BAR International Series 2581 (I)2013

SOMA 2012 Identity and Connectivity

Proceedings of the 16th Symposium on Mediterranean Archaeology, Florence, Italy, 1–3 March 2012

VOLUME I

Edited by

Luca Bombardieri, Anacleto D’Agostino, Guido Guarducci, Valentina Orsi

and Stefano Valentini

Published by

ArchaeopressPublishers of British Archaeological ReportsGordon House276 Banbury RoadOxford OX2 7EDEnglandbar@archaeopress.comwww.archaeopress.com

BAR S2581 (I)

SOMA 2012. Identity and Connectivity: Proceedings of the 16th Symposium on Mediterranean Archaeology, Florence, Italy, 1–3 March 2012. Volume I

© Archaeopress and the individual authors 2013

ISBN 978 1 4073 1204 0 (this volume)ISBN 978 1 4073 1205 7 (volume II)ISBN 978 1 4073 1206 4 (set of both volumes)

Printed in England by Information Press, Oxford

All BAR titles are available from:

Hadrian Books Ltd122 Banbury RoadOxfordOX2 7BPEnglandwww.hadrianbooks.co.uk

The current BAR catalogue with details of all titles in print, prices and means of payment is available free from Hadrian Books or may be downloaded from www.archaeopress.com

Connecting Crete with the Near East and Egypt in the Minoan Protopalatial Period: what News in the 21st Century? Ilaria Caloi (Ca’ Foscari University of Venice) Abstract*

The aim of this paper is to shed new light on the connections of Crete with the Near East and Egypt in the Minoan Protopalatial period, corresponding to the 20th-17th centuries BC. Concerning the presence of Minoan Protopalatial exports both in the Near East and in Egypt, the most attested artefacts belong to the Kamares Ware. Some Egyptian and Near Eastern sites have revealed both sherds and pots in Kamares Ware coming from Crete, and likely from Phaistos. Recent work at Phaistos has permitted to present new considerations on the dating of the Minoan exports, but mostly on the socio-political development of Crete in the Protopalatial period. The new evidence can offer fresh insights on pressing questions concerning the chronology and the nature of Cretan connections with the Near East and Egypt in the Minoan Protopalatial period. Keywords Middle Bronze Age, Protopalatial period, Phaistos, Technology, Connection, Imitation, Trade. My paper will focus on connections between Crete, the Near East, including modern Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, and Egypt from the 20th to the 17th centuries BC. My point of view will be Crete in the Protopalatial period, that means from MM IB through MM IIB, corresponding to MB I-IIA in the Levantine coast and to the 12th and the early 13th Dynasty in Egypt. It is well known that the best indicators of connections are the ceramic finds, therefore I will focus on the Minoan ceramic products found in the Levantine coast and in Egypt. However, this study is not a catalogue of the Minoan objects found in these Mediterranean regions,1 but is an attempt to shed new light on the Cretan contacts with the Near East and Egypt. In the 21st century the number of the Minoan ceramic objects outside Crete has increased (Stager 2002; Doumet-Serhal 2004), whereas the general pattern has not really changed. Nevertheless, in the last two decades new works on Protopalatial ceramic sequences of Phaistos, Knossos and Mallia, which are the major First palaces in Crete, have much enriched our knowledge

* I would like to thank Filippo Carinci, Giampaolo Graziadio and Judith Weingarten for having discussed with me many aspects of the paper. A special thank goes to the organizers of the 16th SOMA at Florence. 1 For catalogues of Minoan objects in Egypt and in the Levantine coast see Cline 2009; Phillips 2008; Buchholz 1999; Lambrou-Phillipson 1990; Kemp and Merrillees 1980.

