/durum.

Here we should mention the presence of few grains and some awns of oat (Avena sp.). The rarity of this species confirms that it was not grown as a crop, occurring in the cereal fields as a weed.

The relative presence of chaff in all layers suggests that at least part of the harvest, namely hulled wheats, was introduced into the cave previous any particular treatment, and only later the spikes were dehusked, subsequently coming with heat for whatever reason in contact (for a detailed criticism, nesBitt and samueL, 1995). A distinctive feature is the low quantity of chaff remains, about 100, in comparison with a total of more than 500 cereal grains. This gives the impression that the excavated area was used for the final treatment of the crop, and the storage surface was located somewhere else in the cave.

Because of the local morphology, it seems that only some of the wild plants could be collected in the immediate surroundings of the cave, while the cereals were probably grown on the valley floor, therefore far from the site.

In all cultural layers a small quantity of bread/club wheat grains was found. Apart from the typical ones, there are some very short and plump caryopses, which may be referred to Triticum compactum.

Few grains of a species of oat were recognised only in the Middle TP layers; some twisted awns of oat were found in a sample labelled as “from the mouth of the oven”. As no chaff of this plant has been found, it is not known whether the few caryopses derive form the cultivated Avena sativa or from Avena fatua, which occurs as a field weed.

182 -

Ecological forms Ubiquity (%)Coţofeni/TP Late TP Middle TP Early TP Petreşti

(13) (1) (24) (3) (8)CereaLS

Hordeum hexastichum 7.7 100 0 0 0H. distichum 15.4 0 0 0 0H. vulgare 61.5 100 29.2 66.7 50.0H. vulgare, hulled 0 0 4.2 0 0H. vulgare, naked 0 0 8.3 0 0Triticum dicoccum 69.2 100 70.8 33.3 87.5T. dicoccum /NGW 15.4 0 16.7 0 12.5T. cf. dicoccum 23.0 100 37.5 33.3 0T. monococcum 38.5 100 54.2 33.3 62.5T. monococcum/NGW 0 0 20.8 0 12.5T. monococcum/dicoccum 0 0 4.2 0 0NGW 23.0 100 41.7 0 12.5T. aestivum/durum/compactum 38.5 100 25 0 0Triticum sp. 76.9 0 54.2 33.3 75.0Triticum/Hordeum 15.4 100 33.3 33.3 0Cerealia 15.4 0 12.5 33.3 0Crop weeds/winter annualsAvena sp. 0 0 16.7 0 0Bromus secalinus 0 0 8.3 0 0Crop weeds/winter annualsGalium aparine 0 0 0 0 12.5Oil and fibre plantsLinum usitatissimum 0 0 4.2 0 0Fruits/NutsCornus mas 53.8 100 66.7 66.7 75.0Corylus avellana 61.5 100 33.3 33.3 50cf. Coriandrum sativum 0 0 4.2 0 0Pyrus malus 0 0 0 0 12.5Prunus spinosa 7.7 0 8.3 33.3 0Prunus padus 0 0 4.2 0 0Rubus fruticosus 15.4 100 33.3 0 0Rubus idaeus 0 0 4.2 0 0Sambucus ebulus 15.4 100 33.3 0 37.5Sambucus nigra 0 100 25 0 0S. ebulus/nigra 0 0 4.2 0 0Physalis alkekengi 7.7 100 29.2 33.3 25.0Ruderal plantsMedicago lupulina 0 0 4.2 0 0Polygonum persicaria 15.4 0 0 0 0Other wild taxaMedicago sp. 0 0 4.2 0 0Ranunculus sp. 0 0 0 0 12.5Polygonum sp. 0 0 4.2 0 0Rumex sp. 7.7 0 4.2 0 0Vicia sp. 0 0 0 0 12.5

Table 3 - Distribution of plant remains from the cultural layers. Ubiquity is the % of presence of a taxon in the totality of samples for cultural period. NGW = New Glume Wheat.

