Britain and the Roman Britain and the Roman EmpireEmpire

Intro to European ArchaeologyIntro to European Archaeology13 Dec 201113 Dec 2011

Robert Matthew, University of ManchesterRobert Matthew, University of Manchester

Contact, Collusion and Contact, Collusion and Conquest: Britain and Conquest: Britain and

the Roman Empirethe Roman Empire

People, Place and Power: northern People, Place and Power: northern Europe, Britain and Ireland in the Europe, Britain and Ireland in the

first millennium BCfirst millennium BCAR60142: Lecture 12AR60142: Lecture 12

Robert Matthew, University of Robert Matthew, University of ManchesterManchester

Lecture AimsLecture Aims Time period: Invasion of Caesar in c.55BC to the Time period: Invasion of Caesar in c.55BC to the

construction of Hadrian’s Wall (AD122)construction of Hadrian’s Wall (AD122)

Contact: Iron Age Britain in the Roman world, pre-Contact: Iron Age Britain in the Roman world, pre-conquest; the barbarian as the ‘other’ in conquest; the barbarian as the ‘other’ in historical texts.historical texts.

Collusion: Trade between Britain and the Collusion: Trade between Britain and the continent; conspicuous consumption and diacritical continent; conspicuous consumption and diacritical feasting.feasting.

Conquest: Transition to Roman Britain; invasion Conquest: Transition to Roman Britain; invasion and rebellion; immigrant diasporas – the Roman and rebellion; immigrant diasporas – the Roman military in Britainmilitary in Britain

Theory: Romanization, creolisation, discrepant Theory: Romanization, creolisation, discrepant identitiesidentities

Rome in popular culture…

Studying ancient Rome should be like visiting some teeming capital in a dangerous and ill-governed foreign country; nothing can be relied on, most of what you see is squalid, sinister or unintelligible, and you are disproportionately grateful when you find something you recognise as familiar.T.P Wiseman, 1985 Catullus and His World

Ancient Rome in the Modern World…

The origins of Rome

The Capitoline Wolf

Reconstruction of Rome under the kings

Founded: Developed from a set of Iron Age villages in the 10th century BC (mythical founding date of 753 BC).Ruled by: First kings were village elders. From 7th-6th century BC ruled by Etruscan kings.In 510BC, the last Etruscan king is overthrown by a group of Roman nobles. The Republic, ruled by a pair of Consuls elected yearly, is born.Culture: Etruscan influence gave Rome writing, public buildings, the fasces. The Romans retained their own language, and the city’s influence began to expand across Italy.Wars of conquest: By the period of the Late Republic (mid-1st century BC), Rome had undergone a number of civil wars that had shaken the political core. The provinces were ruled by corrupt governors the Senate was unable to control. Into this milieu an ambitious young politician named Julius Caesar emerged…

Julius Caesar invades Britain – Julius Caesar invades Britain – 55/54BC55/54BC

Took place during Gallic wars – Caesar Took place during Gallic wars – Caesar needed to extend these to avoid prosecution needed to extend these to avoid prosecution by political enemies. Main source: himself by political enemies. Main source: himself ((Gallic WarsGallic Wars))

Caesar emphasised the barbaric nature of Caesar emphasised the barbaric nature of northern societies in his accounts of the northern societies in his accounts of the war (but see Webster 1999)war (but see Webster 1999)

55BC/54BC: Caesar twice lands troops in 55BC/54BC: Caesar twice lands troops in southern Britain. The first time, a storm southern Britain. The first time, a storm disrupts his fleet; the second, Caesar’s disrupts his fleet; the second, Caesar’s five legions met by army of King five legions met by army of King Cassivellaunus (first named person in Cassivellaunus (first named person in British history). Rival kings lead Caesar British history). Rival kings lead Caesar to stronghold of Cassivellaunus.to stronghold of Cassivellaunus.

First known example of literacy in Britain First known example of literacy in Britain – 25 Sep 54BC – letter to Cicero from – 25 Sep 54BC – letter to Cicero from Caesar and Cicero’s brotherCaesar and Cicero’s brother

Political settlement rapidly met with as Political settlement rapidly met with as Caesar came under renewed attack at his Caesar came under renewed attack at his beachhead, in Gaul and in Rome.beachhead, in Gaul and in Rome.

Tacitus, Tacitus, Agricola Agricola 13 ‘…it is now clear that 13 ‘…it is now clear that his achievement was not in the conquest of his achievement was not in the conquest of Britain, but an indication of how it might Britain, but an indication of how it might be done.’be done.’

Caesar returned to Rome following conquest Caesar returned to Rome following conquest of Gaul, and after eliminating his of Gaul, and after eliminating his competition, effected many constitutional competition, effected many constitutional changes within Rome – as well as changes within Rome – as well as establishing the modern calendar…establishing the modern calendar…

A month after being declared ‘Dictator for A month after being declared ‘Dictator for Life’, is assassinated in 44BC. The Life’, is assassinated in 44BC. The Republic is effectively finished.Republic is effectively finished.

Julius Caesar (100-44 BC): general, statesman, author, dictator for life, rampant self-publicist

Invasion of Claudius: AD 43Invasion of Claudius: AD 43 Following assassination of Gaius Following assassination of Gaius

(Caligula) in AD41, Claudius made Emperor (Caligula) in AD41, Claudius made Emperor by Praetorian guardby Praetorian guard

A scholar not a soldier! Limp and A scholar not a soldier! Limp and slightly deaf.slightly deaf.

Britain remained on cusp of Empire; Britain remained on cusp of Empire; victory would give Claudius military victory would give Claudius military credibility and popular Triumph. Verica credibility and popular Triumph. Verica provided pretext.provided pretext.

Skewed understanding of geography of Skewed understanding of geography of Britain (i.e. Tacitus) increased Britain (i.e. Tacitus) increased strategic importance of Britain – strategic importance of Britain – believed to be rich in minerals and believed to be rich in minerals and slaves.slaves.

Invasion force led by Aulus Plautius – Invasion force led by Aulus Plautius – senior senator. Consisted of 4 legions senior senator. Consisted of 4 legions and detachments, and auxiliaries. Total and detachments, and auxiliaries. Total invasion size – 45,000 men.invasion size – 45,000 men.

Twice the size of William the Conqueror’s Twice the size of William the Conqueror’s army...army...

Landed in Kent at Richborough.Landed in Kent at Richborough. Invasion met little resistance at first. Invasion met little resistance at first.