concerning the development of the pottery.2 These works have allowed us to make new comparisons with the Minoan exports and to give them a new chronology, but mostly to offer some new insights into questions such as the roles of the First palaces in the long-distance trade. Without dwelling upon topics such as the absolute chronology of the aforementioned periods or the chronology of the single objects, the aim of this contribute is twolfold: first, to suggest that the Minoan Protopalatial exports to the Near East and also to Egypt can be dated from MM IIA onwards, whereas before MM IIA, only rare and accidental exports are attested outside Crete, for example in Cyprus (Caloi 2009b); second, to discuss, from a Minoan perspective, the reasons why the Minoan exports in the Near East and Egypt seem to be mostly originary of the Phaistian region (Fitton et al. 1998) or to find the best comparisons with ceramics from Phaistos (Carinci 2000), attempting to make new suggestions about the nature of the contacts of Crete with the Near East and Egypt in Protopalatial times. Minoan products in the Near East and Egypt in Protopalatial times: contexts of provenance and chronology The Minoan exports found in Syria are mainly attested at Ras Shamra, the ancient Ugarit, and they mostly consist of cups. In a recent paper, Merrillees (2003, 127) has adfirmed that it is really difficult to understand ‘how many Middle Minoan vases were recovered by Shaeffer at Ras Shamra’, since the excavation reports by Shaeffer3 are not really clear concerning the exact number and context of Minoan vases found in the site. According to Merrillees (2003), there are at least five autenthical Minoan pieces, which unfortunately, have been found in unstratified contexts. Among them, there are four cups, which are all attributed to the same form, that is the rounded shape with everted rim (Merrillees 2003, 128-130, figs. 1-2, pl. 1a-b; Smith 1965, fig. 20b), whereas the last piece is the wall fragment of a jar (Merrillees 2003, 129, pl. 1c). Other two sherds of a cup were found in the inland Syrian site of El-Mishrifè, the ancient Qatna (Smith 1965, fig. 20c). Among the Minoan exports found in Palestine, there are few sherds retrieved from Hazor and Tel Ashkelon. The two adjoining fragments from Hazor Stratum 3 belong to an open vessel (Dothan et al. 2000, 2, fig. 1), whose authenticity as Cretan import is however uncertain (Merrilles 2003, 136). The sherd found at Tel Ashkelon is 2 For the Protopalatial ceramic sequence at Phaistos see Caloi 2009a, for Knossos see Momigliano 2007 and for Mallia see Poursat and Knappett 2005. 3 For the main publications by Shaeffer on his numerous excavation campaigns undertaken at Ras Shamra see: Shaeffer 1939, 1949, 1962.

365

part of a rouded cup, and it was found in Moat Deposit of the MB IIA gate of Tel Ashkelon (Stager 2002, 358, fig. 19). Concerning Minoan exports in Lebanon, most of them come from Byblos, which has revealed the most famous and secure finds, that are two bridge-spouted jars (Smith 1965, fig. 19; Koehl 2008, n. 32). Another cup without handles found in Room XXIII at Byblos is un uncertain type, although Shaeffer has considered it a MM I import (Smith 1965, 13, fig. 20d, with references). There are also three fragmentary Minoan cups preserved at the Beirut Museum, whose provenance is however not sure whether from Byblos or Beirut (Merrillees 2003, 132-134, figs. 4-7). The third and better preserved straight-sided cup, with spiraliform decoration, seems to be found in the Kharii tombs in Beirut, nevertheless the reliability and interpretation of the find-contexts from Byblos and Beirut are still subject to discussion (Merrillees 2003, 133-4, figs. 6-7). The most recent find was retrieved from Sidon during the 2002 excavations of the British Museum (Doumet-Serhal 2004, 2008). It is a carinated cup (MacGillivray 2008, figs. 1-2), found in an assemblage near the warrior burial n. 23, which is one of the 25 Middle Bronze Age burials discovered at Sidon. Another small sherd attributing to a spouted jar was found and communicated by MacGillivray in 2011. The Minoan Protopalatial exports in Egypt come mostly from the sites of Kahun (or Lahun), El Harage and El Lisht, which are all located in the Fayum area. From Kahun and El Harage there are several fragments attributing to different kinds of cups and jars, whereas El Lisht has revealed only few sherds and one small double vase (Kemp and Merrillees 1980). Then, there is one sherd of a bridge spouted jar from Karnak and one frgmentary cup from Tell el- Dabca (Walberg 1991, pl. 1-2; Barrett 2009, figs. 2-3). Although they were considered authentic Cretan products for long time, the two famous jars found in funerary contexts, respectively in tomb 416 at Abydos and in tomb 88 at Qubbet el-Hawa, are Egyptian imitations of Minoan vessels. The Qubbet el-Hawa jar with floral appliqués was interpreted as a MM IB import from Eastern Crete (Floyd 1997), whereas, as asserted by Carinci (2000, 36), it seems an imitation of Phaistian products with floral relief decorations, which however are attested in MM IIA-MM IIB. The Abydos bridge-spouted jar is an Egyptian imitation of the typical MM II Phaistian jars (Carinci 2000), as testified also by the chemical analysis of the paint on the jar (Jones 1986). Concerning the chronology of the aforementioned Minoan exports, most of vases from the Levantine area are datable to MM IIA and MM IIB. In particular, the rounded cups from Ras Shamra have been dated to MM IIB on the basis of stylistical comparisons with Phaistian cups coming from MM IIB destruction levels of the palace. The same can be said for the small cup fragment from Qatna. The possible Cretan sherds from Hazor are generally attributed by scholars to MM II-MM III (Merrilles 2003, 135-6), while the rim sherd of cup from Tel Ashkelon was

