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Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice
Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice
Tom LunnePeter K. RobertsonJohn J.M. Powell
Spon PressTaylor & Francis Group
LONDON AND NEW YORK
First published 1997by E & FN Spon2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canadaby Routledge711 Third Avenue, New York, NY10017
Spon Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 1997 T. Lunne, P.K. Robertson, John J.J.M. Powell
Typeset in 10/12 Times
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in anyform or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,without permission in writing from the publishers,
British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available form the British Library
ISBN 10: 0419 23750 XISBN 13:978041923750 1
Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJI Digital, Padstow, Cornwall
LIST OF CONTENTS
LIST OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
SYMBOL LIST
CONVERSION FACTORS
GLOSSARY
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose and scope1.2 General description of CPT and CPTU1.3 Role of CPT in site investigation1.4 Historical background
1.4.1 Mechanical cone penetrometers1.4.2 Electric cone penetrometers1.4.3 Thepiezocone
2. EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES
2.1 Cone penetrometer and piezocone2.2 Pushing equipment
2.2.1 On land2.2.2 Over water2.2.3 Depth of penetration
2.3 Test procedures2.3.1 Pre-drilling, on land testing
V
ix
xi
xii
xvi
xxii
1
1124467
8
1010L \J
13A *J
141616
2.3.2 Vertically2.3.3 Reference measurements2.3.4 Rate of penetration2.3.5 Interval of readings2.3.6 Depth measurements2.3.7 Saturation of piezocones2.3.8 Dissipation test
2.4 Data acquisition2.5 Calibration of sensors2.6 Maintenance2.7 Choice of capacity of load cells2.8 Precision and accuracy2.9 Summary of performance checks and
maintenance requirements
3. CHECKS, CORRECTIONS ANDPRESENTATION OF DATA
3.1 Factors affecting measurements andcorrections3.1.1 Pore water pressure effects on qc and
fs
3.1.2 Filter location3.1.3 Effect of axial load on pore water
pressure readings3.1.4 Temperature effects3.1.5 Inclination3.1.6 Calibration and resolution of errors3.1.7 Effect of wear
161717171818192020222223
24
25
25
2528
3131323233
vi LIST OF CONTENTS
3.1.8 Correction for CPTU zeroed at thebottom of a borehole 33
3.2 Presentation of results 343.2.1 Measured parameters 343.2.2 Derived parameters 363.2.3 Additional information 38
3.3 Checks on data quality 38
4. STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS 39
4.1 ISSMFE International Reference TestProcedure for Cone Penetration Test (CPT) 39
4.2 Swedish Geotechnical Society (SGF):Recommended Standard for Cone PenetrationTests (1993) 39
4.3 Norwegian Geotechnical Society (NGF):Guidelines for Cone Penetration Tests (1994) 43
4.4 ASTM: Standard Test Method for PerformingElectronic Friction Cone and PiezoconePenetration Testing of Soils (1995) 43
4.5 Dutch Standard: Determination of the ConeResistance and Sleeve Friction of Soil.NEN5140 (1996) 43
4.6 Recommendations 44
5. INTERPRETATION OF CPT/PIEZOCONEDATA 45
5.1 General factors affecting interpretation 455.1.1 Equipment design 465.1.2 In situ stresses 465.1.3 Compressibility, cementation and
particle size 465.1.4 Stratigraphy 465.1.5 Rate of penetration 475.1.6 Pore pressure element location 48
5.2 Soil stratigraphy 505.3 Soil classification 515.4 Interpretation in fine-grained soils 55
5.4.1 State characteristics 565.4.1.1 Soil unit weight 565.4.1.2 Overconsolidation ratio 565.4.1.3 In situ horizontal stress 61
5.4.2 Strength characteristics 635.4.2.1 Undrained shear strength 635.4.2.2 Sensitivity 685.4.2.3 Effective stress strength
parameters 695.4.3 Deformation characteristics 71
5.4.3.1 Constrained modulus 715.4.3.2 Undrained Young's modulus 735.4.3.3 Small strain shear modulus 74
5.4.4 Flow and consolidation characteristics 745.4.4.1 Coefficient of consolidation 755.4.4.2 Coefficient of permeability
(hydraulic conductivity) 80
5.5 Interpretation in coarse-grained soils 815.5.1 State characteristics 81
5.5.1.1 Relative density (densityindex) 81
5.5.1.2 State parameter 855.5.1.3 Overconsolidation ratio 885.5.1.4 In situ horizontal stress 8 8
5.5.2 Strength characteristics 895.5.2.1 Effective stress strength
parameters 895.5.3 Deformation characteristics 93
5.5.3.1 Young's modulus 935.5.3.2 Constrained modulus 935.5.3.3 Small strain shear modulus 94
5.6 Available experience and interpretation inother material 945.6.1 Intermediate soils (clayey sands to
silts) 955.6.1.1 Penetration behaviour 955.6.1.2 Typical results and
classification 955.6.1.3 Undrained shear strength 965.6.1.4 Effective stress strength
parameters 965.6.1.5 Constrained modulus 965.6.1.6 Small strain shear modulus 975.6.1.7 Coefficient of consolidation 985.6.1.8 General experience 98
5.6.2 Peat/organic silt 985.6.3 Underconsolidated clay 1005.6.4 Chalk 1005.6.5 Calcareous soils 101
5.6.5.1 Soil classification 1025.6.5.2 Undrained shear strength 1025.6.5.3 Relative density 1035.6.5.4 Effective stress strength
parameters 1035.6.5.5 Pile side friction 103
5.6.6 Cemented sands 1035.6.7 Snow 1075.6.8 Permafrost and ice 107
5.6.8.1 Identification of permafrost/ice layers 107
5.6.8.2 Special procedures forpenetration tests in frozensoil 108
5.6.8.3 Determination of creepparameters 108
5.6.8.4 General comment 1115.6.9 Gas hydrates 1115.6.10 Residual soils 1115.6.11 Mine tailings 1125.6.12 Sawdust and wood choppings 1145.6.13 Dutch cheese 1165.6.14 Slurry walls 116
LIST OF CONTENTS VII
5.6.15 Volcanic soils5.6.16 Fuel ash5.6.17 Loess soil5.6.18 Lunar soil
5.7 Examples of unusual behaviour
117117119120120
5.7.1 Limiting negative pore pressures dueto cavitation 120
5.7.2 Negative pore pressure measurementwith filter on the cone 121
5.7.3 Effect of the weight of rig on shallowtest results 122
5.8 The use of non-standard equipment orprocedures 1235.8.1 Cone size and scale effects 1235.8.2 Cone penetrometer geometry 125
5.8.2.1 Length of the cylindricalportion behind the coneincluded in qc 125
5.8.2.2 Reduced area behind the cone 1255.8.2.3 Non-standard position and
area of friction sleeve 1265.8.2.4 Cone apex angle 127
5.8.3 Rate of penetration 1275.8.4 Set-up tests 1285.8.5 Applying water during penetration 1325.8.6 Vibratory cone penetrometer 132
5.9 Statistical treatment of data 1325.9.1 Definitions 1335.9.2 Sources of uncertainty and variability
of soil properties 1345.9.3 Statistical treatment 1355.9.4 Site investigation strategy and
Bayesian updating techniques 1435.9.5 Recommendation 144
5.10 Software application 145
6. DIRECT APPLICATION OF CPT/CPTURESULTS 149
6.1 Correlations with SPT 1496.2 Deep foundations 151
6.2.1 Axial capacity 1516.2.2 Factor of safey 1556.2.3 Settlement 1556.2.4 Skirt penetration resistance 156
