Contemporary Carib-speaking Amerindians. A bibliography of social anthropological and linguistic...

Ernst Halbmayer

Contemporary Carib-speaking Amerindians

A bibliography of social anthropological and linguistic resources

C U R U P I R A W O R K S H O P

Der Förderverein ›Völkerkunde in Marburg‹ e.V. wurde 1993 gegründet. Seine Aufgabe besteht unter anderem in der Herausgabe der ethnologischen Schriftenreihen ›Curupira‹ und ›Curupira Workshop‹. Auskünfte erhalten Sie unter folgender Adresse:

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Content

1 Akuriyó ........................................................................................ 8 2 Apalai (see Wayana-Apalai) ....................................................... 13 3 Arara ........................................................................................... 13 4 Bakairi ........................................................................................ 17 5 E’ñepa ........................................................................................ 26 6 Hixkaryana (see Waiwai) ........................................................... 36 7 Ikpeng ........................................................................................ 38 8 Japreria ....................................................................................... 43 9 Kalapalo ..................................................................................... 47 10 Kapon ......................................................................................... 54 11 Karihona ..................................................................................... 67 12 Kariña ......................................................................................... 73 13 Kaxuyana (see Tiriyo) .............................................................. 100 14 Kuikuru .................................................................................... 102 15 Makushi ................................................................................... 112 16 Matipuh .................................................................................... 126 17 Nahukwá .................................................................................. 127 18 Pemon ...................................................................................... 128 19 Tiriyó ........................................................................................ 145 20 Waimiri-Atroari ........................................................................ 161 21 Waiwai...................................................................................... 170 22 Wanai ....................................................................................... 182 23 Wayana-Apalai ......................................................................... 185 24 Yabanara ................................................................................. 210 25 Yekuana ................................................................................... 213 26 Yukpa ...................................................................................... 228 27 Isolated Carib-speaking groups .............................................. 253 28 Carib general ........................................................................... 255 About the author .............................................................................. 269

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The following is an anthropological and ethnolinguistic bibliography of contemporary Carib-speaking groups and a brief description of them with respect to - names, ethnonyms and self-designations, - settlement area, - population size1, and - contact history. Following the alphabetically ordered group-specific bibliographies, more general works on Carib-speaking groups have been listed. These have either a general theoretical or a comparative focus. As this bibliography is about contemporary Carib-speaking Amerindians, the different historical and now extinct Carib-speaking groups are not listed in this bibliography and the literature referring to these groups is generally not covered.

1 This information is based, unless otherwise indicated, on the Venezuelan

census of indigenous people from 2001 (INE). For Brazil it relies on data published by the Instituto Socioambiental

(www.socioambiental.org/website/pib/portugues/quonqua/quadro.htm) or for the 2010 data on the Censo Demográfico 2010 del

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estadistica IBGE (ftp://ftp.ibge.gov.br/Censos/Censo_Demografico_2010/Caracteristicas_Gerais_dos_Indigenas/pdf/Publicacao_completa.pdf). If no more recent data are available, the Guyana National Report on Indigenous Peoples and Develop-ment published by the United Nations Development Programme in 1994 (http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/41/318.html) was used for indicat-ing the population size of Amerindians in Guayana.

Akuriyó

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1 Akuriyó

Ethnonyms Acuria, Akuliyo, Akuria, Akurio, Akuriyo, Wama, Acooreo, Turaekare Self-designation The common name of the various Akuriyó groups, which each name them-selves after a mammal, is ‘People of the Forest’.2 The self-designation of the various groups always consist of the name of a mammal and ‘ekare’, meaning ‘man’ or ‘people’. Akuriekare are the ‘Agouti-people’3 and the Turaekare the ‘Capuchin monkey-people’. Population Suriname: 60 (1989); border area between Suriname and Brazil: under 100 (1989) Settlement area Brazil: in the Paru River drainage area; Suriname: along the Tapanahony and Sipaliwini Rivers; in the border region between Brazil and Suriname: on both sides of the Tumucumaque mountains.

Some authors have suggested4 that uncontacted Akuriyó hunter and gatherer groups still live in the settlement area. Akuriyó groups that have

2 Jara 1988. 3 Meira 2000, Jara 1988. 4 For example, the Instituto Socioambiental ISA

(http://www.socioambiental.org/pib/english/howtheylive/isol.shtm or http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/Sonja/RF/Divdocs/Les_Gudiants_3.html. Last access 31.12.2005.

Akuriyó

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been contacted during the 1960s have shifted to a sedentary way of life. Today they live in Tiriyó villages in Suriname, for example in Palemeu, or in the newer village Telelu Tepu, both located on the Tapanahony River.

Contact history The Akuriyo or Acooreo already have been mentioned in 17th century sources, but according to Kloos5, these are not necessarily the ancestors of today´s Akuriyó. The first recorded contact was in 1937 during the Admiral Käyser Expedition6 and again a year later by Ahlbrinck.7 It was only in 1968 that contact was made again. This time a Tiriyó hunting expedition met upon several Akuriyó. Missionaries then established permanent contact8 and settled the Akuriyó in Tiriyó villages9, with fatal consequences for their health and culture.10 The Akuriyó are the only documented Carib-speaking hunters and gatherers to be identified in the 20th century.11 AGERKOP, TERRY. 1989. Some remarks on the Guiana amerindian

songstyles. Latin American Indian Literatures Journal 5: 31-42.

AHLBRINCK, WILLEM. 1956. Op zoek naar de Indianen. Verslag van een expeditie naar de zuidgrens van Suriname ter opsporing en bestudering van twee onbekende indianenstammen: de Wama’s en de Wajanikoeles’s. Amsterdam: Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, Afdeling Culturele en Physische Anthropologie.

BOVEN, KARIN, AND MORROY, ROBBY. 2000. Indigenous Lan-guages of Suriname. In As línguas amazônicas hoje. Edited by F. Queix-

5 Kloos 1977b. 6 Meuldjik 1939. 7 Ahlbrinck 1956. 8 Shoen 1969, 1971. 9 Boer 1970. 10 Kloos 1977a,b. 11 Based on their own narratives the Akuriyó gave up their own semi-nomadic

existence and the cultivation of manioc and fled to the mountains because of raids and shamanistic attacks by Apalai and Saluma (Jara 1995: 92). According to Jara, the reason for their abandonment of agriculture was a lack of iron tools. Records on trade and the exchange of iron implements in the region go back to the mid-17th century (Jara 1995: fn 1).

Akuriyó

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alós and O. Renault-Lescure, pp. 377-84. São Paulo: IRD, ISA, MPEG.

BOS, GERRIT. 1998. Some recoveries in Guiana Indian ethnohistory. Amster-dam: Vrije Universiteit Press.

BRIGHTMAN, MARC. 2007. Amerindian Leadership in Guianese Amazonia. Cambridge: Ph.D. University of Cambridge.

DE BOER, M. W. H. 1970. Report of a contact with Stone-Age Indians in Southern Surinam. Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 47: 248-59.

DE GOEJE, CLAUDIUS H. 1908. Verslag der Toemoekhoemak-Expeditie. Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap 25: 943-1169.

DE GOEJE, CLAUDIUS H. 1946a. Études linguistiques caraïbes II. Amsterdam: Johannes Müller.

DE GOEJE, CLAUDIUS H. 1946b. Vocabulaire de la langue triometesem (oyaricoulé). In Études linguistiques caraϊbes II. Edited by C.H.d. Goeje, pp. 239-69. Amsterdam: Johannes Müller.

DE GOEJE, CLAUDIUS H. 1946c. Vocabulaire de la langue wama. In Études linguistiques caraïbes II. Edited by Claudius H. d. Goeje, pp. 270-74. Amsterdam: Johannes Müller.

DE GOEJE, CLAUDIUS H. 1990. Etudes linguistiques caraibes II. Vaduz: Sändig Reprint.

GEIJSKES, DIRK C. 1970. Documentary information about the Surinam Wama or Akurio Indians. Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 47: 260-286.

GROTTI, VANESSA ELISA. 2007. Nurturing the other: wellbeing, social body & transformability in northeastern Amazonia. Cambridge: Ph.D. University of Cambridge.

GROTTI, VANESSA ELISA. 2009. Hybrid personhood and nurturing techniques: Amerindian bodies and Protestant evangelism in North Eastern Amazonia. In Native Christians. Modes and Effects of Christianity among the Indigenous Peoples of the Americas. Edited by R. Wright, pp. 109-26. Farnham, Burlington: Ashgate.

HALBMAYER, ERNST. 2010. Die Akuriyó. In Kosmos und Kommunikation, Vol. 1. Edited by E. Halbmayer, pp. 200-22. Wien: Facultas Verlag.

JARA, FABIOLA. 1988. Monos y roedores. Rito, cosmología y nociones zoológicas de los turaekare de Surinam. América Indígena 48: 9-26.

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JARA, FABIOLA. 1989a. Nociones astronómicas de los turaekare de Surinam. Scripta ethnologica, Supplement 9: 201-9.

JARA, FABIOLA. 1989b. Alemi songs of the Turaekare of Southern Suri-nam. Latin American Indian Literatures Journal 5: 4-14.

JARA, FABIOLA. 1990. El camino del Kumu. Ecología y ritual entre los akuriyó de Suriname. Utrecht: Universiteit Utrecht, ISOR.

JARA, FABIOLA. 1992. Native models of regional forest management: The Akuriyo of Surinam and the Yukuna of Colombia. In Amazonia: Ecology and sustainable development. Edited by W. Pansters, pp. 28-60. Utrecht: Universiteit Utrecht, ISOR.

JARA, FABIOLA. 1995a. Los Akurio de Surinam. Cambio Social y Estructura en un Grupo Caribe de Surinam. In Ya no hay lugar para cazadores. Procesos de extinción y transfiguracion étnica en América Latina. Edited by M. A. Bartolomé, pp. 91-108. Quito: Abya-Yala.

JARA, FABIOLA. 1995b. De constructie van het sociale leven. Geschiedenis en structuur bij de Akuriyo van Suriname. Yumtzilob 7: 305-32.

JARA, FABIOLA. 1996a. Een mythe om te overleven. De Akuriyo Indianen van Suriname. OSO Tijdschrift voor Surinaamse Taalkunde Letterkunde, Cultuur en Geschiedenis 15: 29-41.

JARA, FABIOLA. 2002. The Meaning of Nominal Animal Categories among the Caribs of the Guianas. Anthropos 97: 117-26.

JARA, FABIOLA. 1996b. El Camino del Kumu. Ecología y ritual entre los akuiyó de Surinam. Quito: Abya-Yala.

KLOOS, PETER. 1977a. The Akuriyo of Surinam: A case of emergence from isolation. Copenhagen: International Secretariat of IWGIA.

KLOOS, PETER. 1977b. The Akuriyo way of death. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona Press 28: 114-22.

KLOOS, PETER. 1977c. Voorpsel tot veldwerk. Etnografisch onderzoek onder de Akuriyo (Suriname). Kennis en Methode 1: 212-29.

LINDBLAD, JAN. 1977. Stenålder och vita indianer. Stockholm: Bonnier.

MAGAÑA, EDMUNDO. 1989. Introduction: Myths are good to kill [with]. Latin American Indian Literatures Journal 5: 1-3.

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MEIRA, SÉRGIO. 2000. A reconstruction of Proto-Taranoan: phonology and inflec-tional morphology. München: Lincom Europa.

MEULDJIK, KRIJN. 1939. Reis op de nog onbekende Oelemari-rivier. Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlaandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap 56: 872-76.

PLOTKIN, MARK J. 1994a. Der Schatz der Wayana . Bern, München, Wien: Scherz.

PLOTKIN, MARK J. 1994b. An earthly paradise regained. Americas 46: 14-19.

SCHOEN, IVAN L. 1969a. Report on the second contact with the Akurio (Wanma) stone axe tribe, Surinam, September 1968. Paramaribo: Smith-sonian Institution Center for Short-Lived Phenomena.

SCHOEN, IVAN L. 1969b. Contact with the Stone Age. Natural History 78: 10-18.

SCHOEN, IVAN L. 1971. Report of the Emergency Trip made by the West Indies Mission to the Akurio Indians. Paramaribo: Smithsonian Institution Cen-ter for Short-Lived Phenomena.

VAN LYNDEN, ANTONIE J. H. 1939. Op zoek naar de Zuidgrens. Tijdskrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap 56: 1-90.

YOHNER, ART. 1969. Report of the May '69 contact with the Akuriyo Indians. May 20th - June 15th, 1969. Paramaribo: West Indies Mission, mimeogr.

YOHNER, ART. 1970a. Contact report of the Stone Age Akurijo Indians of Suri-name, South America: Sept./Oct. 1970 expedition. Paramaribo: Zuid.

YOHNER, ART. 1970b. Contact with a new group of Akurijo Indians of Suri-name. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Centre for Short-Lived Phenomena.

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ANTOLINEZ, GILBERTO. 1944. Características típicas de la vivienda

Panare. América Indígena 4: 201-10.

ANTOLINEZ, GILBERTO. 1946. El niño del Llano frente al niño indí-gena. Educación 43: 54-61.

ANTOLINEZ, GILBERTO. 1952. Interesantes aspectos de la cultura Panare. Venezuela Misionera 164: 279-84.

ARANGO MONTOYA, FRANCISCO. 1979. Desde Caicara del Orinoco en el Distrito Cedefio, Estado Bolívar, Venezuela. Venezuela Misionera 164: 285-87.

BAKSHI, INDIRA, AND PAYNE, DORIS L. 1998. Vowel harmony and transitive verb clauses in Panare: where are the consonant-initial roots? In IV Encuentro Internacional de lingüística en el Noroeste 1: lenguas indígenas. Edited by Z. Estrada Fernández et al., pp. 95-115. Hermosillo: Edito-rial Unison.

BOOM, BRIAN. 1990. Useful plants of the Panare Indians of the Vene-zuelan Guayana. In New directions in the Study of Plants and People. Edited by G. T. Prance, and M. J. Balick, pp. 57-76. New York: The New York Botanical Garden Press.

BUTT COLSON, AUDREY. 1983. Review of “The Panare. Tradition and change on the Amazon frontier” by Paul Henley. The Geographical Jour-nal 149: 227-28.

CAUTY, ANDRÉ. 1974a. Reflexiones sobre “las formas flexionales” del idioma Panaré. Antropológica 37: 41-50.

CAUTY, ANDRÉ. 1974b. Reflexiones sobre denominación y designación en el idioma Panaré. Antropológica 39: 3-24.

CAUTY, ANDRÉ. 1974c. Un criterio de decisión sobre la presencia de la oclusiva glotal en el idioma Panaré. Revista Colombiana de Antropología 17: 255-58.

CAUTY, ANDRÉ. 1978. An approach to the phonological and syllabic systems of the Panare language (Venezuela). Amerindia 3: 85-103.

CAUTY, ANDRÉ. 1982. De l'art délectable mais difficile d'entendre les coups de glotte Panare. Amerindia 7: 39-54.

CHAFFANJON, JEAN. 1889. L'Orénoque et le Caura: relation de voyages exécu-tés en 1886 et 1887. Paris: Librarie Hachette et Cié.

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CODAZZI, AGUSTÍN. 1840. Atlas físico y político de la República de Venezue-la. Paris: Thierry Frères.