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Only one linseed (Linum usitatissimum) was found in a sample from Middle TP culture. Whether it was grown for the oil-bearing seeds, for the flax fibres or for both, is not known, and this unique presence is not sufficient to establish even its effective cultivation in the fields.

5.2. WiLd frUiTS and nUTS A consistent quantity of charred fruits and seeds comes from a woodland environment

and its fringe. Small seeds were probably eaten when collected, and their final deposition in the cave sediment could be due both to men and birds. In fact, many seeds found in the samples come from berries which are commonly eaten by birds, like blackberries (Rubus fruticosus), raspberries (Rubus idaeus), dane-wort (Sambucus ebulus) and elder berries (Sambucus nigra).

Men were certainly responsible for the presence of the larger stones of blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), cornelian cherry and hazelnuts, as well as small wild apples (Pyrus malus). These were found as charred fragments only in a sample from the Petreşti layers.

As a rule, there is a little probability that this category of findings undergoes carbonisation, and in most cases this happens when they are scattered on the soil and casually enter into contact with a fire. For this reason they are normally under-represented in the presence lists. An undetermined small branch with bud is present in the Toarte Pastilate layers.

The cornelian cherry is a small tree with an high productivity of fruits, which are eaten fresh or sun-dried, or leaven to produce a sort of cider. The stones are present in all layers, and are, in fact, the commonest fruits collected in the surrounding woods. Also the hazelnuts were currently gathered and then eaten in the cave. Both fruits furnish evidence of human presence in the cave during the late summer or early autumn. An oval, partially broken fruit of cf. Coriandrum should be confirmed on better preserved mericarps.

5.3. CULTivaTed fieLdS and rUderaL PLanTS

We have little evidence of wild plants belonging to synanthropic vegetations, in particular plants which grow on disturbed habitats such as fields, roadsides and hedges.

Some weeds belong to the Polygonaceae family, like Rumex and Polygonum. These are currently found in waste areas, in meadows and on moist soils. Some provide sour leaves which might have been eaten in salad. Other species like Medicago lupulina, black medick, and the Ranunculaceae family, and some species of the genus Vicia occur in meadows, pasture and arable lands.

6. CONCLUSION

The present indications from this site have a double interest. They positively confirm that during the late sixth millennium uncal BP the glume wheats, both hulled and naked barley as well as the free-threshing wheat, were common part of the crop. They also prove the possible presence, to be better established by further work, of the new glume wheat. And finally they confirm the broad use of the forest resources, as an integration of the agricultural produce.

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At the same time, it is of interest to remark the absence of some cereals currently grown since the Neolithic in the whole south-eastern Europe, like spelt, millet and rye. The absence of pods is also noteworthy, as legumes like horsebeans, peas and lentils were elsewhere well known since the early Neolithic.

The mosaic-like structure of the vegetation surrounding the cave, as shown by charcoal remains, points to a large use of both local and non-local resources, probably reaching a radius of few kilometres. A selective action by man over a variety of environments is in accord with similar observations from pollen sites in north-western Romania since 6000 uncal BP (Feurdean and AstAloş, 2005; Feurdean et al., 2007).

The archaeobotany of this remarkable cave-site opens a first sight into the Copper Age land-use and nutrition of this area. Basic questions however are still to be solved, and the solution will be found only in a future off-site interdisciplinary work, linking the cave to the surrounding territory with its whole geological and biological complexity.

AknowledgmentsThanks are due to Prof. P. Biagi (Ca’ Foscari University, Venezia), for support and funding, and Dr. F. Fenzi

(CNR-ICIS Padova) for SEM assistance. P. Biagi handed the archaeobotanical samples over to me on 2005-2006, with other Neolithic materials, also providing stratigraphic and contextual data.

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Author’s address:RENATO NISBET, Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichità e del Vicino Oriente, Ca’ Foscari University, Palazzo Malcanton Marcorà, Dorsoduro 3484/D – I - 30123 VENEzIA E-mail: renato.nisbet@unive.it