Caratacus and Togodumnus engaged Roman Caratacus and Togodumnus engaged Roman forces at River Medway.forces at River Medway.

After two day battle Claudius was sent After two day battle Claudius was sent for; arrived with war elephants and heavy for; arrived with war elephants and heavy artillery. Led the army to the capture artillery. Led the army to the capture of Colchester (Camulodunum). (“Mission of Colchester (Camulodunum). (“Mission Accomplished” )Accomplished” )

Aulus Plautius left with instructions to Aulus Plautius left with instructions to ‘conquer the rest’.‘conquer the rest’.

Claudius’ victory celebrated in Claudius’ victory celebrated in propaganda – relief in Aphrodisias, coins propaganda – relief in Aphrodisias, coins showing triumphal arch – this celebrated showing triumphal arch – this celebrated the surrender of 11 British kings to the surrender of 11 British kings to ClaudiusClaudius

Britain AD 43 – not one unified people…Britain AD 43 – not one unified people…Tacitus, Agricola 11 – Who were the original inhabitants of Britain, whether they were indigenous or foreign, is, as usual among barbarians, little known. Their physical characteristics are various and from these conclusions may be drawn. The red hair and large limbs of the inhabitants of Caledonia point clearly to a German origin. The dark complexion of the Silures, their usually curly hair, and the fact that Spain is the opposite shore to them, are an evidence that Iberians of a former date crossed over and occupied these parts. Those who are nearest to the Gauls are also like them, either from the permanent influence of original descent, or, because in countries which run out so far to meet each other, climate has produced similar physical qualities.

Cassius Dio Roman History 50:19: So it was that Plautius undertook the expedition, though he had difficulty in getting his army to leave Gaul, since the troops were indignant at the prospect of campaigning outside the known world…

The conquest of Britain, 1The conquest of Britain, 1stst C. AD: a tale C. AD: a tale of two queens of two queens

Boudica: Boudica: Wife of Prasutagus, the king of Wife of Prasutagus, the king of the Iceni people. When he died in AD60, the Iceni people. When he died in AD60, the imperial procurator (tax-collector) the imperial procurator (tax-collector) Decius Catus called in loans made by Rome, Decius Catus called in loans made by Rome, and moved to annexe kingdom as if and moved to annexe kingdom as if conquered.conquered.

Boudica Boudica was flogged, her daughters raped. was flogged, her daughters raped. According to Tacitus and Cassius Dio, swore According to Tacitus and Cassius Dio, swore vengeance against Romans – allied with vengeance against Romans – allied with Trinovantes and destroyed Colchester, Trinovantes and destroyed Colchester, London, and St Albans.London, and St Albans.

Governor (military commander) Suetonius Governor (military commander) Suetonius Paulinus busy fighting against inhabitants Paulinus busy fighting against inhabitants of Mona (Anglesey) in North Wales.of Mona (Anglesey) in North Wales.

Hurried south to face Boudica – destroyed Hurried south to face Boudica – destroyed her army of c.100,000 warriors. Boudica her army of c.100,000 warriors. Boudica committed suicide.committed suicide.

Cartimandua:Cartimandua: First named queen of Britain, First named queen of Britain, ruling over the collected tribes of the ruling over the collected tribes of the BrigantesBrigantes. . Best known for surrendering Best known for surrendering Caratacus to the Romans, and keeping the Caratacus to the Romans, and keeping the Brigantes out of the Boudican revolt. Client Brigantes out of the Boudican revolt. Client queen of Rome – exchanged freedom for security. queen of Rome – exchanged freedom for security.

TacitusTacitus attacks her for details of her personal attacks her for details of her personal life – she divorced her husband Venutius in life – she divorced her husband Venutius in AD57, and married his armour bearer. Venutius AD57, and married his armour bearer. Venutius led revolts against her, causing Rome to send led revolts against her, causing Rome to send auxiliaries to her defence. Again in AD69 – auxiliaries to her defence. Again in AD69 – Cartimandua forced to flee with new husband, Cartimandua forced to flee with new husband, Rome conquers Brigantian land.Rome conquers Brigantian land.

Traitor or defender of her people? Little Traitor or defender of her people? Little remembered in comparison to Boudica.remembered in comparison to Boudica.

Oppida to urbesOppida to urbes Oppidum: Oppidum: The name given by The name given by

Romans such as Caesar to the Romans such as Caesar to the enclosed settlements of enclosed settlements of northern Europe, such as hill northern Europe, such as hill forts.forts.

In Britain, famous examples In Britain, famous examples include Hod Hill and Maiden include Hod Hill and Maiden Castle in Dorset, and Castle in Dorset, and Verlamion (St. Albans).Verlamion (St. Albans).

Romans co-opted many of these Romans co-opted many of these to form towns, or to form towns, or urbesurbes, the , the basis of Roman civilizationbasis of Roman civilization

Verlamion -> Verulamium Verlamion -> Verulamium (burned down by Boudica)(burned down by Boudica)

Existing political networks Existing political networks maintained but Roman style of maintained but Roman style of living encouraged – towns living encouraged – towns were centre of trade and were centre of trade and means of demonstrating means of demonstrating political power through Roman political power through Roman architecturearchitecture

Only about 10% of population Only about 10% of population lived in towns, however lived in towns, however (Mattingly 2011)(Mattingly 2011)

Calleva Atrebatum (or Silchester Roman Town)

Maiden Castle, Dorset

Roman TownsRoman Towns

Pompeii – destroyed AD79 Timgad, Algeria – founded around AD100

Roman Canterbury Venta Icenorum– built for the displaced Iceni tribe (shown in AD300 – the walls a later addition)

Changes to the British landscape: Villas

Fishbourne Villa (AD72)

Lullingstone Villa, Kent (Begun around AD100, shown at full extent in AD360)

Great Witcombe villa (AD250)

Villas: The stately homes of Roman Britain. Heavily influenced by Mediterranean architecture.

Slow to gain popularity in Britain. Fishbourne unusual in 1st C date; most are third century at fullest extent.

Concentrated in south and east. Only around 1-2% of Roman Britons lived in villas.

Business as usual: the 90% occupying Britain

Roundhouses: As in Iron age, the majority of the population of Roman Britain lived in (relatively) simple roundhouses.

Much less archaeologically visible than stone-foundation villas, forts and towns.

