CONTRIBUTORS

Dr. John D. Anderson, Jr. joined the U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory in 1966 as Chief of the Hypersonic Group. In 1973, he became Chainnan of the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Maryland, and since 1980 has been a professor of Aerospace Engineering at Maryland. Dr. Anderson works with the Air and Space Museum one day each week as their Special Assistant for Aerodynamics. In addition, in 1993 he was made a full faculty member of the Committee for the History and Philosophy of Science, and in 1995 an affiliate faculty member of the Department of History at the University of Maryland. Dr. Anderson has published seven books and over 120 technical papers. Dr. Anderson is a Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. From 1988 to 1992, he served as Vice President of the AIAA for Education, and from 1997 to the present as the AIAA Vice President for Publications. In 1989, he was given the John Leland Atwood Award jointly by the AIAA and the ASEE "for the lasting influence of his recent contributions to aerospace engineering education." In 1995, he was given the AIAA Pendray Award for aerospace literature.

Roger E. Biistein teaches courses in the history of technology, recent America, and aerospace history at the University of Houston-Clear Lake, a suburban campus for juniors, seniors, and graduate students. He is the author of several books on aviation and space flight, including The American Aerospace Industry: From Workshop to Global Enterprise (1996). He served as Lindbergh Professor of Aerospace History at the Smithsonian (1992-93) and was a visiting professor at the Air War College, U.S. Air Force (1995-96).

David Bloor is the Director of the Science Studies Unit, Edinburgh. His main research interest is in the sociology of scientific knowledge and its associated philosophical and methodological problems. He is the author of Knowledge and Social Imagery (second edition 1991); Wittgenstein: A Social Theory of Knowledge (1983); and Wittgenstein: Rules and Institutions (1997). With Barry Barnes and John Henry he has recently published a text book, Scientific Knowledge: A Sociological Analysis (1996).

Tom D. Crouch is a chainnan of the Aeronautics Division, National Air and Space Museum. A Smithsonian employee since 1974, he has served both the National Air and Space Museum and the National Museum of American History in a variety of curatorial and management posts. Crouch holds a Ph.D. in history from the Ohio

361

362 CONTRIBUTORS

State University (1976). He is the author or editor ofa number of books and many articles for both popular and scholarly journals. Crouch is the recipient of a number of awards, including: The History Manuscript Prize of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (1977) for the manuscript of A Dream of Wings: Americans and the Airplane, 1875-1905 (New York: w.w. Norton, 1981); Best Book of the Year by the Aviation Space Writers Association for The Eagle Aloft: Two Centuries of the Balloon in America (Washington, D.C.: The Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985); and the Christopher Award (1989) "for artistic achievement expressive of the highest values of the human spirit," for The Bishop's Boys: A Life of Wilbur and Orville Wright (New York: w.w. Norton, Inc., 1989).

Deborah G. Douglas is the Historian-in-Residence at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Langley Research Center and adjunct assistant professor of history at Old Dominion University. For NASA she is researching and writing a book on the federal contributions to the development of aeronautical engineering. She is also finishing the manuscript for a book on the early history of airports in the United States (through 1940) for the Johns Hopkins University Press. Her publications include u.s. Women in Aviation: 1940-1985 (1990).

Robert G. Ferguson is a historian of technology studying the development of American aircraft manufacture. He received his doctorate from the Program in the History of Science & Technology at the University of Minnesota, and his BA from U.C. Berkeley. His dissertation examined the cooperative activities of aircraft manufacturers during World War II, notably the Aircraft War Production Council. He is currently researching the transition from batch to mass production from 1935 to 1945 in American aircraft manufacture. He is an assistant professor at the Hong Kong University of Science & Technology.

Peter Galison is Mallinckrodt Professor of the History of Science and of Physics at Harvard University. Author of How Experiments End (Chicago, 1987) and Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago, 1997), his principal work explores the boundary between physics and technology. He has co-edited Big Science (Stanford, 1992); The Disunity of Science (Stanford, 1996); Picturing Science, Producing Art (Routledge, 1998); and The Architecture of Science (MIT, 1999). Galison holds a commercial pilot's license with instrument rating. He is a MacArthur Fellow (1997-2002).

Takehiko Hashimoto is Associate Professor of Science and Technology Studies at the University of Tokyo. After his college and graduate education at the University of Tokyo, he finished his Ph.D. thesis on the early history of aeronautical engineering at Johns Hopkins University in 1991. He has published articles on various aspects of the science-technology relationship, including "Graphical Calculation and Early Aeronautical Engineers," Historia Scientiarum 3(1994), pp. 159-83.

Peter L. Jakab is a curator in the Department of Aeronautics, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. He has been with the museum since 1983.

CONTRIBUTORS 363

He holds aBA, MA and Ph.D. in American History from Rutgers University, with specialization in the history of technology and American social and cultural history. Prior to NASM, he had stays at the Edison National Historic Site, the New Jersey Historical Commission, and the Thomas A. Edison Papers Project. He has curated numerous exhibitions and lectured frequently on the history of aerospace engineering, the Wright brothers, early aviation, and the history of invention. His publications include Visions of a Flying Machine: the Wright Brothers and The Process of Invention, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990.

David A. Mindell is currently Dibner Assistant Professor of the History of Engineering and Manufacturing in the Program in Science, Technology, and Society at MIT. He has a Ph.D. in the History of Technology from MIT. His research interests include technology policy (historical and current), the history of automation in the military, the history of electronics and computing, cultural studies of technology, and deep-ocean archaeology. He is just completing a book on the USS MONITOR and the history of American technology. He is a visiting investigator in the Deep Submergence Laboratory of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. There he conducts engineering research in distributed control systems for remotely-operated and autonomous underwater vehicles for exploring the deepest parts of the ocean, and has participated in more than a dozen oceanographic cruises. He developed the high-precision sonar navigation system for control of undersea robots in very deep water, called EXACT, which is used to make the world's most accurate three-dimensional maps of the ocean floor.

Alex Roland is Professor of History at Duke University, where he teaches military history and the history of technology. From 1973 to 1981 he was a historian with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, where he wrote Model Research: The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1915-1958 (1985). He is a former president of the Society for the History of Technology.

Eric Schatzberg is Assistant Professor in the Department of the History of Science at University of Wisconsin-Madison. His book on the shift from wood to metal airplane structures, Wings of Wood, Wings of Metal, was published by Princeton University Press in late 1998.

George E. Smith is both a philosopher and an engineer. As a philosopher of science at Tufts University, his focus on evidence in science and applied fields has led him into extensive work on Newton's Principia and its historical impact. As an engineer he has specialized on analytic methods for jet engine design at General Electric (Evendale) in the late 1950's and Pratt and Whitney Aircraft in the early 1960's, and, since joining Northern Research and Engineering corporation in 1965, on vibration­related fatigue problems in turbo machinery.

Frederick Suppe is Professor and Chair of History and Philosophy of Science at the University of Maryland. His books include The Structure of Scientific Theories, The Semantic Conception of Theories, and the forthcoming Facts, Theories, and

364 CONTRIBUTORS

Scientific Observation. He is in the latter stages of completing Venus Alive! Modeling Scientific Knowledge, a historico-philosophical study of modeling in Venus planetary science. He was involved in the computerization of flight-test instrumentation and data analysis at General Electric Flight Test, is a commercial pilot, and has been known to indulge in unusual attitudes.

Walter G. Vincenti is professor emeritus of aeronautical engineering at Stanford University, past chair of Stanford's Program in Science, Technology, and Society, and a member of the National Academy of Engineering. As a research worker and teacher for fifty-five years, he has contributed usefully to the development of high­speed aerodynamics.

INDEX

A-20,268 A-26,268 ACA (Advisory Committee for Aeronautics)

(Britain), 224, 225, 227, 294, 360 Academy of Model Aeronautics, 210 ACAP (Aviation Consumer Action Project),

41n.27 acceptance testing, 67 accident reports: double picture in, 40;

instabilities in, 4, 350-52; interests in, 351; localization versus diffusion in, 4, 12,27, 30,31,34-35,37-38; necessary and sufficient causes conflicting in, 13; probable cause section of, 35-36; protocol versus judgment in, 4, 15,35,39; technological versus human factors in, 4, 38-39

accidents, 3-43; constraints on investigation of, xiii; flight as more dangerous than most technologies, xi; instability as cause of, 227-28. See also accident reports

Ackeret, Jacob, 159, 161 Adel Precision Products Corporation, 275, 276 Ader, Clement, 287 Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (ACA)

(Britain), 224, 225, 227, 294, 360 aerial photography, McCook Field research on,

57,58 Aero Club of America, 290 Aero Digest (periodical), 265, 315 aerodynamics: Aircraft War Production Council

member research projects, 277; applied aerodynamics, 243-44, 251; as applied science, 241; in aviation development, 334; computers changing research in, 177-78, 255-56; as engineering or science, 241-57; as engineering science, 241; science and engineering in nineteenth-century, 242-44; steps in evolution of, 241-42; of wings at supersonic speeds, 157-79

aerodynamic testing: at McCook Field, 53, 54; at National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 54

Aerodynamic Theory: A General Review of Progress (Durand), 221 n.l 0

aeroelastic deformation, 167

Aeromarine Plane and Motor Company, 327 Aeronautical Chamber of Commerce, 309 aeronautical engineering: American Society of

Aeronautical Engineers, 327; American university programs established, 212-13, 294,328; Eiffel's contributions to, 250; European textbooks in, 221n.lO; Jones's streamlining paper as, 252; in manufacturing, 261,261; at McCook Field, 46, 59-60; MIT course in, 53, 208, 209, 294, 328; mobility of engineers, 339-40; University of Michigan course in, 212-13

Aeronautical Institute at St. Cyr (France), 226, 229,230,231,293

Aeronautical Research Committee (ARC) (Britain), 227, 228, 229-30

Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, 243 Aeronautic Safety Code, 307 afterbuming turbofans, 107 agency instability, 13 ailerons, 23 Airbus, 37, 324 Air Commerce Act of 1926,307,317,324,

320n.31, 328 Air Corps Act of 1926, 328 Aircraft Engineering (periodical), 284n.37 Aircraft Manufacturers' Association, 326, 327 Aircraft Production (periodical), 284n.37 Aircraft Production Board, 48, 49 Aircraft War Production Council. See National

Aircraft War Production Council Aircraft War Production Council East Coast,

283n.33

365

AiResearch Manufacturing Company, 275, 276. 336-37

Air Florida Flight 90, 4-21; Aviation Consumer Action Project on, 41 n.27; cause of crash of, 9; Cockpit Resources Management analysis of, 19, 21; cockpit voice recording from, 4-7; crash of, 7; faulty de-icing of, 12; flightpath of, 8; survivors of, 7; things versus persons in responsibility for crash of, 38-39

airfoils: induced drag, 231, 251; Lilienthal's research on, 243, 245; Munk's thin airfoil theory, 251; NACA 65-series, 121, 122, 123;