CORRADINI, HENRY E. 1981a. Los Indios Panare asesinaron a Jesucri-sto. In El Caso Nuevas Tribus. Edited by E. E. Mosony, et al., pp. 105-18. Caracas: Ateneo de Caracas.

CORRADINI, HENRY E. 1981b. ¡Los Panare mataron a Jesucristo: ‘Ya-mañe E'ñapa Cristosamon cae! In Actas del I Congreso Warao. pp. 59-85. Tucupita: Gobernación del Territorio.

CRUXENT, JOSÉ M. 1953. Guarani, dios bueno Makiritare. Boletín Indige-nista Venezolano 1: 325-29.

DELGADO, LELIA. 1999. E´nepa. The masters of the ceremonies. In Orinoco - Parima. Indian Societies in Venezuela. The Cisneros Collection. Edited by Kunst- und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutsch-land, pp. 86-115. Bonn: Hatje Cantz Publishers.

DELGADO, RAFAEL. 1949. Notas etnográficas de los Panare de Las Vegas. Memoria de la Sociedad de Ciencias Naturales La Salle 9: 11-22.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1991. Are Cariban languages moving away from or towards ergative systems? Working papers of the Summer In-stitute of Linguistics 35: 1-29.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C., AND PULLUM, GEOFFREY K. 1979. Object-initial languages. Working papers of the Summer Institut of Linguistics 23: 1-34.

DUMONT, JEAN-PAUL. 1970. Una misión católica entre los indios panare de Venezuela. Anuario Indigenista 30: 13-21.

DUMONT, JEAN-PAUL. 1971. Compte rendu de mission chez les In-diens Panare. L´Homme 11: 83-88.

DUMONT, JEAN-PAUL. 1972a. Espacements et Déplacements dans L'habitat Panare. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 41: 17-30.

DUMONT, JEAN-PAUL. 1972b. Rapport pour la commission indigéniste nationale du Venezuela sur la situation actuelle des Indiens Panare. In De l'ethnocide. Edited by R. Jaulin, pp. 79-98. Paris: Unión Genérale d'Editions.

DUMONT, JEAN-PAUL. 1974. L'alliance substituée: la communication entre Créoles vénézuéliens et Indiens Panare. L'Homme 14: 43-56.

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DUMONT, JEAN-PAUL. 1976a. Of dogs and men: naming among the Panare Indians. In Atti del XL Congresso Internazionale degli Americanisti 1972: 2. Edited by E. Cerulli, pp. 645-51. Genova: Tilgher.

DUMONT, JEAN-PAUL. 1976b. Under the Rainbow: Nature and Supernature among the Panare Indians. Austin, London: University of Texas Press.

DUMONT, JEAN-PAUL. 1977a. Musical politics: on some symbolic as-pects of the musical instruments of the Panare Indians. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 293: 206-14.

DUMONT, JEAN-PAUL. 1977b. From Dogs to Stars: The Phatic Func-tion of Naming Among the Panare. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona Press 28: 89-98.

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DUMONT, JEAN-PAUL. 1978. The headman and I: ambiguity and ambivalence in the fieldworking experience. Austin, London: University of Texas Press.

DUMONT, JEAN-PAUL. 1980. Not in ourselves, but in our stars. In Spir-its, shamans, and stars. Perspectives from South America. Edited by D. L. Browman, and R. A. Schwarz, pp. 241-54. The Hague, Paris, New York: Mouton Publisher.

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NAVARRO, CARMEN. 2009. Pueblos de Bolívar. Wanai [Mapoyo], Sapé, Akawayo, Sanemá [Sanema], Jodi, Uruak [Arutani], E'ñepá [Eñapá o Pana-re]. Carracas: Ed. Santillana.

PALMEGIANI, ANNAMARÍA. 2002. Las correlaciones de orden en pa-nare, lengua OVS. Boletín de Lingüística 17: 69-83.

PAYNE, DORIS L. 1993. Nonconfigurationality and discontinuous ex-pressions in Panare. In 19th Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistic Soci-ety. Edited by D. Peterson, pp. 121-38. Berkley: Linguistics Society.

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PAYNE, DORIS L. 1994. OVSu vs. VSuO in Panare (Cariban): do syntax and discourse match? In Discourse and Grammar. Edited by S. Thomp-son, and P. Hopper, pp. 581-610. Santa Barbara: Department of Lin-guistics, University of Santa Barbara.

PAYNE, THOMAS E. 1989. Transitivity and ergativity in Panare. Notes on Linguistics 46: 30-48.

PAYNE, THOMAS E. 1990. Transitivity and ergativity in Panare. In Ama-zonian linguistics: Studies in Lowland South American languages. Edited by D. L. Payne, pp. 429-53. Austin: University of Texas Press.

PAYNE, THOMAS E. 1991. Medial clauses and interpropositional rela-tions in Panare. Cognitive Linguistics 2: 247-81.

PAYNE, THOMAS E. 1995. Object incorporation in Panare. International Journal of American Linguistics 61: 295-311.

PAYNE, THOMAS E., AND PAYNE, DORIS L. 2013. Typological Gram-mar of Panare: A Cariban Language of Venezuela. Leiden: Brill.

PRICE, JANA. 1984. Estudio del sistema de sonidos del idioma Panare. Caracas: Universidad Católica Andrés Bello.

PRICE, JOE. 1972. Welcome with open arms? Brown Gold 30: 6.

PRICE, JOE. 1973. What do you want here? Brown Gold 31: 8.

PRICE, JOE. 1975. One step closer. Brown Gold 33: 8-9.

PRICE, JOE. 1976. Rewards. Brown Gold 34: 4-5.

PRICE, JOE. 1980. The Panares need the bread of life. Brown Gold 37: 6-7.

PRICE, JOE, AND PRICE, JANA. 1972. Got any rivers? Brown Gold 30: 4-10.

PRICE, JOE, AND PRICE, JANA. 1977a. Panare breakthrough. Brown Gold 34: 6-7.

PRICE, JOE, AND PRICE, JANA. 1977b. Is God on Saturday? Brown Gold 35: 10.

RILEY, CARROL L. 1952. Trade Spanish of the Piñaguero Panare. Trager's Studies in Linguistics 10: 6-11.

RILEY, CARROL L. 1953. Noticias sobre los indios Panare de Venezuela. Boletín Indigenista Venezolano 1: 265-86.

E’ñepa

35

RILEY, CARROL L. 1954. Notes on the Panare Indians of Venezuela. Kroeber Anthropological Society Papers 10: 10-24.

RILEY, CARROL L. 1959. Some observations on the Panare language. Boletín del Museo de Ciencias Naturales IV-V: 87-96.

SANTOS GRANERO, FERNANDO. 1986. Power, ideology and the ritual of production in Lowland South America. Man 21: 657-79.

SCHINDLER, HELMUT. 1973. Some critical remarks on Dumont's paper about naming among the Panare. In Atti del XL Congresso Internazionale degli Americanisti 1972: 1. Edited by E. Cerulli, pp. 653-56. Genova: Til-gher.

STOINSKA, IWONA, AND KAIRSKI, MARIUSZ. 1984. Informe preli-minar sobre el reconocimiento de la cultura Panare de Amazonia vene-zolana. Ethnologia Polona 10: 223-32.

STUCKY, MAURICE. 1980. Panare outreach. Brown Gold 37: 8.

TOSANTOS, GONZALO. 1977. Apuntes sobre el idioma Panare. Cumaná: Editorial Universitaria de Oriente.

VALLES, CHRISTIAN. 1993. Signos en la piel. La pintura corporal en la cultura panare. Caracas: Lito-Jet.

VILLALÓN, MARÍA E. 1977. Aspectos de la Organización Social y la Terminología de Parentesco E'ñapa (vulg. Panare). Montalbán 6: 739-74.

VILLALÓN, MARÍA E. 1978. Aspectos de la organización social y la terminología de parentesco e'ñapa (vulg. panare). Caracas: Unversidad Católica Andrés Bello, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, Centro de Lenguas Indígenas.

VILLALÓN, MARÍA E. 1979. Evangelistas norteamericanos siembran el miedo entre los Panare. Hacia la Autogestión Indígena 2: 1-4.

VILLALÓN, MARÍA E. 1983-1984. Network organization in E'ñapa society: a first approximation. Antropológica 59-62: 57-72.

VILLALÓN, MARÍA E. 1985. Los E'ñapa. Universidad Nacional Experimen-tal de Guayana 1: 8-9.

VILLALÓN, MARÍA E. 1992. Forma, significado y política de la narrativa here-dada E'ñapa. Un análisis etnopoético. Caracas: Ph.D. Centro de Estudios Avanzados, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas.

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VILLALÓN, MARÍA E. 2003. The Narrative Construction of E’ñapa Ethnicity. In Language and social identity. Edited by R. K. Blot, pp. 125-46. Westport: Praeger Publishers.

VILLALÓN, MARÍA E. 2007. Los E´ñapa (Panare). In Salud Indígena En Venezuela Tomo II: Eñapa, Kariña, Mapoyo, Pemón, Pumé, Warao. Edited by N.F. German, and A. Tillet, pp. 17-72. Caracas: Ministerio de la Dirección de Salud Indígena.

WILBERT, JOHANNES. 1959. Aspectos sociales de la cultura Panare. Antropológica 7: 47-62.

WILBERT, JOHANNES. 1963. Los Panare. In Indios de la región Orinoco-Ventuari. Edited by J. Wilbert, pp. 21-44. Caracas: Fundación La Salle de Ciencias Naturales, Editorial Sucre.

YNCIARTE, ELKE. 1997. Denominal verbs in Panare (Cariban). Lingua Americana 1: 137-54.

6 Hixkaryana (see Waiwai)

BENDOR-SAMUEL, JOHN T. 1968. Review of “Textos hixkayâna” by Desmond C. Derbyshire. Lingua 19: 315-16.

CUMMINGS E. A. 1989. Definiteness, Direct Objects, and Word Order in Hixkaryana (OVS). LACUS Forum, 16: 145-153.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1961a. Notas comparativas sôbre três dialectos Karibe. Boletim Do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Antropologia 14: 1-10.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1961b. Hixkaryana (Carib) Syntax Struc-ture: I Word. International Journal of American Linguistics 27: 125-42.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1961c. Hixkaryana (Carib) Syntax Struc-ture: II Phrase, Sentence. International Journal of American Linguistics 27: 226-36.

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37

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1964. Formulário padrão Hixkaryana. Rio de Janeiro: Museu Nacional.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1965. Textos Hixkaryâna. Belém: Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1965-66. The post positional particle word class? Hixkaryana. Rio de Janeiro: Museu Nacional.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1974. Performatives in Hixkaryana discourse. Rio de Janeiro: Museu Nacional.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1975. Estrutura sintáxica da língua hixkaryana. Rio de Janeiro: Museu Nacional.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1977. Discourse redundancy in Hixkary-ana. International Journal of American Linguistics 43: 176-88.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1978. Another kind of ‘hearsay partide’ - in Hixkaryana (Brazil). Notes on Translation 70: 8-13.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1979a. A diachronic Explanation for the origin of OVS in some Carib languages. Working papers of the Summer In-stitute of Linguistics 23: 35-46.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1979b. Hixkaryana. Amsterdam: North Holland.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1985. Hixkaryana and linguistic typology. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. 1986. Topic continuity and OVS order in Hixkaryana. In Native South American discourse. Edited by J. Sherzer and G. Urban, pp. 237-306. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.


DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C., AND PULLUM, GEOFFREY K. 1979. Object-initial languages. Working papers of the Summer Institute of Linguis-tics 23: 1-34.

GILDEA, SPIKE. 1995. Comparative description of syllable reduction in the Cariban language family. International Journal of American Linguistics 61: 62-102.

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38

GUDSCHINSKY, SARAH C. 1973. Sistemas contrastivos de marcadores de pessoa em duas línguas Carib: Apalaí e Hixkaryana. Série Lingüística 1: 57-62.

HALLE, MORIS, AND IDSARDI, WILLIAM J. 2000. Stress and Length in Hixkaryana. The Linguistic Review: 17: 199-218.

KRAMER, MARVIN. 1993. Hixkaryana Word Order. Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: Special Session on Syntactic Issuses in Native American Languages: 57-72.

LOUKOTA, CESTMIR. 1963. Documents et vocabulaires inédits de langues et de dialectes sud-américains. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 52: 7-60.

7 Ikpeng

Ethnonyms Txikão, Tchicão, Chicão Self-designation Ikpeng Population 504 (2010) Settlement area Brazil: Mato Grosso, the Xingu National Park

Ikpeng

39

According to Menget19 the Ikpeng left the Rio Iriri region in the first half of the 19th century where they had maintained a historical relationship with the Carib-speaking Arara, who still inhabit this region, and other now ex-tinct Carib-speaking groups such as the Yaruma or Apiaka.20 From an eth-nographic and linguistic perspective these groups appear more closely re-lated the Carib-speakers of the northern Amazon basin such as the Apalai, Wayana, Tiriyó, Warikyana and Parakuto than with the other groups that settled the upper Xingu. After having lived on the upper Tapajos for several decades, the Ikpeng migrated into the upper Xingu region. Contact history The Ikpeng were in a permanent state of war with their neighbours from the upper Xingu. Sustained contact with the non-indigenous world was established at the beginning of the 1960s, which reduced the Ikpeng popu-lation to less half as a result of disease and violent attacks. In the second half of the 1960s they were ‘pacified’ and resettled in the Xingu National Park. Despite the social and cultural differences and the once conflictual relationships, the Ikpeng have been integrated into the social networks of different indigenous groups from the upper Xingu region. CAMPETELA, CILENE. 1997. Análise do sistema de marcação de caso nas

orações independentes da língua Ikpeng. Campinas: M.A. Universidade Estadual de Campinas.

CAMPETELA, CILENE. 2002. Aspectos prosódicos da língua Ikpeng. Campinas: Ph.D. Universidade Estadual de Campinas.

CAMPETELA, CILENE, AND PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B. 1996. Textos na língua Ikpeng. São Paulo: ISA.

19 Menget 1977: 69. 20 Not to be confused with the Apiaka of the upper Tapajos who speak a Tupi

language. According to Menget (1977: 73), the Carib-speaking Apiaka were first mentioned by Martius between Tocantins and Xingu. They are, contrary to Martius' claims, not the same as the Tupi-speaking Apiaka of the upper Tapajos, who sport a different facial tattoo. Ehrenreich (1895) collected a glossary of Apiaka words in 1888 that clearly identifies them as Carib.

Ikpeng

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COELHO DE SOUZA, MARCELA STOCKLER. 1995. Da complexidade do elementar: para uma reconsideração do parentesco xinguano. In Antropologia do Parentesco. Estudos Ameríndos. Edited by E. B. Viveiros de Castro, pp. 121-206. Rio de Janeiro: Editora UFRJ.

EHRENREICH, PAUL. 1895. Materialien zur Sprachenkunde Brasiliens. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 27: 149-76.

EMMERICH, CHARLOTTE. 1972. A fonologia segmental da língua txikão. Rio de Janeiro: M.A. Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.

EMMERICH, CHARLOTTE. 1980. A fonología segmental da língua Txikão: um exercício de análise. Rio de Janeiro: UFRJ, Departamento de Antropologia, Museu Nacional.