6.3 Shallow foundations 1576.3.1 Bearing capacity 1576.3.2 Settlement 158
6.4 Ground improvement - quality control 1596.5 Liquefaction 164
6.5.1 Liquefaction definitions 1646.5.2 Application of CPT for liquefaction
assessment 1666.5.2.1 Cyclic softening 1666.5.2.2 Flow liquefaction 169
6.5.2.3 Minimum undrained shearstrength 171
6.5.3 Recommendations for liquefactionevaluation 171
7. ADDITIONAL SENSORS THAT CAN BEINCORPORATED
8. GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONSOF PENETRATION TESTING
172
7.1 Lateral stress measurements 1727.1.1 Equipment 1727.1.2 Typical results 1737.1.3 Interpretation 174
7.2 Cone pressuremeter 1757.2.1 Equipment 1757.2.2 Testing procedure 1777.2.3 Interpretation 178
7.3 Seismic measurements 1797.3.1 Equipment and procedures 1807.3.2 Typical results and interpretation 181
7.4 Electrical resistivity measurements 1827.4.1 Principles for measurement 1827.4.2 Equipment and procedures 1837.4.3 Typical results and interpretation 184
7.5 Heat flow measurements 1867.6 Radioisotope measurements 186
7.6.1 Equipment, measurement principlesand procedures 186
7.6.2 Typical results 1897.6.3 Discussion on soil density measured
by NOT 1897.7 Acoustic noise 190
192
8.1 Objectives of a geo-environmental siteinvestigation 192
8.2 CPT technology for site characterization 1938.3 Geo-environmental penetrometer logging
devices 1938.3.1 Temperature 1938.3.2 Electrical resistivity and conductivity 1938.3.3 Dielectric measurements 1948.3.4 pH sensors 1958.3.5 Redox potential 1968.3.6 Gamma and neutron sensors 1968.3.7 Laser induced fluorescence 196
8.4 Geo-environmental penetrometer samplingdevices 1998.4.1 Liquid samplers 1998.4.2 Vapour samplers 2018.4.3 Solid samplers 201
8.5 Sealing and decontamination procedures 2018.6 Future trends 2028.7 Summary 203
viii LIST OF CONTENTS
9. EXAMPLES 204 9.2.4 Normally consolidated soft alluvialclay, Bothkennar, UK 218
9.1 Example profiles 2049.1.1 Marine, lightly overconsolidated clay,
Ons0y, Norway 2049.1.2 Organic clay, lightly overconsolidated, 10. FUTURE TRENDS 223
Lilla Mellosa, Sweden 2059.1.3 Overconsolidated Yoldia (Aalborg) 10.1 Recent developments 223
clay, Aalborg, Denmark 207 10.2 Future developments 2239.1.4 Overconsolidated clay till, Cowden,
UK 208 REFERENCES 2259.1.5 Sand over silty clay, McDonald's
Farm, Vancouver, BC 2099.1.6 Overconsolidated dense sand, APPENDICES 249
Dunkirk, France 210 ApPENDIXA: ISSMFE REFERENCE TEST9.1.7 Normally consolidated very silty clay, PROCEDURE 249
Pentre,UK 2119.2 Worked examples 213 APPENDIX B: SWEDISH STANDARD FOR CONE
9.2.1 Loose to medium dense sand, Massey TESTING 261
Tunnel site, Canada 213 APPENDIXC: CALIBRATION CHAMBER9.2.2 Very dense overconsolidated sand, TESTING OF SANDY SOILS 291
Sleipner, North Sea 2169.2.3 Stiff overconsolidated Gault clay,
Madingley,UK 217 INDEX 305
PREFACE
The design and construction of foundations and earth struc-tures require a good knowledge of the mechanical behaviourof soils and of their spatial variability. Such information canbe best obtained from a properly planned programme of bothlaboratory and in situ tests.
The two methodologies are very much complementaryrather than competitive. However, in situ tests can often bepreferable to laboratory tests because of important advan-tages such as cost - time effectiveness, the ability to assessthe soil in its natural environment and the possibility toestimate the spatial variability of the deposit.
Among the vast number of in situ devices, the static conepenetrometer (CPT) and the piezocone (CPTU) representthe most versatile tools currently available for soil explora-tion. The cone penetration and piezocone tests providecontinuous sounding capability and good repeatability. Theycan also be run very cost-effectively. However, until now,there was a need to pull together the vast knowledge that hasbeen accumulating in the geotechnical community.
This book, CPT in Geotechnical Practice, comes timely.In the nearly 30 years since the publication of Sanglerat'sbook on the cone penetrometer, interest in the device hasspread all over the world, finding applications both on-landand offshore. This development is reflected in the impres-sive growth of the theoretical and experimental knowledgeon the cone penetrometer and piezocone as well as in theseveral applications of the test to highly specialized meas-urements, such as seismic, environmental and electricalresistivity measurements.
The book is written by three prominent researchers in thisspecific field whose respective countries have devoted con-siderable efforts in developing both the database of experi-mental results and the framework for a rationalinterpretation of the results. The many chapters and exam-ples present the knowledge and experience that have beenacquired on the cone penetrometer and piezocone and theapplication of their results for design of geotechnical engi-neered constructions.
Two design approaches, the first a direct approach inwhich the response of a given foundation system is directlycorrelated to the test results and the second an indirect one inwhich the test results are interpreted to obtain the mechan-ical properties of the ground, are critically reviewed. Sour-ces of error, non-typical behaviour and especially how toobtain the relevant soil parameters in an optimum mannerare also considered.
As typical for geotechnics, engineering judgement com-bined with experience are the key to safe and economicaldesign. It is therefore important to know the merits andlimitations of the measuring methods.
This book tells us how much confidence we can have inthe derived engineering parameters. In particular, the chap-ter on the interpretation of the cone penetration data as afunction of the soil type, including the factors influencingthe test results and problem soils, is noteworthy.
The book presents independent treatment of the inter-pretation for all important aspects of cone penetration andpiezocone testing: equipment and test procedures, test
PREFACE
specifications, checklists for evaluation of data, interpreta-tion methods and examples, empirical design approaches,and newer applications. The avid reader will find in thisdefinitive book comprehensive treatment of all of these,each with ample references to earlier work.
The authors have rendered a valuable service by sharingwith the rest of the geotechnical community their vastknowledge and experience accumulated over many years ofhard work. We warmly recommend this book to students,teachers, professors, practising engineers and researchers.
Michele JamiolkowskiPresident
International Society ofSoil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Suzanne LacasseDirector
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work on this book has extended over several years andthe authors are grateful for the support and help of numerousindividuals and organizations.