366 INDEX

NACAresearch on, 210; Phillips's research on, 243; standardized tables for, 208; for supersonic flight, 157--61, 158, 160, 164, 175; Theodorsen's research on, 211. See also wings

airframe manufacturing: Aircraft Manufacturers' Association, 326, 327; the airframe revolution, xiv, 328, 334, 337; automation defied by, 340; becoming more and less competitive, 340-41; corporate environment of, 339; and engineering exchange, 259-85; job shop production methods, 263; mass production, 263; mergers in, 329; patents in development of, 335-41; tooling, 266, 277, 329. See also metal airplanes; wooden airplanes

airframe revolution, xiv, 328, 334, 337 airframe testing, 81-96; established power plant

for, 68--69; flight testing, 90-95; in wind tunnels, 81-90

Air Law Institute (Northwestern University), 212 Air Law Institute of Konigsberg (Germany), 212 Airline Pilots Association, 32, 35, 42n.58 airliners: Airbus, 37, 324; the airframe

revolution, xiv, 328, 334, 337; Albatross, 195; American emphasis on, 334; Boeing 245,328; Boeing 707, 118, 140, 144, 145, 334; Boeing 727,146; Boeing 777, 107; Caravelle, 119, 143; changes since World War II, 147; Comet, 119; Convair 880, 118, 143; Convair 990, 143; DC-2, 328; DC-3, xiv, 251, 253, 302,328; DC-8, 118, 140, 145,334; Fokker tri-motors, 212; United States dominating market, 324; Vickers VC-I0, 120. See also Boeing 737; McDonnell Douglas DC-l 0-1 0

air mail, 209, 301, 319n.25, 328 Air Mail Act of 1925, 328 "Airport Design and Construction" (Davison),

311 Airport Ground School, 276 Airport Rating program, 307-8, 320n.31 airports, 301-22; airplanes' relationship to, 302,

306-7; Airport Rating program, 307-8, 320n.3l; architects in design of, 301, 302, 309-11,312-13,357-58; Army plans for national airway system, 303-5; Black on design of, 303, 304-5, 318n.l7; bridges compared with, 314; city plarmers in design of, 301, 302, 309, 313-14; in commercial air travel development, xiv, 301, 309-10; concrete for surfaces, 306, 319n.27; design competitions for, 310-11, 321n.50; Detroit's Ford Airport, 309-10; engineers in design of, 301, 302, 305-7, 309, 311, 312-13, 315, 322n.53, 357-58; illumination systems, 57,

306, 319n.25; Model Airways program, 304, 307, 319n.30; National Airport Survey, 317; New York City's LaGuardia Airport, 314-16; in the 1920s, 303; runways, 306, 319n.27; site selection, 311; stage construction for, 308; standardization of, 301,302,304,307-9,320nn.32,33; takeoff-and-Ianding function of, 312-13; transfer function of, 312

Airports (periodical), 309, 310 airspeed: airspeed indicators, 57,91; wind tunnel

gauging of, 294 "Air Terminal Engineering" (Black), 305 air traffic control system, 316-17 "Airways and Landing Fields" (U.S. Air

Service), 304 Aitken, Hugh G. J., 225, 236n.6 Albatross, 195 Alexander, Nicholas, 214 Aloha Airlines 737, 31, 41n.44 altimeters, 57,91 altitude chambers, 71 aluminum: Canada as second-largest producer of,

196; duraluminum, 55; Germany becoming largest producer of, 188, 20In.23; Guerin process for forming, 259, 263, 265, 335; McCook Field research on, 55; for metal aircraft, 185; stamping problems with, 263; World War II shortages of, 188, 191, 196

Amended Cross License Agreement, 323 American Aeronautical Society, 327 American Airport Design (Lehigh Portland

Cement Company), 321n.50 American Institute of Aeronautics and

Astronautics, 213, 284n.36 American Society of Aeronautical Engineers, 327 Ames Aeronautical Laboratory: engineering

culture at, xiii, 177; supersonic wind tunnel, 161, 163--66; wing aerodynamics research at, 157-79

analog data, 69 Anderson, John D., x, xiv, 358 angle of attack, 166 AN-I-21 specification, 270 Annex 13 to Convention on Civil Aviation, 36 Anson training plane, 191, 195, 197, 204n.58 Antheil, George, 216 Arbitrary Blade Contour Program, 131 ARC (Aeronautical Research Committee)

(Britain), 227, 228, 229-30 architects, in airport design, 30 I, 302, 309-11,

312-13,357-58 armaments: Aircraft War Production Council

member research projects, 277; McCook Field research on, 59

Armor Company, 292

INDEX

Armstrong Siddeley, 218 Arnold, H. H. "Hap": on BDV interchangeability

problems, 269, 270; Curtiss-Wright C-76 canceled by, 192; on Gloster E28/39 turbojet, 218; on prewar aircraft production, 202n.39; wooden airplanes supported by, 186, 193-94

Ashmead, Gordon, 263 Associate Air Research Committee (Canada), 229 associationalism, 326 Aston, Francis, 225 AT-6 trainer, 191, 194 AT-13 trainer, 192 ATR-n, 36-37, 42n.65 Australia, 37 Austro-Hungary, 297-99 Auteil (France), 231, 251 autogiros, New York University research on, 213 automatic rate-of-pressure change controls,

336-37 automation, 340 auxiliary hypotheses, 98, 350 aviation. See flight Aviation (periodical), 213 Aviation/Aerospace Fundamentals

(SandersonlTimes-Mirror), 220n Aviation Consumer Action Project (A CAP),

4In.27 Aviation Corporation, 283n.33 aviation law, 212 Aviation Week and Space Technology

(periodical), 213 Avon engine, 119 AVRO,219 AWPC. See National Aircraft War Production

Council axial compressors: aerodynamics of compressor

blades, 150n.15; design difficulties for, 120; NACA transonic and supersonic research 1945-55, 120-26, 136, 148; shock-induced boundary layer separation, 124, 124; single stage, 115; with supersonic stages, 124-25; technological development 1945-55, 115-16; transonic stages, 123; "ways of thinking" about aerodynamic forces for, 176. See also blade loading; compressor pressure­ratio

axial fans: aft fan in GE CJ805-23, 127-36; front fan in JT3D engine, 137-43; technological development 1945-55, 115-16

B-17 bomber, 266-70, 351 B-24 bomber, 262, 270, 280, 336 B-26 Marauder, 92 B-29 Superfortress, 68, 270-73 B-52 bomber, 118, 140, 144, 145

B-58 bomber, 68, 80, 81, 118 bag-molding techniques, 186 Bairstow, Leonard, 225; aerodynamics

367

experiments at National Physical Laboratory, 223, 224, 235; at Imperial College of Science and Technology, 227, 235; as middleman between scientists and engineers, 225,236; Pasteur's power compared to that of, 228; on Prandtl correction, 233, 234, 236, 356-57; on scale effect, 226, 228, 235, 237n.ll; stability and control as emphasis of, 227-28; wind tunnel research defended by, xii, 223, 235, 356-57

Baker, Donald, 313 Bakhmeteff, Boris Alexander, 214 Bane, Thurman, 52,62 Barling, Walter, 59 Barnes, Bill, 96 basic (fundamental) research: at McCook Field,

62; NACA supporting, 328-29 Basquin, H. 0., 187 Bauchman, Kevin, 24 BDV Committee, 266 BDV (Boeing-Douglas-Vega) pool, 266-70, 351 B.E.2c biplane, 224 Beachey, Lincoln, 292 Bechereau, Louis, 290 Becker, John, 215, 219 Beech, 191 Bell, Alexander Graham, 325 Bell Aircraft: in Aircraft War Production Council

East Coast, 283n.33; in B-29 production, 270-73; XP-59A, 68, 218; XS-I, 92,157

Belmont Park, 292 Bennett, James Gordon, 290, 292 Benz, Karl, 208 Berlin, 292, 294 Berlin to Vienna Race, 292 Bernal,1. D., 359 Bernardo, James v., 220n Bijker, Wiebe, 317n.3 Bilstein, Roger, xi, xiv, xv, I 99n.2, 354, 360 Black, Archibald, 302-3, 304-7, 313, 318nn. 17,

22,319n.25 Blackbird fighters, 77 black noise, 96-97 Blackpool (England), 292 blade loading: in CJ805-23 engine, 135, 135; the

diffusion factor, 121-23; supersonic stages, 124-25; transonic stages, 123

Blanton, John, 127, 128 Bleriot, Louis, 208, 224, 288, 289, 295 Bloor, David, xii-xiii bluckets, 127, 129, 143 Boeing 737: in Air Florida Flight 90 crash, 4-16;

Aloha Airlines 737 accident, 31, 4In.44;

368 INDEX

engine indicating sensor locations, 10; engine instrument indication, 11; as pitching up with contaminated wings, 16; P&W JT8D engines in, 146; two types of engines in, 107, 108

Boeing Aircraft Company: in Aircraft War Production Council, 283n.33, 284n.44; in the airframe revolution, 328; B-17, 26~70, 351; B-29, 270-73; in Boeing-Douglas-Vega pool, 26~ 70, 351; cabin pressurization device patent dispute, 33~37, 340; master control gages, 270-73, 271; McDonnell Douglas merger, 329; production-density system, 267--(,9,268; 707, 118, 140, 144, 145,334;727,146;777,107;245,328; unique production techniques of, 266. See also Boeing 737

Boeing-Douglas-Vega (BDV) pool, 26~70, 351 Bolling Field (Washington, DC), 319n.30 Bolman, Lee, 18-19 Bolter, Jay David, vii bombers: American emphasis on, 334; B-17,

2~70,351;B-24,262,270,280,336;B-26

Marauder, 92; B-29 Superfortress, 68, 270-73; B-52, 118, 140, 144, 145; B-58, 68, 80, 81, 118; McCook Field research on, 59; XB-70, 68, 77, 78,80-81,92-95,94

bombsights: Norden, 216; Seversky's, 214 boundary effects in wind tunnels, 89-90, 90,

9~97

boundary-layer theory, xiv, 159, 242, 24~7, 247, 294,357-58

Braun, Wernher von, 219, 220 breakdown system, 269 Bredt, Irene, 219 Brewster Aeronautical Corporation, 264, 265,

283n.33 Briggs, Lyman, 254 Bright, Charles D., 342n.7 Bristol Fighter F-2B, 51 Britain: Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,

224,225,227,294,360; Aeronautical Research Committee, 227, 228, 229-30; Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, 243; all-metal airplane development in, 184, 185; ambivalent attitude to the airplane, 198-99; Blackpool, 292; Cambridge University, 211, 225,227,234,356; Croydon Airdrome, 306, 319n.25; declinist view of, 360, 360n.2; expenditures on aviation to 1912,295; Hendon, 292; Imperial College of Science and Technology, 227, 235; National Gas Turbine Establishment, 120; Royal Aeronautics Society, 213; Royal Aircraft Establishment, 229, 230, 232, 236, 293; Royal Aircraft Factory, 225-26, 228, 229,