EMMERICH, CHARLOTTE. 1992. O portugês de contato no parque indígena do Xingu, Mato Grosso, Brasil Central. Estudos lingüísticos e literários 13: 57-90.

EMMERICH, CHARLOTTE. 1994. The Txikão language: fricative or no fricative? Revista Latinoamericana de Estudios Etnolingüisticos 8: 65-72.

FERREIRA, MARIANA K. L. 1994. Histórias do Xingu: coletânea de depoimentos dos Índios Suyá, Kayabi, Juruna, Trumai, Txucarramãe e Txicão. São Paulo: USP, NHII, FAPESP.

FIDALGO, OSWALDO. 1979. Etnomicilogia caiabi, txição e txucarramãe. Rickia 8: 1-5.

GALVÃO, EDUARDO. 1996. Diários do Xingu (1947-1967). In Diários de campo de Eduardo Galvão: Tenetehara, Kaioa e índios do Xingu. Edited by M. A. T. Gonçalves, pp. 249-381. Rio de Janeiro: Editora UFRJ.

GALVÃO, EDUARDO, AND SIMÕES, MÁRIO F. 1965. Notícia sobre os ìndios Txikão, Alto Xingú. Boletim Do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Antropologia 24: 1-23.

HALBMAYER, ERNST. 2010. Die Ikpeng. In Kosmos und Kommunikation, Vol. 2. Edited by E. Halbmayer, pp. 325-45. Wien: Facultas Verlag.

IKPENG, KOROTOWI; IKPENG, IOKORE, AND IKPENG, MAIUA. 2001. Ikpeng Orempanpot. São Paulo: ISA.

MENGET, PATRICK. 1976. Adresse et référence dans la classification sociale Txicáo. In Actes du XLII Congrès International des Américanistes 1976: 2. Edited by J. Overing Kaplan, pp. 323-39. Paris: Société des Americanistes.

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MENGET, PATRICK. 1977. Au nom des autres. Classification des relations sociales chez les Txicáo du Haut Xingu, Brésil. Paris: Ph.D. Université de Paris.

MENGET, PATRICK. 1979. Le temps de naître, le temps d'être: le sens de la couvade. In La fonction symbolique. Edited by M. Izard and P. Smith, pp. 245-64. Paris: Gallimard.

MENGET, PATRICK. 1981. From Forest to Mouth: Reflections on the Txicáo Theory of Substance. In Food Taboos in Lowland South America. Edited by K. M. Kensinger and W. Kracke, pp. 2-17. Bennigton Ver-mont: Bennington College.

MENGET, PATRICK. 1982. Time of birth, time of being: the couvade. In Between belief and transgression. Edited by M. Izard, pp. 193-209. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

MENGET, PATRICK. 1988. Note sur l'adoption chez les txicáo du Brésil Central. Anthropologie et Sociétés 12: 63-72.

MENGET, PATRICK. 1993. Le propre du nom. Remarques sur l'onomastique Txicao. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 79: 21-31.

MENGET, PATRICK. 2001. Em noume do outros. Classificação das relações entre os txikão do Alto Xingu. Lisboa: Museu Nacional de Etnologia, Assírio e Aluim.

PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B. 1997a. A posição do Ikpeng (Karib) na tipologia das relativas. In Anais do X Seminário do CELLIP. N.e., n. pp. Londrina: Universidade Estadual de Londrina.

PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B. 1997b. Relativização de objeto em Ikpeng/ Txicão (Karib): uma proposta de anális. Estudos Lingüísticos 26: 697-701.

PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B. 1997c. Aspectos da gramática Ikpeng (Karib). Campinas: M.A. Universidade Estadual de Campinas.

PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B. 1998. Nominalização de sujeito e objeto em Ikpeng/ Txicão (Karib). Estudos Lingüísticos 26: 769-72.

PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B. 1999. Licenciamento de onset & coda em Ikpeng (Karíb): uma proposta de análise dentro da teoria da otimalidade. In Anais do II Congresso Nacional da ABRALIN 1999. p. 59. Florianópolis: Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina.

PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B. 2001. Morfossintaxe do verbo Ikpeng (Karib). Campinas: Ph.D. Universidade Estadual de Campinas.

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PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B. 2002. Aspectos da morfologia Ikpeng. In Línguas indígenas brasileiras: fonologia, gramática e história: atas do I Encontro Internacional do Grupo de Trabalho sobre Línguas Indígenas da ANPOLL. Edited by A.D. Rodrigues, and A.S.A.C. Cabral, pp. 54-61. Belém: EDUFBA.

PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B. 2003a. Verbos intransitivos em Ikpeng (Caribe): proposta de organização morfossintática. Amerindia 28: 95-108.

PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B. 2003b. Elipse e reiteração em textos Ikpeng (Karib). LIAMES 3: 53-74.

PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B 2003c. Anáfora zero em Ikpeng (Karíb) -Comunicação Individual. Estudos Lingüisticos XXXII. http://www.gel.org.br/estudoslinguisticos/volumes/32/htm/acomunic.htm. Last access January 15, 2013.

PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B 2003d. A pensquisa lingüística e a produção escrita em Ikpeng-Comunicação Coordenada. Estudos Lingüisticos XXXII. http://www.gel.org.br/estudoslinguisticos/volumes/32/htm/acomunic.htm. Last access January 15, 2013.

PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B 2004. Morfologia, uso e mundandça: Concideraçãoes funcionais sobre os paradigmas verbaise nominais da lingua Ikpeng (Karíb). Anais do 6º Encontro Celsul - Círculo de Estudos Lingüísticos do Sul. http://www.celsul.org.br/Encontros/06/Individuais/106.pdf. Last access January 15, 2013.

PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B. 2005b. As funções sintáticas nucleares e periféricas em Ikpeng (Karíb). In Novos estudos sobre linguas indigenas. Ed-ited by A.D. Rodrigues, and A.S.A.C. Cabral, pp. 169-76. Brasília: Editoria UnB.

PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B. 2006. Palavra escrita e produção de textos em Ikpeng (Karíb): uma reflexão sobre a origem e o estatuto da escrita em uma sociedade de tradição oral. Estudos Lingüísticos 35: 818-27.

PACHÊCO, FRANTOMÉ B. 2007. Morfofonologia dos prefixos pessoais em Ikpeng (Karíb). Estudos Lingüísticos 36: 269-77.

RIBEIRO, BERTA G. 1979. Diário do Xingu. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra.

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RODGERS, DAVID. 2002. A soma anômala: a questão do suplemento no xamanismo e menstruação Ikpeng. Mana 8: 91-125.

RODRIGUES, WALACE. 2011. Pós-pós-colonialismo? O caso dos documentários dos índios Ikpeng. O Mosaico: R. Pesq. Artes, Curitiba 6: 21-31.

SCANDIUZZI, PEDRO P. 2008. A Numeração Karib no Alto Xingu. Revista Latinoamericana de Etnomatemática 1(2): 75-87.

SIMÕES, MÁRIO E. 1963. Os “Txikão” e outras tribos marginais do alto Xingu. Revista do Museu Paulista N.S. 14: 76-104.

TAFFAREL, KOROTWI, AND JANUÁRIO, ELIAS. 2010. Ritual do Tatuagem entre los Ikpeng. Barra do Burges: UNEMAT.

TXIKÃO, PITGOA MAKNE, AND JANÚARIO, ELIAS (Ed.). 2001. Bringuedas e Brincadeiras Ikpeng. Barra do Burges: UNEMAT.

VILLAS BÔAS, CLAUDIO, AND VILLAS BÔAS, ORLANDO. 1994. A marcha para o oeste: a epopéia da expedição Roncador-Xingu. São Paulo: Globo.

8 Japreria

Ethnonyms Japreria, Sapreria, Sapriles Self-designation Yankshit

Japreria

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Population ca. 200 (2001), many of them descendants of intermarriages with Guajiro, Yukpa and with criollos. They are very likely a Yukpa subgroup, an assump-tion that is contested by Oquendo.21 Settlement area Venezuela; Sierra de Perijá, between the Rio Palmar and Rio Lajas Contact history For the period between the end of the 17th and the beginning of 19th cen-tury the sources on the region mention various groups such as the Sabril, Aratomo, Coyamo, Macoa and Chaqué. A continuity between the historical Sabril and contemporary Yankshit has been assumed repeatedly22, but no conclusive evidence has been presented to date. The Sabril were first men-tioned in 1744 after they had attacked the village of Tinacoas. Violent clashes between the indigenous population and the Spanish took place at around the same time on the Colombian side of the Sierra in the province of Santa Marta. As a result, many indigenous groups fled the region and sought refuge in the mountains of the Sierra de Perijá, among them the Tupe23, who settled on the upper Rio Apon. Until the 1770s several expedi-tions tried to ‘pacify’ the Sabril and settle them in reductions, but apparently without much success. In the 1780s the Sabril were mentioned together with other groups as being resident at local mission stations. From then on the group was hardly ever mentioned.24 The official Japreria contact history began in February 1956 when a Capuchin missionary expedition and four Yukpa Indians explored the Rio Palmar in search of the so-called Japreria. This expedition was successful and established contact with the Japreria

21 Oquendo 2004. 22 E.g. Carrocera 1956: 129, Villamañan and Santelos 1956a: 170, Straka 1980:

68. 23 Alcácer 1962: 121. 24 Exceptions include, i.e. Codazzi (1841), who identifies Sabril, Guiriquire, Carat

and Motilone in his Atlas de Venezuela, Booy (1918a: 389), Alfredo Jahn (1927) and Armelleda (1956a), who makes references to report written by Felix de Vegamián on 30 May 1920 in El Mensajero Serafico (Madrid) about a trip of the Japreria to the Villa del Rosario.

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who at the time were considered as ‘representing the most remote human culture’.25 Today the Japreria entertain permanent contact with national society and are characterised by a high degree of intermarriage with criollos, Guajiro and Yukpa.

Wilbert26 considered them a subgroup of the Yukpa which was cast in doubt by Oquendo27, who considers the language of the Japreria (Yankshit) to be an independent Carib idiom. According to Wilson Largo (pers. com-munication), Japreria is linguistically more closely related to the Colombian Yukpa linguistic subgroups than their Venezuelan equivalents. Oral history also indicates that the Japreria formerly lived on the Colombian side of the Sierra de Perijá and later moved to Venezuela. ALCÁCER, ANTONIO D. 1962. El indio motilon y su historía. Bogotá: Puen-

te Comun.

ANONYMOUS. 2000. El Catecismo en Lengua Yndia para instruccion de los Yndios Cojamos, Sabriles, Chaques, y Anatomos. In Catecismos Católicos de venezuela Hispana (Siglos XVI-XVIII). Edited by R. Fernández Heres, pp. 371-78. Caracas: Academia Nacional de la Historia.

ARMELLADA, FRAY C. DE. 1951. Vocabulario Motilón y Catecismo Yupa, existentes en la Real Biblioteca de Madrid. Venezuela Misionera 13: 177-79.

ARMELLADA, FRAY C. DE. 1956a. Los Indios “Jápreira”, una nueva tribu redescubierta. Venezuela Misionera 210: 196-98.

ARMELLADA, FRAY C. DE. 1956b. Los Indios “Jápreira”, una nueva tribu redescubierta. Boletín Indigenista Venezolano 16: 356-65.

ARMELLADA, FRAY C. DE. 1957. Los Indios “Jápreira”, algunas noti-cias antiguas y modernas y comentarios sobre las mismas. Venezuela Misionera 225: 308-10.

25 Villamañan 1957a: 49. 26 Wilbert 1960. 27 Oquendo 2004.

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ARMELLADA, FRAY C. DE. 1959. Lenguas indígenas de Perijá Venezuela Misionera 21: (242): 74-76, (243): 108-11, (244): 131-35, (245): 179-181.

ARMELLADA, FRAY C. DE. 1966. Estampas de los Pueblos Motilones del Zulia. Revista de Historia 3: 35-57.

BOOY, THEODOR D. 1918. An exploration of the Sierra de Perijá, Venezuela. The Geographical Review VI: 385-410.

CARROCERA, BUENAVENTURA DE. 1981. Lingüística Indígena Venezo-lana y los Misioneros Capuchinos. Caracas: Universidad Catolica Andres Bello.

CARROCERA, CAYETANO DE. 1956. Importante expedición misionera a los indios “Japreria de Perija”. Venezuela Misionera 208: 129-31.

CODAZZI, AGUSTÍN. 1840. Atlas físico y político de la República de Venezue-la. Paris: Thierry Frères.

DUPOUY, WALTER. 1958. Noticias de los Indios Japrería. Antropológica 4: 1-16.

FERNÁNDEZ HERES, RAFAEL (Ed.). 2000. Catecismos Católicos de venezuela Hispana (Siglos XVI-XVIII). Caracas: Academia Nacional de la Historia.

HITCHCOCK, CHARLES B. 1954. The Sierra de Perijá, Venezuela. The Geographical Review 44: 1-28.

JAHN, ALFREDO. 1927. Los aborígenes del occidente de Venezuela. Su historia, etnografía y afinidades lingüisticas. Caracas: Litografía y Tipografía del Co-mercio.

LIRA BARBOZA, JOSÉ. 1999. En La Sierra de Perijá. Introducción al Conoci-miento Zoológico de los Aborígenes de la Sierra de Perijá. Maracaibo: Dirección de Cultura, Gobernación del estado Zulia.

OQUENDO, LUIS. 2004a. Is Japreria a Yukpa dialect? Lingua Americana 8: 87-98.

OQUENDO, LUIS. 2004b. La vibrante uvular y la aproximante labiodental en la lengua Japreria como cultura fonológica. Opción: Revista de Ciencias Humanas y Sociales 45: 60-74.

OQUENDO, LUIS. 2005. La transitividad en Japreria. SYNERGIES Venezuela 1: 181-194.

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OQUENDO, LUIS. 2007. La construcción posesiva en Japreria (Langue Caraïbe). SYNERGIES Venezuela 3: 157–72.

RIVET, PAUL, AND ARMELLADA, FRAY C. DE. 1950. Les Indiens Motilones. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 39: 15-57.

STRAKA, HELLMUTH B. 1980. Ocho años entre Yucpas y Japrerías. Caracas: Ediciones de la Presidencia de la República.

VILLAMAÑÁN, ADOLFO DE. N.d. Con el pensamiento fijo en los “Japreria”. Venezuela Misionera: 106-11.

VILLAMAÑÁN, ADOLFO DE, AND SANTELOS, PRUDENCIO DE. 1956. Los “Japreria”, quienes son y donde viven I. Venezuela Misionera 18: (209): 170-173, (210): 199-204, (211): 232-37, (212): 262-65, (213): 294-99, (214): 322-27, (215): 360-363.

VILLAMAÑÁN, ADOLFO DE, AND SANTELOS, PRUDENCIO DE. 1957. Los “Japreria”, quienes son y donde viven II. Venezuela Misionera 19: (217): 49-50, (218): 71-73, (219): 101-2.