found in a deposit dated to an advanced phase of the MB IIA period, which corresponds to MM IIB (Stager 2002, 359, fig. 22; Bietak et al. 2008, 50,59). The two bridge-spouted jars from Byblos are easily datable respectively to MM IIA and to MM IIB, as well as the uncertain cups from Byblos can be dated to MM IIB. The example from Sidon is the most important discovery since it comes from a stratified context, and therefore offers a secure chronology, corresponding to early MB IIA (Doumet-Serhal 2008). Since it is a well identifiable MM IIA Phaistian carinated cup (MacGillivray 2004), it provides good relationships between early MB IIA and MM IIA, corresponding to the second half of the 19th century BC. According to many scholars the finds from the Levantine coast, from Syria to Palestine, date to MM IIA and MM IIB. However, since their contexts were not stratified, most of these finds were dated on the basis of stylistical connections with MM IIB Phaistian finds. Moreover, it is relevant to notice that most of Minoan products found in the Near East are rounded cups with everted rim, which is a typical form shared by Phaistos and Knossos in MM IIB. Concerning the Minoan products found in Egypt, the Tell el-Dabca Minoan sherds were found in stratum d/1, namely the early XIII dinasty (that is from 1780-1740 BC), which corresponds to MM IIB (Bietak et al. 2008, 50). Then, the pieces from Kahun and El Harage were dated to MM II, while the finds from El Lisht were dated from MM IB to MM IIB (Kemp and Merrilless 1980). Since in 1999 the British Museum has conducted petrographic analysis on the pieces from Kahun preserved in the Museum, concluding that they are MM II pieces coming from Phaistos (Fitton et al. 1998), we can make some observations concerning the chronology. As recent work at Phaistos has allowed me to identify close and/or stratified contexts containing MM IIA ceramic material, some of the old comparisons reported by Kemp and Merrillees (1980) between Phaistian products and Minoan sherds found in Egypt, are now datable to MM IIA. For example, the fragmentary bridge-spouted jar from Kahun finds its best comparison (Kemp and Merrillees 1980, Ka.1, fig. 22) in a fragmentary bridge-spouted jar retrieved from a ceramic deposit of Room CV in the Acropoli Mediana house (Levi 1976, fig. 1005), which has been recently attributed to MM IIA (Caloi 2009a). Moreover, the sherd likely belonging to a barbotine jug from El Harage (Kemp and Merrillees 1980, Ha.4, fig. 3), can easily be dated to MM II, rather than to MM IB, on the basis of an interesting parallel with a jug from a ceramic deposit retrieved from inside the bench of Room IL of the Phaistos Palace (Levi 1976, F. 22), which is likely datable to MM IIA.4 It is important to notice that all the pieces, which have been previously dated to MM IB-MM II, are wheel-made. Recent work conducted by Carl Knappett and Ina Berg at Knossos (Knappett 1999, 2004; Berg 2009, 2011) and by myself at Phaistos (Caloi 2011), on the introduction of the