Firstly we thank our employers, the Norwegian Geotech-nical Institute (NGI), the University of Alberta (UoA) andthe Building Research Establishment (BRE) for moral sup-port and for permission to publish work we have done asemployees of these organizations. We thank Dr Su/anneLacasse for reviewing the whole manuscript and givingvaluable advice, as well as her substantial help in preparingsection 5.9. We gratefully acknowledge the valuable com-ments on various sections of the manuscript from Dr DavidMight, Professor Branko Ladanyi, Dr Zbigniew Mlynarek,Dr Rolf Sandven and Hermann Zuidberg. We also thank DrStan Boyle, Dr Fernando Danziger, Dr Bernadete Danziger,Dr Jonathan Fannin, Dr Don Gillespie, the late Dr JoeKeaveny, Dr Nigel Nutt, Robin Quarterman, Hilary Shieldsand Hilary Skinner for their assistance with various subsections and proof-reading. In addition, we thank the manycolleagues and friends who have helped in various ways.
Many thanks are given to Lillian Nore, Gre Jordan, IreneSugg and Denise who willingly typed parts of the manu-script; and to Kari Helene Bergersen and Gro Bothn whocomputerized most of the figures. Others have helped with
the references, review of examples, etc., and we thank ArildAndresen, Wenche Enersen and Helena Comoulos.
The authors also thank the many authors and publisherswho gave permission for us to reproduce material, as well asthe following organizations for their support: AlluvialMining, UK; AP van den Berg, Holland; Cambridge Insitu,UK; Cone Tech Investigations, Canada; Delft Geotechnics,Holland; Envi, Sweden; Fugro, world-wide; Geocean,France; Geotech, Sweden; Hebo, Poland; Hogentogler,USA; ISMES, Italy; Key Systems, UK; Statoil, Norway;Soil and Rock Engineering, Japan; TL Geotechnics, Singa-pore; Vertek, USA and Unicone, Latvia.
Many of the recommendations presented in this bookhave been developed during research and consulting pro-jects that the authors and their organizations have beeninvolved in. The authors would therefore like to especiallyacknowledge Statoil, Norsk Hydro, Saga Petroleum, Shell,Norwegian Research Council, Department of the Environ-ment UK and ConeTec Investigations Ltd.
Finally the authors would like to express their apprecia-tion to their wives (Mai Liss, Linda and Denise) and children(Rasmus, Kelly, Simon and Rebecca) for patiently puttingup with us during the years we have been working on thisbook.
SYMBOL LIST
Whilst every effort has been made throughout the book to avoid duplication in the use of symbols, this has not always beenpossible when the same symbol is used to mean different things in common usage.
ENGLISH
a = attraction (= c'cot^', in terms of effectivestress).
a = area ratio of the cone (= AnIAc)«max = maximum horizontal acceleration of ground
surface, due to earthquakeA = pore pressure parameterA — areaAc = projected area of the coneAn = cross-sectional area of load cell or shaftAp = pile end areaAs = pile shaft areaAs = area of friction sleeveAsh = bottom end area of friction sleeveAst = top end area of friction sleeveAw = skirt wall areab = area ratio of friction sleeveB = Skempton'spore pressure parameterB = width of footingBc = cone diameterBq = pore pressure parameter ( = (u2 — u0)l(q, — <juo))c' = cohesion (in terms of effective stress)c = coefficient of consolidationc/, = horizontal coefficient of consolidationca = vertical coefficient of consolidationCc = compression index
c,DDD
Dr
Ao£>50
£>60
EEr
ERf
Es
Et
Eu
f/fP
f ,ft
stress normalization factordiameterdamping ratiodilatancy parameter
relative density \Dr = •\ '
100%)
the size such that 10, 50, 60 or 90% (by weight)of the sample consists of particles having asmaller nominal diameter.
void ratioinitial void ratiomaximum void ratiominimum void ratioYoung's modulussecant Young's modulus in strain softeningmaterialrod energy ratio in standard penetration test (SPT)secant modulus at 50% of maximum stressinitial tangent Young's modulusundrained Young's modulusunit skin friction resistancedegree of mobilizationpile unit side frictionunit sleeve friction resistancesleeve friction corrected for pore pressure effects
SYMBOL LIST XIII
formation factortotal force acting on friction sleevefactor of safetynormalized friction ratio ( =fj(qt — GOO))fines contentacceleration due to gravityshear modulusspecific weightinitial or maximum shear modulus, shearstiffnessshear modulus during unload-reload ofpressuremetre testlayer thicknesselectrical currentsoil behaviour type indexdensity indexrigidity index = G/su
plasticity indexstrain influence factorcoefficient of permeability, hydraulic conductivitybearing capacity factorcoefficient of permeability in horizontal directioncoefficient of permeability in vertical directionconstant; calibration factorcorrection factor; ratio of the pore pressuremeasured immediately behind the cone and themeasured pore pressure on the conecorrection factor, as function of layer thicknesshorizontal stress index from dilatometerempirical coefficient relating skirt side friction
F =Fs =Fs =Fr =FC =g =G =G =G0 =
Gur =
H =/ =Ic =ID =Ir =IP =Iz =k =kc =kh =k0 =K =K =
Kc =
K0 = coefficient of earth pressure at rest ( = a'hJa'vo)K, = empirical coefficient relating skirt tip resistance to
9cL = lengthL/D = pile length/pile diameterLI = liquidity index = (w — wp)/(wL — wp)m = dimensionless deformation modulus numberm = measured gradient of initial linear dissipationmu = coefficient of volume change
6 sin <]>'M = Camclay constant = - , slope of the
* 3 - sin <t>' V
critical state lineM = earthquake magnitudeM = constrained deformation modulusM = pore pressure gradient corresponding to
theoretical curve for given probe geometryMt = compression modulus - over consolidated claysMn = compression modulus - normally consolidated
claysM0 = reference constrained modulus corresponding to
the in situ vertical effective stress, a'00
n = creep exponentn = porosity
maximum porosityminimum porosityno. of blows in the SPTnumber of cyclesbearing capacity factor
cone factors
Nm =
N, =Nu =Nu =
Nw =Pa
AP =
PL =P'r =
p-y =
PPD =
qca
qcn =
qeqn
N g - l
+ NU-B,_
q,(D) =
QSail
Qb
Qt =Quit =r =rn =
cone resistance number I =
constant = St • R/pore pressure factorbearing capacity factor — 6 tan <j>' (1 - tan </>')pore pressure factorSPT energy ratioreference stress =100 kPaeffective preconsolidation pressurechange in effective vertical stressnet foundation pressurepressuremeter limit pressurereference pressure for modulus number conceptcurves representing lateral soil reaction versusrelative displacement between pile and soilnormalized pore pressure difference = (u\ — u2)lu0
measured cone resistanceaverage cone resistanceequivalent average cone resistancedynamic cone resistance measured with vibratoryconeequivalent average cone resistancecone resistance in vibratory conenormalized cone resistancecone resistance at depth zeffective cone resistance = (qt — u2)net cone resistance = (q, — crvo)reference cone resistance in Ladanyi's creepequationpile unit end resistancecorrected cone resistance = qc + (1 - d)u2