9 Kalapalo

Ethnonyms Apalakiri, Apalaquiri, Kalapalu, Calapalo Self-designation Kuge, which they use for all other Indian groups of the upper Xingu, and means ‘human being’ or ‘people of upper Xingu society’, in contrast to

Kalapalo

48

hostile ‘wild Indians’, inikogo. Kalapalo is the name of an old village square.28 Population 385 (2011) Settlement area Brazil: Today the Kalapalo live in two villages in Aifa south-east of the Kuluene River and in Tanguro in the margins of Xingu National Park. Be-fore the Kalapalo settled in the Xingu National Park they lived three days boat journey downstream. Only people born in Aifa or the former village of Kanugijafïtï are considered Kalapalo. Other Carib-speakers in the region refer to the Kalapalo as aifa otomo or ‘people of the Aifa village’. Contact history Although slave-hunting expeditions swept the upper Xingu region since the mid-18th century, the first recorded contact with the Kalapalo took place only in the late 19th century by the German Hermann Meyer. The Co-missão Rondon under Major Ramiro Noronha contacted the Kalapalo in 1920. By the 1940s they had been ravaged by a multiple epidemics. In this time various other groups lived among the Kalapalo. The group today iden-tified as Kalapalo is made up of different groups, although the majority come from the village of Kanugijafïtï, which was abandoned in 1961.29 BAER, GERHARD, AND FUERST, RENÉ. 1964. Kalapalo - Brasilien

(Xingúquellgebiet). Beschwörungstänze. Encyclopaedia Cinematographica: 1-11.

BALDUS, HERBERT. 1958. Die Jaguarzwillinge. Eisenach: Erich Röth Ver-lag.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1970. Xingu Carib kinship terminology and marriage: another view. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 26: 402-16.

28 Basso 1973b. 29 Basso 2002.

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BASSO, ELLEN B. 1973a. The use of Portugese relationship terms in Kalapalo (Xingu Carib) encounters: changes in a Central Brazilian communications network. Language in Society 2: 1-21.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1973b. The Kalapalo Indians of central Brazil. New York, Chicago: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1975. Kalapalo affinity: its cultural and social contexts. American Ethnologist 2: 207-28.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1977. The Kalapalo dietary system. Anthropological Pa-pers of the University of Arizona Press 28: 98-105.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1981a. Os Kalapalo: ficha informativa para o levantamento dos povos indígenas no Brasil. São Paulo: Centro Ecumênico de Documentação e Informação.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1981b. A “musical view of the universe”: Kalapalo myth and ritual as religious performance. Journal of American Folklore 94: 273-91.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1984. A husband for his daughter, a wife for her son: strategies for selecting a set of in-laws among the Kalapalo. In Marriage practices in Lowland South America. Edited by K. M. Kensinger, pp. 33-44. Urbana, Chicago: University of Illinois Press.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1985. A musical view of the universe: Kalapalo myth and ritual performances. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1986. Quoted dialogues in Kalapalo narrative dis-course. In Native South American discourse. Edited by J. Sherzer, and G. Urban, pp. 119-68. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1987a. The implications of a progressive theory of dreaming. In Dreaming. Anthropological and psychological interpretations. Ed-ited by B. Tedlock, pp. 86-104. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1987b. In favour of deceit: a study of tricksters in an Amazo-nian society. Tucson: The University of Amazonia Press.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1988. The trickster's scattered self [Kalapalo]. Anthro-pological Linguistics 30: 292-318.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1989a. Kalapalo biography: ideology and identity in a South American oral history. History of Religion 29: 1-22.

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BASSO, ELLEN B. 1989b. Kalapalo biography: psychology and language in a South American oral history. American Anthropologist 91: 551-69.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1990a. Discourse as an integrating concept in anthro-pology and folklore research. Journal of Folklore Research 27: 3-10.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1990b. La biografía de los Kalapalo como historia. In Las culturas nativas latinoamericanas a través de su discurso. Edited by E. B. Basso, and J. Sherzer, pp. 17-46. Quito: Abya-Yala, MLAL.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1992. Contextualization in Kalapalo narratives. In Rethinking context. Language as an interactive phenomenon. Edited by A. Du-ranti, and C. Goodwin, pp. 253-69. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1993a. A história na mitologia: uma experiência dos Avoengos Calapalos com Europeus. In Karl von den Steinen: Um século de Antropologia no Xingu. Edited by V. P. Coelho, pp. 311-46. São Paulo: EDUSP, FAPESP.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1993b. A Kalapalo testimonial. L'Homme 33: 379-407.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1995. The last cannibals: a South American oral history. Austin: University of Texas Press.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1997. Performance and psychosocial experience in Kalapalo myths about musical ritual. Etnofoor: Antropologisch Tijdschrift 10: 151-64.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 2000. Dialogues and Body techniques in Kalapalo affinal civility. In Les rituels du dialogue. Promenades ethnolinguistiques en ter-res Amérindiennes. Edited by A. Monod Becquelin, and P. Erikson, pp. 183-95. Nanterre: Société d'éthnologie.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 2001. O que podemos aprender do discurso kalapalo sobre a h´istória kalapalo? In Os Povos do Alto Xingu. História e Cultura. Edited by B. Franchetto, and M. Heckenberger, pp. 293-307. Rio de Janeiro: Editora UFRJ.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 2003. Translating “Self-Cultivation”. In Translation and Ethnography: The Anthropological Challenge of Intercultural Understanding. Ed-ited by T. Maranhão, and B. Streck, pp. 85-101. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 2007. The Kalapalo Affinal Civility Register. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 17: 161-83.

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BASSO, ELLEN B. 2008. Epistemic Deixis in Kalapalo. Pragmatics 18: 215-52.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 2009a. Civility and deception in two kalapalo ritual forms. In Ritual Communication. Edited by E. B. Basso, pp. 243-69. New York: Berg.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 2009b. Ordeals of Language. In Culture, Rhetoric, and the Vicissitudes of Life. Edited by M. Carrithers, pp. 121-137. Oxford/ New York. Berghahn.

CARDOSO DE OLIVEIRA, ROBERTO, ET AL. 1970. Mito e linguagem social. Rio de Janeiro: Edições Tempo Brasileiro.

COELHO DE SOUZA, MARCELA STOCKLER. 1992. Faces da Afinidade: um estudo do parentesco na etnografia xinguana. Rio de Janeiro: M.A. Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Museu Nacional.

COELHO DE SOUZA, MARCELA STOCKLER. 1995. Da complexidade do elementar: para uma reconsideração do parentesco xinguano. In Antropologia do Parentesco. Estudos Ameríndos. Edited by E. B. Viveiros de Castro, pp. 121-206. Rio de Janeiro: Editora UFRJ.

DEVINE GUZMÁN, TRACY L. 2005. “Diacuí Killed Iracema”: Indigen-ism, Nationalism and the Struggle for Brazilianness. Bulletin of Latin American Research 24: 92-122.

FAUSTO, CARLOS; FRANCHETTO, BRUNA, AND HECKENBERGER, MICHAEL. 2008. Language, ritual and historical reconstruction: towards a linguistic, ethnographical and archaeological account of Upper Xingu Society. In Lessons from documented endangered languages. Edited by K. D. Harrison; D. S. Rood, and A. Dwyer, pp. 129-58. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 2000. Rencontres rituelles dans le Haut-Xingu: la parole du chef. In Les rituels du dialogue. Promenades ethnolinguistiques en terres Amérindiennes. Edited by A. Monod Becquelin, and P. Erikson, pp. 481-509. Nanterre: Société d'Éthnologie.


GUERREIRO JÚNIOR, ANTONIO ROBERTO. 2008. Parentesco e aliança entre os Kalapalo do Alto Xingu. São Paulo: M.A. Universidade Federal de São Carlos.

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FORTE, JANETTE. 1996a. Thinking about Amerindians. Georgetown: Janette Forte.

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FORTE, JANETTE. 2000. Amerindian Languages of Guyana. In As línguas amazônicas hoje. Edited by F. Queixalós and O. Renault-Lescure, pp. 317-31. São Paulo: IRD, ISA, MPEG.

FRANCO, CEZAR AUGUSTO DE OLIVEIRA. 2012. Direitos indígenas e mobilização : um olhar sobre a tríplice fronteira – Brasil, Guyana e Venezuela. Brasília: Ph.D. Universidade de Brasília/UFRR/FLACSO.

FUNAI. 1978. Grupo Ingarikó vê branco pela primeira vez. Revista de Atualidade Indígena 2: n.pp.

GARCIA, JESÚS. 2007. Cantar y danzar hasta ‘tocar el trono de Dios’. El movimiento religioso del Areruya: origen, contenido, experiencia. Venezuela Misionera 627: 9-14.

GIBSON, K. 1977. Some kinship terms used in the Akawaio, Arekuna, Patamona, and Arawak languages. Bulletin of the Amerindian Languages Project 1: 11-13.

GILDEA, SPIKE. 2008. Explaining similarities between main clauses and nominalized phrases. Amerindia 32: 57-75.

HENFREY, COLIN. 1964. The Gentle People: A Journey Among the Indian Tribes of Guiana. London: Hutchinson & Co.

HENFREY, COLIN. 1965. Through Indian eyes: a journey among the Indian tribes of Guiana. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

HENKEL, TERRY W.; AIME, M. CATHERINE; CHIN, MIMI, AND ANDREW, CHRISTOPHER. 2004. Edible mushrooms from Guy-ana. Mycologist 18(3): 104-111.

HENKEL, TERRY W., AND AIME, M. CATHERINE. 2005. Edible mushrooms used by the Patamona Amerindians of Guyana. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Mycological Society of Japan 49: 123-124.

HENNINGSGAARD, WILLIAM. 1981. The Akawaio, the Upper Mazaruni Hydroelectric Project and national development in Guyana. Cambridge: Cultural Survival.

IM THURN, EVERARD F. 1884a. Indian children's games. Timehri 3: 147-48.

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IM THURN, EVERARD F. 1884b. Animism. Timehri 3: 148-49.

IM THURN, EVERARD F. 1885. The Ascent of Mount Roraima. Proceed-ings of the Royal Geographical Society 7: 497-521.

KEAN, GIBSON. 1978. An annotated glossary of folk medicines used by some Amerindians in Guyana. Georgetown: Amerindian Languages Project, University of Guyana.

KENSWIL, FREDERICK W. 1946. Children of the Silence: an account of the aboriginal Indians of the upper Mazaruni River, British Guiana. Georgetown: Interior Development Community.

KOCH-GRÜNBERG, THEODOR. 1917. Vom Roraima zum Orinoko, Vol. 1: Schilderung der Reise. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.

KOCH-GRÜNBERG, THEODOR. 1928. Vom Roraima zum Orinoko, Vol. 4: Sprachen. Stuttgart: Strecker und Schröder.

KOCH-GRÜNBERG, THEODOR. 1979. Del Roraima al Orinoco. Tomo I. Caracas: Ediciones del Banco Central de Venezuela.

KOCH-GRÜNBERG, THEODOR. 2006. Do Roraima ao Orinoco. Vol.1. Observações de uma viagem pelo norte do Brasil e pela Venezuela durante os anos de 1911 a 1913. São Paulo: UNESP.

LAURIOLA, VINCENZO M. 2011. De quem é o Monte Roraima? Terras indígenas e unidades de conservaҫão entre os dilemas da conservaҫão na Amazônia Brasileira. Passages de Paris 6: 53-110.

LUTZ, FRANK E. 1912. String-Figures from the Patamona Indians of British Guiana. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History XII: 3-14.

MANSUTTI-RODRÍGUEZ, ALEXANDER. 1981. Penetración y cambio social entre los Akawaio y Pemón de San Martin Anacoco. Caracas: M.A. Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas.

MARIE, JOSE. 1980. Die Verdammten. Trickster 6/7: 52-60.

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MLYNARZ, RICARDO BURG. 2008. Processos Participativos em Comunidade Indígena: um estudo sobre a ação política dos Ingarikó face à conservação ambiental do Parque Nacional do Monte Roraima. São Paulo: M.A. Universidade de São Paulo.

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RODWAY, JAMES. 1891. The life-history of an Indian. Timehri 8: 138-53.

ROOPNARAINE, TERRY. 1995. Shout on the border: minerals, social tension and the frontier. Archaeology and Anthropology 10: 36-42.

ROOPNARAINE, TERRY. 1996. Symbolising value: culture and economy among Guyanese gold and diamond miners. Cambridge Anthropology 19: 22-42.

ROOPNARAINE, TERRY. 2001. Constrained trade and creative exchange on the Barima River, Guyana. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 7: 51-66.

SCHOMBURGK, RICHARD. 1847-48. Reisen in British-Guiana in den Jahren 1840-1844. 3 Vol. Leipzig: J.J. Weber.

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11 Karihona

Ethnonyms Ajaju, Carijona, Guaque/Huaque, Mesaya, Murciélagos, Omaua/Umaua, Hianakoto Self-designation Karihona. Meira35 notes that variants of this word can be found in many Carib languages: karipono means ‘person’ among the Wayana, and is the self-designation of Kariña, meaning ‘person’, ‘human beings’ or ‘Indian’. According to Meira, this word is the root of the term Carib. Population 425 (2005)36 In Departmento Amazonas in the Municipo La Pedrera live 58 individuals and 120 live in the Municipo Leticia. In the Departmento Guaviare in the Municipo Miraflores (Comunidad Puerto Nare) live another 128 people. The rest is widely dispersed over the country. Settlement area Colombia: The Karihona populated the Rio Yarí, the upper Apaporis and its tributaries in Colombia. Today a few Karihona live in Puerto Nare, near Miraflores on the upper Rio Vaupés and near La Pedrera on the Colombian Rio Caquetá near the Brazilian border.

35 Meira 2000: 21. 36 According to the Dirección de Asuntos Indígenas, Rom y Minorías del

Ministerio del Interior (www.siidecolombia.gov.co/CMS/media/33004/ pueblo_karijona.pdf), Last access, March 18, 2013.

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Contact history Trade relations with the Spanish and later with the Portuguese have been documented beginning in the second half of the 17th century.

The Karihona played an important role in the local slave trade (like the Kariña in British Guiana). During the rubber boom at the turn of the 20th century they worked as cauchuc tappers, what some of them continue to practice today. Only small and scattered very much acculturated groups habe been documented. According to Meira37, Robayo mentioned ‘wild’ Karihona groups that avoid contact could still live in the area. ADAM, LUCIEN. 1893. Matériaux pour servir à l'établissement d'une grammaire

comparée des dialectes de la famille Caribe. Paris: J. Maisonneuve.

ARANGO, RAÚL AND SÁNCHEZ, ENRIQUE. 1998. Los pueblos indígenas de Colombia 1997. Colombia: TM Editores.

CREVAUX, JULES. 1882. Grammaires et Vocabulaires Roucouyenne, Arrouage, Piapoco et d'autres Langues de la Région des Guyanes. Paris: Maissonneuve et Cie.

CREVAUX, JULES. 1987. Le mendiant de l'Eldorado. De Cayenne aux Andes 1876-1879. Paris: Éditions Phébus.

CUERVO, ANTONIO B. 1894. Colección de documentos inéditos sobre la geografia y la historia de Colombia, Vol. 4. Bogotá: Zalamea.

DE WAVRIN, ROBERT. 1996a. Carijona I. In Lenguas Aborígenes de Colombia. Fuentes; Documentos sobre Lenguas Aborígenes de Colombia del Archivo de Paul Rivet. Edited by A. M. Ospina, pp. 165-68. Santa Fe de Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes.

DE WAVRIN, ROBERT. 1996b. Carijona II. In Lenguas Aborígenes de Colombia. Fuentes; Documentos sobre Lenguas Aborígenes de Colombia del Archivo de Paul Rivet. Edited by A. M. Ospina, pp. 169-86. Santa Fe de Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes.