Would still have been affected by Roman presence to some degree – subject to controls over land, taxation, access via roads, trading connections controlled and monitored.Reconstruction of Romano-British roundhouse, near Poulton (2nd C AD)

CG reconstruction of Forcegarth farmstead Excavations at Bollihope Common, Co Durham

The forts of Hadrian’s WallThe forts of Hadrian’s Wall

Milecastles : Situated every Roman mile along the Wall (regardless of how suitable terrain was). Had a garrison of 20-30 soldiers, and acted as customs points at gateways through the frontier. (MC39 shown with generic reconstruction)Forts: Housed 500-1000 auxiliary soldiers, depending on whether the units were infantry, cavalry, or a mix. (Housesteads fort shown with reconstruction)

Chester: Remains of a Roman city

-The outline of the legionary fortress ‘Deva Victrix’ (founded AD79) is still visible in the plan of Chester today – the Via Praetoria and Via Principia follow the original street line, and the place occupied by the principia can still be seen.-’Chester’ comes from Latin term castra, meaning fortress. English towns with ‘-chester’, ‘-cester’, or ‘-caster’ in their name show the presence of a Roman fort. (The ‘old castle’ of Newcastle was also a Roman fort, Pons Aelius.)

Changes to the British landscape: Roads

Blackstone Edge: Rishworth Moor, nr Manchester

The Fosse Way – Tim Taylor

Stanway ‘Warrior’ burialStanway ‘Warrior’ burial

Stanway – 4.5km from Silchester. Stanway – 4.5km from Silchester. Cemetary dated to 50AD.Cemetary dated to 50AD.

Warrior’s grave contains number of Warrior’s grave contains number of ‘feasting’ vessels – from glass serving ‘feasting’ vessels – from glass serving vessels to a dining servicevessels to a dining service

Do these artefacts indicate how power Do these artefacts indicate how power and prestige were negotiated in life?and prestige were negotiated in life?

Michael Dietler 1996: Food and feastingMichael Dietler 1996: Food and feasting Brian Hayden 1996: ‘Triple-A Brian Hayden 1996: ‘Triple-A

personalities -accumulators, personalities -accumulators, aggrandisers and acquisitors’aggrandisers and acquisitors’

Karen Meadows – criticised application Karen Meadows – criticised application of Romanisation to pre-conquest trading of Romanisation to pre-conquest trading

Roman FoodRoman Food

New Foods: Hard cheese, garlic, onions, shallots, leeks, cabbages, peas, celery, turnips, radishes, asparagus, cucumber, rosemary, thyme, bay, basil, savoury mint, wholemeal bread, walnuts, sweet chestnuts, grapes, mulberries, cherries, cultivated apples.New livestock: New breeds of cattle, guinea fowl, chickens, rabbits (Spanish breed unsuited for wild living), brown hare and pheasants (game).Imports: Olive oil, garum (yum!), wine, pepper, ginger and cinnamon.

‘‘Doctor’ burialDoctor’ burial

Finds associated with ‘Doctor’ burial:Surgical set: one of the earliest surviving examples from the Roman world. Demonstrates advanced medical skill and knowledge – but likely predates the conquest of Britain. Demonstrates communication of ideas and material culture, but also local adoption of classical concepts of medicine…Gaming board: initially interpreted as a ludus latrunculorum (‘the game of brigands’ – precursor to Go and Chess) – has also been interpreted as Irish fidhcheall (or Welsh gwyddbwll), or a Roman-British composite of the two.

Dress and identity in Roman Britain

“The result was that in place of distaste for the Latin language came a passion to command it. In the same way, our national dress came into favor and the toga was everywhere to be seen…” Tacitus, Agricola 21

The toga: 6m long, worn over aTunic. Could be worn only by citizens(but was too bulky to be practical)

The sagum: a simple woollen cloak,It was associated with soldiers and war.

The genii cucullati of Housesteads-wearing the birrus or cucullus Which was Britain’s national dress

Art and Power in Roman BritainMortimer Wheeler, Mortimer Wheeler, Roman Art and ArchitectureRoman Art and Architecture,, 1974:216-7 1974:216-7

“Classical art, as a product of the amiable climate of the “Classical art, as a product of the amiable climate of the Mediterranean, was actively and uninhibitedly concerned with the Mediterranean, was actively and uninhibitedly concerned with the human body, exposed or lightly clad. The Celtic artist, in the human body, exposed or lightly clad. The Celtic artist, in the damp and hostile gloom of the northern forests, gave little thought damp and hostile gloom of the northern forests, gave little thought to shivering, encased humanity. His mind turned from unattractive to shivering, encased humanity. His mind turned from unattractive reality to abstract pattern, and his idiosyncrasy was for bold and reality to abstract pattern, and his idiosyncrasy was for bold and eccentric curves, pivoted upon emphatic points of design or colour. eccentric curves, pivoted upon emphatic points of design or colour. If, as on rare occasions, a reminiscence of human or animal form If, as on rare occasions, a reminiscence of human or animal form found its way into this kaleidoscope, it was twisted at once into found its way into this kaleidoscope, it was twisted at once into conformity with the abstract rhythm...Under the impact of the conformity with the abstract rhythm...Under the impact of the Mediterranean tradition, this northern decor eventually, for the Mediterranean tradition, this northern decor eventually, for the most part, gave up the struggle and lapsed into childish most part, gave up the struggle and lapsed into childish inefficacy.”inefficacy.”

Art and power: Verism in Late Republican Rome

Images of the Emperors – classicism to verism

Bust of Caracalla (AD217-230)

Augustus of Primaporta (20BC)

Claudius and Britannia, Aphrodisias (c.AD43)

Antoninus Pius (cAD138-161)Vespasian (AD9-79)

Romans and the 'Imperial Mission’Romans and the 'Imperial Mission’ HumanitasHumanitas: To the Romans encapsulated what it meant to be Roman. : To the Romans encapsulated what it meant to be Roman.

The idealised virtues of the upper class; the The idealised virtues of the upper class; the equeseques and the and the Senators. In contrast to the Greeks, Romans believed that Roman Senators. In contrast to the Greeks, Romans believed that Roman citizenship – and hence, civilization – could potentially be open citizenship – and hence, civilization – could potentially be open to all.to all.