uniaxial compression strengthtip bearing capacity of pilesunit skirt tip resistance at depth Dunit skirt skin friction at depth Dunit wall frictionestimated pile bearing capacityallowable pile axial loadpile end bearing capacitytotal force acting on the conepile shaft friction capacitynormalized cone resistance = (q, - oDO)la'DO
ultimate pile axial capacityradial distanceradius of cavity
XIV SYMBOL LIST
rp = radius of plastic zoners = resistance numberR = electrical resistanceRDS ~ static ratio of cone penetration = qcd/qc
Rf = friction ratio (=fjq t ' 100% or alternatively/,/?,• 100%)
Ri = initial radius of spherical cavityRk = footing shape factorRp = radius of plastic zone around spherical cavityRu = ultimate radius of spherical cavityRR = recompression ratiosu = undrained shear strengthsur = remoulded undrained shear strengthsc
u = su from triaxial compression testsu
= su from direct simple shear testsu
= su from triaxial extension testS = settlementSr = degree of saturation5, = sensitivityt = timet = vertical pile displacementt$o = time for 50% dissipation of excess pore water
pressureT = time factorT = reference timer50 = time factor at U = 50%r* = modified time factorM = pore water pressureu0 = in situ pore pressureMI = pore pressure measured on the coneM2 = pore pressure measured behind coneMS = pore pressure measured behind friction sleeveM, = pore pressure at time t = 0u, = pore pressure at time = tAM = excess pore water pressureU = normalized excess pore pressureu = rate of flowV = voltageVs = shear wave velocityw = water contentwp = plastic limitWL = liquid limitY = normalizing parameter for shear wave velocityz = depthAz = thickness of sublayer
GREEK
exaaa
a,-
= angle describing curvature of failure line= "constant"= cone roughness= coefficient converting undrained shear
strength to wall friction, qw, or unit skinfriction,/
= factor for finding Mt = ex, • qc
an = factor for finding Mn — «„ • qc
ft = angle of plastificationft = "constant"/? = correction factory' = effective unit weightyd = dry unit weightys = unit weight of solid particlesyw = unit weight of wateryav = average soil unit weighty = shear strain6 = settlement6 = displacement6 = rate of settlementA = change, e.g. ACTAM = excess pore pressure = u — u0
s = strainec = reference strain rate in Ladanyi's creep
equationif = strain rate (see def. of <re/)£„ = vertical strainez = settlement of loess due to wettingK = constants for state parameterAc = rate factorAin = slope of ultimate steady state line in
e-lnp' state!„ = slope of steady state lineH = Poisson's ratiofi = coefficient of variationo = penetration rateDg = reference penetration rate in Ladanyi's creep
equationp = specific resistivityp = densitypb = bulk resistivity of soilPf = resistivity of pore fluidps = density of solid particlesy = state parametera'om = maximum vertical stressa'uc = vertical consolidation stressCT,CT' = normal stress (total, effective)a\,a[ = major principal stress (total, effective)CT2, CT2 = intermediate principal stress (total, effective)<73,03 = minor principal stress (total, effective)<jh, a'h = horizontal stress (total, effective)0A<»Ofco = initial horizontal stress (total, effective)ahc = lateral stress on friction sleeve"'mean, ̂ mean = octahedral stress (total, effective)am a'a = vertical stress (total, effective)GOO, GOO ~ overburden stress (total, effective)OCQ = reference stress in Ladanyi's creep equationOef = stress where "e" denotes the von Mises
equivalent stress and/denotes failure inLadanyi's creep equation
2 = sumT = shear stress
SYMBOL LIST xv
cy
Pmob
Pd
<t>u
= average cyclic shear stress= cyclic shear stress= total friction angle= effective friction angle= mobilized effective friction angle= drained friction angle= peak friction angle= undrained friction angle
ABBREVIATIONS
ASCE = American Society of Civil EngineersASTM = American Society for Testing and MaterialsBRE = Building Research EstablishmentCAD = Consolidated Anisotropic DrainedCAUC = Anisotropic Consolidated Undrained Triaxial
Test Sheared in CompressionCID = Consolidated Isotropic DrainedCIU = Consolidated Isotropic UndrainedCPM = Cone PressuremeterCPT = Cone Penetration TestCPTU = Cone Penetration Test with Pore Pressure
Measurement (Piezocone Test)CRR = Cyclic Resistance RatioCRSC = Constant Rate of Strain ConsolidationCSR = Cyclic Stress RatioDC = Dynamic CompactionDSS = Direct Simple ShearECSMFE = European Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation EngineeringERT = Electrical Resistivity TestESOPT = European Symposium on Penetration TestingFC = Fines ContentGSD = Grain Size DistributionGWT = Ground Water TableHIM = High Frequency Impedance MeasuringICSMFE = International Conference of Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering
INCR = Incremental LoadingIRTP = International Reference Test ProcedureISSMFE = International Society of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation EngineeringJGED = Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering
DivisionLCPC = Laboratoire Central des Fonts et ChausseesLIF = Laser Induced FluorescenceNAPL = non-aqueous-phase-liquidNC = Normally ConsolidatedND = Nuclear Density (Probe)NDT = Nuclear Density TestNGI = Norwegian Geotechnical InstituteNM = Neutron Moisture (Probe)OC = OverconsolidatedOCR = Overconsolidation RatioOED = Oedometer TestPPD = Normalized pore pressure
difference = (u\ - M2)/«oPL = Limit pressureRCPTU = Piezocone with Resistivity ModuleSBP = Self Boring PressuremeterSCAPS = Site Characterization and Analysis
Penetrometer SystemSCPTU = Seismic CPTUSH = strain hardeningSPT = Standard Penetration TestSS = strain softeningSSL = Steady State LineTC = Triaxial CompressionTE = Triaxial ExtensionUBC = University of British ColumbiaUCB = University of California - BerkeleyUCT = Unconfmed Compression TestUSSL = Ultimate Steady (critical) State LineUU = Unconsolidated UndrainedUV = Ultra VioletUSSL = ultimate stready (vertical) state line
CONVERSION FACTORS
The following units have been used in this book:
LENGTH
To convert from
Inches (in)
Feet (ft)
Metres (m)
To
feetmicronsmillimetrescentimetresmetresinchesangstrom unitsmicronsmillimetrescentimetresmetresinchesfeetangstrom unitsmicronsmillimetrescentimetres
Multiply by
0.0833332540025.42.540.025412.03.048 X 109
304800304.8030.480.304839.3700793.28083991 X 101 X 106
1 X 103
1 X 102
10
CONVERSION FACTORS xvii
AREA
To convert from
Square metres (m )
Square feet (ft2)
Square centimetres (cm2)
Square inches (in )
To
square feetsquare centimetressquare inchessquare metressquare centimetressquare inchessquare metressquare feetsquare inchessquare metressquare feetsquare centimetres
Multiply by
10.763871 X 104
1550.00319.290304 X 10929.03041441 X 10~4