DERBYSHIRE, DESMOND C. AND PULLUM, GEOFFREY K. 1979. Object-initial languages. Working papers of the Summer Institute of Linguis-tics 23: 1-34.

37 Meira 2000: 20.

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DURBIN, MARSHALL, AND SEIJAS, HAYDÉE. 1973. Proto Hiaconto: Guaque-Carijona-Hianacoto Umaua. International Journal of American Linguistics 39: 22-31.

FONDARELLA, J. DE. 1925. Excursión a los Carijonas del Guamal. Catalunya Franciscana 3: 184-85.

FRIEDE, JUAN. 1948. Algunos apuntes sobre los karijona-huaque del Caquetá. In Actes du XXVIIIe Congrès International des Américanistes 1947. pp. 255-63. Paris: Musée de l'Homme.

FRANCO, ROBERTO. 2002. Los carijonas de Chiribiquete. Bogotá: Fundación Puerto Rastrojo.

GOLDMAN, IRVING. 1948. Tribes of the Uaupés-Caquetá region. In The Tropical Forest Tribes. Edited by J. Steward, pp. 763-98. In ‘Handbook of South American Indians’. Vol. 3. Washington: Smithsonian Institution.

HALBMAYER, ERNST. 2010. Die Karihona. In Kosmos und Kommunikation, Vol. 2. Edited by E. Halbmayer, pp. 470-515. Wien: Facultas Verlag.

HUBNER, RANDALL Q., AND REED, ROBERT B. 1992. Vocabulario Comparativo. Bogotá: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.

KARADIMAS, DIMITRI. 1997. Le corps souvage. Idélogie du corps et représentations de l'environnement chez les Miraña d'Amazonie colombienne. Paris: Ph.D. Université de Paris X.

KOCH-GRÜNBERG, THEODOR. 1906. Kreuz und quer durch Nord-westbrasilien. Globus LXXXIX.

KOCH-GRÜNBERG, THEODOR. 1908a. Die Hianákoto-Umáua. An-thropos 3: 83-124, 297-335, 952-82.

KOCH-GRÜNBERG, THEODOR. 1908b. Einige Bemerkungen zu der Forschungsreise des Dr. H. Rice in den Gebieten zwischen Guaviare und Caquetá-Yapura. Globus 93: 302-5.

KOCH-GRÜNBERG, THEODOR. 1909/1910 Zwei Jahre unter den India-nern. Reisen in Nordwest-Brasilien 1903/1905. Berlin: Wasmuth. 2 Bände.

KOCH-GRÜNBERG, THEODOR. 1921. Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern. Stuttgart: Strecker und Schröder.

KOCH-GRÜNBERG, THEODOR. 1995. Dos años entre los indios : viajes por el noroeste brasileño 1903 - 1905. Tomo I-II. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

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KOCH-GRÜNBERG, THEODOR. 2005. Dois Anos entre os Indígenas. Viagens no noroeste do Brasil (1903/05). Manaus: EDUA/FSDB.

LLANOS VARGAS, HÉCTOR, AND PINEDA GIRALDO, ROBERTO. 1982. Etnohistoria del Gran Caquetá (siglos XVI-XIX). Bogotá: Fundación de Investigaciones Arqueológicas Nacionales, Banco de la República.

MEIRA, SÉRGIO. 2000. A reconstruction of Proto-Taranoan: phonology and inflec-tional morphology. München: Lincom Europa.

MUTIS, JOSÉ C. 1788. Terminos del Ydioma de la Naciona Murciegala, ó Huaque. Madrid: Biblioteca del Palacio.

PÉREZ, FELIPE. 1862. Geografia física y política de los Estados Unidos de Colombia. Bogotá: Imprenta de la Nación.

REICHEL-DOLMATOFF, GERARDO. 1967. Enquêtes etnographiques à entreprendre d'urgence, Rio Vaupès, Colombie. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 52: 323-32.

ROBAYO, CAMILO. 1986. La flexión verbal del carijona. Bogotá: M.A. Universidad de los Andes.

ROBAYO, CAMILO. 1987. Le système des personnes de la langue carijona. Paris: DEA Thesis, Université de Paris VII, Jussieu, Dépertment de Linguistiqie.

ROBAYO, CAMILO. 1989a. En faisant une rame: texte carijona. Amerindia 14: 189-99.

ROBAYO, CAMILO. 1989b. Linguística y etnohistoria en el Amazonas indicios linguísticos acerca de la tradición e historia de los carijona. Linguística y literatura 10(15): 131-139.

ROBAYO, CAMILO. 1990. Avances de morfología carijona. In Atlas etnolingüístico de Colombia. Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.

ROBAYO, CAMILO. 1995. ¿Llegó tarde la educación a los Carijona? In Lenguas Aborígenes de Colombia, Memoria. Edited by Centro Colombiano de Estudos de Lenguas Aborígenes, pp. 145-55. Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes.

ROBAYO, CAMILO. 1996a. Datos actuales de la lengua Carijona, equivalentes al documento de Tastevin ‘Uitoto, Carijona, Tanimuca, Curetú y Cocama’. In Lenguas Aborígenes de Colombia. Fuentes; Documentos

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sobre Lenguas Aborígenes de Colombia del Archivo de Paul Rivet. Edited by A. M. Ospina, pp. 539-52. Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes.

ROBAYO, CAMILO. 1996b. Datos actuales de la lengua Carijona, equivalentes al documento de De Wavrin donde usa el cuestionario llamado ‘Vocabulario personal’. In Lenguas Aborígenes de Colombia. Fuentes; Documentos sobre Lenguas Aborígenes de Colombia del Archivo de Paul Rivet. Edited by A. M. Ospina, pp. 517-21. Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes.

ROBAYO, CAMILO. 1996c. Comentarios sobre los documentos de Uribe, de De Wavrin y Tastevin sobre la lengua Carijona y datos actuales. In Lenguas Aborígenes de Colombia. Fuentes; Documentos sobre Lenguas Aborígenes de Colombia del Archivo de Paul Rivet. Edited by A. M. Ospina, pp. 511-16. Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes.

ROBAYO, CAMILO. 1996d. Datos actuales de la lengua Carijona, equivalentes al documento de De Wavrin donde utiliza el cuestionario del Instituto Etnológico de París. In Lenguas Aborígenes de Colombia. Fuentes; Documentos sobre Lenguas Aborígenes de Colombia del Archivo de Paul Rivet. Edited by A. M. Ospina, pp. 521-38. Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes.

ROBAYO, CAMILO. 1997. Babel de nuevo erigida el caso de la lengua Carijona. In Lenguas amerindias: condiciones sociolingüísticas en Colombia. Edited by X. Pachon, and F. Correa, pp. 541-86. Bogotá: Instituto Colombiano de Antropología.

SÁENZ, NICOLAS. 1876. Memoria sobre algunas tribus del Territorio de San Martin en los Estados Unidos de Colombia. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 8: 337-42.

SCHINDLER, HELMUT. 1972. Die Stellung der Carijona im Kulturareal Nordwestamazonien. In Atti del XL Congresso Internazionale délgi Americanisti 1972: 2. Edited by E. Cerulli, pp. 457-67. Génova: Tilgher.

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12 Kariña

Ethnonyms Galibi, Carib, Kaliña Population Brazil: Galibi Marworno: 2241 (2010), speak a Franco-Guyanese creole today; Galibi do Oiapoque: 110 (2010); French Guiana: 3000 (2002); Suriname: 3000 (2002); Guyana 2700 (1994); Venezuela 16 686 (2001) Settlement area The Kariña do not live in a geographically contiguous or ecological uniform settlement area. Rather they live scattered along the coastal region of north-ern Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana and Venezuela. Groups such as the Maroni River Caribs or the Barama River Caribs are part of the Kariña who have also often been referred to as Galibi. Contact history The ancestors of today's Kariña have been in contact with Europeans since the early days of European exploration of the continent. They have fought as ethnic mercenaries for the colonial powers38 and actively participated in the slave trade, which is why they are still feared today by many indigenous groups in the region. They were also part of multi-linguistic networks that extended to the Caribbean islands. The history of the Caribs and their

38 Whitehead 1990.

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14 Kuikuru

Ethnonyms Cuicuru, Cuicutl, Guicuru Self-designation The Kuikuru describe themselves together with other groups of the upper Xingu as Ukuge or ‘people’ while other indigenous groups are called Ngikogo or ‘wild Indians’. Kuikuru is a phonetic variant of the self-

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designation Kufikugu, a species of fish supplemented by the suffix -kugu, meaning ‘place’.41 Population 522 (2011) Settlement area Brazil: Mato Grosso, Xingu National Park in the villages of Ipatse and Ahukugi.42 Contact history Direct contact with the peoples of the upper Xingu began with slave-hunting expeditions in the mid-18th century and found a peaceful continua-tion in Karl von den Steinen's expedition in 1884. The Kuikuru became a separate village after a fission in the second half of the 19th century when they settled near Lake Lamakuka. There they lived in several locations for the next 100 years. In the early 1960s they moved northward to the Rio Anafuku where they have been living since again in various locations. ABBOTT, MIRIAM AND FOSTER, PATRICK. 2000. Macushi. In Inter-

continental Dictionary Series, Vol. 1: South American Indian Languages. CD-Rom. Edited by Mary Ritchie Key. Irvine: University of California.

BASSO, ELLEN B. 1973. The use of Portugese relationship terms in Kalapalo (Xingu Carib) encounters: changes in a Central Brazilian communications network. Language in Society 2: 1-21.

BASTOS, RAFAEL J. DE M. 1985. O “Payemeramaraka” Kamayurá: uma contribuição à etnografia do xamanismo do Alto Xingú. Revista de An-tropologia 27/28: 139-77.

CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 1957a. Subsistence and social structure: an ecological study of the Kuikuru Indians. Michigan: Ph.D. University of Michigan.

41 Carneiro 1994. 42 Franchetto 2001: 124.

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CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 1957b. Extra-marital sex freedom among the Kuikuru Indians of Mato Grosso. Revista do Museu Paulista N.S. 10: 135-42.

CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 1960. Slash-and-burn agriculture: a closer look at its implications for settlement patterns. In Men and Cultures. Selected papers of the Fifth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences 1956. Edited by A. Wallace, pp. 229-34. Philadelphia: Univer-sity of Pennsylvania Press.

CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 1973. Slash-and-burn cultivation among the Kuikuru and its implications for cultural development in the Amazon Basin. In Peoples and cultures of native America. Edited by D. R. Gross, pp. 99-123. New York: Doubleday, The Natural History Press.

CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 1974. Slash-and-burn cultivation among the Kuikuru and its implications for cultural development in the Amazon Basin. In Native South Americans. Ethnology of the least known continent. Ed-ited by P. J. Lyon, pp. 73-91. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.

CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 1977a. Recent observations on shamanism and witchcraft among the Kuikuru indians of Central Brazil. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 293: 215-28.

CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 1977b. The afterworld of the Kuikuru Indians. Colloquia in Anthropology 1: 3-15.

CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 1978. The Knowledge and Use of Rainforest Trees by the Kuikuru Indians of central Brazil. In The Nature and Status of Ethnobotany. Edited by R. I. Ford, pp. 201-16. Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology of the University of Michigan.

CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 1983. The cultivation of manioc among the Kuikuru of the Upper Xingú. In Adaptive responses of native Amazonians. Edited by R. B. Hames, and W. T. Vickers, pp. 65-111. New York: Academic Press.

CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 1986. Uso do solo e classificação da floresta (kuikúro). In Etnobiologia. Edited by B. G. Ribeiro, pp. 47-58. Petrópo-lis: Vozes.

CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 1989. To the village of the jaguars: the Master Myth of the Upper Xingú. Antropológica 72: 3-40.

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CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 1993. Quarup: A Festa dos Mortos no Alto Xingu. In Karl von den Steinen: Um Século de Antropologia no Xingu. Edited by V. P. Coelho, pp. 405-29. São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo.

CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 1994. Kuikuru. In South America. Edited by J. Wilbert, pp. 206-9. In ‘Encyclopedia of World Cultures’, Vol. 7. Edited by D. Levinson (Series Ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Hall.

CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 2001. A origem do lago Tahununa, um mito kuikuro. In Os Povos do Alto Xingu. História e Cultura. Edited by B. Franchetto, and M. Heckenberger, pp. 287-92. Rio de Janeiro: Editora UFRJ.

CARNEIRO, ROBERT L., AND DOLE, GERTRUDE E. 1959. La cultura de los indios Kuikuru del Brasil central. Runa. Archivo para las Ciencias del Hombre 8: 169-202.

DOLE, GERTRUDE E. 1956. Ownership and exchange among the Kui-kuru Indians of Mato Grosso. Revista do Museu Paulista N.S. 10: 125-33.

DOLE, GERTRUDE E. 1962. A preliminary consideration of the prehis-tory of the upper Xingú Basin. Revista do Museu Paulista N.S. 13: 400-23.

DOLE, GERTRUDE E. 1964a. Shamanism and political control among the Kuikuru. In Beiträge zur Völkerkunde Südamerikas. Edited by H. Be-cher, pp. 53-62. Hannover: Kommissionsverlag Münstermann-Druck.

DOLE, GERTRUDE E. 1964b. The development of Hawaiian kinship nomenclature as exemplified by the Kuikuro. In Actas y Memorias del 35° Congreso Internacional de Americanistas 1962. p. 295. Mexico D.F.: Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia.

DOLE, GERTRUDE E. 1966. Anarchy without chaos: alternatives to political authority among the Kuikuru. In Political Anthropology. Edited by M. J. Swartz; V. W. Turner, and A. Tuden, pp. 73-88. Chicago: Al-dine.

DOLE, GERTRUDE E. 1969. Generation kinship nomenclature as an adaptation to endogamy. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 23: 105-23.

DOLE, GERTRUDE E. 1978. The use of manioc among the Kuikuru: Some Interpretations. In The Nature and Status of Ethnobotany. Edited by R. I. Ford, pp. 217-47. Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology of the University of Michigan.

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DOLE, GERTRUDE E. 1983-1984. Some aspects of structure in Kuikuru society. Antropológica 59-62: 309-30.

DOLE, GERTRUDE E. 1984. The Structure of Kuikuru Marriage. In Marriage Practices in Lowland South America. Edited by K. M. Kensinger, pp. 45-62. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

DOLE, GERTRUDE E. 1993. Homogeneidade e diversidade no Alto Xingu: vistas a partir dos Cuicuros. In Karl von den Steinen: um século de antropologia no Xingu. Edited by V. P. Coelho, pp. 375-403. São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo.

DOLE, GERTRUDE E., AND CARNEIRO, ROBERT L. 1958. A mechanism for mobilizing labor among the Kuikuru of Central Brazil. Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences 21: 58-60.

DREYFUS, SIMONE. 1964. Formes de musiques rituelles chez les Indiens d'Amérique du Sud. In 6° Congrès International des Sciences Anthropologiques et Ethnologiques 1960: 2. N.e., pp. 101-4. Paris: Musée de l'Homme.

FAUSTO, CARLOS. 2011. Mil años de transformación. La cultura de la tradición entre los kuikuro del Alto Xingú. In Por donde hay soplo. Estudios amazónicos en los países andinos. Edited by J-P. Chaumeil; Ó. Es-pinosa de Rivero, and M. Cornejo Chaparro, pp. 185-216. Peru: Institut français d'études andines -IFEA.