‘‘...a land nourished by all, and yet parent of all lands, chosen by ...a land nourished by all, and yet parent of all lands, chosen by the power of the gods to make heaven even more splendid, the power of the gods to make heaven even more splendid, to gather to gather together the scattered realms and to soften their customs and unite together the scattered realms and to soften their customs and unite the discordant wild tongues of so many peoples into a common speech the discordant wild tongues of so many peoples into a common speech so that they might understand each other, and to give civilization so that they might understand each other, and to give civilization to mankindto mankind, in short to become the homeland of every people in the , in short to become the homeland of every people in the entire world’– Pliny entire world’– Pliny NH NH 3.39, writing in the first century AD.3.39, writing in the first century AD.

‘‘Remember, Roman, these are your skills: to rule over peoples, to Remember, Roman, these are your skills: to rule over peoples, to impose morality, to spare your subjects and to conquer the proud’impose morality, to spare your subjects and to conquer the proud’– – Virgil, Virgil, Aeneid Aeneid 6.8516.851

‘Step by step [the Britons] were led to things which dispose to vice, the lounge, the bath, the elegant banquet. All this in their ignorance, they called civilization, when it was but a part of their servitude. – Tacitus, Agricola 21

'The Golden Ages are back, now a new generation is let down from Heaven above‘ –excerpt from the Fourth Eclogue of Virgil referenced on the coins of Carausius during the 3rd century crisis – a reference to the glory days of the Roman Empire.

These quotes have given the impression that Rome sought These quotes have given the impression that Rome sought specifically to ‘Romanise’ her provinces, to enforce Roman rule and specifically to ‘Romanise’ her provinces, to enforce Roman rule and beliefs. But what was the significance of ‘Roman’ identity in beliefs. But what was the significance of ‘Roman’ identity in these contexts?these contexts?

Roman Britain: early history of studyDuring the Tudor and Jacobean periods,

Britain’s Roman past was viewed with some ambivalence, due to the contemporary power of that city.

The later 16th century saw a rise in colonialism and with it a corresponding interest in Britain’s own colonial past.

William Camden (1551-1623): Author of Britannia. Published in Latin in 1586 and in English in 1610, the book was intended as an authoritative history of Britain’s past, based on Roman texts.

John Speed (c1551-1629): Cartographer and creator of the Theatre of the Empire of Great Britaine and The Historie of Great Britaine (1611). First atlas of Britain, and developed on Camden’s ideas by plotting Roman sites in the landscape, using material evidence such as coins.

William Roy (1726-1790): Scottish retired general who between 1747 and 1773 surveyed the military zone of northern Britain.

William Camden John Speed

John Speed’s depiction of Iron Age men and women…

Roman history in modern Europe

Edward Gibbon (1737-1794): English MP and historian.

Most famous work is The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788.

He made heavy use of primary sources, but was especially controversial for his association of Christianity with the decline of a great empire.

Inspired in his project by a visit to Rome on his Grand Tour - Stendhal syndrome indicated by his strong emotional reaction to the experience? (“...at the distance of twenty-five years I can neither forget nor express the strong emotions which agitated my mind as I first approached and entered the eternal City.”)

His legacy was the establishment of a historical narrative of Rome that addressed its character as an Empire.

Roman British archaeology: the German

influence Theodor Mommsen (1817-1903): German

Classical scholar, historian, jurist, journalist, politician, and archaeologist.

Published over 1500 works over the course of his life, but his most famous work related to Roman history.

His most significant work involved the collection of all known Roman inscriptions in the Corpus Inscriptorum Latinorum.

A strong German nationalist, he drew parallels between Republican Rome and the emergence in the 19th century of the nation-state, of modern democracy – and of imperialism.

A figure of enormous international importance and influence within Roman archaeology.

Theory, colonialism, and the study of Roman Britain

Romanisation: Romanisation: Term devised by Theodor Mommsen but first Term devised by Theodor Mommsen but first used in relation to Britain by Francis Haverfield used in relation to Britain by Francis Haverfield (1860-1919) in (1860-1919) in The Romanization of Roman Britain The Romanization of Roman Britain (1906).(1906).

Two conclusions: "Firstly, Romanization in general Two conclusions: "Firstly, Romanization in general extinguished the distinction between Roman and extinguished the distinction between Roman and provincial, alike in material culture, politics and provincial, alike in material culture, politics and language. Secondly it did not everywhere and at once language. Secondly it did not everywhere and at once destroy all traces of tribal and national sentiments destroy all traces of tribal and national sentiments or fashions.“ (1923:18) – paradox?or fashions.“ (1923:18) – paradox?

"One uniform fashion spread from the Mediterranean "One uniform fashion spread from the Mediterranean throughout central and western Europe, driving out throughout central and western Europe, driving out native art and substituting a conventional copy of native art and substituting a conventional copy of Graeco-Roman or Italian art, which is characterized Graeco-Roman or Italian art, which is characterized alike by technical finish and neatness, and by lack of alike by technical finish and neatness, and by lack of originality and dependence on imitation.” (1923:19)originality and dependence on imitation.” (1923:19)

A view of acculturation – focused on the adoption of A view of acculturation – focused on the adoption of Roman traits by natives, esp. elites (c.f. Tacitus). Roman traits by natives, esp. elites (c.f. Tacitus). Dominant focus of study of Roman Britain through 1920s Dominant focus of study of Roman Britain through 1920s -1960s-1960s

Fusion: development of Romanization

Fusion: Fusion: R.G. Collingwood (1889-1943). R.G. Collingwood (1889-1943). Philosopher and historian – author of Philosopher and historian – author of Roman Roman BritainBritain (1932) (1932)

Countered Haverfield’s Romanisation, arguing Countered Haverfield’s Romanisation, arguing that it was too simplistic to assert that that it was too simplistic to assert that there was a straightforward transition from there was a straightforward transition from ‘Celtic’ to ‘Roman’ society.‘Celtic’ to ‘Roman’ society.

Argued instead for a syncretistic or hybrid Argued instead for a syncretistic or hybrid view of culture – rather than ‘Roman’ in view of culture – rather than ‘Roman’ in opposition to ‘British’, should think of opposition to ‘British’, should think of ‘Roman-Britain’ – a fusion of the two.‘Roman-Britain’ – a fusion of the two.

However, uses the same ‘sliding-scale’ as However, uses the same ‘sliding-scale’ as Haverfield; cultural change quicker amongst Haverfield; cultural change quicker amongst higher classes than lower classes. higher classes than lower classes.

Both approaches based on unproblematic shift in Both approaches based on unproblematic shift in culture shift, with the ‘Roman’ side seen as culture shift, with the ‘Roman’ side seen as more advanced and therefore inherently more advanced and therefore inherently preferable – an ultimate goal for everyone.preferable – an ultimate goal for everyone.