1.076387X10"0.15500316.4516 X 10~4
6.9444 X 10~3
6.4516
-2
VOLUME
To convert from
Cubic centimetres (cm )
Cubic metres (m )
Cubic inches (in )
Cubic feet (ft3)
To
cubic metrescubic feetcubic inchescubic feetcubic centimetrescubic inchescubic metrescubic feetcubic centimetrescubic metrescubic centimetrescubic inches
Multiply by
1 X 10~6
3.53 14667 X0.06102374435.3146671 X 106
61023.741. 6387064 X5.7870370 X16.3870640.02831684728316.8471728
KT5
KT5
io-4
xviii CONVERSION FACTORS
FORCE
To convert from
Pounds (avdp) (Ib)
Kips
Tons (short) (T)
Kilograms (kg)
Tons (metric) (t)
Kilonewtons (kN)
To
gramskilogramstons (long)tons (short)kipstons (metric)newtonspoundstons (short)kilogramstons (metric)kilogramspoundskipstons (metric)gramspoundstons (long)tons (short)kipstons (metric)newtonsgramskilogramspoundskipstons (short)kilonewtonspoundstons (short)kipstons (metric)kilograms
Multiply by
453.592430.453592434.464286 X 10~4
5 X 10~4
1 X 10~3
4.5359243 X 10~4
4.4482210000.500453.592430.45359243907.18474200020.90718510002.20462239.8420653 X 10~4
11.023113 X10~ 4
2.2046223 X 10~3
0.0019.8066501 X 106
10002204.62232.20462231.10231129.806650224.810.11240.224810.102101.97
CONVERSION FACTORS XIX
STRESS AND PRESSURE
To convert from
Pounds/square foot (lb/ft2)
Pounds/square inch (lb/in2)
Tons (short)/square foot (T/ft )
Kips/square foot (ksf)
Kilograms/square centimetre (kg/cm )
Tons (metric)/square metre (t/m2)
Atmospheres
To
pounds/square inchkips/square footkilograms/square centimetretons/square metreatmosphereskilonewtons/square metre (kilopascals)pounds/square footkips/square footkilograms/square centimetretons/square metreatmosphereskilonewtons/square metreatmosphereskilograms/square metretons (metric)/square metrepounds/square inchpounds/square footkips/square footkilonewtons/square metrepounds/square inchpounds/square foottons (short)/square footkilograms/square centimetretons (metric)/square metrekilonewtons/square metrepounds/square inchpounds/square footfeet of water (4°C)kips/square foottons/square metreatmosphereskilonewtons/square metrekilograms/square centimetrepounds/square footkips/square foottons (short)/square footkilonewtons/square metrebarskilograms/square centimetregrams/square centimetrekilograms/square metretons (metric)/square metrepounds/square footpounds/square inchtons (short) square footkilonewtons/square metre
Multiply by
0.00694451 X10~ 3
0.0004882430.0048824.72541 X 100.047881440.1440.0703070.703070.0680466.8950.9450829764.869.7648713.888820002.095.766.9444510000.50000.4882444.8824447.8814.2232048.161432.80932.0481614100.9678498.0670.10204.816140.204816140.1024089.8066501.01331.033231033.2310332.310.33232116.2214.6961.0581101.325
-4
XX CONVERSION FACTORS
Kilonewtons/square metre (kPa) pounds/square footpounds/square inchtons (short)/square footmetres of waterkips/square footkilograms/square centimetretons (Metric)/square metreatmospheres
20.8860.1450.010440.10200.020890.010200.10200.00987
UNIT WEIGHT
To convert from
Grams/cubic centimetre (g/cm )
Tons (metric)/cubic metre (t/m3)
Kilograms/cubic metre (kg/m3)
Pounds/cubic inch (Ib/in )
Pounds/cubic foot (Ib/ft)
Kilonewtons/cubic metre (kN/m3)
To
tons (metric)/cubic metrekilograms/cubic metrepounds/cubic inchpounds/cubic footkilonewtons/cubic metregrams/cubic centimetrekilograms/cubic metrepounds/cubic inchpounds/cubic footkilonewtons/cubic metregrams/cubic centimetretons (metric)/cubic metrepounds/cubic inchpounds/cubic footkilonewtons/cubic metregrams/cubic centimetretons (metric)/cubic metrekilograms/cubic metrepounds/cubic footkilonewtons/cubic metregrams/cubic centimetretons (metric)/cubic metrekilograms/cubic metrepounds/cubic inchkilonewtons/cubic metregrams/cubic centimetretons (metric)/cubic metrekilograms/cubic metrepounds/cubic inchpounds/cubic foot
Multiply by
1.001000.000.03612729262.4279619.80391.001000.000.03612729262.4279619.80390.0010.0013.6127292 X 100.0624279619.80584 X 1027.67990527.67990527679.9051728271.370.0160184630.01601846316.0184635.78703704 X 100.1570990.10200.1020101.980.0036856.3654
-5
1-3
CONVERSION FACTORS xxi
VELOCITY
To convert from
Centimetres/second
Microns/second
Feet/minute
Feet/year
To
microns/secondmetres/minutefeet/minutemiles/hourfeet/yearkilometre/hourcentimetres/secondmetres/minutefeet/minutemiles/hourfeet/yearcentimetres/secondmicrons/secondmetres/minutemiles/hourfeet/yearmicrons/secondcentimetres/secondmetres/minutefeet/minutemiles/hour
Multiply by
10,0000.6001,96850.0223691034643.60.0360.00010.0000600.000196850.0000022369103.464360.5080015080.010.30480.011363635256000.0096651640.00000096651645.79882 X 10~7
1.9025 X 10~6
2.16203 X 10~8
COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION
To convert from
1. Square centimetres/second
2. Square inches/second
To
square centimetres/monthsquare centimetres/yearsquare metres/monthsquare metres/yearsquare inches/secondsquare inches/monthsquare inches/yearsquare feet/monthsquare feet/yearsquare inches/monthsquare inches/yearsquare feet/monthsquare feet/yearsquare centimetres/secondsquare centimetres/monthsquare centimetres/yearsquare metres/monthsquare metres/year
Multiply by
2.6280 X 106
3.1536 X 107
2.6280 X 102
3.1536 X 103
0.1554.1516 X 105
4.8881 X 106
2.882998 X 103
3.39447 x 104
2.6280 X 106
3.1536X107
1.8250X104
2.1900 X 105
6.45161.6955 X 107
2.0346 X 108
1.6955 X 103
2.0346 X 104
GLOSSARY
This glossary contains the most frequently used termsrelated to CPT/CPTU. They are presented in alphabeticalorder. The exact definitions of these and a large number ofother terms are given in the list of symbols. Each term is alsodefined in full the first time it appears in the text.
CRT
Cone Penetration Test.
CPTU
Cone Penetration Test with pore water pressure measure-ment - apiezocone test.
Cone
The part of the Cone penetrometer on which the end bearingis developed.
Cone penetrometer
The assembly containing the cone, friction sleeve, any othersensors and measuring systems, as well as the connections totbepush rods.
Cone resistance, qc
The total force acting on the cone, Qc, divided by theprojected area of the cone, Ac\ (qc = QJAC).
Corrected cone resistance, qt
The cone resistance qc corrected for pore water pressureeffects.
Corrected sleeve friction, ft
The sleeve friction corrected for pore water pressure effectson the ends of the friction sleeve.
Data acquisition system
The system used to measure and record the measurementsmade by the cone penetrometer.
Dissipation test
A test when the decay of the pore water pressure is mon-itored during a pause in penetration.
Filter element
The porous element inserted into the cone penetrometer toallow transmission of the pore water pressure to the porepressure sensor, while maintaining the correct profile of thecone penetrometer.
Friction ratio, R,
The ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the sleeve friction,fs, to the cone resistance, qc, both measured at the samedepth; [Rf=(f,/qc)-lW\.