297; Royal Air Service, 297; Royal Naval Air Service, 297; wind tunnels and the emergence of aeronautical research in, 223-39; wooden aircraft in World War II, 183, 188-89, 193-99,355-56. See also National Physical Laboratory

British Commonwealth Air Training Plan, 190 Brockington, L. W., 198 Brooke-Popham, Henry R. M., 227, 229, 237n.23 Brookins, Walter, 292 Brooks, Peter, 317n.2 Brown strip recorders, 92, 93 Bryan, George, 224 Buchwald, Jed, viii Buck, Robert, 15-16,21,34 Bulletin o/the Experimental Department,

Airplane Engineering Division (periodical), 60

Bureau of Air Commerce, 315, 31~17 Burgess Company, 327 Burgess Curtiss Company, 291 Burnett, Jim, 32 Busemann, Adolf, 158, 159,215,254 Busk, Edward, 224 bypass engines: classification of, 108; core

engines of, 114-15; as disappearing from view 1945-55, 116; early history of, 113-15; fundamental design problems of, 114-15; principle of operation of, 108; thrust achieved in, II 0; Whittle's patent of, 107-9, 113. See also turbofan engines

bypass ratio, 108

C-76 transport, 192, 195 cabin pressurization devices, 33~37, 339, 340 calculators, mechanical, 73, 102n.20, 165 Caldwell, Frank, 254 calibration corrections, 70, 98 calibration curves, 97 California Institute of Technology, xv, 213-14,

275, 284n.38, 294, 328 Calion, Michel, 39 Cambridge University, 211, 225, 227, 234, 356 Cammen, Leon, 62 Canada: aluminum production in, 196; Associate

Air Research Committee, 229; AVRO, 219; as forest nation, 198; National Research Council, 190, 194; wooden aircraft in World War II, 183, 189-91, 193-99,355,356

canard elevator, 292 cantilever monoplane, 334 Capper, John Edward, 293, 294, 297 Caproni, Gianni, 298 Caravelle, 119, 143 Carroll, F. 0., 304 causal instability, 13, 17

cause, probable, 35-36, 42n.63 Cayley, George, 243, 246 center of lift, 176, 354 Central Aeronautical Institute (Italy), 229 centrifugal compressors, 120, 151 n.29 Cessna, 192 CF6 engine, 110, 110, 146 CF-700 engine, 143-44 CGNA (Compagnie Generale de Navigation

Aerienne),288 Challenger (Space Shuttle), 38 Chanute, Octave, 289

INDEX

Chapin, Seymour, 336, 340 Circuit of Berlin, 292 Circuit of Germany, 292 circulation theory oflift, 242, 244-45, 246, 251,

294,358 city planners, in airport design, 301, 302, 309,

313-14 Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938, 3, 317 Civil Aeronautics Authority, 3, 317 Civil Airports and Airways (Black), 318n.22 civil aviation: Convention on Civil Aviation, 36;

and McCook Field research, 57, 61-63; military R&D incorporated into, x, 46, 329-30,339. See also commercial aviation

CJ805 engine, 127, 128, 139, 141 CJ805-3 engine, 118 CJ805-23 engine, 126-37, 136; the aft fan

component, 127-28; as commercial failure, 143; engineering response to ignorance in developing, 148; fan aerodynamic design, 128-32; fan operating speed of, 137; first flight test of, 143; and General Electric engineering culture, 352; performance comparisons, 14!; problems in the field with, 143; subsequent history of, 143; testing the engine, 136-38; testing the fan, 132-36; weight of, 139; why it was developed when it was, 144-45

Clark, Virginius E., 49, 52,186-87, 20On.14 Cockpit Resource Management (CRM), 17-21,

31,34,38 Cody, Samuel Franklin, 297 Coffin, Howard E., 48, 64n.8 Cohu, La Motte, 274 Cold War, 329, 339, 340 Columbia University, 214 Comet, 119 commercial aviation: accident investigation,

3-43; the airframe revolution in, 328, 334, 335, 337; airports in development of, xiv, 30 I, 309-10; first jet transports, 118; infrastructure required for, 212; market developing in 1930s, 62; military technology transferred to, x, 329-30; national subsidy

369

for, 334, 339; supersonic flight envisaged for, 143, 146; turbofan engine in, 107, 108, 146-47. See also airliners

communication: jamming systems, 216; McCook Field research on, 57

Compagnie Generale de Navigation Aerienne (CONA),288

competitions, 292 compressibility effects, 253 "Compressor Bible" (Confidential Research

Memorandum), 121, 125-26 compressor bleed, 119-20 compressor pressure-ratio, 115-16; CJ805-23

engine's 1.655 ratio, 132, 136, 139; as condition for turbofan development, 144; and the diffusion factor, 122; as engine performance parameter, 147; NACA 5-stage compressor's 1.35 per stage ratio, 135, 139; overall ratio raised to 10 to I, 117

compressors: centrifugal compressors, 120, 151 n.29. See also axial compressors

computers: aerodynamic research changed by, 177-78,255-56; for airframe wind tunnel data analysis, 89-89; data reduction by digital, 76, 77,95; human computer operation at NASA, 75; for modeling data, 98; streamline-curvature method, 129-32, 144; streamtube method, 138

concrete, 306, 319n.27 Confidential Research Memorandum

(the "Compressor Bible"), 121, 125-26 Consolidated Aircraft: in Aircraft War Production

Council, 274, 283n.33; B-24, 262, 270, 280, 335; Thomas-Morse in, 209

Constant, Edward, 107, 112, 157, 175, 177, 318n.4

contests, 292 Continental Rubber Works, 265 Convair 880, 118, 143 Convair 990, 143 Convention on Civil Aviation, 36 Conway engine, 119-22, 119; CJ805-23 engine

leapfrogging over, 145; core engine of, 112; engineering response to ignorance in developing, 148; as first turbofan, 120,352; performance characteristics of, 136-38, 14!

Coolidge, Calvin, 62, 316, 328 Cooper, Carolyn, 332 Copernicus, 39 Com, Joseph, 198 cowlings, 213, 252, 329, 334 Crisp, W. Benton, 326, 327 CRM (Cockpit Resource Management), 17-21,

31,34,38 crop dusting, 58 Crossfield, Scott, 92

370 INDEX

cross-licensing agreement, ix, 323-24, 326-28, 331,337,341

Crouch, Thomas, ix, xi, 349, 351, 360 Croydon Airdrome (London), 306, 319n.25 cultures, engineering. See engineering cultures cumulative industries, 332-33 Curtiss, Glenn Hammond: commitment to

original Wright configuration, 292; flying boats, 290, 297, 324, 326; military sales before World War 1,291; Douglas Thomas invited to America by, 209; U.S. government buying out interests of, xv, 326, 333; Wright patent suit against, 287, 288, 291, 324-26

Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company, 291, 302,327

Curtiss IN-4 "Jenny," 209 Curtiss-Wright: in Aircraft War Production

Council East Coast, 283n.33; C-76, 192, 195; failure to build wooden aircraft, 192, 355

Cushing, Steven, 37

D-2 core engine, 127 Daimler, Gottlieb, 208 Dart, 216 data, test. See test data data reduction, 70; for Ames Laboratory's wing

aerodynamics research, 165; by computer, 76, 77; with digital tape, 95, 95; filtering out noise, 97, 98; for J-93 engine tests, 80; by mechanical calculator, 73, 165

Davis, David R., 336 Davis, Forest, 187 Davison, Robert 1., 311 Davis wing, 336 Day ton-Wright Airplane Company, 48-49, 327 DC-2,328 DC-3, xiv, 251, 253, 302,328 DC-8, 118, 140, 145, 334 de Bothezat, George, 59 Deeds, Edward A., 48-49, 62, 64n.8 defining technology, vii, viii de Havilland, Geoffrey, 189, 194,297 De Havilland Aircraft Company: Albatross, 195;

bypass engine, 113, 114, 114, 116; Comet, 119,195; DH-4, 209, 219; DH-9, 51; Goblin engine, 218; Mosquito, 189, 190, 194, 195, 196-97,355; Tiger Moth, 190,355; wooden aircraft built by, 189, 190, 355

Delano and Aldrich, 315 Delta Airlines Flight 191, 17 delta-shaped wing, 216 Deperdussin, 290, 295 design: by BDV pool, 267; devices as less

important than, 340; and engineering knowledge, 260-62. 280-81; and

production, 262, 280-81; theory and experiment in, 157

Detroit's Ford Airport, 309-10 Deutsch de la Meurthe, Henri, 293 Deutsche Versuchanstalt flir Luftfahrt, 294 development testing, 67 DGAC (Directorate General pour Aviation

Civile) (France), 36-37, 42n.65 DH-4, 209, 219 DH-9,51 Dibner Institute, viii diffusion factor, 121-23, 125, 132, 147, 148-49 digital data, 69 digital tape recording, 92-94, 94 Directorate General pour Aviation Civile

(France), 36-37, 42n.65 "Discussion of the Aeroplane of 1930" (meeting),

227 distance-to-go markers, 15 Divine, Robert, 220n Domestic Air News (periodical), 309 Dominguez Field (Los Angeles), 292 Dormoy, E., 58 Dornier, Claude, 294 Doster, Alexis, III, 220n Douglas, Deborah, xi, xii, xiv, 349, 357 Douglas, Donald, 274 Douglas, Mary, xii-xiii, 352-53, 354-55, 357 Douglas Aircraft Company: A-20, 268; A-26,

268; in Aircraft War Production Council, 274, 283n.33; in the airframe revolution, 328; in Boeing-Douglas-Vega pool, 266-70, 351; cabin pressurization device patent dispute, 336-37, 340; DC-2, 328; DC-3, xiv, 251,253,302,328; DC-8, 118, 140, 145, 334; Guerin process, 259, 263, 265, 335; and Pacific Aeronautical Library, 275, 276, 284n.36; production illustration method, 267, 283n.20; straight-line assembly system, 268, 269; World Cruisers, 52. See also McDonnell Douglas

Douhet, Giulio, 298 drag: and airframe performance, 81; Eiffel's

measurements of, 250, 251; increase near Mach one, 253-54; induced, 231, 251; laminar flow airfoils decreasing, 211; NACA cowling reducing, 213, 252; NACA drag cleanup program, 252; post hoc character of theory of, 358; Prandtl's boundary-layer theory explaining, 246-47; scale effect in experiments on, 226; streamlining for reducing, 251-52; "ways of thinking" about, 176, 354; wing aerodynamics at supersonic speeds, 170-73

drawings, production (engineering), 51,270,273, 281, 283n.29

Dryden, Hugh, vii-viii, 254 dual-use, ix-x, 46, 329-30, 339 Duhem, Pierre, 350 Dunne, John, 297 duraluminum, 55 Duramold, 186-87, 200n.14 Durand, William F., 221n.10 Durand-Lesley propeller studies, 164 Dvorak, Dudley, 23, 25, 33 dynamic signals, 93 dynamometers, 52-53