Romanization: the Nativist responseRomanization: the Nativist response The Nativist backlash: The Nativist backlash: 1970s-1980s1970s-1980s In the 70s and 80s a growing body of In the 70s and 80s a growing body of

scholars (e.g. Richard Reece (scholars (e.g. Richard Reece (My My Roman Roman Britain, 1988) and Richard Britain, 1988) and Richard Hingley (1989)) took a drastically Hingley (1989)) took a drastically different approach to Roman Britain. different approach to Roman Britain. Agency for change restored to the Agency for change restored to the Britons.Britons.

The Roman presence in Britain was The Roman presence in Britain was recast as a thin veneer over a recast as a thin veneer over a largely unchanged Celtic society; largely unchanged Celtic society; visible in slow uptake of Latin and visible in slow uptake of Latin and the rapid withdrawal from towns in the rapid withdrawal from towns in the late- and post-Roman periods.the late- and post-Roman periods.

Based on the concept of a ‘British Based on the concept of a ‘British way, which most people in Britain way, which most people in Britain followed before Romanization began, followed before Romanization began, kept to while Romanization was in kept to while Romanization was in full flood, and which came back into full flood, and which came back into fashion, or rather became the general fashion, or rather became the general way, when Romanization was no more way, when Romanization was no more than a symmetrical memory.’ (Reece than a symmetrical memory.’ (Reece 1988:74)1988:74)

BUT as with Romanisation was based on BUT as with Romanisation was based on dichotomous opposition of ‘Roman’ and dichotomous opposition of ‘Roman’ and ‘British’.‘British’.

Romano-British roundhouse interior

Roman archaeology and theory…

Romanisation: Recent critical Romanisation: Recent critical responses and theoretical developmentsresponses and theoretical developments

The 1990s and TRAC: The 1990s and TRAC: First Theoretical Roman First Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference held at Newcastle in Archaeology Conference held at Newcastle in 1990 – 11 years after first TAG conference.1990 – 11 years after first TAG conference.

Romanisation: Romanisation: Martin Millett (1990). Argued Martin Millett (1990). Argued that ‘romanisation’ was an active process in that ‘romanisation’ was an active process in which Roman material culture was adopted as which Roman material culture was adopted as a means of demonstrating status within a a means of demonstrating status within a society – was not deliberately imposed by society – was not deliberately imposed by Romans on a society.Romans on a society.

Creolisation: Creolisation: Jane Webster (2001). Webster Jane Webster (2001). Webster argues that post-colonial studies in the argues that post-colonial studies in the Americas left ‘Romanisation’ advocates Americas left ‘Romanisation’ advocates behind. Creolisation – the blending of behind. Creolisation – the blending of material cultures in a non-egalitarian material cultures in a non-egalitarian context. In essence, context. In essence, resistant resistant adaptation.adaptation.

Discrepant Identities: Discrepant Identities: David Mattingly David Mattingly (2004, 2006, 2011). Mattingly puts the nail (2004, 2006, 2011). Mattingly puts the nail in the coffin? Calls for wholesale in the coffin? Calls for wholesale rejection of the term, which is compromised rejection of the term, which is compromised by its origins and simplistic application.by its origins and simplistic application.

Current scholarship tends to avoid the term, Current scholarship tends to avoid the term, or use it in a very qualified sense as a or use it in a very qualified sense as a problematic term.problematic term.

Religious syncretism in Roman Britain

The adoption of artistic elements from the Roman world meant that the worship of original gods could continue, in recognisably Roman ways.

“Creolization, as a way to model these complex processes, allows us to reevaluate these images as the active material culture through which new social identities were formed.” (Webster 1999:223)

The head of Sulis Minerva, from Aquae Sulis (Bath)

The head of Antenociticus(Benwell)

Anthropomorphised representation of the horseGoddess Epona (Kongen, AD200)

Written evidence: Curse tabletsWritten evidence: Curse tablets

Roman Britain is unusual for its large surviving corpus of curse tablets (defixio). Small messages inscribed onto sheets of lead or pewter – entreaties to the gods, written in legal prose.

250+ discovered, out of c.500 known from across the empire. Centred on the sacred spring at Bath (100+ tablets) and at the rural shrine of Uley (87 examples), but found throughout the south and midlands of England.

Written in Old roman Cursive, which suggests that they have a second/third century AD provenance.

Written by civilians – therefore especially important source in context of Roman Britain, where most evidence of literature is associated with the military. Suggests broader spread of literacy.

British tablets are unusual for emphasis on crime – it is thieves of property who are the target (often small items perhaps lost whilst bathing at Bath).

Associated with use of magic in ancient world. Deposition was a powerful act that may have offered some comfort to victims – and potentially shamed the accused before their communities.

Requested punishment often takes form of disease. Typically directed at Mars or Mercury.

http://curses.csad.ox.ac.uk/

To the god Mercury (from) Docilinus . . . Varianus and Peregrina and Sabinianus who have brought evil harm on my beast and are . . . I ask you that you drive them to the greatest death, and do not allow them health or sleep unless they redeem from you what they have administered to me. (Uley 43)

Lady Nemesis, I give thee a cloak and a pair of boots; let him who wore them not redeem them except with his life and blood.

Honoratus to the holy god Mercury. I complain to your divinity that I have lost two wheels and four cows and many small belongings from my house.I would ask the genius of your divinity that you do not allow health to the person who has done me wrong, nor allow him to lie or sit or drink or eat, whether he is man or woman, whether boy or girl, whether slave or free, unless he brings my property to me and is reconciled with me. With renewed prayers I ask your divinity that my petition may immediately make me vindicated by your majesty. (Uley 72)

Simon James’ reconception of the Roman military community (2001)

