Computer of A Thousand Faces: Anthropomorphizations of the Computer in Design (1965-1975)

24 dosya computational design

Theodora Vardouli, PhD Candidate in Design and Computation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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PART 2: HISTORICAL REFLECTIONS

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25dosya computational design

Theodora Vardouli, PhD Candidate in Design and Computation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

PART 2: HISTORICAL REFLECTIONS Vardouli

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design more computational or computation more FGUKIPGTN[!� 7PVCPINKPI� VJG� FKHſEWNV� EQPEGRVWCN�problem is essential in order to critically posi�tion ourselves as designers and researchers in the vast pluralism of practices which invoke the term “computational design” and to orient our creative efforts toward the inception of new computational CIGPFCU��EQPUEKQWU�QH�VJGKT�UVCMGU�CPF�EJCNNGPIGU�

Currently, the questions pertaining to the inten�sive relationship between the constituent parts of the phrase “computational design” tend to be QDUEWTGF�D[�KVU�WDKSWKVQWU�CPF�QRRQTVWPKUVKE�WUG��*QYGXGT�� NQQMKPI� DCEM� VQ� VJG� ſTUV� GPEQWPVGTU�of computers and design, one discovers a rich legacy of speculation on the implications of this OGTIKPI�� +PSWKT[� KPVQ� VJG� GCTN[� EQORWVCVKQPCN�GTC� �� ECP� VJGTGHQTG� GZRQUG� RCTV� QH��the cultural and historical origins of the popular DWV�NQQUGN[�FGſPGF�VGTO�őEQORWVCVKQPCN�FGUKIP�Œ�Furthermore, an exploration of the computational VTCPUKVKQP�KP�FGUKIP�ECP�RTQDNGOCVK\G�VJG�DQWPF�aries between the domain of computers and this of designers and bring forth ideas and questions which surpass the actualities of digital tools and OGVJQFU�

The intense impulse to situate the new entity of the computer in the traditional, empirical processes of design lead to assignments of anthropomorphic roles to the machine, such as the“clerk,” the “part�PGT�Œ�VJG�őCEEQWPVCPV�Œ�CPF�QVJGTU��6JGUG�FKHHGTGPV�“occupations” were eloquent metaphors denoting different approaches to the ways that the innate characteristics of the computer could be recon�ciled with the elusive characteristics of design, as well as to the new relationship of the machine as C�FGUKIP�CEVQT�YKVJ�VJG�FGUKIPGT�CWVJQT��6JG�OCKP�body of this paper places these metaphors in con�versation, thus revealing different models of com�RWVCVKQP��CU�YGNN�CU�FKHHGTGPV�RTQEGUUGU�QH�FGUKIP��The purpose of this short survey is to bring forth computational “role models” which survive until today, assert them as historical and cultural arti�facts, and present their conceptual counterpoints, TG�QRGPKPI�VJGO�HQT�FKUEWUUKQP�

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world initiated controversial debates on the role QH� EQORWVGT� CKFU� VQ� &GUKIP� CPF� #TEJKVGEVWTG��5WVJGTNCPFŏU�YTKVKPIU�CDQWV�5-'6%*2#&�GZRNKEKV�ly reveal his approach computer graphics applica�VKQPU�CU�UQOGVJKPI�OQTG�VJCP�FTCHVKPI�CKFU��/QTG�VJCP� JCNH� C� EGPVWT[� DGHQTG� VJG� RQRWNCTK\CVKQP� QH�$WKNFKPI�+PHQTOCVKQP�/QFGNKPI�$+/��5WVJGTNCPF�YCU�FKUEWUUKPI� VJG�OCEJKPGŏU� CDKNKV[� VQ�QTICPK\G�CPF�RTQEGUU�KPHQTOCVKQP��6JKU��JG�CTIWGF��QHHGTGF�the prospect of structured representations contain�ing explicitly stated topological information about a drawing and therefore enabling the designer to GODGF� EQPUVTCKPVU�� RGTHQTO� GCU[� OQFKſECVKQPU�CPF� GXGP� EQORWVG� FKHſEWNV� RTQDNGOU� GOGTI�KPI� FWTKPI� VJG� FGUKIP� RTQEGUU�� +P� VJG� CDUVTCEV� QH�his doctoral thesis entitled 5-'6%*2#&��#�/CP�Machine Graphical Communication System,1 Sutherland wrote:

It is easy to add entirely new types of conditions to 5MGVEJRCFŏU�XQECDWNCT[��5KPEG�VJG�EQPFKVKQPU�ECP�KP�volve anything computable, Sketchpad can be used HQT� C� XGT[� YKFG� TCPIG� QH� RTQDNGOU�� (QT� GZCORNG��5MGVEJRCF� JCU� DGGP� WUGF� VQ� ſPF� VJG� FKUVTKDWVKQP� QH�HQTEGU�KP�VJG�OGODGTU�QH�VTWUU�DTKFIGU�FTCYP�YKVJ�KV�


telling title The promises and the disappointments of

computer-aided design,6 narrate the transition from an enthusiastic belief to the revolutionary potentialities of the machine to the disappointment about its poor RGTHQTOCPEG�KP�VJG�YQTNFŏU�őOGUU[�TGCNKUO�Œ�6JG�GCTN[�optimism about the wonders of CAD gave its place to skepticism and restraint about the imposition of VJG�OCEJKPGŏU� QRGTCVKQPCN�OQFGU� VQ� VJG� FGUKIPGT�� #U�is revealed by the discussions of Patrick Purcell, re�search fellow in the Department of Design Research at the Royal College of Art in London, or Murray Milne, at the time Associate Dean of the UCLA School of Architecture and Urban Planning, it soon became evi�dent that in order to understand the role of computa�VKQPCN�U[UVGOU�KP�FGUKIP��QPG�UJQWNF�ſTUV�DGVVGT�WPFGT�UVCPF�VJG�FGUKIP�RTQEGUU�KVUGNH�7

THE PARTNER

At the time that 4GƀGEVKQPU� QP� %QORWVGT� #KFU were written, Nicholas Negroponte was already counting eight years of research in computer graphics in the

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THE CLERK

#� YKFGN[� UJCTGF� TJGVQTKE� KP� VJG� ſTUV� [GCTU� QH� %#&��was the claim that the computer would liberate the designers from the tedious, quantitative tasks in�volved in design, thus allowing them to channel their energy towards the truly creative parts of the design RTQEGUU��#P� KPFKECVKXG� GZCORNG� QH� VJKU� CRRTQCEJ�YCU�9CNVGT�)TQRKWUŏ� KPVGTXGPVKQP� KP� VJG� �� EQPHGTGPEG�#TEJKVGEVWTG� CPF� VJG� %QORWVGT�2 As denoted by its title, the conference sought to map the implications of this powerful new machinery in the discipline of #TEJKVGEVWTCN� &GUKIP� One year after SKETCHPAD, Gropius, founder of the Bauhaus school and of the TGPQYPGF� %CODTKFIG�DCUGF� CTEJKVGEVWTCN� ſTO� The

#TEJKVGEVŏU� %QNNCDQTCVKXG� 6#%�� YQWNF� CFXQECVG� HQT�the imperative to make an intelligent use of computa�tional tools “as means of superior mechanical control,” QHHGTKPI�őGXGT�ITGCVGT�HTGGFQO�HQT�VJG�ETGCVKXG�RTQEGUU�QH� FGUKIP�Œ3 The conceptual basis of this optimistic claim was a partitioning of the design process into a set of “objective,” quantitative tasks on the one hand, and KPVWKVKXG��SWCNKVCVKXG�ETGCVKXG�RTQEGUUGU�QP�VJG�QVJGT��+P�this fundamental divide, the computer would play the role of a sedulous slave in the service of the designer, performing measurements and calculations, faster and OQTG�GHſEKGPVN[�VJCP�KVU�JWOCP�OCUVGT��

As soon as the computer entered the ecosystem of the CTEJKVGEVWTCN� ſTO�� VJKU� FKXKUKQP�YCU� VTCPUHQTOGF� HTQO�a source of optimism to the cause for a widespread disillusionment, questioning the relevance of the ma�EJKPG� VQ� VJG� KORQTVCPV� SWGUVKQPU� QH� VJG� FKUEKRNKPG��Before forming a boisterous critique, shared amongst designers, this concern had been prophetically framed D[� VJG� #OGTKECP� CTEJKVGEV� %JTKUVQRJGT� #NGZCPFGT�� +P�#TEJKVGEVWTG� CPF� VJG� %QORWVGT� Alexander had ob�served that in order for the computer to be truly use�ful for design, the important design problems should DG� HQTOCNK\GF� KP� C�YC[� VJCV� VJG[�EQWNF�DG� KPRWV� CPF�RTQEGUUGF� D[� VJG� OCEJKPG�� 7PVKN� VJGP�� VJG� őCTO[� QH�clerks,”4� CU� #NGZCPFGT� EJCTCEVGTK\GF� EQORWVGT� CKFU��YQWNF�DG�QH�NKVVNG�CUUKUVCPEG�VQ�FGUKIPGTU�

The criticism that designers needed something more than unimaginative clerks, soon became widely shared COQPIUV�FGUKIPGTU��1PG�FGECFG�CHVGT�VJG�ſTUV�GPEQWP�ters of architecture and the computer, there was al�TGCF[� CP� CVOQURJGTG� QH� C� RTG�OCVWTG� GPF�� 6JG� ��collection %QORWVGT�#KFU�VQ�&GUKIP�CPF�#TEJKVGEVWTG,5 edited by Nicholas Negroponte, under the intention VQ�UGTXG�CU�C�TGƀGEVKXG�TGVTQURGEVKXG�QH�VJG�ſTUV�FGECFG�of CAD, is infused with a climate of disillusionment, stemming both from the world of research and prac�VKEG� KP� VJG�7PKVGF� 5VCVGU�� #TVKENGU� UWEJ� CU� VJKU� QH� VJG�7%� $GTMGNG[� 2TQHGUUQT� 8NCFKOKT� $C\LCPCE�� YKVJ� VJG�

Vardouli


1960 text,14 polemically asserted the computer not as a rigid, counterintuitive machinery, but as a tool for cre�CVKXG�CORNKſECVKQP��C�FGUKIP�RCTVPGT��+P�JKU��CTVKENG�entitled 6JG�5GOCPVKEU�QH�#TEJKVGEVWTG�/CEJKPGU�15�EQ�authored with Leon Groisser, Negroponte noted:

#�RCTCFQZ�GZKUVU�KP�CNN�OCP�OCEJKPG�KPVGTCEVKQPU�CPF�KU� GRKVQOK\GF� KP� VJG� KPVGTCEVKQPU� DGVYGGP� VJG� CTEJK�VGEV� CPF� VJG� EQORWVGT�� 6JG� RCTCFQZ� KU� CU� HQNNQYU��Architects are concerned with issues generally con�UKFGTGF�VQ�DG�WPOCPCIGCDNG�D[�EQORWVGTU��6JGUG�KU�sues draw upon human experiences, senses, attitudes, even idiosyncrasies, none of which are enjoyed by OCEJKPGU�CV�VJKU�RQKPV�KP�VKOG��5Q�VJG�UVCPFCTF�RTQEG�dure is to partition the design task: the man is given YJCV�JG� KU�IQQF�CV�FQKPI� YJKEJ� KU�WUWCNN[�YJCV�JG�enjoys), and the machine is given only those tasks it ECP�JCPFNG�GHſEKGPVN[�16

Negroponte and Groisser sought a way to render the innately syntactic informational machine sen�sitive to the semantics of Architecture, meaning, context and missing information, thus promoting the machine from an unimaginative slave, mea�suring “kips, feet, decibels, acres, coulombs,” to a design partner understanding “calipers of partici�pation, contentment, responsiveness, adaptability, FKXGTUKV[��TGUKNKGPEG�CPF�UQ�QP�Œ17

Vardouli

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The computer vision experiments which were at the VKOG� DGKPI� EQPFWEVGF� KP� VJG� #TVKſEKCN� +PVGNNKIGPEG�Department at MIT, opened new possibilities for %QORWVGT� #KFU�� YJKEJ� YGTG� GZRNQTGF� KP� VJG� ſTUV�book publication of the Architecture Machine Group entitled 6JG� #TEJKVGEVWTG� /CEJKPG�� 6QYCTF� C� /QTG�Human Environment.11 6JG�#TEJKVGEVWTG�/CEJKPG�pre�sented the vision of interconnected personal, “domes�ticated” machines connected to a central host, which YQWNF�UWTRCUU�VJG�TQNG�QH�VJG�ENGTM�KG��C�RTQDNGO�UQNX�ing device) to rise to the level of a problem worrying RCTVPGT��6JTQWIJ�LWUV�KP�VKOG�KPVGTXGPVKQPU��TGURQPUKXG�VQ� VJG� FGUKIPGTŏU� KFKQOU� CPF� KFKQU[PETCUKGU�� VJG� OC�chine would allow the architects to think simultane�QWUN[�QH� VJG�XGT[�DKI�INQDCN�EQPUVTCKPVU��CPF�VJG�XGT[�UOCNN� NQECN� PGGFU� CPF� FGUKTGU�� VJWU� NGCFKPI� VQ�YJCV�0GITQRQPVG� EJCTCEVGTK\GF� CU� C� őJWOCPKUO� VJTQWIJ�intelligent machines,”12 where the machine would “exhibit alternatives, suggestions, incompatibilities and QXGTUGG�VJG�WTDCP�TKIJVU�QH�KPFKXKFWCNU�Œ13