E28/39,218 Earhart, Amelia, 221n.1 earth-induction compass, 57 Eastern Aircraft, 265, 283n.33 Echols, Oliver P., 194 Eckert, Ernst, 218 Edgerton, David, 198 Edison, Thomas, 330 Edwards AFB Flight Test Center telemetry

ground station, 81

INDEX

Eiffel, Alexander Gustave: as aerodynamicist, 208,248,250-51,293; Hunsaker and, 209; and International Trials of wind tunnels, 229, 230; and scale effect, 226; wind tunnel research of, 209, 226, 229, 230, 242, 248, 250,293

Electra, 144 electrical pressure transducers, 71 end-member (variant) modeling, 98 endurance testing, 67 engineering: in airport design, 301, 302, 305-7,

309,311,312-13,315, 322n.53, 357-58; as community activity, 177; defined, 241; design and production in, 260-62; Eiffel's contributions to, 250; international influence on American, 207; knowledge as embodied in physical artifacts, 280-81; NACA drag cleanup program as, 252; in nineteenth­century aerodynamics, 242--44; production engineers, 262; science distinguished from, 260; Society of Automotive Engineers, 266, 275,280, 284n.37, 314, 327; three aspects of research in, 157, 175; tooling engineers, 261, 261, 262,267,279; Weick's cowling development as, 252; working around ignorance, 147-50. See also aeronautical engineering; engineering cultures; engineering exchange; engineering science

engineering cultures: and engineering exchange, 259-60,265,266,267,329,340,351-52; in turbofan engine development, 142--43,352; variations among, xiii, 352-56

Engineering Division (U.S. Air Service): dismantling of McCook Field, 45--46;

371

"McCook Field" as synonymous with, 47; organized approach to problems of, 61; postwar operations of, 52; reorganizations of, 59. See also McCook Field

engineering (production) drawings, 51, 270, 273, 281, 283n.29

engineering exchange: airframe manufacture and, 259-85; culture affecting, 259-60, 265, 266, 267,329,340,351-52; industry-oriented exchange, 273-80; through military awarding of contracts, 263; product-oriented exchange, 266-73; before World War II, 262-66

engineering science: aerodynamics as, 241; boundary-layer theory as, 247; defined, 241; drag rise at critical speed as, 254; Eiffel's contributions to, 250; Munk's thin airfoil theory as, 251; Prandtl's lifting line theory as, 251; swept wing as, 254; as synthesis of theory and practice, 358; Theodorsen's cowling analysis as, 252

Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) gauge, 9-12, 10, 11 Engine Pressure Ratios, 5, 9 engines. See power plants engine speed, 71 engine testing, 70-81; engine test cells, 71-72,

72; established airframe for, 68-69; flight testing, 72-81

Erwin, Jack, 126 Euler, Leonhard, 242 Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) gauge, 5, 10, II

F-2B fighter, 51 F-4H fighter, 118 F9F Panther, 218 F-14 Tomcat, 100 F-46 commercial airplane, 186, 200n.14 F -84 F Thunderstreak, 218 F-86 fighter, 253, 255 F -102 fighter, 68, 69 F -104 fighter, 96, 118 FAA (Federal Aviation Administration; formerly

Federal Aviation Agency), 3, 32 Fairchild, Sherman, 186 Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corporation,

186-87, 193-94, 283n.33 Fairchild F -46, 186, 200n.14 Fales, Elisha, 254 fanjet engine. See turbofan engine fan whine, 133 Farman company, 288, 295 Farren, William S., 225, 226, 232, 233, 234,

237n.12,238n.48 Fedders, 276 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA; formerly

Federal Aviation Agency), 3, 32

372 INDEX

Federal Courts Improvement Act, 331 Federal Technical University (Zurich), 159, 163 Ferber, Ferdinand, 293 Ferguson, Eugene, 283n.29 Ferguson, Robert, ix, x-xi, xii, 329, 335-36, 340,

351,352 Ferri, Antonio, 159--61,216 fighter aircraft: Blackbird fighters, 77; Bristol

Fighter F-2B, 51; European emphasis on, 334; F-4H, 118; F9F Panther, 218; F-14 Tomcat, 100; F-84F Thunderstreak, 218; F-86, 253, 255; F-I02, 68, 69; F-I04, 96, 118; Fokker's World War I fighters, 211; lack of American in World War I, 209; Messerschmitt ME-262 jet fighter, 215; P-35, 214; P-39 Aircobra, 92; P-47 Thunderbolt, 214; P-51, 217; P-80 Shooting Star, 218; technologies as having little commercial application, x

filtering out noise in data, 98-99 final shape macroetching, 31 firsts, question of, 145 Fitch, Dennis, 23, 25, 33 Five-Foot Wind Tunnel (McCook Field), 51-52,

54,56 flaps, 334, 335 flight: adolescence of American, 46-47; the

aeroplane of 1930, 227; as a defming technology of the twentieth century, vii-viii; as differing from other technologies, xi-xii; high standards required for, xii; infrastructure of, xi-xii; institutions in development of, xiv; inventions after the Wrights and Curtiss, 334; jet-propelled airplane era, 253-54; the Lindbergh boom, 45, 64n.2; mature propeller-driven airplane era, 251-52; nationalism in development of, xii; patents and technical advance in, 333-41; romance of, xi; scientific skepticism regarding powered, 243; similarity to other technologies, ix-xi; stability of technologies of, vii-viii; strut-and-wire-biplane era, 248-51; technology becoming more universal and homogeneous, xv-xvi; transnational development of, 183. See also accidents; airports; civil aviation; manufacturing; military aviation; patents; power plants; research and development; supersonic flight; and aircraft by name

flight suits, 57 flight testing: airframe testing, 90--95; basic rule

of, 68--69; engine testing, 72-81 fluid dynamics, 242-43, 255-56 fluid mechanics, 242 flying boats (seaplanes), 215, 290, 297, 324, 326 Foche, Ferdinand, 296

Fokker, Anthony, 211-12, 297 Fokker company: mixed wood and metal

construction, 201n.l9; T-2, 60, 61; tri-motor airliners, 212; in the United States, 211-12

Ford, Henry, 310, 326 Ford Airport (Detroit), 309-10 Ford Air Transport Service, 310 Ford B-24 production, 262, 280 Forest Products Laboratory, 193, 284n.37 foundational (pioneering) patents, 332, 333, 338 France: aero engine industry by 1894, 295;

Aeronautical Institute at St. Cyr, 226, 229, 230,231,293; all-metal airplane development in, 184, 185; Auteil, 231, 251; on causality in accident reports, 37; Directorate Gem!ral pour Aviation Civil, 36-37, 42n.65; expenditures on aviation to 1912,295; fluid dynamics research, 242; Reims, 290, 292, 295, 296; State Airship Factory at Chalais-Meudon, 293; as world's leading aeronautical power by 1914, 295-96

French curves, 97, 97 Freudenthal, Elsbeth, 289 friction, 172-73,246 fuel flow gauge, 5, 10, 11 fundamental research. See basic (fundamental)

research

Galison, Peter, viii, xi, xii, xiii, 350--51 galvanometers, 73, 75 galvanometer swing, 75 Gardner, Lester, 307 gas generators: as core engines of bypass engines,

114; technological gains 1945-55, 116 Gaspari, Mario, 159 Geertz, Clifford, 204n.66 General Dynamics: Convair 880, 118, 143;

Convair 990, 143; Thomas-Morse Aircraft Corporation in evolution of, 209

General Electric (GE): CF6 engine, 110, 110, 146; CF-700 engine, 143-44; CJ805-3 engine, 118; DC-IO jet engine failure, 26, 29, 30, 35; engine testing, 75,76, 77, 78; in high-bypass jet engine development, xiii, 112, 126; J-47 engine, 117; J-79 engine, 118, 142; J-93 engine, 68, 78, 80, 80--81, 94; NACA compressor engineers join, 126; variable geometry compressors, 118; Whittle engine copied by, 218. See also CJ805-23 engine

General Motors: in B-29 production, 270--73; Eastern Aircraft, 265, 283n.33

"general understanding," 175-76 Germany: Air Law Institute of Konigsberg, 212;

all-metal airplane development in, 184, 185; aluminum production in World War II, 188,

20In.23; American postwar research influenced by, 215; Berlin, 292, 294;

INDEX

Circuit of Germany, 292; expenditures on aviation to 1912,295; Fokker's World War I fighters, 211; German Wright Company, 288; as making greatest technical contributions to aviation, 334; Peenemiinde, 159,163; as second in air strength by 1914, 296-97; universities as aeronautics research centers, 294; University ofGottingen, 208, 210,229,230,231-32,236,294; Zeppelin Company, 238n.31, 294, 296, 297

Gilfillan, S. C., 331, 332, 343n.51 G1auert, Hermann: on corrections for wind tunnel

walls, 228, 231, 232, 233, 234, 239n.52; German background of, 239n.64; at Royal Aircraft Factory, 225; visit to Prandtl's Gottingen laboratory, 229, 230

Glazebrook, Richard, 225, 230, 233 Gloster E28/39, 218 Gluhareff, Michael, 215-16 Gnome engine, 290, 295 Goblin engine, 218 Goddard, George, 57 goggles, 57 Goldstein, Sydney, 247 Goodman Crouch, R. J., 231 Gottingen, University of, 208, 210, 229, 230,

Hawley, Alan, 290 Haynes, AI, xi, 21, 23-25, 33, 34 Hayward, Charles 8., 287, 289 Hazel, John R., 288 Heaslet, Max., 162 heat transfer, 218 Heliarc welding process, 279

373

helicopters: McCook Field research on, 59; New York University research on, 213; Sikorsky'S research on, 215

Helmholtz, Hermann von, 242 Helmreich, Robert, 18 Hendon (London), 292 Heron, Samuel, 212 Herring, A. M., 287 Herring-Curtiss Company, 287 high-bypass turbofan engines, xiii, 108, 146,

155n.85 Hispano-Suiza engine, 342n.19 Hoffinan, Edward L., 55, 57 Hogben, Lancelot, 359 Holley, I. 8., Jr., 342n.7, 343n.29 Hoover, Herbert, 307, 316 "How to Lay Out and Build an Airplane Landing

Field" (Black), 303, 306 Hughes, Howard, 187, 193,276 Hughes, Thomas, 317n.3 human error, 36 human factors, 4, 19, 31 231-32,236,294