‘Regina, the freedwoman of Barates, alas’ – discrepant identity in South Shields

RIB 1065: The tombstone of Regina from RIB 1065: The tombstone of Regina from South Shields, Her husband was a South Shields, Her husband was a Syrian soldier, or trader connected to Syrian soldier, or trader connected to the military. Often presented as a the military. Often presented as a 'typical Roman woman', but her 'typical Roman woman', but her identity was far more complex than identity was far more complex than that.that.David Mattingly David Mattingly has used her to has used her to demonstrate the complex of identity in demonstrate the complex of identity in a military community by pointing out a military community by pointing out the discrepant aspects.the discrepant aspects.Status: Status: Freedwoman, non-citizen.Freedwoman, non-citizen.Wealth: Wealth: Modest but with aspirationsModest but with aspirationsLocation: Location: Northern frontierNorthern frontierEmployment: Employment: Slave, then wifeSlave, then wifeReligion: Religion: PaganPaganOrigin: Origin: Catevellaunian (other end of Catevellaunian (other end of country)country)Links to Roman state: Links to Roman state: Part of broader Part of broader military communitymilitary communityLanguage: Language: Trilingual – British, Latin, Trilingual – British, Latin, Palmyrene.Palmyrene.Gender: Gender: FemaleFemaleAge: Age: Middle aged (30)Middle aged (30)-Mattingly 2004: 11-Mattingly 2004: 11

Case Study: The Batavian auxiliaries Case Study: The Batavian auxiliaries of Vindolandaof Vindolanda

The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis, Rembrandt 1661-2 – revolt of AD69

The Organisation of the Roman Military – the LegionsThe Organisation of the Roman Military – the Legions

Legionary soldier: c AD100

The legionary was the mainstay of The legionary was the mainstay of the Roman military. He was a the Roman military. He was a citizen of Rome under the age of citizen of Rome under the age of 45.45.

Following Augustan reforms of Following Augustan reforms of 30BC-AD14, the legionary was 30BC-AD14, the legionary was required to serve 25 years, but required to serve 25 years, but on retirement received a sum of on retirement received a sum of money and/or land.money and/or land.

In the Imperial period legions In the Imperial period legions consisted of around 5,200 consisted of around 5,200 legionaries, organised into legionaries, organised into cohorts (480-800 men), centuries cohorts (480-800 men), centuries (80 men), and (80 men), and contuberniacontubernia (8 men). (8 men).

Did not just fight – many Did not just fight – many legionaries had practical skills legionaries had practical skills from carpentry and metalworking from carpentry and metalworking to surgery and literacy that to surgery and literacy that excused them from menial tasks excused them from menial tasks ((immunesimmunes).).

Responsible for construction of Responsible for construction of Hadrian’s Wall – architectural Hadrian’s Wall – architectural and surveying skills also put to and surveying skills also put to use in towns and villas around use in towns and villas around empire.empire.

In Britain were generally based In Britain were generally based at legionary fortresses of York, at legionary fortresses of York, Caerleon, ChesterCaerleon, Chester

The Organisation of the Roman Military – The Organisation of the Roman Military – the Auxiliariesthe Auxiliaries

The auxiliaries of the Roman The auxiliaries of the Roman military were non-citizen military were non-citizen soldiers (until AD212) recruited soldiers (until AD212) recruited from the frontier provinces of from the frontier provinces of the empire.the empire.

Like legionaries served for 25 Like legionaries served for 25 years, but at the end were years, but at the end were awarded citizenship. Highest awarded citizenship. Highest level of organisation for level of organisation for infantry was the cohort, 480-1000 infantry was the cohort, 480-1000 strong.strong.

Provided skills that the legions Provided skills that the legions lacked, e.g. archers, offensive lacked, e.g. archers, offensive cavalry, slingmen, camel riders… cavalry, slingmen, camel riders… Batavians from the Netherlands Batavians from the Netherlands regarded as superlative fighters regarded as superlative fighters with the ability to swim across with the ability to swim across rivers in full armour.rivers in full armour.

Generally performed policing Generally performed policing duties – garrisoned Hadrian’s duties – garrisoned Hadrian’s Wall.Wall.

Incorporated a wide range of Incorporated a wide range of ethnicities, with units often ethnicities, with units often retaining aspects of their retaining aspects of their original cultural identity.original cultural identity.

Often regarded as the poorer Often regarded as the poorer cousins - in terms of wealth, cousins - in terms of wealth, status, and training - of the status, and training - of the legionaries, but is this fair?legionaries, but is this fair?

The Roman War Machine...The Roman War Machine...

Spartacus (Kubrick, 1960) – the battle scene is an epitome of the mechanical interpretation of the Roman military

The Prussian army of Frederick the Great (18thC): “Our infantry is like Caesar’s!”

The Distribution of the Eagle Standards, Jacques-Louis David (1810)

The Mechanical Army: The Mechanical Army: In the ‘Age In the ‘Age of Reason’ following the of Reason’ following the Enlightenment (17th-19Enlightenment (17th-19thth centuries), the Roman legions centuries), the Roman legions were upheld as the paragon of were upheld as the paragon of military discipline and efficacy military discipline and efficacy (symbolic use by Napoleon – (symbolic use by Napoleon – equated self to Roman Emperors)equated self to Roman Emperors)

Warfare in this period dominated Warfare in this period dominated by the new machines of war – by the new machines of war – cannon and rifles – which cannon and rifles – which required meticulous training and required meticulous training and order to use effectively (e.g. by order to use effectively (e.g. by Frederick II of Prussia)Frederick II of Prussia)

Simon James (2002): Simon James (2002): Argued the Argued the ‘war machine’ analogy was back ‘war machine’ analogy was back projected onto Roman military – projected onto Roman military – cause following effect.cause following effect.

Vindolanda – ‘White Meadow’. Built by Tungrian

auxiliaries, but during Periods 2-3 (AD92-104) was rebuilt and garrisoned by the Ninth Cohort of Batavians.

Cohors equitata – infantry and cavalry unit. After Goormachtigh 2011

After v. Driel Murray et al 1993:iii, fig.1.

Period 3 correspondence of the prefect of the Batavians, Flavius Cerialis, provides insight into the lifestyle and identity of auxiliary elite.

Cerialis, his family and friends (likely of similar rank in nearby forts) communicated with each other through these tablets, as did lower ranking soldiers and even slaves within the fort.

Tab. Vindol. II 225Letter of recommendation by Flavius Cerialis.The style is similar to that seen in the personal letters of Pliny the Younger. ‘... so furnish me with friends that thanks to you I may be able to enjoy a pleasant period of military service.

Tab. Vindol. II 234Letter concerning supply of goodsto September, so that he ‘may endurethe storms, even if they are troublesome’

Tab. Vindol. I 118.Fragment of Aeneid 9.473.

Tab. Vindol. II 291"Claudia Severa to her Lepidina greetings. On 11 September, sister, for the day of the celebration of my birthday, I give you a warm invitation to make sure that you come to us, to make the day more enjoyable for me by your Arrival... (2nd hand) I shall expect you, sister. Farewell, sister, my dearest soul, as I hope to prosper, and hail. (Back, 1st hand) To Sulpicia Lepidina, wife of Cerialis, from Severa."