FAUSTO, CARLOS. 2012. Sangue de Lua: reflexôes sobre espíritos e eclipses. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 98(1). http://jsa.revues.org/index12143.html. Last access January 15, 2013.

FAUSTO, CARLOS; FRANCHETTO, BRUNA, AND HECKENBERGER, MICHAEL. 2008. Language, ritual and historical reconstruction: towards a linguistic, ethnographical and archaeological account of Upper Xingu Society. In Lessons from documented endangered languages. Edited by K. D. Harrison, D. S. Rood, and A. Dwyer, pp. 129-58. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1977. Classes semânticas na língua Kuikúru. In Atas do II Encontro Nacional de Lingüística. N.e., pp. 116-44. Rio de Janeiro: PUC.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1983. A fala do Chefe: Gêneros verbais entre os Kuikuru do Alto Xingu. Cadernos de Estudos Linguísticos 4: 45-72.

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FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1986. Falar Kuikúro. Estudo etnolingüístico de um grupo karibe do Alto Xingu I-II-III. Rio de Janeiro: Ph.D. Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Museu Nacional.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1987. Laudo antropológico: a ocupação indígena da região dos formadores e do alto curso do rio Xingu (Parque Indígena do Xingu). Rio de Janeiro: Museu Nacional.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1989. Forma e significado na poética oral Kuikúro. Amerindia 14: 81-118.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1990a. A ergatividade Kuikuro (Karibe). Algumas propostas de análise. Cadernos de Estudos Lingüísticos 18: 57-78.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1990b. Ergativity and nominativity in Kuikúro and other Carib languages. In Amazonian linguistics: Studies in Lowland American languages. Edited by D. L. Payne, pp. 407-27. Austin: Univer-sity of Texas Press.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1991. Kuikuro: fonologia. In Fonética e fonologia. Panorama fonológico de algumas línguas do mundo. Edited by H. Peixoto Menezes, and M. C. de M. Mollica, pp. 69-71. Rio de Janeiro: Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Faculdade de Letras.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1992. `O aparecimento dos caraíba': para uma história kuikúro e alto-xinguana. In História dos Índios no Brasil. Edited by M. Carneiro da Cunha, pp. 339-56. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, FAPESP, Secretaria Municipal de Cultura.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1993a. A celebração da história nos discursos cerimoniais Kuikúro (Alto Xingu). In Amazônia: Etnologia e História Indígena. Edited by E. B. Viveiros de Castro, and M. Carneiro da Cunha, pp. 95-116. São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo, Núcleo de História indígena.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1993b. A viagem de Ihúmpe: uma estória e uma história kuikúro. Terceira Margem 1: 52-56.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1994. A ergatividade Kuikuro: quadro geral, hipóteses explicativas e uma visão comparativa. Revista Latinoamericana de Estudios Ethnolinguísticos 8: 7-16.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1995. Processos fonológicos em Kuikúro: uma visão auto-segmental. In Estudos Fonológicos das Línguas Indígenas Brasileiras. Edited by L. Wetzels, pp. 53-83. Rio de Janeiro: Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.

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FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1996a. As línguas ergativas e a teoria da gramática. In Anais do I Congresso Internacional da ABRALIN. Pp. 220-226. Salvador: ABRALIN, FINEP, UFBA.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1996b. Mulheres entre os Kuikúro. Revista de Estudos Feministas 1: 35-54.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1997. Tolo kuikúro: diga cantando o que não pode ser dito falando. Invenção do Brasil. Revista do Museu Aberto do Descobrimento 1: 57-64.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1998a. Tolo: Cantos kuikuro. In Las III Jornadas de Lingüística Aborigen 1997. Edited by Marisa Censabella, pp. 415-25. Buenos Aires: Universidade de Buenos Aires, Faculdad de Filosofia y Letras, Instituto de Linguistica.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1998b. O aparecimento dos caraíba’: para uma história kuikuro e alto-xinguana. In História dos Índios no Brasil. Edited by M. Carneiro da Cunha, pp. 339-56. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 1999. Women among the Kuikúro. Revista estudos feministas. Special Issue 1: 205-19.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 2000. Rencontres rituelles dans le Haut-Xingu: la parole du chef. In Les rituels du dialogue. Promenades ethnolinguistiques en terres Amérindiennes. Edited by A. Monod Becquelin, and P. Erikson, pp. 481-509. Nanterre: Société d'Éthnologie.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 2001a. Ele é dos outros: gêneros de fala cantada entre os Kuikuro do Alto Xingu. In Ao encontro da palavra cantada: poesia, música e voz. Edited by C. N. Mattos, E. Travassos, and F. T. d. Medeiros, pp. 40-52. Letras: CNPq.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 2001b. Línguas e Historia no alto Xingu. In Os Povos do Alto Xing:. História e Cultura. Edited by B. Franchetto, and M. Heckenberger, pp. 111-56. Rio de Janeiro: Editora UFRJ.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 2002a. Céu, terra, homens: o calendário Kuikuro. In Idéias matemáticas de povos culturalmente distintos. Edited by M. K. L. Ferreira, pp. 101-18. São Paulo: Global.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 2002b. Kuikuro: uma língua ergativa no ramo meridional da família Karib (Alto Xingu). In Ergatividade na Amazônia I. Edited by F. Queixalós, pp. 15-44. Brasília, Paris: Laboratório de Línguas Indígenas, Centre d'études des langues indigènes d'Amérique.

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FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 2003. L'autre du même: parallélisme et grammaire dans l'art verbal des récits kuikuro (caribe du Haut Xingu, Brésil). Amerindia 28: 213-48.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 2004. Coreferentiality in Kuikuro (Southern Carib, Brazil). In Ergatividade na Amazônia III. Edited by F. Queixalós, pp. 121-38. Brasília, Paris: Laboratório de Línguas Indígenas, Centre d'études des langues indigènes d'Amérique.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 2006. Are Kuikuro roots lexical categories? In Lexical categories and root classes in Amerindian languages. Edited by X. Lois, and V. Vapnarsky, pp. 33-68. Bern [u.a.]: Peter Lang.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 2007. Les marques de la parole vraie en kuikuro, langue caribe du Haut-Xingu (Brésil). In L'Énonciation Médiatisée II. Le traitement épistémologique de l'information: illustrations amérin-diennes et caucasiennes. Edited by Z. Guentchéva, and J. Landaburu, pp. 173-204. Paris, Louvain: Peeters.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 2009. Absolutivo e ergativo pensados a partir do Kuikuro = What Kuikuro can teach us about absolutive and erga-tive. Amerindia 32: 37-56.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 2010. The ergativity effect in Kuikuro (South-ern Carib, Brazil). In Ergativity in Amazonia. Edited by S. Gildea, and F. Queixalós, pp. 121-158. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA 2011. Flûtes des hommes, chants des femmes. Images et relations sonores chez les Kuikuro du Haut-Xingu. Gradhiva 1(13): 94-111.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA. 2012. Línguas ameríndias: modos e caminhos da tradução. Cadernos de Tradução 2(30): 35-61.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA AND D'OLNE CAMPOS, MARCIO. 1987. Kuikuru: Integración Cielo y Tierra en la Economia y en el Ritual. In Etnoastronomias Americanas. Edited by E. Reichel de von Hildebrand, and J. Arias de Greiff, pp. 255-70. Bogotá: Centro Editorial Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

FRANCHETTO, BRUNA, AND MONTAGNANI, TOMMASO. 2012. When Women lost Kagutu Flutes, to sing Tolo was all they had left: Gender Relations among the Kuikuro of Central Brazil as Revealed in Ordeals of Language and Music. Journal of anthropological research 68(3): 339-355.

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FRANCHETTO, BRUNA, AND SANTOS, GÉLSAMA M. F. DOS. 2003b. Natureza dos argumentos e mudança de valência a partir de uma classificação (semântica) dos ‘verbos’ Kuikuro. In Ergatividade na Amazônia II. Edited by F. Queixalós, pp. 101-54. Brasília, Paris: Labo-ratório de Línguas Indígenas, Centre d'études des langues indigènes d'Amérique.

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HECKENBERGER, MICHAEL. 2001a. Estrutura, história e transformação: a cultura xinguana na longue durée, 1000-2000 d.C. In Os Povos do Alto Xingu. História e cultura. Edited by B. Franchetto and M. Heckenberger, pp. 21-61. Rio de Janeiro: Editora UFRJ.

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HECKENBERGER, MICHAEL. 2001b. Epidemias, índios bravos e brancos: contato cultural e ethnogenese no Alto Xingu. In Os Povos do Alto Xingu. História e cultura. Edited by B. Franchetto, and M. Hecken-berger, pp. 77-110. Rio de Janeiro: Editora UFRJ.

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SANTOS, MARA. 2008. As classes morfólogica flexionais da língua kuikuro. LIAMES 8: 105-120.

SCANDIUZZI, PEDRO P. 1997. A dinâmica da contagem de Lahatua Otomo e suas implicações educacionais: uma pesquisa em etnomatemática. Campinas: M.A. Universidade Estadual de Campinas.


SCANDIUZZI, PEDRO P. 2009. Educação indígena/educação escolar indígena: uma relação etnocida em uma pesquisa etno-matemática. Marília: Ph.D. Universidade Estadual Paulista.

VERANI, CIBELE B. L. 1991a. Representações tradicionais da doença entre os Kuikuro. In Medicinas tradicionais e medicina ocidental na Amazônia. Edited by D. Buchillet, pp. 65-88. Belém: MPEG, Cejup.

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VERANI, CIBELE B. L. 1991b. A doença da reclusão no Alto Xingu: estudo de um caso de confronto cultural. Rio de Janeiro: M.A. Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.

VILLAS BÔAS, ORLANDO, AND VILLAS BÔAS, CLAUDIO. 1970. Xingu: os índios, seus mitos. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar.

VILLAS BÔAS, ORLANDO, AND VILLAS BÔAS, CLAUDIO. 1993. Xingu. Quito: Abya-Yala.

VILLAS BÔAS, ORLANDO, AND VILLAS BÔAS, CLAUDIO. 2000. A Arte Dos Pajés. Impressões sobre o universo espiritual do indio xinguanao. São Paulo: Globo.

15 Makushi

Ethnonyms Macuxi, Makuxi, Macushi, Pemon, Macoushi, Macuchi, Macusi, Macuxi, Makuschi Self-designation Pemón Population Brazil, Roraima: 29 931 (2010); Guyana 9500 (2001); Venezuela 81 (2001) Settlement area Brazil: Roraima; Guyana: Potaro-Siparuni and the upper Takutu, the upper Essequibo and the Rupununi savannah Contact history First contact between Europeans and Makushi took place in the 17th cen-tury. In 1725 Carmelite missionaries settled on the lower Rio Branco. The

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Portuguese introduced cattle to the area, established farms and a military presence in 1765 and founded Fort Sao Joaquim. According to Migliazza, the fort had in 1780 “thirty soldiers and a number of Indian militia, most of them Makushi”.43 During an uprising in 1789 the Carmelite mission was destroyed and Fort Sao Joaquim was attacked. Johann Natterer collected a glossary of Makushi words in the first third of the 19 century that Martius then published.44 Around 1830 a British missionary founded a mission on the Mau (Ireng) River and in the second half of the 1830s, Robert Schom-burgk visited the Makushi in Rupununi. The reports of his brother Richard date from the 1840s. Anglican missionary activity led to the emergence and spread of the ‘Ariroya’ cult (‘Hallelujah’ cult) from the Makushi to the Ka-pon and Pemon.

In the 20th century a second wave of missionary incursions followed, in-cluding Catholic missions (Benedictines, Consolata Sisters), the Unevangel-ized Fields Mission, Baptist Mid-Missions, Seventh-Day Adventists and Pentecostalists. Migliazza reported that between 1900 and 1950 an ethnic fusion took place with “remnants of other tribes of the area such as Sapara, Wayumara, Maku, Paraviyana, Paushana, Jarecuna, ingariko, Taurepan and Wapishana. Some of these adopted the name Makushi because of intermar-riage”.45 There still exist mixed villages of Makushi and Wapishana (Ara-wak). These groups were once hostile to one another, but for nearly 200 years they have lived in peaceful coexistence with intermarriages between them. Some villages in Brazil are inhabited by Pemon, Makushi and Wapis-hana. Most Makushi today are bilingual. Those who live in small towns, in agricultural colonies, or on farms, often no longer speak Makushi. ABBOTT, MIRIAM. 1976. Estrutura Oracional da Língua Makúxi. Série

Lingüística 5: 231-66.

ABBOTT, MIRIAM. 1985. Subordinate clauses in Macushi. In Porto Velho Workpapers. Edited by D. L. Fortune, pp. 267. Brasília: Summer Insti-tute of Linguistics.

43 Migliazza 1980: 135, 95-162. 44 Martius 1867, Vol. 2. 45 Migliazza 1980: 134.

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ABBOTT, MIRIAM. 1996. Língua Makuxi - Makuxi maimu: guia para a aprendizagem e dicionário da língua Makuxi. Boa Vista: Diocese de Roraima e Missionários de Scarboro.

ABBOTT, MIRIAM. 2003. Let´s read and write Makusi: A transition manual. Georgetown: Guyana Book Foundation, North Rupununi District De-velopment Board.

ABBOTT, MIRIAM. 2004. My first grammar book. Georgetown: Guyana Book Foundation, North Rupununi District Development Board.


AMODIO, EMANUELE. 1983. Um lugar da saúde na cultura Makuxi. Boletim do Arqivo do Setor Indigenista-Diocese de Roraima 6: 43-71.

AMODIO, EMANUELE. 1984. La construcción de identidad en los sistemas multiétnicos de interacción regional: los pueblos indigenas de la cuenca del rio Branco (Brasil). In Diversidad Cultural y Construccion de ldentidades en America latina y el caribe. Edited by D. Mato, pp. 67-79. Caracas: UnescolNueva Sociedad.

AMODIO, EMANUELE. 1986a. Cose proprie e cose d'altri. Oggeti occidentali, sincretismi e processi acculturativi Fra i Makuxi del Brasile. L'Uomo 10: 67-98.

AMODIO, EMANUELE. 1986b. El Sol Quebrado. Medicina Indígena y Religión Cristiana entre los Makuxi del Brasil. In Antropología y Misioneros. Edited by S. Speiser, A. Calderón, P. Suess, E. Amodio, and J. Bottasso pp. 41-77. Quito: Abya-Yala.

AMODIO, EMANUELE. 1989. La Mitologia Sincretica Makuxi. Textos, análisis y perspectivas. In Las Religiones Amerindias: 500 años después. Edited by J. Botasso, Quito: Abya-Yala.

AMODIO, EMANUELE. 1991. Murei: Saber mítico y bancos chamánicos entre los Makuxí de Brasil. In Los espíritus aliados: chamanismo y curación en los pueblos indios de Sudamérica. Edited by E. Amodio, and J. E. Juncosa, pp. 155-88. Quito: Abya-Yala.

AMODIO, EMANUELE. 1994. La construcción de identidad en los sistemas multiétnicos de interacción regional: los pueblos indígenas de la cuenca del Rio Branco (Brasil). In Teoría y política de la construcción de identidades y diferencias en América Latina y el Caribe. Edited by Daniel Mato, pp. 67-79. Caracas: UNESCO, Editorial Nueva Sociedad.