Graham-White, Claude, 288 Gray, Jack, 316

Human Factors for General Aviation (Trollip and

Gray, W. E., 173 Great Britain. See Britain Griffith, A. A., 113 Gross, Courtland, 274 Gross, Robert, 274 Grumman: F9F Panther, 218; F-14 Tomcat, 100;

Northrop merger, 329 Guerin, Henry, 263 Guerin process, 259, 263, 265, 335 Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory, xv, 294 Guggenheim, Daniel, Fund for the Promotion of

Aeronautics, 212, 213 Guggenheim Professorship of Aeronautics

(New York University), 213 Guidonia (Italy), 159, 163

Hadden, Gavin, 311 Haldane, J. B. S., 359 hard alpha inclusions, 27, 29, 30, 31, 38 Harding, Warren G., 303 Harker, Ronald W., 217 Harris, Harold, 57, 59 Harvard Boston Meet, 292 Hashimoto, Takehiko, ix, xi, xii, xv, 356, 360 Haskelite Manufacturing Company, 186, 187

Jensen), 19 Hunsaker, Jerome C., 53, 208, 209, 210, 213, 294 Huygens, Christiaan, 242 hydraulic fluid, 217 hydraulic presses, 263, 264, 265

lAS (Institute of Aeronautical Sciences), 213, 275, 284nn. 36,37

ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization), 36

Ide, John J., 210 illumination systems for airports, 57, 306,

319n.25 Imperial College of Science and Technology

(Britain), 227, 235 Imperial Research Service for Aviation

(Netherlands), 229 improvement patents, 332 inclinometers, 57, 91 indexes, 275 India, 37 induced drag, 231, 251 inlet guide vanes, 139, 155n.75 input transducers, 69, 70 Institute of Aeronautical Sciences (IAS), 213,

275, 284nn. 36,37

374 INDEX

instrumentality-expressivity grid, 18 instrumentation (aircraft): in flight testing,

90-91; McCook Field research on, 57 instrumentation for flight and ground testing,

67-105; for airframe flight testing, 90-95; for airframe wind tunnel testing, 81-90; basic units of, 69-70; black noise associated with, 96-97; cost of developing, xi; for engine flight testing, 72-81; for engine test cells, 71-72; military technology transferred to commercial use, x; quantity of data increased by advances in, 99-100; research environment of, xiii; three styles of, 67-69. See also wind tunnels

interchangeability, 269-70, 283n.28, 351 interest model: for accident reports, 351; for

airport design, 357-58; for Bairstow's defense of wind tunnels, 356-57; for McCook Field's relations with private industry, 358; for wooden aircraft manufacture, 355-56

International Civil Aviation Organization (lCAO),36

International Trials (wind tunnels), xv, 229-32, 235-36

Interstate, 276 Invention and the Patent System (Gilfillan), 332 inviscid gases, 159, 175, 176 Irvin, Leslie, 57 Italy: aviation development before 1914,298;

Central Aeronautical Institute, 229; expenditures on aviation to 1912,295; Guidonia, 159, 163; Milan, 292

J-42 engine, 218 J -4 7 engine, 117 J-48 engine, 218 J-57 engine, 118, 137, 140, 142, 145 J-65 engine, 218 J-75 engine, 118 J-79 engine, 118, 142 J-85 engine, 68, 69 J-93 engine, 68, 78, 80, 80-81,94 Jacobs, Eastman, 211, 217, 254 Jakab, Peter, ix, xiv, 349, 358 jamming systems, 216 Japan: expenditures on aviation to 1912,295;

Imperial Navy in International Trials for wind tunnels, 229; von Kanmin introducing aeronautic research to, 294

Jeep research aircraft, 217-18 Jensen, Richard, 19 jet propulsion: in aviation development, 334;

German World War II combat aircraft, 215; the jet-propelled airplane era, 253-54; von Kanmin as leading figure in, 214; Langley Laboratory research on, 217-18;

performance parameters for engines, 147. See also bypass engines; turbofan engines; turbojet engines; turboprop engines

Jewkes, John, 344n.56 IN-4 "Jenny," 209 job performance, grid approach to, 19, 20 job shop production methods, 263 Johnson, J. B., 186, 187, 193 Jones, B. Melvill, 227, 228, 233, 234, 251-52 Jones, Robert T., 161, 165, 171,216,254 Joukowski, Nikolay: as academic embracing the

flying machine, 247; circulation theory oflift, 242, 244-45, 246; Kutta-Joukowski theorem, xiv, 245, 246, 294; and Lilienthal's work, xiv, 244, 248; Russian government support of, 297; as taken with the airplane, 247

Journal of the Institute of Aeronautical Sciences, 284n.37

JT3C-6 engine, 118, 137, 140, 141, 145 JT3C-7 engine, 140 JT3D engine, 137-43, 141; bypass ratio of, 140;

design solutions, 139-40; engineering response to ignorance in developing, 148; front fan design problem, 138-39; as incremental improvement, 141-42,352; as leapfrogging over the Conway, 145; performance comparisons, 141; subsequent history of, 144, 146; success of, 144; tip Mach number requirement, 139, 145; titanium blades and disks, 140, 142, 145

JT 4A engine, 118 JT8D engine, 107, 110,110 JT9D engine, 146 judgment, protocol-defying, 4, 15,35

Kantrowitz, Arthur, 124 Kappus, Peter, 127, 142, 144 Kartveli, Alexander, 214 Kelly, Oakley G., 60 Kettering, Charles, 48, 49, 216 Kindelberger, J. H., 194,274 Klapproth, John, 125, 126, 128, 132, 136,

153n.47, 154n.65 Klemin, Alexander, 53-54, 213, 310-11 Kollsman, Paul Wilhelm, 216 Kollsman Instrument Company, 216 Kolstad, James, 29 Kovach, Karl, 126, 153n.47 Kuhn, Thomas, 150n.9 Kunik, I. Jordan, 331-32 Kutta, Wilhelm, 242, 245-46, 247, 248, 294 Kutta-Joukowski theorem, xiv, 245, 246, 294 Kwan, Chun-Ming, 322n.53

Lafave, Wayne R., 35 LaGuardia, Fiorello, 315, 316

LaGuardia Airport (New York City), 314-16 Lamarr, Hedy, 216 Lamb, Horace, 234, 360n.1 laminar flow wings, 211, 217 laminar friction, 172, 173 laminated wood products, 185 Lampert Committee, 328 Lane, D. R., 309, 310, 319n.27 Langley, Samuel, 243-44, 287

INDEX

Langley Aeronautical Laboratory: axial compressor research, 121; captured German data used at, 215; cowling design, 213, 252; drag cleanup program, 252; experimental supersonic wind tunnel, 163; in International Trials on wind tunnels, 230; jet propulsion research, 217-18; Theodorsen as chief physicist, 211; variable density wind tunnel, 210

Langley Field (Hampton, VA), 319n.30 Latour, Bruno, xii, 39, 223-24, 228, 236, 317n.3 Latrobe, Benjamin, 207 Laux, James, 295 law, aviation, 212 Layton, Edwin, 260, 261, 262 Legagneux, G., 290 Lehigh Portland Cement Company, 321n.50 Leonardo da Vinci, 250 Levy, Hyman, 358-59 Lewis, George, ix Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory, 121,218 Liberty engine, 48, 51, 53, 59,302 libraries: McCook Field Aeronautical Reference

Library, 59--60; Pacific Aeronautical Library, 275-76,27~ 284nn.36,38

Lieblein, Seymour, 121 lift, 81; center of lift, 176,354; circulation theory

of, 242, 245-45, 246, 251, 294, 358; Eiffel explaining, 250; Kutta's research on, 245-46; in Prandtl's aerodynamic theory, 231; scale effect in experiments on, 226; "ways ofthinking" about, 176, 354; wing aerodynamics at supersonic speeds, 162--64, 166-70

Lilienthal, Otto: cambered airfoils research, 243, 245; crash of, xi; Joukowski taking his work seriously, xiv, 244, 248; Kutta motivated by, 245, 248; photographs of flights of, 244; and scientific interest in powered flight, 248; Wright brothers inspired by, xi, 207, 325

Lindbergh, Charles, viii, 45, 212, 221 n.l, 328, 337

Lindemann, Frederick, 225 linear theory, 158-59, 166, 175 liquid-film method, 173, 174 load testing, 51, 51, 54 Lockheed Aircraft Corporation: in Aircraft War

375

Production Council, 274, 283n.33; Electra, 144; F-I04 fighter, 96; Martin merger, 329; P-80 Shooting Star, 218; and Pacific Aeronautical Library, 275, 276, 284n.36; photo-template process, 282n.17; Skunk Works, 178; Vega, 186, 252

Lomax, Harvard, 162 Love, Philip, 309 low-aspect ratio tailless aircraft, 216 low-bypass engines, 108 Lower, Arthur, 198 L.w.F. Engineering Company, 302, 327

MAA. See Manufacturers Aircraft Association MacDonald, Austin, 308 Mach cones, 162, 166, 168, 170, 171, 176 Mach lines, 158, 158 Mach number, 159 MacKenzie, Donald, 188 Macready, John A., 57, 58, 60 magnesium, 55 magnetic tape recording, 92, 101 Mahoney, Franklin, 45 manometers, 86, 87, 91 Manufacturers Aircraft Association (MAA): in

aircraft patent pool, 262--63, 323-24; amendment of 1928, 328; Anti-Trust suit against, 323-24, 341; and Boeing-Douglas patent dispute, 336-38; Congressional criticism of, 327; as familiar response to industrial patenting, 332-33; manufacturers embracing, 335; royalty agreement, 326; tooling patents excluded from, 266

manufacturing: Aircraft War Production Council member research projects, 277; of wooden aircraft, 195. See also airframe manufacturing; production

Mariotte, Edme, 242 Martin, Glenn, 292 Martin, Glenn L., Company: in Aircraft War

Production Council East Coast, 283n.33; Army bomber order of 1919,62; B-26 Marauder, 92; in B-29 production, 270; Lockheed merger, 329; Martin Bomber, 59

Martin, Glenn L., Wind Tunnel: basic facility, 82; beam balance mechanism, 85, 85; computers, 88; data gathering console, 86; digital data read-out, 88; single return tunnel design, 82; wind source, 83

Martin B-26 Marauder, 92 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. See MIT mass production: in airframe manufacturing, 263,

280; BDV B-17 assembly lines, 267--69; of military aircraft, 63; of World War I aircraft, 50-52

master control gages, 270-73, 271

376 INDEX

materials: Aircraft War Production Council member research projects, 277; magnesium, 55; McCook Field research on, 55; plastics, 186-87,193; Plexiglas, 216-17; titanium, 27, 140, 142, 145. See also aluminum; metal airplanes; wooden airplanes