Tab. Vindol. II 164"... the Britons are unprotected by armour (?). There are very many cavalry. The cavalry do not use swords nor do the wretched Britons mount in order to throw javelins."

Tab. Vindol. II 311Letter from Sollemnis to Paris,greeting him as old messmateand chastising him for not writing more.

Tab. Vindol. II 346Delivery of two pairs of socks, sandals andunderwear. Writer greets messmates of recipient by name.

Tab Vindol 628 – Decurion Masclus asks for clarification of orders and – as an aside – for more beer for his fellow-soldiers as they have none. Indicates that garrisons could be spread thinly; Masclus asks whether his unit should split up.

Batavians in Tacitus’ Batavians in Tacitus’ Germania, History Germania, History and and AnnalsAnnals

Of all these [German] states the outstanding in courage are the Of all these [German] states the outstanding in courage are the Batavi; they do not occupy much of the river-bank, but have the Batavi; they do not occupy much of the river-bank, but have the Rhine island. They were once a sept of the Chatti, but after Rhine island. They were once a sept of the Chatti, but after an internal conflict migrated to their present territory, there an internal conflict migrated to their present territory, there to become a part of the Roman Empire. Their honourable status to become a part of the Roman Empire. Their honourable status and the distinction of the old alliance still remain: they are and the distinction of the old alliance still remain: they are not humiliated by tribute, nor does the tax farmer grind them not humiliated by tribute, nor does the tax farmer grind them down. Exempt from burdens and special contributions and set down. Exempt from burdens and special contributions and set aside exclusively for use in battle, they are reserved, like aside exclusively for use in battle, they are reserved, like spears and other weapons, for war. (spears and other weapons, for war. (Germania Germania 29.1)29.1)

They had long training in our wars with the Germans; then later They had long training in our wars with the Germans; then later they increased their renown by service in Britain, whither some they increased their renown by service in Britain, whither some cohorts were sent, led according to their ancient custom by the cohorts were sent, led according to their ancient custom by the noblest among them. They also had at home a select body of noblest among them. They also had at home a select body of cavalry which excelled in swimming; keeping their arms and cavalry which excelled in swimming; keeping their arms and horses, they crossed the Rhine without breaking formation. horses, they crossed the Rhine without breaking formation. ((Annals Annals 4.12)4.12)

““We are being deprived," they said, "of the help of our bravest We are being deprived," they said, "of the help of our bravest men. Those veteran troops victorious in so many campaigns, now men. Those veteran troops victorious in so many campaigns, now that the enemy is in sight, are withdrawn, so to speak, from that the enemy is in sight, are withdrawn, so to speak, from the very field of battle. If indeed a province be of more the very field of battle. If indeed a province be of more importance than the capital and the safety of the Empire, let importance than the capital and the safety of the Empire, let us all follow them thither, but if the reality, the support, us all follow them thither, but if the reality, the support, the mainstay of success, centre in Italy, you must not tear, as the mainstay of success, centre in Italy, you must not tear, as it were, from a body its very strongest limbs.“ (Legionaries it were, from a body its very strongest limbs.“ (Legionaries protest as Batavians are redeployed during YOFE; protest as Batavians are redeployed during YOFE; History History 2.28).2.28).

AD38-41 to AD102-104Latin poet, born in HispaniaBest known for his Epigrams, a

collection of 12 books published between AD86 and AD103. These satirised life in the city and the behaviour of his compatriots, whilst eulogising his provincial upbringing.

6:82: ‘"Are you, are you really, that Martial, whose lively sallies and jests are known to every one who has not a downright (Batavian)’s ear?" Martial, Epigrams. Book 6. Bohn's Classical Library (1897)

14:172 ‘I am the fancy of the potter, the mask of a red-haired Batavian. This countenance, at which you smile, is an object of terror to children.’

British imperial parallels: Ethnic

Soldiers, Martial RacesCynthia Enloe, Ethnic Soldiers (1984)Heather Streets, Martial Races (2004)-The ‘Gurkha effect’ – a colonial power

stereotypes a subject people as naturally prone to warfare. This aspect of their national character – based on initial encounters in extremis in battle – are exploited by the victorious colonial power.

The subject ‘race’ is described as a ‘martial race’ and therefore are ideal in the role of auxiliary, where their violent natures can be put to best use (whilst denying them total equality with the soldiers of the colonial power)

Exemplified by the Highlanders, the Gurkhas and the Sikh regiments in the British army of the 19th century. Following the Mutiny of 1857, the British army were forced to find new sources of recruits

Gurkha troops in the official militarynewspaper (1896)

A Sikh regiment in WW1 – note the white British officers

The Highlanders – supposedly drew on innate Celtic warrior character, that came fromwildness of homeland. In reality, recruits came from across Britain

Martial races in the British military• Quotes from Streets (2004):• The Gurkhas: ‘The Gurkha, from the warlike qualities of his

forefathers, and the traditions handed down to him of their military prowess as conquerors of the Nepal Valley, is imbued with and cherishes the military spirit…This loyalty to themselves is only equalled by their loyalty to us…’ (Morris 1936)

• The Sikhs: ‘[Sikhs] are very hardy, obedient to dsicipline, faithful and trustworthy…Considering death on the battlefield a means of salvation, it is part of their creed never to turn their backs on a foe…Here we can only state…that they remained faithful to us during the whole of that trying time, and that theirs was no impassive loyalty, for they were eager to be in the thick of the battle and when there acquitted themselves like men.’ (Stuart 1912)

• The Highlanders: ‘In all the sovereign’s wide realms could be found no more chivalrous, brave-souled men [as Highlanders]; nor could they be equalled in those physical qualities which were so much demanded…Their country, with its darksome passes and rugged heights, its treacherous moors and plunging torrents, was to a stranger wild and forbidding. But to them it was a rough training ground, calculated to bring forth all that was robust and manly in their frame.’ (Cromb 1886)

• These accounts concealed a harsh economic reality; living on the imperial margins, these soldiers were pushed, rather than drawn, into military service, into an identity that prescribed how they should dress, act, and think. The pride that came from corporate military identity helped to mitigate the tough living conditions of everyday life in the British military. (Streets 2004:198).