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AMODIO, EMANUELE, AND PIRA, VICENTE. 1983. Makuxi Maimu. Guias para a aprendizagem e dictionário da língua Makuxi. Boa Vista: Edited by Centro de Documentaçâo das Culturas Indígenas de Roraima.

AMODIO, EMANUELE, AND PIRA, VICENTE. 1996. Makuxi maimu: guia para a aprendizagem e dicionário da língua Makuxi. Boa Vista: Embaixada Britânica, Embaixada de Alemahna.

ANDRELLO, GERALDO L. 1993. Raposa/Serra do Sol: os índios no futuro de Roraima. Boa Vista: CIR.

ANDRELLO, GERALDO L. 1998. Relatório sobre a Terra Indígena São Marcos: histórico e situação geral. São Paulo: Eletronorte.

ARAÚJO, MELVINA. 2006. Do corpo à alma: missionários da Consolata e índios macuxi em Roraima. São Paulo: Associação Editorial Humanitas/Fapesp.

ARAÚJO, MELVINA. 2009. Between Mission, Myths and Tradition. The Production of Texts by and about the Macuxi in Contemporary Brazil. Social Sciences and Missions 22(1): 89-111.

ARDLEY, SHWANA GWENDOLYN. 2005. Seasonal variation in the dietary adequacy of the Rupununi Makushi of Guyana, South America, Calgary: M.A. University of Calgary.

BAINES, STEPHEN G. 2003. Os Índios Makuxi e Wapichana e suas relações com estados nacionais na fronteira Brasil-Guiana. Brasília: Universidade de Brasília, Departamento de Antropologia.

BAINES, STEPHEN G. 2005. Indigenous autonomies and rights on the Brazil-Guyana border: Makushi and Wapishana on an international border. Brasília: Departamento de Antropologia, Universidade de Brasília.

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16 Matipuh

Ethnonyms Matipuhy, Matipu, Mїgїyapei, Wagifїtї Population 149 (2011) Settlement area Brazil: Xingu National Park, Mato Grosso

The Matipuh lived in a village near the confluence of the Kurisevo and Buriti Rivers near a lagoon. In 2002 a second village called Jagamü was built, also on the Kurisevo after a heated conflict. Thus there exist today two Matipuh villages. Contact history When Karl von den Steinen travelled through the upper Xingu region in 1884, the Nahukwá, Kuikuru, Kalapalo and Matipuh were one joint group. GALVÃO, EDUARDO. 1996. Diários do Xingu (1947-1967). In Diários de

campo de Eduardo Galvão: Tenetehara, Kaioa e índios do Xingu. Edited by M. Gonçalves and M. A. Teixeira, pp. 249-381. Rio de Janeiro: UFRJ.

GALVÃO, EDUARDO, AND SIMÕES, MÁRIO F. 1966. Mudança e sobrevivência no Alto Xingu. Revista de Antropologia 14: 37-52.


VERAS, KARIN M. 2000. A dança matipu: corpos, movimentos e comportamentos no ritual xinguano, Florianópolis: M.A. Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina.

WÜRKER, ESTELA. 1999. A saúde da nossa comunidade: povos Matipu, Kalapa-lo e Nahukua. Livro de Ciências-Saúde. São Paulo: ISA.

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17 Nahukwá

Ethnonym Nafuquá, Nahukuá, Nafukwa, Mїgїyapei, Jagamї, Dyagami Population 126 (2011) Settlement area Brazil: Mato Grosso Xingu National Park

The Nahukwa were first mentioned in the late 18th century as resident in several villages along the Rio Kurisevo. Around 1950 only 28 individuals had survived and lived in a shared village and it took until 1960 until a new village near the Kalapalo was built. In 1977 they lived on the eastern side of the Rio Kuluene on the shore of Lake Ipa. Contact history When Karl von den Steinen travelled through the upper Xingu region in 1884, the Nahukwá, Kuikuru, Kalapalo and Matipuh were one joint group. OBERG, KALERVO. 1953. Indian tribes of northern Mato Gross, Brazil.

Smithsonian Institution. Institute of Social Anthropology Publication 15: 69-136.

SCANDIUZZI, PEDRO P 2008. A Numeração Karib no Alto Xingu. Revista Latinoamericana de Etnomatemática 1(2): 75-87.

WÜRKER, ESTELA. 1999. A saúde da nossa comunidade: povos Matipu, Kalapalo e Nahukua. Livro de Ciências-Saúde. São Paulo: ISA.

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18 Pemon

Ethnonyms Pemón, Camaragoto, Kamaragoto, Arecuna, Arekuna, Taurepan Self-designation Pemon means ‘humans’; Arekuna, Taurepan, Kamarakoto describe specific Pemon subgroups, but they all refer to themselves, like the Makushi, as being Pemon.

Internal differentiation The internal differentiation among the Pemon was first described by Koch-Grünberg and continues to be applied today, even if some authors46 ques-tion its relevance. The Kamarakoto live east of Caroni River, the Arekuna live in the northern and north-eastern part of the settlement area and the Taurepan live in the southern part of the settlement area. Population Brazil, Roraima: 751 (2010); Guyana: 475 (1994); Venezuela: 27 157 (2001) Settlement area Brazil: Roraima, Raposo/Sierra de Sol, São Marcos Venezuela: On the Gran Sabana in Bolivar, in the Caroni River valley above Pedro de las Boas and along it tributaries, namely the Carin, lower Paragua, Cyanid, upper Kamuran and Venamo rivers.

46 i.e. Armellada 1943: 13-14.

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The Kapon (Akawaio and Patamona) are the eastern neighbours of the Pemon while the Makushi and the Arawak-speaking Wapishana are settled towards the south. To the west, along the middle Paragua and Caura live the Yekuana. Extensive intertribal trade relations existed already in the colonial period and continue to this day. The Pemon maintain marriage relations with the Makushi, the Akawaio, the Patamona and the Wapishana, Sape and Uruak (Paragua River area) as well as with the criollos. Contact history Spanish missionaries first came into contact with the Pemon in middle of the 18th century. Thomas writes, “reports from the 1770s indicated raiding and hostilities among Pemon in the Carom region, and nineteenth-century reports refer to raiding among the settlements in Roraima area and else-where. No extensive warfare has been reported among the Pemon during the last 200 years, however”.47 The syncretistic ‘Hallelujah’ cult was intro-duced via the Makushi in the second half of the 19th century. Today we can find Capuchin missions (Kavanayen, Kamarata, Uonken, Uriman, Santa Elena) and Seveth-Day Adventist settlements (Yuruani, Apoipo, Morok-meru, Maurak) in the region as well as settlements where other indigenous religious movements predominate, such as, for example, Chochimuh and San Miguel.48 In the 1970s the construction of a road through the Gran Sabana that now connects the Venezuelan coast and Manaus on the Ama-zon begun. The Pemon are in permanent contact with national society. Diamond prospectors and ranchers have been living on Pemon lands for decades are also a source of employment for the former. ADAM, LUCIEN. 1888. Examen grammatical comparé de quartorze

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47 Thomas 1994: 271. 48 Thomas 1976b.

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20 Waimiri-Atroari

Ethnonyms Atroahi, Atroahy, Atrohai, Atruahi, Boanari, Bonari, Crichanas, Hiaupiri, Jauapcri, Krixana, Mauaua, Mawawa, U-ah-miri, Uaimeris, Uaimirys, Uamerys, Uas-Sahy, Waimirys, Wuammares, Yaguaperi, Yauaperi Self-designation Kiña, which in its broadest interpretation means ‘humans‘ or ‘Indians‘ and is an antonym to Kamina, which means ‘civilised‘.65 Population 1515 (2011) Settlement area Brazil, Roraima, in the Waimiri-Atroari reserve, villages in Alalau, Camanau and along the Manaus-Boa-Vista road.66 Contact history Reports exist from the 17th and 18th century of slave-hunting expeditions in the area. First missionary activities on the Rio Jauperi then began in the 18th century. Conflicts between Indians and Europeans and the subsequent 65 Silva 1995: 30. 66 Ricardo 1983.

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punitive expeditions against the Indian population have been documented since the mid-19th century. In short, peaceful relations were established in 1884 by Barbosa Rodrigues and in 1911 by Alipio Bandeira. Hübner and Koch-Grünberg (1907) report that in 1905 the governor of Manaus, Constantino Neri, led a punitive expedition “against the ‘rebels’, counting 50 police soldiers under two officers, who according to unfortunately indis-putable reports committed the most hideous atrocities and are said to have killed 300 individuals of both sexes and all ages. (...) On this occasion a large number of Indians were imprisoned in a house and burned alive by these ‘civilised‘ barbarians (...) 18 men and one woman were captured and taken to Manaus“.

Such violence continued well into the last decades of the 20th century. Several ‘Indian Protection Service’ (SPI) and later FUNAI posts were at-tacked or destroyed. When the construction of the highway BR-174, which connects Manaus to Boa Vista, in Waimiri-Atroari territory began in 1968, the FUNAI tried to resettle the Waimiri and their ‘Indian posts’. Many of these attempts ended in bloodshed. Lethal epidemics ravaged among the Indians and wiped out entire villages.67 This was interpreted by the Waimiri as witchcraft and they raided non-Waimiri villages and European settle-ments in response. In the course of the construction of the road from 1968 until 1976, 24 non-Waimiri-Atroari were killed.68 The surviving Waimiri were resettled between 1978-1983 to FUNAI posts. Programmes were implemented that changed the lives of the Waimiri radically. In 1979 the Paranapanema Mining Company arrived on the scene and by 1981 the Waimiri-Atroari had lost a third of their land to the company. In 1987, they had to be resettled from the upper reaches of the Rio Abonari as the Balbina dam flooded the area and left the forest to decay.69 ALBUQERQUE RODRIGUES, RENAN, AND ALDEMIR DE

OLIVEIRA, JOSÉ. 2012. Impactos sociais da desterritorialização na Amazônia brasileira: o caso da hidrelétrica de Balbina. Emancipação 12(1): 35-53.

67 cf. Baines 1994a: 342. 68 Migliazza 1980: 142f. 69 See the work of Baines 1990, 1991a,b, 1994b, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999.

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BAINES, STEPHEN G. 1988. 'É a FUNAI que sabe': a Frente de Atração Waimiri-Atroari, Brasília: Ph.D. University of Brasília.

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BAINES, STEPHEN G. 1990b. Les Waimiri-Atroari et la compagnie Paranapanema. Ethnies 11-12: 33-37.

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BAINES, STEPHEN G. 1991b. “É a FUNAI que sabe”: A Frente de Atração Waimiri-Atoari. Belém: Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi.

BAINES, STEPHEN G. 1991c. Anthropology and commerce in Brazilian Amazonian: research with the Waimiri-Atroari banned. Critique of An-thropology 11: 396-401.

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BAINES, STEPHEN G. 1992b. A Política Indigenista Governamental e os Waimiri-Atroari: Administrações Indigenistas, Mineração de Estanho e a Construção da “Autodeterminação Indígena” Dirigida. Série Antro-pologia 126: 1-28.

BAINES, STEPHEN G. 1993a. Government indigenist policy and the Waimiri-Atroari Indians: Indigenist administrations, tin mining and the construction of di-rected Indian “Self-determination” in Brazilian Amazonia. Brasília: Universidade de Brasília, Departamento de Antropologia.

BAINES, STEPHEN G. 1993b. A política indigenista governamental e os Waimiri-Atroari: administrações indigenistas, mineração de estanho e construção de “Autodeterminação indígena” dirigida. Revista de Antropología 36: 237.

BAINES, STEPHEN G. 1993c. O território dos Waimiri-Atroari e o indigenismo empresarial. Série Antropologia 138: 1-32.

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BAINES, STEPHEN G. 1994b. A usina hidroelétrica de Balbina e o deslocamento compulsório dos Waimiri-Atroari. Série Antropologia 166: 1-15

BAINES, STEPHEN G. 1994c. Epidemics, the Waimiri-Atroari Indians and the Politics of Demography. Série Antropologia 162: 1-38.

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211-28. São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo, Núcleo de História indígena.

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21 Waiwai

Ethnonyms Wai Wai, Ouayeoue, Uaiuai, Waiwe, Woyawai Self-designation Waiwai, ‘Manioc people’

Fusion of various ethnic groups such as the Hixkariyana (Rio Nhamundá 776, 2010), post-contact Karafawyana, Mawayana, Katuema, Shereu. The Waiwai also absorbed the Parukoto. The originally Arawak-speaking Ta-ruma and Mawayana were caribised in the course of the fusion processes. Population Brazil: 2914 (2005); Guyana 170 (2006) Settlement area Brazil, Roraima in Trombetas/Mapuera and Norte do Pará in Nhamundá-Mapuera on the Mapuera, Nhamundá and Novo rivers; Surniname: Upper Essequibo.70

Contact history Robert Schomburgk was the first European to explore the territory of the Waiwai in 1837. He mentioned intertribal marriages and trade already at that time. Contact remained sporadic until the 1940s. Then American mis-sionaries of the Unevangelized Fields Mission established a permanent mission base in Brazil, from where they continued to Guyana in 1949 and established a mission station in Kanashen. They managed to attract most Waiwai, including many of those who first lived in Brazil. Christianity be-came a part of everyday life among the Waiwai, some Waiwai men even becoming missionaries themselves. They travelled in small teams to other

70 Ricardo 1983.

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Indian groups to proselytise them. They thus proselytised among Arawak-speaking Taruma and Mawayana families as well as among the Parukoto-speaking Katuema (Catawian, Catuena, Katwena) of the upper Nhamundá and Mapuera rivers and the Shereu of the upper Cachorro River. These groups soon moved to live with the Waiwai and intermarried. Many Waiwai followed the missionaries in the 1960s and moved to Suriname, from where they proselytised among the Tiriyó and their neighbours, the Wayana. For-eign missionary activity was forbidden in Guyana in 1969, so the missionary activity shifted again to Brazil. Many Waiwai followed the missionaries to Brazil and settled on the upper Mapuera and Kafuini rivers where other small local groups joined them. As Howard (2001) showed, Waiwai under-take expeditions even today to proselytise among groups such as the Karafawyana who have to date been able to avoid establishing permanent contact with the outside world.

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FOCK, NIELS. 1958a. Cultural Aspects and Social functions of the “Oho” Institution among the Waiwai. In Proceedings of the 32. International Con-gress of Americanists 1956. pp. 136-40. Copenhague: Munksgaard.

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22 Wanai

Ethnonym Mapoyo Self-designation Wanai Population 365 (2001) Settlement area Venezuela: Bolivar, between the Caripo and Villacoa rivers, both tributaries of the Orinoco. The settlement area is an enclave tucked in between a number of cattle ranches. Contact history The Wanai were first mentioned in the historical sources in the first half of the 18th century. Jesuit and later Franciscan missionaries began their activi-ties in the 18th and 19th centuries. Their language is nearly extinct as a result of far reaching acculturation, but ethnic identity continues to play an important role:

We are also aware that even to speak of ‘the Mapoyo’ im-plies a definition of an entity that in reality defies definition. Historical accounts refer to several parcialidades, or sub-groups, of which only one, the Palomo community, contin-ues to exist. Intermarriage with members of other ethnic groups, such as the Saliva, Wothuha, Guamo, Pareca, Kari'na, as well as with criollos, further complicates the ethnic definition.71

71 Scaramelli and Tarble 2000: 708.

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MEDINA, FRANCIA. 1997. Introducción a la Fonética y a la Fonología Mapoyo (Caribe), Caracas: B.A. Universidad Central de Venezuela.