Materiel Division (Army Air Corps), 186 mature propeller-driven airplane era, 251-52 McCook Field, 45-{i8; aerial photography

research, 57, 58; aerial view of, 45; aerodynamic testing, 53, 54; Aeronautical Reference Library, 59-{i0; armament research, 59; Army Air Service air transport service from, 319n.30; bomber development, 59; Bulletin of the Experimental Department, Airplane Engineering Division, 60; and civil aviation, 57; communication research, 57; crop dusting research, 58; depth and variety of projects of, xiv, 52; drag rise at critical speed observed at, 254; engineering school at, 60; establishment of, 49; Five-Foot Wind Tunnel, 51-52, 54, 56; flight records set at, 60; Flight Test hangar, 55; instrumentation research, 57; Liberty engine project, 48, 51, 53; main design and drafting room, 50; mass production techniques at, 50-52; materials research, 55; meteorological data collection, 57-58; naming of, 49; navigation research, 57; parachute research, 55, 56, 57; postwar phase of, 52; and private industry, 61-63, 358; propeller research, 53, 53, 54; propulsion research, 52-53; structural testing, 53, 54; as temporary facility, 47, 49; as training ground, xiv, 61; vertical flight research, 59; wind tunnels at, 51-52, 54

McDonnell Douglas: Boeing merger, 329. See also McDonnell Douglas DC-IO-1O

McDonnell Douglas DC-IO-IO: engine arrangement, 22; fan rotor assembly, 25; planform elevator hydraulics, 26; in United Airlines Flight 232 crash, 21-34

McMullen, Alexis, 316 ME-262 fighter, 215 mechanical calculators, 73, 102n.20, 165 Merges, Robert Patrick, 331, 343n.51 Merlin engine, 217 Messerschmitt ME-262 fighter, 215 metal airplanes: the airframe revolution, 328;

metal associated with progress, 184-85, 197; rivets required by, 185-86, 200n.1 0, 336, 340; stressed-skin construction, 184, 212, 328,334; transition from wood to, 184-85; Tubavion monoplane as first all-metal aircraft, 290. See also aluminum

meteorology: Guggenheim Fund supporting research in, 212; McCook Field data collection, 57-58

Metropolitan-Vickers turbofan engine, 113, 113, 114, 116, 145

Michigan, University of, 212-13 Milan, 292 Miles, F. G., 187 military aviation: armaments research, 59, 277;

civil aviation incorporating R&D of, X, 46, 329-30,339; engineering exchange during World War II, 266-81; German World War II jet combat aircraft, 215; as leveling in speed, 146; metal replacing wood in, 184; wooden airplanes in World War II, 188-99, 202n.43. See also bombers; fighter aircraft

military-industrial complex, 329 Miller, Richard, 274 Miller, Ronald, 252, 333-35, 337, 344n.70 Mindell, DavidA., x, xi, xiii, 349, 352 Mingos, Howard, 343n.29 MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology):

aeronautical engineering course, 53, 208, 209, 294, 328; in International Trials on wind tunnels, 229, 230; meteorology department, 212

Mitcham, Carl, 282n.7 Mitchel Field (Long Island), 319n.30 Mitchell, William "Billy," 59, 327 model airplanes: Academy of Model Aeronautics,

210; Bairstow's experiments with, 223; scale effect in tests with, 225-26, 228, 232-35, 236; Thomas's promotion of, 209-10

Model Airways program, 304, 307, 319n.30 modeling of data, 96, 97-99, 100 modifiers, 69, 70 monocoque structure, 290, 328 Monopoly Committee, 331 Montgomery, John, 287 Moore, Norton, 161 Morrow Board, 328 Morse Chain Company, 209 Moses, Robert, 316 Mosquito, 189, 190, 194, 195, 196-97,355 Mouillard, Louis, 287 multiplexing, 78 Munk, Max, xiv-xv, 210, 211, 216, 251, 294

NI gauge, 5, 9,10, 11 N2 gauge,S, 10, II NACA. See National Advisory Committee for

Aeronautics Nader, Ralph, 41n.27 National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

(NACA): aerodynamic testing, 54; on airframe flight testing, 90-91; authorization

INDEX

for, 209; axial compressor research 1945-55, 120-26, 136, 148; Black's "How to Lay Out and Build an Airplane Landing Field" reprinted by, 303; cowling design, 213, 252, 329; and cross-licensing agreement of 1917, 324,326; in early aeronautical R&D, 47; 8-stage compressor, 145, 152n.33, I 53n.41 ; European influence on, 210-11; fundamental research supported by, 328-29; in International Trials on wind tunnels, 229, 230, 235; motivation at, 177; Paris office, 210; patents committee, 324; publications in Pacific Aeronautical Library, 275, 284n.37; in subsidizing aviation development, ix; variable-density wind tunnel, xiv-xv, 54, 210, 235, 294. See also Ames Aeronautical Laboratory; Langley Aeronautical Laboratory

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 219

National Aircraft Standards Committee, 266 National Aircraft War Production Council

(NA WPC), 273-80; Engineering Committee information exchange statistics, 278; founding members of, 274, 283n.33; interplant visits, 279, 284n.44; and non­interchangeability in BDV pool, 269, 270, 283n.28; and Pacific Aeronautical Library, 275; research projects of members, 277; for sharing proprietary technologies, 329; on standardization, 274, 279-80, 281

National Airport Survey, 317 National Gas Turbine Establishment (Britain),

120 National Physical Laboratory (NPL) (Britain):

Aeronautics Division, 224, 225; Bairstow's aerodynamic experiments at, 223; in British aeronautics, 293-94, 297; in International Trials on wind tunnels, 229, 230; and Prandtl correction, 233; on scale effect, 226-27; stability research, 224-25

National Research Council (Canada), 190, 194 national subsidy: for American commercial

aviation, 334, 339; in aviation development, ix, 359; expenditure by country to 1912, 295; after World War I, 62

National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB): on Air Florida Flight 90 crash, 9,12-16; on probable cause, 42n.63; responsibility for reporting on aviation accidents, 3; on Simmons Airlines/American Eagle ATR-72 crash, 36-37, 42n.64; on United Airlines Flight 232 crash, 26-27, 29-35

Naval Aircraft Factory, 47 Navier, Henri, 242-43 Navier-Stokes equations, 243, 357

377

navigation, McCook Field research on, 57 NAWPC. See National Aircraft War Production

Council Nayler, Joseph L., 228, 231 Needham, Joseph, 359 Netherlands Imperial Research Service for

Aviation, 229 Newhouse, John, 324, 335 Newton, Isaac, 242 New York City's LaGuardia Airport, 314-16 New York University, 213 Nieuport, 290, 295 night airways system, 57 Nikolsky, Alexander, 214 Noble, David, 317n.3 Nolen, John, 313-14 Norden bombsight, 216 normal technology, 112, 150n.9, 318n.4 North American Aviation: in Aircraft War

Production Council, 274, 283n.33; AT-6 trainer, 191, 194; F-86 fighter, 253, 255; P-51 fighter, 217; and Pacific Aeronautical Library, 275, 276, 284n.36; X-15 rocket, 77, 78, 79, 80, 92, 97; XB-70 mach 3 bomber, 68,77,78,80-81,92-95,94

Northcliffe, Lord, 292 Northrop Aircraft: in Aircraft War Production

Council, 274, 283n.33; Grumman merger, 329; Heliarc welding process, 279; and Pacific Aeronautical Library, 276, 284n.36

Northwestern University, 212 Novak, Richard, 126, 127, 128, 130,132 NPL (Britain). See National Physical Laboratory NTSB. See National Transportation Safety Board "numerical experiment," 177-78 Nye Committee, 330-31

Oakland, California, Municipal Airport, 308, 309 observation, 96 Ohain, Hans von, 218 oscillographs, 75, 76, 77,86,92,99, /01 output transducers, 69, 70 oxygen equipment, 57

P-35 fighter, 214 P-39 Aircobra, 92 P-47 Thunderbolt, 214 P-51 fighter, 217 P-80 Shooting Star, 218 Pacific Aeronautical Library (PAL), 275-76, 276,

284nn.36,38 Page, Logan Waller, 321n.35 parachutes, McCook Field research on, 55, 56, 57 parameter variation, 164 Parker, Jack, 143 Parkin, J. H., 190, 194, 197-98

378 INDEX

passenger aircraft. See airliners Pasteur, Louis, 228 Patent Act of 1836, 330 "Patent Nonsense in the History of Technology"

(Sherwood), 332 patents, 323-45; aircraft patents pooled in 1917,

xv, 288, 323-24, 326, 338; American system of, 330-33; anti-patent movement, 331; in aviation and other technologies, ix; in aviation development, 335-41; foundational, 332, 333, 338; for Guerin process, 265; improvement, 332; Manufacturers Aircraft Association in pooling of, 263, 323; pooling of, 332-33; proprietary information preferred over, 339-40; technical development not correlating with, 338-39; U.S. government making patents difficult to rely on, 329

Patterson Field, 46 Paulhan, Louis, 287-88 Pawlowski, Felix, 212-13 Pearse, Richard, 287 Peenemiinde (Germany), 159, 163 performance parameters for jet engines, 147 Perrow, Charles, 38 Pettit, Roger Alan, 4-7, 19,21 Phillips, Horatio, 243 photography: of Lilienthal's flights, 244;

McCook Field research on aerial, 57, 58 photopanels, 72-73, 74, 91-92, 101 photo-template process, 282n.17 phugoids, 23, 33, 34 Pilcher, Percy, 208 Pinsent, David, 360n.1 pioneering (foundational) patents, 332, 333, 338 piston engines: Gnome, 290, 295; Hispano-Suiza,

342n.19; Liberty, 48, 51, 53, 59, 302; Merlin, 217; radial, 212, 213, 252, 290, 334

pitch moment, 81 Pitot, Henri, 242 planform, for supersonic flight, 157-59, 161-74 plastics, 186-87, 195 Plexiglas, 216-17 plywood, 186, 187, 191, 195 point failures, xiii point systems, 311, 322n.53 Polanyi, Michael, 176-77 Ponche,290 Postan, M. M., 194 power plants: Aircraft War Production Council

member research projects, 277; developments before 1914,290; as exempt from patent pool, 326, 341, 342n.19; French before 1914,295. See also engine testing; jet propulsion; piston engines

Prandtl, Ludwig: as academic embracing the

flying machine, 247; boundary-layer theory of, xiv, 159,242,246-47,247,294,356-57; and circulation theory, 294; correction for aerodynamic interference, 231-34, 236; on Eiffel's drag measurements, 251; and International Trials on wind tunnels, 229-30; lifting line theory of, 251; and Munk, 210; on supersonic flow over airfoils, 158; trailing vortex concept, 231, 233, 251; at University of Gottingen, xiv, 208, 210, 236, 294