GLOSSARY xxiii
Friction reducer
A local enlargement on the push-rod surface, placed at adistance above the cone penetrometer, and provided toreduce the friction on the push rods.
Friction sleeve
The section of the cone penetrometer upon which the sleevefriction is measured.
Normalized cone resistance, Qc, or Qt
The cone resistance expressed in a non dimensional formand taking account of stress changes in situ, Qc = (qc - aDO)la'vo, or when the corrected cone resistance is usedQ, = (q, - OoJ/a'ao . Where aao and a'ao are the total andeffective vertical stress respectively.
Net cone resistance qn
The corrected cone resistance minus the vertical total stress.
Net pore pressure, Au
The measured pore pressure less the equilibrium porepressure. Aw = u — u0 .
Normalized friction ratio, Fr
The sleeve friction normalized by the net cone resistance.
Piezocone
A cone penetrometer containing a pore pressure sensor.
Pore pressure, u
The pore pressure generated during penetration and meas-ured by a pore pressure sensor. u\ when measured on thecone, u2 when measured just behind the cone and M3 whenmeasured just behind the friction sleeve.
Pore pressure ratio, Bq
The net pore pressure normalized with respect to the netcone resistance.
Push rods
The thick-walled rubes or rods used for advancing the conepenetrometer.
Thrust machine (rig)
The equipment which pushes the cone penetrometer androds into the ground.
Sleeve friction, fs
The total frictional force acting on the friction sleeve, Fs,divided by its surface area, As.fs = F,/AS.
NTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE
The purpose of this book is to provide guidance on thespecification, performance, use and interpretation of theElectric Cone Penetration Test (CPT), and in particular theCone Penetration Test with pore pressure measurement(CPTU) commonly referred to as the "piezocone test". Theauthors provide their recommended guidelines to interpret afull range of geotechnical parameters from cone penetrationdata. The use of these data in geotechnical design is complexand often project specific. However, some design guidelineshave been given (Chapter 6) to assist in their use. Somerelevant examples and case histories are given throughoutthe text.
This book is applicable primarily to standard electroniccones with a 60 degree apex angle and a diameter of35.7 mm (10 cm2 cross-sectional area). Details are given inChapter 2. Details of pushing equipment are also given inChapter 2, while details on specification and performanceare given in Chapters 3 and 4.
Recommendations on mapping and stratigraphy, materialidentification and evaluation of geotechnical parameters aregiven in Chapter 5, and information on direct applicationsfor geotechnical design are given in Chapter 6.
Information on additional sensors that have been added toCPT systems is included in Chapter 7, while environmentalapplications of cone penetrometer technology are brieflydescribed in Chapter 8.
Summaries are provided at the end of some of the sections
in Chapter 5 on interpretation. These are intended to guidethe user, and should be used in conjunction with the maintext.
To the conscientious reader the book will appear to havesome areas of repetition. This has been done purposely toensure that readers who only read certain sections are madeaware of the important points.
1.2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF CPT AND CPTU
In the Cone Penetration Test (CPT), a cone on the end of aseries of rods is pushed into the ground at a constant rate andcontinuous or intermittent measurements are made of theresistance to penetration of the cone. Measurements are alsomade of either the combined resistance to penetration of thecone and outer surface of a sleeve or the resistance of asurface sleeve. Figure 1.1 illustrates the main terminologyregarding cone penetrometers.
The total force acting on the cone, Qc, divided bythe projected area of the cone, Ac, produces the coneresistance, qc. The total force acting on the friction sleeve,Fs, divided by the surface area of the friction sleeve As,produces the sleeve friction, f s . In the piezoconepenetrometer, pore pressure is measured typically at one,two or three locations as shown in Figure 1.1. These porepressures are known as: on the cone (MI), behind the cone(u-i) and behind the friction sleeve (u^). Figure 2.1 includesmore detailed terminology for the piezocone penetrometer.
Probing with rods through weak ground to locate a firmer
INTRODUCTION
Pore pressurefilter location
Frictionsleeve
Conepenetrometer
Cone
Figure 1.1 Terminology for cone penetrometers.
stratum has been practised since about 1917. It was in theNetherlands in about 1932 that the CPT was introduced in aform recognizable today. The method has earlier beenreferred to as the static penetration test, quasi-static penetra-tion test and Dutch sounding test.
Existing CPT systems can be divided into three maingroups: mechanical cone penetrometers, electric conepenetrometers and piezocone penetrometers. A conepenetrometer with a 10 cm base area cone with an apexangle of 60 degrees is accepted as the reference and has beenspecified in the International Reference Test Procedure(ISSMFE, 1989), a copy of which is given in Appendix A.
1.3 ROLE OF CPT IN SITE INVESTIGATION
The objective of any subsurface exploration programme is todetermine the following:
• nature and sequence of the subsurface strata (geologicalregime)
• groundwater conditions (hydrogeological regime)• physical and mechanical properties of the subsurface
strata.
For geo-environmental site investigations where contami-nants are possible, the above objectives have the additionalrequirement to determine:
• distribution and composition of contaminants.
The above requirements are a function of the proposedproject and the associated risks. The variety in geologicalconditions and range in project requirements make thesubject complex. There are many techniques available tomeet the objectives of a site investigation and these includeboth field and laboratory testing. Laboratory tests includethose that test elements of the ground, such as triaxial testsand those that test prototype models, such as centrifuge tests.Field tests include drilling, sampling, in situ testing, full-
scale testing and geophysical tests. An ideal site investiga-tion programme should include a mix of field and laboratorytests.
Table 1.1 presents a partial list of the major in situ testsand their perceived applicability for use in different groundconditions. Based on current experience, grades have beenassigned which represent qualitative evaluations of the con-fidence levels assessed for each method. The perceivedapplicabilities are approximate and given only as a guide.Details of soil type and equipment type can influence theperceived applicability. The ground type provides a guide tothe range of ground conditions applicable for the test. Mostof the main in situ tests are applicable to soils with anaverage grain size finer than gravel size. Only a smallnumber of tests can be carried out in hard ground conditions,such as gravel, glacial till, soft and hard rock. These methodsgenerally require a pre-bored hole or non-destructive seis-mic techniques. However, high capacity CPT equipment hasincreased the range of applicable ground conditions.
It is clear from Table 1.1 that the CPT, piezocone (CPTU)and seismic CPTU (SCPTU - see section 7.3 for a descrip-tion) have the highest applicability for soils. The pressure-meter also has good applicability and the reader isencouraged to refer to B.G. Clark's book, Pressuremeters inGeotechnical Design. However, the CPTU/SCPTU providea near continuous profile and are much more cost-effective.
The CPT has three main applications in the site investiga-tion process:
1. to determine sub-surface stratigraphy and identify mate-rials present,
2. to estimate geotechnical parameters, and,3. to provide results for direct geotechnical design.
For the above applications the CPT may be supplemented byborings or other tests, either in situ or in the laboratory. TheCPT can provide guidance on the nature of such additionaltests and helps to determine critical areas or strata in whichin situ testing or sampling should be undertaken.