+PƀWGPEGF�D[�VJG�VGEJPQ�JWOCPKUVKE�E[DGTPGVKE�XKUKQPU�of a harmonious synergistic relationship between men CPF�OCEJKPGU��YJKEJ�YGTG� ƀQCVKPI� KP� VJG�/+6� CKT� KP�the 1960s and 1970s, Negroponte proposed a model which surpassed the rigid division of labor in the design process and called for a partnership between the com�RWVGT�CPF�VJG�FGUKIPGT��6JG�KFGC�QH�OCP�EQORWVGT�U[O�DKQUKU�� DQTTQYGF� D[� ,%4� .KEMNKFGTŏU� JKIJN[� KPƀWGPVKCN�


The interface became the key to surpassing the U[PVCZ�UGOCPVKEU� FKEJQVQO[� CPF� VQ� TG�GUVCDNKUJ�VJG�NQUV�WPKV[�QH�VJG�FGUKIP�RTQEGUU��6JTQWIJ�PW�merous research proposals, with the most robust being the 1976 Proposal to the National Science Foundation entitled Graphical Conversation

Theory,18 ArcMac outlined the maxims of a suc�cessful interaction between the designer and the computer and developed haptic and visual inter�HCEGU�CNNQYKPI�VJG�FGUKIPGT�VQ�KPVGTCEV�CU�ƀWKFN[�CU�RQUUKDNG�YKVJ� VJG�OCEJKPG��YKVJQWV� DGKPI� UVKƀGF�D[�FGPCVWTGF�HQTOCNK\CVKQPU�

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boundaries between the professional architect CPF� VJG� PQP�GZRGTV� WUGT� FQOKPCVGF� VJG�YQTM� QH�VJG�#TEJKVGEVWTG�/CEJKPG�)TQWR� KP� VJG� ſTUV� JCNH�QH� VJG� ��U�� #RCTV� HTQO� VJG� QRGTCVKQP� QH� VJKU�rhetoric as a challenging motivation for taking VJG� GPVGTRTKUG� QH� ETGCVKXG� CORNKſECVKQP� VJTQWIJ�computers to its conceptual and technical limits, VJKU� XKUKQP�YCU� JGCXKN[� KPƀWGPEGF� D[� C� \GKVIGKUV�which denounced architectural professionalism as morally suspect and envisioned the design of systems and platforms which would allow for per�UQPCN�NKDGTV[�CPF�ETGCVKXG�KPFKXKFWCNKUO��&TCYKPI�references from sources as diverse as cybernetics, participatory design and advocacy planning, the counterculture movement in the United States and the radical megastructural fantasies in Europe and Asia, the Architecture Machine Group en�gaged with the agenda to empower people to shape their own environments through resilient EQORWVCVKQPCN�KPHTCUVTWEVWTGU�20

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5GVVKPI�CUKFG�VJG�XKUKQP�QH�VJG�ő9K\CTF�OCEJKPG�Œ24 Negroponte returned to the idea of a creative am�RNKſGT�� VJKU� VKOG� RCTVPGTKPI� PQV� YKVJ� VJG� RTQHGU�UKQPCN�FGUKIPGT��DWV�YKVJ�VJG�PQP�RTQHGUUKQPCN�WUGT�QH�CTEJKVGEVWTG��6JG�OQTCN�TJGVQTKE�CEEQORCP[KPI�VJG� #TE/CEŏU� )TQWR� CVVCEM� VQ� VJG� QRRQTVWPKUVKE�KPVGTRTGVCVKQPU� CPF� UKORNKſECVKQPU� QH� VJG� RTQHGU�sional architect, imposed additional constraints VQ� VJG� EQPEGRVKQP�QH� VJG� őFGUKIP� CORNKſGT�Œ� 6JG�

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TQNG�QH� VJG�OCEJKPG�YCU� VQ�GORQYGT�PQP�GZRGTV�users, who knew very little about design but RNGPV[�CDQWV�VJGKT�NKXKPI�RTGHGTGPEGU��VQ�URCVKCNK\G�VJGKT� KPVGPVKQPU� CPF� RTQFWEG� VJGKT� QYP� FGUKIPU��The success of the entire enterprise was therefore EQPVKPIGPV� QP� VJG� PQP�RCVGTPCNKUVKE� RCTVPGTUJKR�DGVYGGP�VJG�PQP�GZRGTV�WUGT�CPF�VJG�OCEJKPG��+P�5QHV�#TEJKVGEVWTG�/CEJKPGU, Negroponte assigned to the computer the role of simultaneously a “be�nevolent educator” and a “thirsting student,”25 whose goal was to establish a mutual understand�ing with the user by interacting with him in a vi�UWCN�CPF�XGTDCN�OCPPGT��$[�OCMKPI�KPHGTGPEGU�QP�VJG�WUGTŏU� UMGVEJGU� CPF� UVCVGOGPVU� VJG� EQORWVGT�would ideally be able to construct a model of the user and therefore operate as his surrogate, JKU�GZRGTV�CNVGT�GIQ��JKU�QYP�PCVKXG�CTEJKVGEV�26 In the 5QHV�#TEJKVGEVWTG�/CEJKPGU�OQFGN�� C�ƀGGV�QH�KPVGTEQPPGEVGF� FGUKIP� CORNKſGTU�� EQPVTQNNGF� D[�Architecture Machines, forms an omnipresent cy�bernetic system of user surrogates negotiating the

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4 Alexander stated: “A digital computer is, essentially, the same as a huge army of clerks, equipped with rule books, pencil and paper, all stupid and entirely without initiative, but able to HQNNQY�GZCEVN[�OKNNKQPU�QH�RTGEKUGN[�FGſPGF�QRGTC�VKQPU�� =��?� +P� CUMKPI�JQY� VJG� EQORWVGT�OKIJV�DG�applied to architectural design, we must, there�fore, ask ourselves what problems we know of in design that could be solved by such an army QH� ENGTMU� =��?� #V� VJG�OQOGPV� VJGTG� CTG� XGT[� HGY�UWEJ� RTQDNGOU�Œ� #NGZCPFGT�� %JTKUVQRJGT�� A Much Asked Question About Computers and &GUKIP�� 2CRGT� RTGUGPVGF� CV� #TEJKVGEVWTG� CPF� VJG�%QORWVGT��$QUVQP��/CUUCEJWUGVVU�5 0GITQRQPVG�� 0KEJQNCU� GF�� 4GƀGEVKQPU� QP� %QORWVGT� #KFU� VQ� &GUKIP� CPF�#TEJKVGEVWTG��2GVTQEGNNK�%JCTVGT�6 $C\LCPCM��8NCFKOKT��6JG�RTQOKUGU�CPF�VJG� FKUCRRQKPVOGPVU� QH� EQORWVGT�CKFGF� FGUKIP��+DKF��2WTEGNN��2��7PKVGF�-KPIFQO��+DKF��7 /KNPG�� /�� 9JCVGXGT� DGECOG� QH� FG�UKIP�OGVJQFQNQI[��+DKF��8 0GITQRQPVG�� 0KEJQNCU� CPF� .GQP� )TQKUUGT�� %QORWVGT� #KFU� VQ� 2CTVKEKRCVQT[�#TEJKVGEVWTG�� =2TKPEKRCN� +PXGUVKICVQTU�� .GQP�)TQKUUGT� CPF�0KEJQNCU�0GITQRQPVG?�� %CODTKFIG��/CUU��/CUUCEJWUGVVU�+PUVKVWVG�QH�6GEJPQNQI[��9 0GITQRQPVG�� 0KEJQNCU� CPF� .GQP� )TQKUUGT�� 74$#0� �� #� /CEJKPG� 6JCV� &KUEWUUGU�7TDCP� &GUKIP�� +P� 'OGTIKPI� /GVJQFU� +P�'PXKTQPOGPVCN�&GUKIP�#PF�2NCPPKPI��GF��)CT[�6��/QQTG��%CODTKFIG��/#��/+6�2TGUU�10 Negroponte and Groisser, Computer Aids to 2CTVKEKRCVQT[�#TEJKVGEVWTG��11 0GITQRQPVG�� 0KEJQNCU�� 6JG�Architecture Machine: Toward A More Human 'PXKTQPOGPV��%CODTKFIG��/CUU��/+6�2TGUU�12 +DKF��13 +DKF��14 .KEMNKFGT�� ,�� %�� 4�� /CP�%QORWVGT�5[ODKQUKU��+P�+4'�6TCPUCEVKQPU�QP�*WOCP�(CEVQTU�KP�'NGEVTQPKEU�*('��15 0KEJQNCU� 0GITQRQPVG� CPF� .GQP� )TQKUUGT�� 5GEVQT�� 6JG� 5GOCPVKEU� QH� #TEJKVGEVWTG�/CEJKPGU��#TEJKVGEVWTCN�&GUKIP��:.��×16 +DKF�17 +DKF�18 /CUUCEJWUGVVU� +PUVKVWVG� QH� 6GEJPQNQI[��#TEJKVGEVWTG� /CEJKPG� )TQWR�� %QORWVGT� /GFKCVGF� +PVGT�� CPF� +PVTC�� RGTUQPCN�

%QOOWPKECVKQP��%CODTKFIG��/CUU��/CUUCEJWUGVVU�+PUVKVWVG� QH� 6GEJPQNQI[�� &GRV�� QH� #TEJKVGEVWTG��#TEJKVGEVWTG�/CEJKPG�)TQWR�19 Negroponte and Groisser, The Semantics of #TEJKVGEVWTG�/CEJKPGU��20 Negroponte and Groisser, Computer Aids to 2CTVKEKRCVQT[�#TEJKVGEVWTG�21 6JG� %QPHGTGPEG� YCU� QTICPK\GF� D[� 0KIGN�Cross, in collaboration with Chris Jones and 4GI� 6CNDQV�� %TQUU�� 0KIGN� GF�� &GUKIP�2CTVKEKRCVKQP��#ECFGO[�'FKVKQPU�22 0GITQRQPVG�� 0KEJQNCU�� #URGEVU� QH�.KXKPI�KP�CP�#TEJKVGEVWTG�/CEJKPG��+DKF��23 ōōō�� 5QHV� CTEJKVGEVWTG� OCEJKPGU��%CODTKFIG��/CUU��/+6�2TGUU�24 +DKF��25 +DKF�26 (TQO� �� VJG� #TEJKVGEVWTG� /CEJKPG�Group launched a computer aided participatory design research program entitled “Architecture D[�;QWTUGNH�Œ�6JG�EQORWVGT�RTQITCO�VJCV�YCU�DG�KPI� FGXGNQRGF� YCU� PCOGF� ;10#�� CP� CETQP[O�UVCPFKPI�HQT�ő;QWT�1YP�0CVKXG�#TEJKVGEVŒ�CPF�QH�course referring to the intellectual father of the en�VKTG�GPVGTRTKUG��VJG�CTEJKVGEV�;QPC�(TKGFOCP��YJQ�CNUQ� RCTVKEKRCVGF� KP� VJG� TGUGCTEJ� RTQITCO�� 5GG��#TEJKVGEVWTG�/CEJKPG�)TQWR��#TEJKVGEVWTG�/CEJKPCVKQPU�� #� 9GGMN[� 0GYUNGVVGT� QH� VJG�#TEJKVGEVWTG�/CEJKPG�)TQWR��%CODTKFIG��/CUU��/+6�&GRCTVOGPV�QH�#TEJKVGEVWTG�27 An analysis of the discursive role of the őFGUKIP� CORNKſGTŏUŒ� EQORWVCVKQPCN� UVTWEVWTG�KP� 0KEJQNCU� 0GITQRQPVGŏU� PQP�RCVGTPCNKUVKE�claim can be found in my thesis for the Master of Science in Architecture Studies, Design and Computation Area at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, advised by Professor George 5VKP[�� 6JG� VJGUKU� KU� EKVGF� CU� HQNNQYU�� 8CTFQWNK��6JGQFQTC�� &GUKIP�HQT�'ORQYGTOGPV�HQT�Design: Computational Structures for Design &GOQETCVK\CVKQP��5�/��/CUUCEJWUGVVU�+PUVKVWVG�QH�6GEJPQNQI[��&GRV��QH�#TEJKVGEVWTG�28 (TKGFOCP�� ;QPC�� 6QYCTF� C� 5EKGPVKſE�#TEJKVGEVWTG�� 6TCPU�� %[PVJKC� .CPI�� %CODTKFIG��/CUU��/+6�2TGUU�29 9GDGT��,QU��&GPOCTM��*QNNCPF��)GTOCP[��+P�0GITQRQPVG�GF��4GƀGEVKQPU�QP�%QORWVGT�#KFU��

Computer of A Thousand Faces: Anthropomorphizations of the Computer in Design (1965-1975)

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