Pratt & Whitney (P&W): conservative design philosophy of, 142-43,352; in high-bypass jet engine development, xiii, 112, 137, 142-43,145; J-42 engine, 218; J-48 engine, 218; J-57 engine, 118, 137, 140, 142, 145; J-75 engine, 118; JT3C-6 engine, 118, 137, 140,141, 145; JT4A engine, 118; JT8D engine, 107, 11 0, 110; JT9D engine, 146; two-spool turbojet engine, 117-19, 137, 142. See also JT3D engine

pressure-ratio. See compressor pressure-ratio pressure transducers, 86, 96 Prevost, Maurice, 290 Primard, 290 prizes, 291-92 Probability versus Consequence graph, 32, 33 probable cause, 35-36, 42n.63 production: and design, 262, 280--81; job shop

production methods, 263. See also mass production

production-density system, 267--68, 268 production (engineering) drawings, 51, 270, 273,

281, 283n.29 production engineers, 262 production illustration method, 267, 283n.20 Project Paperclip, 218, 219 propellers: Durand-Lesley studies, 164; McCook

Field research on, 53, 53, 54; and scale effect in model experiments, 226; variable­pitch, 334. See also turboprop engines

proprietary information, 329, 335, 339-40 propUlsion: McCook Field research on, 52-53;

superchargers, 57. See also power plants; propellers

propulsion efficiency, lll-12, 111, 147 protocol-defying judgment, 4, 15,35 protocol instability, 13 Pt2 probe, 9-11, 10 Pt7 probe, 9, 10 PT-19 trainer, 191-92 Puckett, Allen, 161, 172

quasistatic signals, 93

races, 292 radial engines, 212, 213, 252, 290, 334

radial equilibrium problem, 129-32, 138, 144 radio beacons, 57

INDEX

RAE (Royal Aircraft Establishment) (Britain), 229,230,232,236,293

Rae, John B., 342n.7 raw data, 97, 99, 233 Rayleigh, Lord, 208, 243, 360 RB.211 engine, 146 Reason, James, 38 Records, Bill, 21, 25, 33 Reid, H. J. E., 213 Reims (France), 290, 292, 295, 296 Reissner, Hans, 290 Renard, Charles, 293 Renault, 295 Republic Aircraft Corporation, 214; in Aircraft

War Production Council East Coast, 283n.33; F-84F Thunderstreak, 218; P-47 Thunderbolt, 214

research and development (R&D): Aircraft War Production Council member projects, 277; basic research, 62, 328-29; civilian use of military, x, 46, 329-30, 339; in Europe before World War I, 293; in Germany before 1914,294,297; at McCook Field, 45-68; national subsidy for, ix, 334, 339; national variations in, xv, 339. See also instrumentation for flight and ground testing

Reynolds, Osborne, 242 Reynolds number, 235, 251 Rickenbacker, Eddie, 209 rivets, 185-86, 200n.! 0, 336, 340 Robins, Benjamin, 242 robust effects in the data, 98, 99 Roe, A. v., 297 Rohm and Haas, 216 Rohrbach, Adolf, 212 Roland, Alex, viii, ix, x, xi, xv, 349, 351, 359 roll moment, 81 Rolls-Royce: Avon engine, 119; compressor­

bleed engines, 119-20; Merlin engine, 217; multistage axial fan of 1941, 113; RB.211 engine, 146. See also Conway engine

Roosevelt, Franklin D., 314, 316 Rossby, Carl-Gustav, 212 rotary wing flight: autogiros, 213; New York

University research in, 213. See also helicopters

Royal Aeronautical Society Journal, 284n.37 Royal Aeronautics Society (Britain), 213 Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) (Britain),

229,230,232,236,293 Royal Aircraft Factory (Britain), 225-26, 228,

229,297 Royal Air Service (Britain), 297 Royal Naval Air Service (Britain), 297

Ruchonnet, 290 Runner, George, 75 runways, 306, 319n.27 Rupler,296

379

Russia: emigres in American aeronautics, 214-15; expenditures on aviation by 1914, 295,297; Soviet Union, 185,329

Rutherford, Ernest, 225 Ryan, 283n.33

SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers), 266, 275,280, 284n.37, 314, 327

St. Cyr (France), 226, 229, 230, 231, 293 San Francisco, 309 Sanger, Eugen, 219 Sapphire powerplant, 218 Sawers, David, 252, 333-35, 337, 344nn. 56, 70 scale effect, 225-26, 228, 232-35, 236 Scale Effect Panel, 235 "Scale Effect" subcommittee, 226, 228, 236 scaling up data, 21 0 scanivalve mechanism, 71, 73, 78 Schatzberg, Eric, xi, xii, xv, 355, 360, 360n.2 Scherrer, Richard, 178 Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr., viii Schmookler, Jacob, 331, 339 Schmued, Ed, 217 Schnieder, Jacques, 292 science: academic science discovers the airplane,

244-48; in aviation and other technologies, x; boundary-layer theory as, 247; defined, 241; Eiffel's contributions to, 250, 251; engineering distinguished from, 260; freeing engineering from limitations of, 149; in nineteenth-century aerodynamics, 242-44; as skeptical about powered flight in nineteenth century, 243. See also engineering science

S.E.5 biplane, 248, 249 seaplanes (flying boats), 215, 290, 297, 324, 326 See, Elliot, 96 Seguin, A., 290 Seversky, Alexander Prokofieff de, 214 Seversky Aero Corporation, 214 Sherman Anti-Trust Act, 323 Sherwood, Morgan B., 332 shock-expansion method, 158--59 shock-induced boundary layer separation, 124,

124 Short, Mac, 267 side force, 81 Signal Corps (U.S. Army), 47 Sikorsky, Igor, 214--15, 290, 297 Simha, Evelyn, viii Simmons Airlines/American Eagle ATR -72 crash,

36-37, 42n.65 65-series airfoils, 121, 122, 123

380 INDEX

slotted wing, 334 Smeaton, John, 207, 242 Smith, George E., X, xi, xiii, 154nn. 59,71,349,

352 Smith, Leroy H., Jr., 153n.57 Smith, Richard K., 255 Smith, W. Sumpter, 316 Smithsonian Institution, 244, 325 soap-film instrument, 239n.52 Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), 266,

275,280, 284n.37, 314, 327 sodium-cooled valve, 212 Sombart, Werner, 198 Somervell, Brehon, 315 Sopwith, T. O. M., 297 sound barrier, 161,253 Southwell, Richard, 228, 233, 235, 239n.52 Soviet Union, 185,329 space station, viii "Specifications for Municipal Airports" (U.S. Air

Service), 304 specific fuel consumption, 147 specific power, 114-15, 144 Spirit o/St. Louis (airplane), 45, 212 stability: Bairstow emphasizing control and,

227-28,235; National Physical Laboratory research on, 224-25

Stability in Aviation (Bryan), 224 Stack, John, 254 stage construction, 308, 321n.35 Standard Aero Corporation, 327 standardization: Aircraft War Production Council

on, 274, 279-80, 281; of airfoil sections, 208; of airports, 301, 302, 304, 307-9, 320nn. 32, 33; entering aircraft design and testing, xii; in European World War I aircraft production, 50; of tooling, 266; of wind tunnels, 229-32, 235-36

Stanton, G. E., 293, 294 Stanton, Thomas, 224, 236n.4 static engine test cells, 71 static pressure-rise coefficient, 152n.35 stealth technology, x Stedman, E. W., 190, 194 Stevens, Albert, 57 Stillerman, Richard, 344n.56 Stokes, George, 243 Stott, Samuel, 315 straight-line assembly system, 268, 269 strain-gauge pressure transducers, 86 streamline-curvature method, 129-32, 130, 138,

144 streamlines, 129, 153n.57 streamlining, 251-52 streamtube method, 138 stressed-skin construction, 184,212,328,334

structural escalation, 98 structural testing: Aircraft War Production

Council member research projects, 277; at McCook Field, 53, 54; supersonic experiment affected by, 163

strut-and-wire-biplane era, 248-51 Sturtevant Aeroplane Company, 327 subsidies. See national subsidy superchargers, 57 supersonic flight: axial compressors for, 120-26;

for commercial aviation, 143, 146; the sound barrier, 161,253; wind tunnels for, 90,159, 161, 163-{)6, 216. See also wing aerodynamics at supersonic speeds

Suppe, Frederick, xi, xii, xiii, 96, 349, 358, 359 swept-back wings, 161-74,215,254,334 Swirsky, Sidney, 267 synthetic resin adhesives, 185

tachometers, 57, 91 tacit knowledge, 265, 279 tail planes, 224 Talbot, H. E .. , 48, 49 tape recording: digital, 92-94, 94; magnetic, 92,

101 Tarrant Tabor, 228 Taube, Etrich, 296, 298 Taylor, Geoffrey I., 225, 233-34 technologies: ambiguity between human and

material causation on, 39; choices between, 188; contextualist history of, 183; culture and technological change, 199; defining technology, vii, viii; as differing and alike, vii; international influence on American, 207, 220n; normal technology, 112, 150n.9, 318n.4; transferring between competing companies, 259. See also engineering

telemetry, 80, 101 Temporary National Economic Committee, 331 test cells, engine, 71-72, 72 test data: from airframe flight tests, 90-95; from

airframe wind tunnel tests, 86-89; automated collection of, 100; from engine flight tests, 72-81; from engine test cells, 71; first law of scientific data, 96, 97; instrumentation advances increasing quantity of, 99-100; kinds of, 69-70; modeling of data, 96, 97-99, 100; philosophy of, 96-99; raw data, 97,99,233; scale effect, 225-26, 228, 232-35,236; scaling up, 210; second law of scientific data, 96; as varying by purpose of test, 67. See also data reduction

TF-33 engine, 140, 144 Theodorsen, Theodore, 211, 252, 254 theory -in-use, 18-19 theory of practice, 18, 19

theory ofthe situation, 18, 19 thermocouple apparatus, 70 thin airfoil theory, 251 Thomas, Douglas, 209 Thomas, Oliver, 209 Thomas, William, 209-11 Thomas Brothers, 209