Where the geology is uniform and well understood andwhere predictions based on CPT results have been locallyverified and correlated with structure performance, the CPTcan be used alone for design. However, even in thesecircumstances the CPT should be accompanied by bore-holes, sampling and testing for one or more of the followingreasons:
• to clarify identification of soil type• to verify local correlations• to provide complementary information where interpreta-
tion of CPT data is difficult due to partial drainageconditions or problem soils
• to evaluate the effects of (future) changes in soil loadingwhich are not recorded by the CPT.
In soft soils, cone penetration from ground level to depths inexcess of 100 metres may be achieved provided verticality ismaintained. Gravel layers and boulders, heavily cemented
Table 1.1 The applicability and usefulness of in situ tests
Soil Parameters
Group
Penetrometers
Pressuremeters
Others
DeviceSoiltype
Dynamic CMechanical BElectric (CPT) BPiezocone (CPTU) ASeismic (SCPT/SCPTU) AFlat dilatometer (DMT) BStandard penetration test (SPT) AResistivity probe
Pre-bored (PBP)Self boring (SBP)Full displacement (FDP)
VanePlate loadScrew plateBorehole permeabilityHydraulic fractureCrosshole/downhole/
surface seismic
B
BBB
BCCC-C
Profile u *<!>'
B - CA/B - CA - CA A BA A BA C BB - CB - B
B - CB A1 BB - C
C - -- - Cc pv^ \_<
— A —B -
C -
Su
CCBB
A/BBCC
BBB
ABB---
ID
CB
A/BA/BA/BCBA
CBC
-BB---
mv
CCBBB
C
BBC
-BB---
c.
A/BA/B
-
CA1
C
_CcBC-
k
BB
-
—B-
-CCAC-
G0
ccBBABC-
BA2
A2
-AA--A
a*
CB/CB/CBB
-
CA/B
C
-Cc-B-
OCR
CCBBBBC-
CBC
B/CBB--B
a-s
CBC
-
CA/B2
C
BB----
Hardrock
C
-
A--
-B-ABA
Ground Type
Softrock Gravel
C BC CC CcccC BC
A BBC
- -A B-A ABA A
Sand
AAAAAAAA
BBB
-BAA-A
Silt
BAAAAAAA
BBB
-AAACA
Clay
BAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAA
Peat
BAAAAAAA
BBA
BAABCA
Applicability: A = high; B = moderate; C = low; - = none.*^' = Will depend on soil type; ' = Only when pore pressure sensor fitted; = Only when displacement sensor fitted.Soil parameter definitions: u = in situ static pore pressure; </>' = effective internal friction angle; su = undrained shear strength; mv = constrained modulus; cr = coefficient of consolidation; k = coefficient
of permeability; G0 = shear modulus at small strains; <jh = horizontal stress; OCR = overconsolidation ratio; <j-s = stress-strain relationship; ID = density index.
INTRODUCTION
zones and dense sand layers can restrict the penetrationseverely and deflect and damage cones and rods, especiallyif the overlying soils are very soft and allow rod buckling.Testing from the bottom of a borehole can overcome theseproblems, provided support is given to the push rods. In thismanner CPT/CPTU data can be obtained to greater depths.
The CPT/CPTU has three main advantages over thetraditional combination of borings, sampling and other test-ing. It provides:
1. continuous or near continuous data2. repeatable and reliable penetration data3. cost savings.
In environmental applications, cone penetration technologyalso prevents direct human contact with potentially contami-nated material.
1.4 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Comprehensive reviews of the history of penetration testingin general have been given by Sanglerat (1972) and Bromsand Flodin (1988).
1.4.1 Mechanical cone penetrometers
The first Dutch cone penetrometer tests were made in 1932by P. Barentsen, an engineer at the Rijkwaterstaat (Depart-ment of Public Works) in Holland. A gas pipe of 19 mminner diameter was used; inside this a 15 mm steel rod couldmove freely up and down. A cone tip was attached to thesteel rod. Both the outer pipe and the inner rod with the10 cm2 cone with a 60° apex angle (Figure 1.2), were pusheddown by hand (Barentsen, 1936). Barentsen corrected themeasured cone resistance by subtracting the weight of theinner rod. The maximum penetration depth was 10-12metres and the penetration resistance was read on amanometer.
The first director of Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory,T.K. Huizinga designed the first manually operated 10 tonnecone penetration rig with which the first tests were carriedout in 1935 (de Graaf and Vermeiden, 1988). A photographof this system is shown in Figure 1.3. This device also usedan outer 19 mm "casing" which eliminated the skin friction
N̂\
^s
35T
\
\\
60U
_ 35
along the inner rod. The cone was first pushed down 150 mm(maximum stroke) and then the outer pipe was pushed downuntil it reached the cone tip. Then the "casing" and the innerrods were pushed down together until the next level wasreached and cone resistance could be measured again.
Several Dutch and Belgian engineers used the earlyversion of the cone penetration test for evaluating pilebearing capacity (e.g. Buisman, 1935; Huizinga, 1942; deBeer, 1945; Plantema, 1948).
Vermeiden (1948) and Plantema (1948) improved theoriginal Dutch cone test by adding a conical part just abovethe cone. The geometry proposed by Vermeiden and whichhas been used since is shown in Figure 1.4. The purpose ofthis new geometry was to prevent soil from entering the gapbetween the casing and the rods.
Begemann (1953,1969) significantly improved the Dutchstatic cone penetration test by adding an "adhesion jacket"behind the cone (Figure 1.5). Using this new device the localskin friction could be measured in addition to the coneresistance. Measurements were made every 0.2 m and forspecial purposes the interval could be decreased to 0.1 m.The method was patented in 1953. Begemann (1965) wasalso the first to propose that the friction ratio (sleeve friction/cone resistance) could be used to classify soil layers in termsof soil type (Figure 1.6).
Figure 1.2 Old type Dutch cone (from Sanglerat, 1972).Figure 1.3 Dutch cone penetrometer system used in the 1940s(courtesy of Delft Geotechnics).
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
r
B B
Figure 1.4 Dutch cone with conical mantle (from Sanglerat,1972).
In 50Q_*5
40oO"
g 30c
Percentage offines <16|i Sand and gravel
o
Silty sandO
152535 .465 ^Clay95100,
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6Skin friction, f_(MPa)
0.7 0.8
Figure 1.6 Soil classification from cone resistance and sleevefriction readings (from Begemann, 1965).
As outlined by Broms and Flodin (1988) and Sanglerat(1972), several other mechanical cone penetrometers withsomewhat different features were developed in othercountries such as Belgium, Sweden, Germany, France,Russia and so on.
1 2
Figure 1.5 Begemann type cone with friction sleeve (from Sanglerat, 1972).
INTRODUCTION
Most mechanical cone penetrometers measure the forceneeded to press down the inner rod with a manometer atground level.
Sanglerat (1972) also reported the development by Parezof a cone penetrometer which consisted of a conical pointconnected to the piston of a small hydraulic jack at the baseof the rod. An oil pressure line transmitted the pressure tomanometers located at the ground surface allowing con-tinuous readings of cone resistance. The Parez cone pen-etrometers were available in three sizes: diameters of 45, 75and 110 mm respectively.
The Centre Experimental du Batiment et des TravauxPublics (CEBTP) in France also built hydraulic penet-rometers in 1966 (Sanglerat, 1972). The cone resistance wasmeasured hydraulically with manometers at the groundsurface. The diameter of these penetrometers varied from100 mm to 320 mm. According to Sanglerat, CEBTP alsodeveloped a static-dynamic penetrometer.