4 The Phaistian deposit from inside the bench of Room IL is under revision by the author.

366

wheel in Crete, has demonstrated that in MM IB most of vases are still handmade, small drinking pots included, while from MM IIA much of the small vases, that means cups and small jugs or jars, begins to be wheel-made. They could be entirely wheel-thrown or manufactured using a technique known as wheel-fashioning, which includes the use of the wheel only for finishing vases. Therefore if the Minoan pieces found in Egypt are wheel-made, they are likely datable to MM IIA rather than to MM IB. Moreover, if the Minoan exports in Egypt seem to be MM II rather than MM IB Minoan products, that means that the majority of the Minoan ceramic objects outside Crete begins in MM IIA. In fact, no MM IB Minoan products are attested outside Crete, but, at the same time, in MM IB Crete the foreign objects are really few, in comparison with the previous period, and are mostly concentrated in the North coast, as we will see in detail in the next pages. From the brief review I presented in the previous pages, it appears that the first exports of Protopalatial Minoan products to the Near East and to Egypt have to be dated at least to the MM IIA phase, which, although it still not well known, seems to be a key-period in the socio-political development of Crete, and therefore in its relationship with the Mediterranean area. The MM IIA phase in Crete: technological innovations and new involvment in trade Recent work on the emergence of palatial elites at Phaistos, Knossos and Malia has demonstrated that, although the foundation of the palaces has attributed to the beginning of MM IB, the strong political and economical changes occurred in MM II. It appears that the First Palaces in Crete have arisen in MM IB, while their consolidation and affirmation can be attested in MM IIA (Schoep 2006). It is only in MM IIA that new changes occurred, such as: 1) the exhibition of monumental architecture; 2) the introduction of a writing system; 3) the introduction of technological innovations (i.e. wheel-thrown pottery); 4) the production of high-quality prestige craft goods; 5) the new involvement in trade. It can be argued that the aforementioned changes and innovations were politically motivated and have to be understood within the context of elite behaviour, aimed at displaying and legitimating the new status and power (Schoep 2006). Concerning the introduction of technological innovations and the production of high-quality prestige craft goods, I would like to discuss the new results concerning the ceramic production in Southern Crete and mostly at Phaistos, since it could improve our knowledge about the Cretan exchanges in the Protopalatial period. Recent work on the ceramic production in Southern Crete has demonstrated that at Phaistos it is attested a long tradition from Prepalatial to Protopalatial times, showing that the fabric and the manufacturing traditions, such as the use of the layering techniques, do not change from Prepalatial to the beginning of the Protopalatial time, but they go on until MM II (Todaro 2009). That means that the foundation of the palaces in MM IB did not have

influence on the ceramic production, and that the Prepalatial ceramic tradition continues also in the production of the MM IB Kamares pottery. A new technique was introduced only in MM IIA, when some vases begin to be entirely manufactured through the use of the wheel (i.e. wheel-thrown: Caloi 2011). In MM IIA both at Phaistos and Knossos occurs the first production of wheel-made vessels. Moreover in the same MM IIA phase, appears the production of vases imitating metallic prototypes and stone surfaces (Caloi 2009a, 422-429). It likely means that new resources or new products, such as metal vases, were more available than before, and mostly that the new palatial elites were able to access to metal or/and to stone vases, and to adfirm their power not only through monumental architecture, but also through the display of high-level prestige goods. Moreover, in the last years the evidence of Phaistos has revealed a ceramic productive centre from Prepalatial to Protopalatial times (Todaro 2009). In MM II much of the pottery that is known as ‘luxury pottery’, which means fine and polychrome vessels, usually rounded cups with everted rims, straight-sided cups and bridge-spouted jars, seem to be shared by Phaistos and Knossos. Following the recent results from petrographic analyses made by Peter Day (Day and Wilson 1998; Day et al. 2006), much of this high-quality pottery is produced at Phaistos and then exported to Knossos. From MM IIA and mostly from MM IIB Phaistos and Knossos begin to share the same ceramic production, at least for fine and polychrome ceramic products. Concerning the MM IIA-MM IIB products found in Egypt and in the Levantine coast, it is not coincidence that from MM IIA onwards the most exported vases among close vessels are the bridge-spouted jars, such as the two Byblos jars, while among the open ones, there are the rounded and straight-sided cups, like the examples from Byblos and Beirut. These products consist of the typical ceremonial set of MM IIB Phaistos and Knossos. Connecting Crete with the Near East and Egypt in the Protopalatial period: further thoughts As far as regards the connections of the Mesara plain with the Near East and Egypt, the picture is still open to ambiguous interpretations. In fact, although some scholars asserted that Eastern products and ideas have entered Crete through the Southern coast (Betancourt 2005, 451; Van de Moortel 2007, 180-182), so far the evidence continues to be scanty, since at Phaistos, as well as in the near harbour of Kommos, no foreign objects are attested in the Protopalatial period, at least until MM IIB (Van de Moortel 2007 with references). So far, no traces of harbours active in Prepalatial and at the beginning of the Protopalatial period have been found in the Southern coast. According to Carinci (2000), it is more plausible that the routes of the raw materials arrived in the Northern ports, at least until the end of MM IIB, when the construction of the Building AA testifies the growth and a strong transformation of the harbour of Kommos. Since we have observed that from MM IIA several Phaistian products are attested in the Levantine coast and