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NAVARRO, CARMEN. 2009. Pueblos de Bolívar. Wanai [Mapoyo], Sapé, Akawayo, Sanemá [Sanema], Jodi, Uruak [Arutani], E'ñepá [Eñapá o Panare]. Caracas: Ed. Santillana.

PERERA, MIGUEL A. 1992. Los últimos Wanai (Mapoyos): contribución al conocimiento de otro pueblo amerindio que desaparece. Revista Española de Antropología Americana 22: 139-61.

PÉREZ, HERNÁNDEZ, AND LAKSHMI, ANANDA. 2007. Etnoarqueología del espacio doméstico y comunitario del grupo Mapoyo de la comunidad de El Palomo, Municipio Cedeño, estado Bolívar- Venezuela. Boletín Antropológico 25: 389-405.

SCARAMELLI, FRANZ, AND TARBLE, KAY. 2000. Cultural change and identity in Mapoyo burial practice in the middle Orinoco, Vene-zuela. Ethnohistory 47: 705-29.

SCARAMELLI, FRANZ, AND TARBLE, KAY. 2007. Los Mapoyo (Mopue), en Salud Indígena En Venezuela Tomo II: Eñapa, Kariña, Mapoyo, Pemón, Pumé, Warao. Edited by N.F. German, and A. Tillet, pp. 145-86. Caracas: Ministerio de la Dirección de Salud Indígena.

TAVERA-ACOSTA, BARTOLOMÉ. 1907. En el sur (dialectos indígenas de Venezuela). Ciudad Bolívar: Imprenta y Encuadernación de Benito Jimeno Castro.

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23 Wayana-Apalai

Ethnic Fusion The Wayana and Apalai were originally two groups that today live together in symbiosis. Ethnonyms Apalai: Aparai, Aparahy, Aparay, Appareille, Appiroi, Papalai, Pirixi; Wayana: Waianae, Uaiana, Oyana, Ojana, Upurui, Oepoeroei, Uayana, Rucuyen, Orcocoyana, Orkokoyana, Urucuiana, Alukuyana Self-designation Wayana, Apalai

The word Apalai is of Tupi origin and means ‘small bow’. The Apalai are divided into two subgroups, the Makapai and the Inumi. They merged with the Wayana and are now known under the umbrella ethnonym Wayana-Apalai. The Apalai were in the past called Prixiyana (i.e. ‘parakeet people’) by the Wayana.72 Population Brazil, Pará: Apalai: 402 (2010), Wayana: 308 (2010); Suriname: Apalai 10 (2011), Wayana 500 (2002); French Guiana: Apalai 40 (2011), Wayana 800 (2002) Settlement area The area settled by the Wayana Apalai is between 0°30' and 2°30' north, 54° and 55°30' west. Brazil: Nord du Pará (Parque Tumucumaque on the Paru de Leste, Jari and Citaré rivers); Suriname: upper Maroni, Tapanahoni and Paloemeu rivers; French Guiana (upper Maroni, Lawa and Itany rivers.

72 Rauschert-Alenani 1981: 237, Velthem 1994: 44.

For a more detailed discussion see Magaña 1988d: 8ff, 1992a: 29ff.

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The Apalai live nearly exclusively in Brazil in the Paru de Leste and Tumu-cumaque reserves. In the latter two areas a trend to move from the upper reaches of the Maroni to the lower reaches of the river so as to ensure closer contact with non-indigenous villages can be observed. This is ac-companied by a weakening of traditional contacts with the Wayana in Bra-zil. Several informants said in 2001 that these traditional over-land contacts had in the meantime been abandoned altogether and were partially substi-tuted by air-travel. Contact history The Wayana Apalai were first mentioned in travelogues of the 18th and 19th century.73 According to Magaña, there was no mention of the names of these groups before 1730.74

Travel and research activities in the region have only developed exten-sively in 20th century. Today, numerous reports and descriptions are avail-able. The reconstruction of the histories of the various groups is as Magaña (1986) writes, extremely difficult.75

The Apalai apparently lived south of the Amazon76 and migrated north-ward in the second half of the 18th century with other groups to the mouths of the Paru de Leste and Jari rivers. Since then contact between the Wayana and the Apalai has not always been peaceful.

Wayana villages have existed on the Itany, Maroní and Tapanahoni (French Guiana and Suriname) since the turn of the 20th century as well as on the upper reaches of the Paru and Jari rivers. Several Apalai villages could be found on the lower reaches of the same rivers and the Curuá y

73 Patris 1766-1769, Leblond 1813 [1789], Crévaux 1883, H. Coudreau 1893, O.

Coudreau 1903. 74 Villiers 1920. 75 see also Chapuis 2003. 76 Magaña writes: “It is interesting to observe that the oral traditions of the

Apalai about the habitat of their ancestors (south of the Amazon) agree par-tially with the conclusions of several scholars. In agreement with de Goeje, the Apalai were related to the Bakairi of the upper Xingu (1943a: 338f). One of my informants told me that he had travelled years ago to the Xingu to visit ‘the land of his ancestors’.” (Magaña 1988h: 10).

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Maicuru in Brazil.77 The Apalai ultimately concentrated their settlement activity on the Paru de Leste in the 1960s.

The degree of influence of missionaries on the Wayana Apalai depended on the respective national policies. While missionary activities in both Brazil and Suriname - mainly by Protestants and Baptists, but also by the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) - were quite effective, their influence in French Guiana with its more secularist French policy, was more limited.

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APALAI, CECÌLIA; WAIANA, TUARÌKE, ET AL. 1997. Pake Ahtao Oturutopõpo Poko. Histórias Antiguas dos Aparai-Wayana. Amapá: Centro de Cultura Aparai Waiana.

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BARBOSA, GABRIEL C. 2002. Formas de intercâmbio, circulação de bens e a (re)produção das redes de relações Aparai e Wayana, São Paulo: M.A. Univer-sity of São Paulo.

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77 Nimuendaju 1981 [1944].

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BOURDINEAUD, JEAN-PAUL, ET AL. 2012. Effects of Methylmercury Contained in a Diet Mimicking the Wayana Amerindi-ans Contamination through Fish Consumption: Mercury Accumula-tion, Metallothionein Induction, Gene Expression Variations, and Role of the Chemokine CCL2. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 13: 7710-7738.

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24 Yabanara

Ethnonyms Yavarana Population 292 (2001). Regular intermarriages with Guahibo, Yekuana and Piaroa have been documented. Settlement area Venezuela: Estado Amazonas, Rio Manapiare Contact history First information on the region was collected during a frontier expedition to explore and expand Spanish and Portuguese territories. In 1755 Miguel Sanichez was mandated by a border commission to cross the watershed between the Caura River and the Ventuari. According to his native guide, the indigenous population of the region consisted at that of Yabarana, Areviliana and Maco.

The rubber boom in the second half of the 19th century had a significant impact on the Yabarana. Koch-Grünberg, who travelled the region in 1912,

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found an abandoned territory after the Yabarana had burned their last col-lective roundhouse and retreated into the hinterland, “so as to escape the oppression of the whites”.78

The growing rubber demand during the Second World War resulted in an increasing interest in the region. In addition, other natural resources, such as bauxite, quartz, kaolin, diamonds and uranium were discovered and the savannah itself was found to be ideal for cattle ranching. Between 1940 and 1945 the village of San Juan de Manapiare was established and a new road linking the region to the provincial capital in Pto. Ayacucho was built.79

In 1950 missionaries established the New Tribes Mission among the Yabarana and the Piaroa who had settled in the valley in 1947-1958.80 The so-called “Conquista del Sur” under President Caldera founded a military air connection between Caracas and San Juan de Manapiare in 1969 and started a road construction project to link the cities of Caracas and Caicara, and from there Pijiguao and Pto. Ayacucho, which resulted in the increased influx of above all large landowners (i.e. Hernan Zingg) to the region. Sev-eral indigenous groups, among them the Yekuana and the Piaora and later the Hiwi-Guahibo, had received land titles, but not the Yabarana or Hoti.81

The Yabarana appear to have been divided internally in this struggle for land and therefore unable to reach consensus. Conflicts of interest and various dependencies emerged from the fact that some of them worked on the farms of the large landowners and that some had marriage contacts with the Piaroa or the Yekuana.82 FUCHS, HELMUTH. 1967. Urgent tasks in eastern Venezuela. International

Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research 9: 69-98.

GIORDANI, LOURDES. 1997. Imagining who we were, believing who we are: ethnogenisis among the Yabarana Indians of Venezuela. Madison: Ph.D. Uni-versity of Wisconsin.

78 Koch-Grünberg 1917: 385. 79 Seiler-Baldinger 1989: 77. 80 ibid. 78. 81 ibid. 82 for a more detailed description see Seiler-Baldinger 1989.

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GIORDANI, LOURDES, AND VILLALÓN, MARÍA E. 1995. The Lone Horseman, Exotic Cargo, and Jaguar-Men: Imagining and Experienc-ing the State Among the E'ñapa and Yabarana Peoples of Venezuela. Studies in Third World Societies 56: 1-38.

GONZÁLES TABAREZ, JEYNI. 2009. Paisajes e identidad Yabarana en el contexto del proceso de demarcación territorial indígena venezolano. Revista Venezolana de Economía y Ciencias Sociales 15: 117-36.

GONZÁLES TABAREZ, JEYNI, AND ZENT, STANFORD. 2006. Experiencias en el Proceso de Demarcación de Hábitat y Tierras de las Comunidades Multi-étnicas Yabarana-Jotï-Panare-Piaroa des sector Parucito-Manapiare-Yutaje, Edo. Amazonas, Venezuela. Antropología 105-106: 41-65.

KOCH-GRÜNBERG, THEODOR. 1913. Del Roraima al Atabapo. El Cojo Ilustrado XXII: 182-86.

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25 Yekuana

Ethnonyms Maquiritare, Maiongong, Yekwana, Ye'kuana, Ye'cuana, Yecuana, Dekwana, Dekuana Self-designation Soto Population Brazil, Roraima: 471 (2011); Venezuela 6523 (2001) Settlement area Brazil, northwest Roraima on the Rio Avaris; Venezuela, Bolivar and Amazonas on the Ventuari, Paragua, Erebato, upper Caura and Cunucunuma rivers Contact history First contact with the Spanish only took place in the middle of the 18th century, a result of the relative isolation of Yekuana territory. The Yekuana revolted almost immediately in 1776: “(...) the Yekuana led a coalition of tribes in a rebellion that destroyed all 19 forts in a single night and drove the Spanish out of their territory for what would be nearly 150 years”.83 The Yekuana then established trade relations with the Dutch and undertook trading expeditions as far as the Guyanese coast.

Ramos84 saw three events as vital in the more recent history of the Yekuana: 1) the return of Europeans and 2) the penetration of the Sanumá, a Yanomami subgroup, to the region, and 3) the arrival of Catholic and

83 Guss 1986: 421. 84 Ramos 1977: 109f.

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Protestant missionaries. In a recent contribution Arvelo-Jiménez85 wrote of three historical crises for the Yekuana, these being the aforementioned incursion of the Sanumá on Yekuana territory (ca. 1870 to 1950), the rub-ber boom (ca. 1890 to 1940), which resulted in the enslavement of many Yekuana and the terror of rubber production within the area86 and even led to individual and collective suicide among the Yekuana87, and finally the conflicts that continue to date with the coming of and the competition between Christian sects. The resulting transformation processes affect many aspects of Yekuana life, including economic trade relations, new technologies, religious conversion88, the transformation of social relations and leadership structures, regional networks and settlement patterns. These missions first gained a foothold in the late 1950s. AGUILAR, VLADIMIR. 2011. Emaya etakakpo emana tanno emana Chaktapa.

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85 Arvelo-Jiménez 2000. 86 Arvelo-Jiménez 1971: 93f; Guss 1989: 10f; Ramos 1995: 236. 87 Arvelo-Jiménez 2000: 734. 88 Observant missions from the end of the Spanish colonial period (see Koch-

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26 Yukpa

Ethnonyms Motilone, Motilone mansos, Chaqué, Tupe, Yuko, Yuco, Yucpa, Yupa, Yu'pa, Sape Self-designation Yu'pa Population Venezuela: 10.424 (2001); Colombia: 7819 (2009) (Dusakawi Epsi) Settlement area Sierra de Perijá, the cities of Machiques, Maracaibo, Valledupar, etc. Contact history The first incursion of Europeans in the Sierra de Perijá was the Welser-financed expedition led by Ambrosius Ehinger (called Alfinger or Dalfinger by the Spanish) in 1532. A party was ordered to cross from the eastern Cordillera from the direction of the Magdalena valley. Where exactly this intrusion into the Sierra de Perijá took place remains unclear. The expedi-tion was annihilated. Alonso and Diego de Losada travelled to the territory

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of ‘Motilones’ from Cúcuta in 1550. This event was described in 1627 by Simón89 and thus the name Motilone then was mentioned for the first time.

The Motilone appear again only in the late 17th century when the first Capuchin missionaries settled in the region. Missionary activity continued uninterrupted until the wars of independence in the early 19th century.90 Since the 1750s increased clashes and attacks on the settlements and mis-sions have been reported. It was only in the 1770s that the Spanish estab-lished control, founded new missions and ‘pacified’ much of the region. Spanish pressure increased on the Colombian side of the Sierra de Perijá as well. This led to the founding of the city of Valledupar and several smaller villages at the foot of the Sierra. The Capuchins also established missions on the west side of the Sierra de Perijá.

With the wars of independence (1813-1821) all missionary activity came to a complete halt. The indigenous population regained their autonomy and returned to practising a traditional way of life, although in many cases they tried to maintain contact with the Europeans. But these contacts eroded progressively and finally collapsed in the course of the 19th century.

On the Colombian side of the Sierra a mission station was first re-established in Codazzi in 1910. In 1913 peaceful contact was made with the Indians. In Venezuela the oil boom began in the 1910s, which would trans-form the area completely. The haciendas spread in the fertile plains of the Maracaibo lowland, and in the course of the century violent clashes be-tween them and the Yukpa often took place. In the mid-1940s the Capu-chins built a mission station on the Rio Tukuko91 and developed permanent contact to the Yukpa.

Today the Sierra de Perija and especially its indigenous inhabitants are exposed to a variety of different interests and forces. Large parts of the region on Venezuelan side of the border are threatened by the exploitation of mineral resources.92 Commercial, but mostly illegal logging, is a threat to the Sierra de Perijá National Park. Parts of the Sierra de Perijá are a Co-lombian guerrilla stronghold, and parts of Colombia's Sierra de Perijá were

89 Simón 1882: 379. 90 Alcácer 1962. 91 Armellada 1946, Vegamian 1972. 92 see Halbmayer 1993, 1994.

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reported to be used for growing drugs. Indigenous villages have repeatedly been victims of attempts to fight the drug trade by means of herbicides. ACUÑA DELGADO, ÁNGEL. 1997. Correspondencias simbólicas de la

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