Mechanical cone penetrometers are still widely usedbecause of their low cost, simplicity and robustness. Inrather homogeneous competent soils, without sharp varia-tions in cone resistance, mechanical cone data can beadequate, provided the equipment is properly maintainedand the operator has the required experience. Nevertheless,the quality of the data remains somewhat operator depend-ent. In soft soils, the accuracy of the results can sometimesbe inadequate for a quantitative analysis of the soil proper-ties. In highly stratified materials even a satisfactory qual-itative interpretation may be impossible.
1.4.2 Electric cone penetrometers
According to Broms and Flodin (1988) the very first electriccone penetrometer was probably developed at the DeutscheForschungsgesellschaft fur Bodenmechanik (Degebo) inBerlin during the Second World War.
The signals were transmitted to the ground surfacethrough a cable inside the hollow penetrometer rods. Muhs(1978) reviewed the main improvements of the new pen-
etrometer relative to mechanical cone penetrometers,namely:
1. The elimination of possible erroneous interpretation oftest results due to friction between inner rods and theouter tubes.
2. A continuous testing with a continuous rate of penetra-tion without the need for alternative movements ofdifferent parts of the penetrometer tip and no possibilityfor undesirable soil movements influencing the coneresistance.
3. The simpler and more reliable electrical measurement ofthe cone resistance with the possibility for continuousreadings and easy recording of the results.
Another reason for using electrical measurement systems isthat very sensitive load cells can be used and thereby muchmore accurate readings can be obtained in very soft soils.
The first electrical cone penetrometer in Holland, calledthe Rotterdam cone, was developed and patented, in 1948 bythe municipal engineer Bakker.
Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory (DSML) had workedwith electric cone penetrometers since 1949 and in 1957produced the first electrical cone penetrometer where thelocal side friction could also be measured separately (Vlas-blom, 1985).
To exploit all the experience accumulated with themechanical cone, DSML carried out a series of comparativestudies. They also experimented with the geometry of theelectrical cone attempting to get the same results as from themechanical cone (Heijnen, 1973; Vlasblom, 1985).
In 1965 an electric cone was developed by Fugro inco-operation with the Dutch State Research Institute (TNO),(see de Ruiter, 1971). Figure 1.7 shows a diagram of theearly Fugro electric friction cone penetrometer. The shapeand dimensions of this cone formed the basis for theInternational Reference Test Procedure (ISSMFE, 1977,1989).
De Ruiter (1971) also reported the use of an electricalinclinometer which enabled deviations from vertical duringa test to be monitored.
8
1 Conical point (10 cm2) 5 Adjustment ring2 Load cell 6 Waterproof bushing3 Strain gauges 7 Cable4 Friction sleeve 8 Connection with rods
Figure 1.7 The Fugro electrical friction cone (after de Ruiter, 1971).
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
A large number of different electric cone penetrometershave now been developed in many countries all over theworld. However, the mechanical cone penetrometer is stillused in some countries.
Chapter 2 describes some of the different electrical loadcell systems that are being used for recording cone resist-ance and side friction.
1.4.3 The piezocone
Two important papers at the first European Conference onPenetration Testing (ESOPT-1) in Stockholm in 1974 pre-sented examples of pore pressures measured during penetra-tion. A conventional electrical piezometer, developed by theNorwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), was used by Janbuand Senneset (1974) to measure pore pressures duringpenetration adjacent to CPT profiles. Schmertmann (1974)also pushed in a piezometer probe and measured penetrationpore pressures.
Schmertmann recognized the importance of pore waterpressure measurement for the interpretation of CPT data.Both Janbu and Senneset and Schmertmann showed theresults of the changes in pore pressures during a pause in thepenetration.
Almost simultaneously Torstensson (1975) in Swedenand Wissa et al. (1975) in the USA developed electricpiezometer probes with the special purpose of measuringpore water pressures during penetration and pauses in pene-tration. The two probes were of similar geometry. The probeused by Wissa et al. is reproduced in Figure 1.8. Resultsfrom these probes showed the potential for detecting thinpermeable layers embedded in clay.
Schmertmann (1978) used the Wissa type piezometer probeand a 60° cone with filter at the tip in a study of the evaluationof liquefaction potential of sands. Baligh etal. (1980) also didtests with the Wissa probe in addition to tests with 60° coneswith various filter locations. However, each cone recordedonly pore water pressure and from only one sensing filterelement. Parallel tests were performed with the electric conepenetrometers. Baligh et al. suggested that the pore waterpressure data, when combined with the CPT data, couldprovide a promising method for soil identification and anestimate of overconsolidation in a clay deposit. The firstpublication of combined measurement of cone resistance andpore pressure in the same probe was given by Roy et al.(1980). They did tests in sensitive Canadian clays, to study thepattern of pore water pressure at or above the cone tip usingdetachable tips to vary the position of the filter element.
At the 1981 ASCE National Convention in St. Louis,Missouri, a session was organized on Cone PenetrationTesting and Experience. Several authors presented results ofpiezocone tests that could measure penetration pore pressuresimultaneously with cone resistance and sleeve friction (deRuiter, 1981; Muromachi, 1981; Baligh et al., 1981; Jones et
SquareA-rodthread
Transducerelectricalcable
Transducerlocknut
Stainless steelporous tip
Protectivepolyethylenetubing
Weld
Ferrule
Pressuretransducer
O-ring seals
O-ring seals
Figure 1.8 The Wissa piezometer probe (from Wissa et al. 1975).
al., 1981; Tumay et al., 1981; Campanella and Robertson,1981).
Of the piezocones referred to above, some had filters onthe very tip or midway on the cone face and some on thecylindrical part just behind the cone tip. In practice mosttests were done with the filter on the cone face. Gradually thepractice has changed so that the recommended position isclose behind the cone at location u2 (ISSMFE, 1989;Figure 1.1).
A large number of piezocones have been developed inrecent years. For practical projects pore pressures are nor-mally measured at one location; most frequently behind thecone. For research and special projects, piezocones with twoor three filter positions have been developed. Bayne andTjelta (1987) and Zuidberg et al. (1987) reported the devel-opment of the triple element piezocones.
With the measurements of pore water pressures it becameapparent that it was necessary to correct cone resistance forpore water pressure effects, details of which are given inChapter3.
A trend is also to include other sensors in the piezocone;details are given in Chapter 7.
REFERENCES
Aas, G., Lacasse, S., Lunne, T. and Madshus, C. (1984) "Insitu testing: new developments". Nordiska Geotekniker-motet, NGM-84, Linkoping, Sweden, 2, 705-16, Swed-ish Geotechnical Society.
Aas, G., Lacasse, S., Lunne, T. and H0eg, K. (1986) "Use ofin situ tests for foundation design on clay". Proceedings ofthe ASCE Specialty Conference In Situ '86: Use of In SituTests in Geotechnical Engineering, Blacksburg, 1-30,American Society of Engineers (ASCE).
Acar, Y.B. and El-Tahir, E.A. (1986) "Low strain dynamicproperties of artificially cemented sand". Journal of Geo-technical Engineering, ASCE, 112(11), 1001-15.
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