367

in Egypt, whereas at Phaistos no foreign objects are recorded neither in MM IIA nor in MM IIB, can we suppose that that the Phaistian ceramic products were not exported directly from Southern Crete, but through the Knossian or North-Eastern ports? As demonstrated by the prestigious pottery, such as fine and polychrome rounded cups with everted rim and bridge-spouted jars, the Phaistian products were largely attested in North Crete, and especially at Knossos. Therefore, considering that since MM II the Kamares vases were produced at Phaistos and then moved to Knossos, I wonder if the Phaistian products found outside Crete first arrived in Knossos and then exported from here to Egypt and to the Levantine coast. If we look at the previous periods, the exchanges from Crete to the Near East actually occurred through the northern coast from the Prepalatial period, and especially through Mochlos and Knossos (Soles 2005; Watrous 2005), where there is a high concentration of foreign objects. On the contrary, in Prepalatial Southern Crete, and especially in MM IA, together with some imports, are attested many local imitations of foreign objects, consisting mainly of stone vessels, as well as of scaraboids, likely produced in the area of Odighitria and Kaloi Limenes (Pini 2000; Phillips 2004, 2008). On the basis of this evidence I agree with those scholars looking at the the role of the Cretan north coast communities such as Mochlos, Knossos and Poros-Katsambas as channels for the movements of raw material and foreign prestige goods towards the Southern coast of Crete (Carinci 2000; Whitelaw 2004, 238-242 with references). In the Protopalatial period, and especially in MM IB, there is a strong decrease of foreing objects all over Crete. Nevertheless, among the palatial centres, the only site that has revealed imports in MM IB is Knossos (Phillips 2008, 227). As Phillips reported (2008, 228), in MM IB-MM II Knossos is the only palatial site that has revealed Egyptian imports, showing its ‘pre-eminence…as the receiver of fine luxury goods from Egypt during this period’. On the contrary, in MM IB no foreign objects are attested at Phaistos and Mallia, and even in MM IIA-MM IIB the Egyptian and Near Eastern imports continue to be rare in palatial as well as in funerary centres (Phillips 2008, 227-230), although a strong exchange of ideas and influences occurred, demonstrated by the production of objects recalling Egyptian items, such as the iconographic figures of the monkey and the Taweret (Weingarten 2000). Indeed, it is important to notice that in MM IIB both Phaistos (Carinci 2000) and Mallia (Poursat and Knappett 2005) have revealed mostly imitations of Egyptian and Near Eastern objects (Warren 2000; Weingarten 2000), rather than imports. In Protopalatial Crete, there is a strong presence of local imitations of foreign objects and also a good number of local versions that are inspired by, rather than imitate, exotic products. For example, the Ayios Charalambos Cave in the Lasithi area bears numerous local versions of Egyptianing objects, datable from MM IA to MM II, which have been interpreted by the excavator as the results of indirect contacts. According to Betancourt (2005, 449), the objects with ultimate Egyptian