J. Nicolay, Armed Batavians: ‘In this martial world, native leaders presented themselves as military elites and young men were expected to prove themselves as warriors...the military way of life was able to survive thanks to the heavy recruitment of men for the Roman army in the imperial frontier region.’(2007:258)

N. Roymans, Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power: ‘Finally, we should consider the discussion of the ‘multiple identity’ of Batavians. To what extent did the Batavian elite feel Roman and identity themselves with Roman power and culture? ... They will have frequently conducted themselves as Romans, but not at all times and in all situations.’ (2006:234)

Driel –Murray, C.v., ‘Ethnic soldiers’: ‘Tribes targeted for use in ethnic units are the first to feel the effects of any changes in State priorities. Their vulnerability comes sharply into focus once their role is played out: created for strategic reasons, they are abandoned with no consideration for the effects on a society which has adapted and fashioned its economy and social system to answer the expectation of the Imperial Rulers. The Batavians are casualties of empire no less than the Rajputs, Molukkans, and, latterly, the Gurkhas themselves.’ (2003)

Life cycle of a Batavian soldier’s equipmentLife cycle of a Batavian soldier’s equipment

Nicolay, 2007:158, fig. 5.1.

Batavian soldiers utilised military equipment in different ways at different times in their lives.

Ties into Mattingly’s discrepant identities; age is a factor. Weapons and armour are part of communal as well as martial identity.

Hadrian’s WallHadrian’s Wall

The Staffordshire Moorlands cup – an early tourist souvenir? Inscription names four of the Western forts and possibly names the wall as Vallum Aelium (Aelius was Hadrian’s family name)

Built following a visit of the Built following a visit of the Emperor Hadrian in AD122Emperor Hadrian in AD122

‘‘[Hadrian] was the first to [Hadrian] was the first to construct a Wall…to separate the construct a Wall…to separate the barbarians from the Romans’ (barbarians from the Romans’ (de vita de vita Hadriani Hadriani 11,2)11,2)

Followed the line of the existing Followed the line of the existing Stanegate – a supply route running Stanegate – a supply route running across the Tyne-Solway isthmusacross the Tyne-Solway isthmus

80 Roman miles long (73.5 modern), 80 Roman miles long (73.5 modern), built of stone, turf and timber built of stone, turf and timber over a period of six years.over a period of six years.

Much debate over its function: Much debate over its function: Initially seen as a fortified Initially seen as a fortified defence against northern defence against northern barbarians; now seen primarily as barbarians; now seen primarily as a means of controlling population a means of controlling population movement and maintaining Roman law movement and maintaining Roman law and order (see Breeze and Dobson and order (see Breeze and Dobson 2000). 2000).

Work carried out by the three Work carried out by the three legions stationed in Britain at legions stationed in Britain at this time...this time...

...But was garrisoned by auxiliary ...But was garrisoned by auxiliary troops – 9-10 000 of these.troops – 9-10 000 of these.

The Wall, post Rome: Border reivers and Moss-troopers

From the late 13th to early 17th century, the Wall lay in the ‘contested lands’ of the border between England and Scotland, dominated by the warring clans of the ‘border reivers’, also known as the ‘steel bonnets’, referring to their distinctive headgear. (MacDonald Fraser 1995)

Over the 17th century, the mercenary remnants of the Scottish armies disbanded following the War of the Three Kingdoms (1644-51) ensured the region of the Wall remained a dangerous place to enter. William Camden did not survey the length of the Wall for fear of the Moss Troopers.

William Hutton – the Wall explored (1801)

William Hutton (1723-1818): Historian, bookbinder and stocking maker from Birmingham.

In 1801 he became the first person to walk the full length of Hadrian’s Wall in modern times, making the 600 mile round trip on foot. Publishes his experience in his History of the Roman Wall.

Not an antiquarian, but the experience for him was emotive and affecting – he personalised the Wall with the identity of those he believed built them (Agricola, Hadrian, Severus)

First to express concern over the exploitation of the material of the Wall by locals

The Wall preserved – John Clayton (1792-1890)

The Romans cause a wall to be built (1857) William Scott Bell, now in Wallington Hall

John Clayton was a Novocastrian antiquarian and town clerk who during the 1830s bought up much of the land of Hadrian’s Wall, leading excavations and rebuilding sections.

The painting portrays Clayton as a centurion overseeing construction of the original Wall, commemorating his restoration.

Clayton, with the architects John Dobson and Richard Grainger led a neoclassical transformation of the city centre of Newcastle – bringing Roman architectural symbolism into the modern industrial city.

John Collingwood Bruce, and the Hadrian’s Wall pilgrimage

John Collingwood Bruce (1805-1892): Antiquarian and member of the Newcastle Society of Antiquities. In 1848, he took his son and two artists on a tour of Hadrian’s Wall.

On his return, he was so full of praise for the experience that he proposed a ’pilgrimage’ the following year (in the Chaucerian sense).

In 1863 published The Handbook to the Roman Wall – the first ‘tourist guide’ of sorts.

Whilst Hutton’s experience had been deeply personal (and far more arduous), Bruce saw the power of Empire in the Wall, reflecting Romantic ideals of his day.

Hadrian’s Wall in Poetry…

Roman Wall BluesOver the heather the wet wind blows,I've lice in my tunic and a cold in my nose.The rain comes pattering out of the sky,I'm a Wall soldier, I don't know why.The mist creeps over the hard grey stone,My girl's in Tungria; I sleep alone.Aulus goes hanging around her place,I don't like his manners, I don't like his face.Piso's a Christian, he worships a fish;There'd be no kissing if he had his wish.She gave me a ring but I diced it away;I want my girl and I want my pay.When I'm a veteran with only one eyeI shall do nothing but look at the sky.W.H. Auden, October 1937

A British-Roman Song(A.D. 406)

My father's father saw it not, And I, belike, shall never come To look on that so-holy spot –

The very Rome –

Crowned by all Time, all Art, all Might, The equal work of Gods and Man,

City beneath whose oldest height – The Race began!

Soon to send forth again a brood, Unshakeable, we pray, that clings

To Rome's thrice-hammered hardihood – In arduous things.

Strong heart with triple armour bound, Beat strongly, for Thy life-blood runs,

Age after Age, the Empire round – In us Thy Sons,

Who, distant from the Seven Hills, Loving and serving much, require Thee –

Thee to guard 'gainst home-born ills The Imperial Fire!

-Puck of Pook’s Hill, Rudyard Kipling, 1906

Illuminating Hadrian’s Wall – 13 March 2010

1200 Volunteers, 500 gas beacons