INDEX

Thomas-Morse Aircraft Corporation, 209, 327 Thompson, Floyd, 173 Thomson, George P., 225 through-blade analysis, 154n.65 thrust-to-weight ratio, 116, 147 Ti-6AL-4V titanium, 27 Tiger Moth, 190, 355 titanium, 27, 140, 142, 145 Tizard, Henry, 227, 228, 237n.12 tooling, 266, 277, 329 tooling engineers, 261, 261,262,267,279 Townend, Hubert, 213 Townend ring, 213 trade journals, 265, 266 trailing vortex, 231,233,251 transducers: electrical, 73; pressure, 86, 96 triangular wings, 161, 166, 172, 173 triple-vacuum heating, 29, 31 Trollip, Stanley, 19 Tubavion monoplane, 290 turbofan engines, 107-55; advantages over

turbojet engine, 107; CF-700, 143-44; in commercial aviation, 107, 108, 146-47; Conway engine as, 120,352; core engines of, 114, 126--27; as disappearing from view 1945-55, 116; early history of, 113-16; high-bypass turbofan engines, xiii, 108, 146, 155n.85; JT8D, 107, ItO, lIO; JT9D, 146; Metropolitan-Vickers turbofan, 113, 113, 114, 116, 145; military technology transferred to commercial use, x; principle of operation, 108-12; priority in development of, 145; propulsion efficiency of, 11t-12, Ill; RB.211, 146; schematic of, 109; steps in emergence of, 112; TF-33, 140, 144; with tip Mach numbers above 1.0, 123; why they emerged when they did, 144-50,352. See also CJ805-23 engine; JT3D engine

turbojet engines: Avon, 119; CF6, 110, 110, 146; CJ805-3, 118; compressor-bleed engines, 119-20; core engines of, 114; as eclipsing turbofan engine 1945-55, 116; evolution 1945-56, 116-20; in Gloster E28/39, 218; Goblin, 218; J-47, It 7; J-57, 118, 137, 140, 142,145; J-75, 118; J-79, 118, 142; JT3C-6, It 8, 137, 140, 141, 145; JT4A, 118; in Messerschmitt ME-262 fighter, 215; principle of operation of, 108; propulsion efficiency of, III, Ill; schematic of, 109;

381

thrust achieved in, 110; turbofan engine superseding, 107; two-spool engine, 117-19, 137,142; variable geometry compressors, 118. See also Conway engine

turboprop engines: core engines of, 114; economic sense of, 144; principle of operation of, 108; propulsion efficiency of, Itl, Ill; schematic of, 109

turbulent friction, 172, 173 turn-and-bank indicators, 57 two-spool engine, 1t7-18, 137, 142 type testing, 67

United Aircraft Corporation, 214, 215 United Airlines Flight 173, 17 United Airlines Flight 232,21-34; crash of, 25;

ground track of, 24; hydraulic systems' failure of, 27, 32, 42n.58; number two engine, 21,23,26; stage I fan of, 26--29, 28, 30; things versus persons in responsibility for crash 0 t: 38

United Kingdom. See Britain United States: aeronautical development as

different in, xv; air mail, 209, 301, 319n.25, 328; all-metal airplane development in, 184; commercial airliner market dominated by, 324; and European technology in interwar period, 199n.2; expenditures on aviation to 1912, 295; first non-stop coast-to-coast flight, 60; international influence on aviation in, 207-22, 354; McCook Field, 45-68; patent system, 330-33; post-World War II aerospace industry, 329-30; university aeronautical engineering programs, 212-13, 294, 328; wooden aircraft in World War II, 183,191-99,355,356; World War I aircraft production, 327, 343n.29; World War II aircraft production, 329; Wright patent suits allegedly retarding American aeronautics, ix, 289-91, 351. See also National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

University of Giittingen, 208, 210,229,230, 231-32,236,294

University of Michigan, 212-13 U.S. Air Mail, 209, 30 I, 319n.25, 328 U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, 195, 284n.37

VI speed, 5-6, 14-15 V2 speed, 6 Vander Meulen, Jacob A., 326, 342n.7 Van Sickle, Neil D., 14 Van Sickle s Modern Airmanship, 14 variable geometry compressors, 118 variable-pitch propeller, 334 variable-sweep wings, 334 variant (end-member) modeling, 98

382 INDEX

Vaughan, Diane, 38 VC-I0,120 Vega (aircraft), 186,252 Vega (company): in Aircraft War Production

Council, 274, 283n.33; in Boeing-Douglas­Vega pool, 26~ 70, 351; breakdown system, 269; and Pacific Aeronautical Library, 275, 276, 284n.36

velocity triangles, 115, 122 Venturi effect, 90 venturi tubes, 57 vertical flight: autogiros, 2 \3; McCook Field

research on, 59. See also helicopters Verville-Sperry Racer, 61 Vickers VC-IO, 120 Vidal, Eugene, 190-91, 195, 204n.58 Vienna, 292, 297 Vincenti, Walter: case studies in aeronautics, 108;

on design in engineering, 260; on dimensionless groups, 147; on normal design, 112; and patents in aviation development, 336; on riveting, 200n.l 0, 261, 336, 340; on supersonic flow over an airfoil, ix, x, xi, xiii, 349; on uncertainty in engineering, 149; on "ways of thinking," 175-76,241,354

viscosity, 159, 166, 176,243 Voisin, 287, 295 Volta Congress on High-Speed Aeronautics

(1935), 158, 163,211,215,254 von Braun, Wernher, 219, 220 von Karman, Theodore: American aeronautics

influenced by, xv; at California Institute of Technology, 2\3-14, 294; introducing aeronautical research to Japan, 294; and Puckett's work on triangular wings, 161; on supersonic flow over airfoils, 158

Vought-Sikorsky Division (United Aircraft Corporation), 214

VR speed, 6, 14 Vultee: in Aircraft War Production Council, 274,

283n.33; and Pacific Aeronautical Library, 276, 284n.36

Walcott, Charles D., 208, 209, 327 Walsh, Vandervoot, 312, 3\3 Warner, Edward Pearson, 210, 2 \3 "ways of thinking," 175-76,354 Weick, Fred, 252 Wenham, Francis, 207, 243, 250 Wennerstrom, Arthur, 154n.65 Wheaton, Larry Michael, 4-7, 19,21 White, John H., vii Whitehead, Alfred North, 325 Whitehead, Gustave, 287 Whittle, Frank, 107, 113, 126, 145, 150n.ll, 218

Wiener, Norbert, 103n.56 Wilcox, Ward, 153n.45 Willow Run facility, 262 Wilson, Edwin, 225 Wilson, Woodrow, 210 wind tunnels: airframe testing in, 81-90; at Ames

Aeronautical Laboratory, 159, 161, 163--66; Bairstow's defense of, xii, 223, 235, 35~57; basic principle of, 250; boundary effects in, 89-90, 90, 9~97; in British aeronautical research, 223-39; cost of building and operating, xi; Eiffel's research with, 209, 226,229, 230, 242, 248, 250,293; at French State Airship Factory, 293; Gottingen closed circuit design, 210; International Trials for standardizing, 229-32, 235-36; Leonardo da Vinci on, 250; at McCook Field, 51-52, 54, 56; NACA's variable-density, xiv-xv, 54, 210,235,294; at National Physical Laboratory Teddington, 293-94; Phillips in development of, 243; scale effect in, 225-26, 228,232-35; social organization and hierarchy required by, 354-55, 357; supersonic wind speeds for, 90, 159, 161, 163--66, 216; transonic wind speeds for, 90; typical turntable and balance mechanism, 84; Wenham in development of, 207, 243, 250. See also Martin, Glenn 1., Wind Tunnel

wing aerodynamics at supersonic speeds, 157-79; airfoil experiment, 159--61; airfoil theory, 157-59; Ames Laboratory research 1946-48, 161-74; knowledge circa 1945, 157-{)1; planform experiment, 163--66; planform theory, 161--63; planform theory and experiment compared, 166-74

wings: ailerons, 23; Davis, 336; delta-shaped, 216; flaps, 334,335; laminar flow, 211, 217; slotted, 334; sweepback of, 161-74,215, 254,334; triangular, 161, 166, 172, 173; variable-sweep, 334; Wright brothers discovery of wing-warping, 325. See also wing aerodynamics at supersonic speeds

wing-warping, 325 wireless telephony, 57 Wislicenus, G. F., 127, 142, 145 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 359, 360n.l Wolfe, K. B., 194 Wood, Robert McKinnon, 229, 230, 232, 233,

234 wooden airplanes, 183-205; American

production in World War II, 183, 191-99, 355, 356; British production in World War II, 183, 188-89, 195-201,355-56; Canadian production in World War II, 183, 189-91, 195-201,355,356; Duramold, 186-87, 200n.14; maintenance of, 195; national

INDEX

preferences regarding, xv, 196-99,355-56; number produced for World War II, 202n.43; plywood, 186, 187, 191, 195; revival in late 1930s, 185-88; wood as dominant material until early 1930s, 184

Woodhead, Harry, 274 Woods, John Walter, 319n.27 World Cruiser, 52 World War I: American aircraft production

during, 327, 343n.29; American aviation shortcomings underscored by, 208-9; Fokker fighters, 211; McCook Field research, 47, 48-52; S.E.5 biplane, 248, 249

World War II: Aircraft War Production Council, 273-80; American aircraft production during, 329; American aviation affected by, 216; B-29 cooperative production, 270-73; Boeing-Douglas-Vega B-17 pool, 266-70; engineering exchange during, 259; German research during, 215; wooden airplanes in, 188-99, 202n.43, 355-56

WPA,315,316 Wright, Lin: in CJ805-23 engine development,

128,128, 131,132,136, 153n.45, 154n.65; joins General Electric, 126, 127, 144

Wright, Orville: in Day ton-Wright Airplane Company, 48; in Germany in 1909,296; on safe places for landing, 30 I; selling out his interest in the firm, 288, 291, 325-26

Wright, Theodore Paul, 221 n.l 0 Wright, Wilbur: European demonstrations of

1908, 248, 290; patent battles weakening, 289

Wright Aeronautical, 212, 218 Wright brothers: ailerons' invention, 23; on

aircraft development before World War I, 293; Capper and, 297; as entering the field at a late date, 287; European demonstrations of 1908,224,248,290; European influences on, 207-9; first flights of, 290; infrastructure of, xi; Lilienthal as inspiration for, xi, 207, 325; original configuration of aircraft of,

383

292; paying more attention to patent suits than to aircraft development, 291; as quintessentially heroic, viii; and scientific interest in powered flight, 248; selling their planes to the Army, ix, 47, 291; U.S. government buying out interest of, 326, 333; wing-warping developed by, 325. See also Wright, Orville; Wright, Wilbur; Wright patent

Wright Field, 46 Wright Flyer, 248 Wright-Martin Company, 291, 325, 326, 327,

342n.l9 Wright patent, 287-300; American aeronautics

allegedly retarded by, ix, 289-91, 351; bought out by the government, xv, 288; Curtiss suit, 287, 288, 291, 324-26; European suits, 287-89; Wright brothers paying more attention to patent suits than to aircraft development, 291

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, 46, 53 Wu, Chung-Hua, 131, 155n.90

X-2,91 X-I5 rocket: data collection in airframe testing,

92,97; data collection in engine testing, 77, 78,79, 80; European influence on, 218-19

XB-70 mach 3 bomber, 68, 77, 78, 80-81, 92-95, 94

XP-59, 68, 218 XP-63A Kingcobra, 74, 92,93 XS-I, 92, 157

yaw moment, 81 Yeager, Chuck, viii

Zaharoff, Basil, 293 Zahm, Albert F., 208, 209, 295 Zeppelin Company, 238n.3l, 294, 296, 297 zero point, 75 Zhukovsky, Nikolay. See Joukowski, Nikolay Zurich, 159, 163