connections may represent secondary or tertiary influences from their sources, and therefore may have been based on objects made in Syria or in Eastern Mediterranean. On the basis of the Ayios Charalambos evidence, it cannot be avoided the possibility that the contacts between the Minoans and the Egyptians occurred outside Crete, and probably in the Near Eastern ports and especially at Ugarit. It is well known that written sources from Mari attested the presence of Minoan people in the levantine ports, with the aim of acquiring raw materials from the inland. Considering the possibility that in Protopalatial times the exchanges between Crete and the Near East occurred in the ports of the Levantine coast, it would be explained why the Egyptian and Near Eastern objects are so rare in Crete in the Protopalatial period, whereas the cretan versions of Egyptian items are instead well attested. They represent secundary or tertiary influences from their original sources, which were instead well visible only in the Levantine ports. The different conclusions that one can throw on the relationship of the Mesara plain with the Near East and Egypt lead us to think about the ambiguities of this region. Nevertheless I hope that new discoveries and researches could finally show whether the Mesara plain was direclty in contact with the Mediterranean regions from the Protopalatial period, or if it continued to be indirectly connected with the ‘outside’ until the end of the Protopalatial period, as I believe. Bibliography Barrett, C. E. 2009. The Perceived Value of Minoan and Minoanizing Pottery in Egypt. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 22.2, 211-234. Berg, I. 2009. X-Radiography of Knossian Bronze Age Vessels: Assessing our Knowledge of Primary Forming Techniques. Annual of the British School of Archaeology 104, 137-173. Berg, I. 2011. Exploring the châine opératoire of ceramics through X-radiography. In S. Scarcella (ed.), Archaeological Ceramics: A Review of Current Research. British Archaeological Reports 2193, 57-63. Oxford, Archaeopress. Betancourt, P. P. 1998. Middle Minoan Objects in the Near East. In E. H. Cline and D. H. Cline (eds), The Aegean and the Orient in the Second Millennium. Aegaeum 18, 5-11. Liège, Université de Liège. Betancourt, P. P. 2005. Egyptian Connections at Hagios Charalambos. In R. Laffineur and E. Greco (eds), Emporia: Aegeans in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean (Proceedings of the 10th International Aegean Conference, Athens 14-18 April 2004), Aegaeum 25, 449-453. Liège and Austin, Université de Liège. Bietak, M., Kopetzky, K., Stager, L. E. and Voss, R. 2008. Synchronisation of Stratigraphies: Ashkelon and

368

Tell El-Dabca. Ägypten und Levante 18, 49-60. Buchholz, H. G. 1999. Ugarit, Zypern und Ägäis. Kulturbeziehungen im zweiten Jahrtausend vor Chr. Münster, Ugarit-Verlag. Caloi, I. 2009a. For a new ceramic sequence of Protopalatial Phaistos (MM IB-MM IIA) and some observations on Barbotine Ware. Creta Antica 10/2, 373-440. Caloi, I. 2009b. I rapporti fra Creta e Cipro tra il XX e il XVII sec. a.C.: per una rivalutazione del ruolo della costa levantina. In S. Privitera and F. Camia (eds), Obeloi. Contatti, scambi e valori nel Mediterraneo antico. Studi offerti a Nicola Parise, Tekmeria 11, 43-63. Paestum-Atene, Pandemos. Caloi, I. 2011. Le innovazioni tecnologiche nella Messarà: dal wheel-fashioning al wheel-throwing. In F. Carinci, N. Cucuzza, P. Militello and O. Palio (eds), Kretes Minoides. Tradizione e identità minoica tra produzione artigianale, pratiche cerimoniali e memoria del passato. Studi di Archeologia Cretese X, 87-102. Padova, Bottega d’Erasmo. Carinci, F. 2000. Western Mesara and Egypt during the Protopalatial Period: a Minimalist View. In A. Karetsou (ed.), Kriti-Aegyptos. Politismikoi desmoi trion chilieton. Meletes, 31-37. Athens, Ypourgeio Politismou – Archaiologikos Mouseio Herakleiou. Cline, E. H. 2009. Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea. International Trade and the Late Bronze Age Aegean. British Archaeological Reports 591. Oxford, Archaeopress. Day, P. M. and Wilson, D. E. 1998. Consuming Power: Kamares Ware in Protopalatial Knossos. Antiquity 72, 350-358. Day, P. M., Relaki, M. and Faber, E.W. 2006. Pottery Making and Social Reproduction in the Bronze Age Mesara. In M. H. Wiener, J. L. Warner, J. Polonsky and E. E. Hayes (eds), Pottery and Society: The Impact of Recent Studies in Minoan Pottery, 22-72. Boston, Archaeological Institute of America. Dothan, T., Zuckerman, S. and Goren, Y. 2000. Kamares Ware at Hazor. Israel Exploration Journal 50, 1-15. Doumet-Serhal, C. 2008. The British Museum Excavation at Sidon: Markers for the Chronology on the Early and Middle Bronze Age in Lebanon. In M. Bietak and E. Czerny (eds), The Bronze Age in Lebanon. Studies on the Archaeology and Chronology of Lebanon, Syria and Egypt, 11-44. Wien, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Fitton, L., Quirke, S. and Hughes, M. 1998. Northeners at Lahun: Neutron activation Analysis of Minoan and related pottery in the British Museum. In S. Quirke (ed.),

Lahun Studies, 112-140. Reigate, SIA. Floyd, C. 1997. The Alternating Floral Style as Evidence of Pottery Workshops in east Crete during the Protopalatial Period. In R. Laffineur and P. P. Betancourt (eds), TECHNE: Craftsmen, Craftswomen and Craftsmanship in the Aegean Bronze Age. Aegaeum 16, 313-316. Liège, Université de Liège. Jones, R. E. 1986. Greek & Cypriot Pottery: A Review of Scientific Studies. Fitch Laboratory Occasional Paper 1. Athens, British School at Athens. Karetsou, A. (ed.) 2000. Kriti-Aegyptos. Politismikoi desmoi trion chilieton. Meletes. Athens, Ypourgeio Politismou – Archaiologikos Mouseio Herakleiou. Kemp, B. J. and Merrillees, R. S. 1980. Minoan Pottery in Second Millennium Egypt. Mainz am Rhein, Philipp von Zabern. Koehl, R. B. 2008. Minoan Kamares Ware in the Levant. In J. Aruz, K. Benzel and J. M. Evans (eds), Beyond Babylon. Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C., 59-60. New York and New Haven, Metropolitan Museum of Art and Yale University Press. Knappett, C. 1999. Tradition and innovation in pottery forming technology: wheel-throwing at Middle Minoan Knossòs. Annual of the British School of Archaeology 94, 101-129. Knappett, C. 2004. Technological innovation and social diversity at Middle Minoan Knossos. In G. Cadogan, E. Hatzaki and A. Vasilakis (eds), Knossos: Palace, City, State, BSA Studies 12, 257-265. London, British School at Athens. Laffineur, R. and Greco, E. (eds) 2005. Emporia: Aegeans in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean (Proceedings of the 10th International Aegean Conference, Athens 14-18 April 2004), Aegaeum 25. Liège and Austin, Université de Liège. Lambrou-Phillipson, C. 1990. Hellenorientalia: The Near Eastern Presence in the Bronze Age Aegean, ca. 3000-1100 B.C. plus Orientalia: A Catalogue of Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Mitannian, Syro-Palestinian, Cypriot, and Asia Minor Objects from the Bronze Age Aegean. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 95. Göteborg, Paul Åström. Levi, D. 1976. Festòs e la Civiltà Minoica, vol. I. Incunabula Graeca 60. Roma, Edizioni dell’Ateneo. Levi, D., and Carinci, F. 1988. Festòs e la Civiltà Minoica, vol. II. Incunabula Graeca 77. Roma, Edizioni dell’Ateneo. MacGillivray, A. 2004. A Middle Minoan Cup from Sidon. In C. Doumet-Serhal (ed.), Decade: A Decade of Archaeology and History in the Lebanon (1995-2004),

369

125-131. London, Eisenbrauns. MacGillivray, A. 2008. The Minoan Sidon Cup. In M. Bietak and E. Czerny (eds), The Bronze Age in Lebanon. Studies on the Archaeology and Chronology of Lebanon, Syria and Egypt, 45-49. Wien, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Momigliano, N. (ed.) 2007. Knossos Pottery Handbook: Neolithic and Bronze Age (Minoan). British School at Athens Studies 14. London, British School at Athens. Merrillees, R. S. 2003. The First Appearances of Kamares Ware in the Levant. Ägypten und Levante 13, 127-142. Phillips, J. 2004. The Odd Man Out: Minoan Scarabs and Scaraboids. In M. Bietak and E. Czerny (eds), Scarabs of the Second Millennium BC from Egypt, Nubia, Crete and the Levant: Chronological and Historical Implications, 161-170. Wien, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Phillips, J. 2008. Aegyptiaca on the Island of Crete in Their Chronological Context: A Critical Review, vols. I-II. Wien, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Pini, I. 2000. Eleven Early Cretan Scarabs. In A. Karetsou (ed.) 2000, Kriti-Aegyptos. Politismikoi desmoi trion chilieton. Meletes, 107-113. Athens, Ypourgeio Politismou - Archaiologikos Mouseio Herakleiou. Poursat, C. and Knappett, C. 2005. La poterie du Minoen Moyen II: production et utilisation. Études Crétoises 33. Athènes, École Française d'Athènes. Schaeffer, C. F. A. 1939. Ugaritica I. Paris, Librairie Orientaliste Paul Guethner. Schaeffer, C. F. A. 1949. Ugaritica II. Paris, Librairie Orientaliste Paul Guethner. Schaeffer, C. F. A. 1962. Ugaritica IV. Paris, Librairie Orientaliste Paul Guethner. Schoep, I. 2006. Looking Beyond the First Palaces: Elites and Agency of Power in EM III-MM II Crete. American Journal of Archaeology 110/1, 37-64. Smith, W. S. 1965. Interconnections in the Ancient Near East. A Study of the Relationship between the Arts of Egypt, the Aegean, and Western Asia. New Haven, Yale University Press.

Soles, J. 2005. From Ugarit to Mochlos. Remnants of an Ancient Voyage’. In R. Laffineur and E. Greco (eds), Emporia: Aegeans in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean (Proceedings of the 10th International Aegean Conference, Athens 14-18 April 2004), Aegaeum 25. 429-439. Liège and Austin, Université de Liège. Stager, L. E. 2002. The MB IIA Ceramic Sequence at Tel Ashkelon and Its Implications for the ‘Port Power’ Model of Trade. In M. Bietak (ed.), The Middle Bronze Age in the Levant, Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean 3. Wien, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Todaro, S. 2009. Pottery production in the Prepalatial Mesara: the Artisan's quarter to the west of the Palace at Phaistos. Creta Antica 10.2. p. 333-352. Van de Moortel, A. 2007. The Harbor of Kommos and Its East Mediterranean Connections in the Protopalatial Period. In P. P. Betancourt, M. C. Nelson and H. Williams (eds), Krinoi kai Limenes: Studies in Honor of Joseph and Maria Shaw, Prehistory Monographs 22, 177-184. Philadelphia, INSTAP Academic Press. Walberg, G. 1991. The Finds at Tell el-Dabca and Middle Minoan Chronology. Ägypten und Levante 2, 115-120. Warren, P. 2000. Crete and Egypt: the Transmission of Relationships. In A. Karetsou (ed.), Kriti-Aegyptos. Politismikoi desmoi trion chilieton. Meletes, 24-28. Athens, Ypourgeio Politismou - Archailogikos Mouseio Herakleiou. Watrous, V. 2005. Cretan International Relations during the Middle Minoan IA Period and the Chronology of Seager’s Finds from the Mochlos Tombs. In R. Laffineur and E. Greco (eds), Emporia: Aegeans in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean (Proceedings of the 10th International Aegean Conference, Athens 14-18 April 2004), Aegaeum 25. 107-115. Liège and Austin, Université de Liège. Weingarten, J. 2000. The Transformation of Egyptian Taweret into the Minoan Genius. In A. Karetsou (ed.), Kriti-Aegyptos. Politismikoi desmoi trion chilieton. Meletes. 114-119. Athens, Ypourgeio Politismou - Archaiologikos Mouseio Herakleiou. Whitelaw, T. 2004. Alternative Pathways to Complexity in the Southern Aegean. In J. C. Barrett and P. Halstead (eds), The Emergence of Civilisation revisited, 232-256. Oxford, Oxbow.

370