Cocoa and Chocolate - Forgotten Books

CO QC A AND CHO QC LATE

THE IR CHEMISTRYAND

MANUFACTURE

REVISED AND ENLARGED

R fVC

WHYMPER

SECOND EDITION

WI TH 16 PLATES AND 38 TEXT-FI GURES

PHILADELPHIA

P . BLAKISTON’

S SON CO.

10 12 WALNUT STREET

PREFACE

TO THE FIRST EDITION

IT has been the object of the author, in producing thiswork , to provide a standard book of reference dealing withcacao from its growth till manufactured into cocoa orchocolate .

For the first time , the chemical composition of cacao hasbeen traced from the fresh beans through the various s tagesof manufacture , so that the changes which occur duringfermentation , drying, roasting, etc .

,may be followed .

Themost recent methods of analysis have been discussed ,and the author has only recommended those which hehimself has found to give accurate and consistent results .Throughout the book, the word cacao has been used for

the raw material , that is to say, for the beans or their partsfrom which nothing has been taken or which have hadnothing added to them ; for example , after roasting andhusking the cacao beans , the cacao nibs are expressed , andthe fat is removed with the formation of cocoa powder . Theword cacao is also used before butter

,

”signifying the fatextracted from the cacao bean

,owing to the possibility of

confusion with coconut fat (obtained from 00 00 3 nucifera) .I am glad of this opportunity to thank those who have

assisted me in this work , and especial ly Mr . G . H . Davisand Mr . W . P . Paddison . My thanks are also due to

Messrs . Baker Sons , Ltd .,of Willesden , and Messrs .

Bramigk Cc .,for their permission to reproduce photo

graphs of their most up- to - date machinery .

Dm ox HILL ,

SURREY .

3 8 2 2 51

PREFACE

TO THE SECOND EDITION

SINCE the date of the first publication of this work , muchwater has flowed under London Bridge . It is difficult tothink back to the good old days when necessities andcommodities were cheap , and the public appetite was normal .It was then perfectly possible tosay what a machine wouldcost , and to predict the day of delivery . It was possibleto foresee , to some extent , the trend of public fancy, and toguide its taste in certain directions .

To-day , none of these things is possible . The chocolateindustry is immense and growing very rapidly . There are ,also , on the one hand , high prices ruling labour and the costof materials , and a general shortage of necessary ingredients ,whilst , on the other hand , the increasing demand for sweetthings does not ease the situation . Even now , it is notpossible to say how long the public will continue to paythe very high prices for cocoa and chocolate

,nor is it possible

to predict whether, in the immediate future, the marketvalue of sugar and cacao will go up or down . The evendistribution of these ingredients over the world , accordingto the demand , has not yet taken place , and the consumptionof sweet things , though still very great , must fall sooner orlater, if prices continue to rise .

Huge amalgamations have become the order of the day ,

and science has been called upon by the chocolate industryto assist in the manufacture of a product that was once aluxury , yet cheap , but which is now an expensive necessity .

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION vii

I have every reason to beli eve that this work , originallypubli shed at a critical time in the history of the industry,

has served a useful purpose in putting before the manufac

turer the ways and means of securing a desired product , andin providing scientific reasons for the developmen t of flavourand consistency . At any rate, its publ ication was accordeda very cordi al reception , and I have the satisfaction of

knowing that a new edi tion has been demanded , and is

awaited w ith some impatience .

An indus try that has grown wi th such rapidi ty as thatproducing cocoa and chocolate must , necessarily, developand change. New ideas for manufactur e have arisen fromthe necessitv for both in creased output and labour - savingdevices . Generall y speaki ng, the quality of cocoa and

chocolate was very good in Europe before 1914, and themanufacturer devoted much time , money and thought tohi s product . Then came the war and a gr eatly increaseddemand for cocoa confections , a shortage of ingredients,and labour difficulties . It was inevi table that rad icalchanges shoul d be in troduced into the factory . But whatthen of the quality of the productSpeaking as one who consumed in those dark days more

chocolate than ever previously in his lifetime , I am awarethat , at fir st , I was severely critical , but later , with palatepossibly spoiled by too much tobacco , whiskey ,

bully-beefand biscuits , almost any chocolate was chocolate , sweet andpalatable . Thi s I beli eve to have been the experience ofmost people , though , often enough (and I would not attributethe depreciation of the palates of others always to thosereasons given in my own case) , it was mere shortage of

chocolate on the market that dulled the powers of discrimination . In any case , it is certain that any chocolateon the market was saleable in those sugarless days and wasaccoun ted a luxury .

In returni ng to more normal times , the manufacturer

vii i PREFACE T0 THE SECOND EDITION

cannot afford to ignore quality as undoubtedly he wascompelled to do after the dog days of 1914. Competitionand a more fastidious public have again to be faced . S omechanges in the factory have come to stay , and they are discussed in later pages , whilst the influence of these changeson quality is also considered as far as possible.I have had exceptional opportun ities of studying this

new side of the chocolate industry , as I have returned toface the problems with a fresh outlook and have also had theadvantage of visiting the United States of America in thelatter part of 1919 and in early 1920.

The American is not hampered by precedent and is everprepared to try new ideas . Moreover, he is a quantityspecialist and , very naturally , wide-awake toany measuresthat will increase output . Further than this , at the timeof writing, his output of chocolate is much below thatdemanded by the public . America,therefore , maybe saidto be in much the same condition now as this country wasduring the war, with the exception that the Americanpublic has never been educated to the standard of chocolate ,demanded by the European . The American manufacturercan , then , put upon the market and readily sell productsthat would not be considered “ best quality in Europe ,and it is my Opinion that his reputation , on this side , hassuffered adversely . from the chocolates he has thought fitto send us during our famine .

This condition , I feel certain ,wil l change in the very near

future . Chocolate factories are springing up like mushroomsall over America , whose soil , moistened by the beer and winetha t has been spilt

,and warmed by the enthusiasm of

Pussyfoot ,”has become particularly suitable for upstart

industries of this kind . Doubtless,posterity wil l bless the

accomplishment of prohibition and,inciden tally , will

reap the advantage of better chocolate , for competition wi l lbe very severe.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION ix

Chocolates made in America and Europe to-day are,

respectively , as different as chalk from cheese . Perhaps theEuropean taste is that of a blasé epicure ; perhaps theAmerican palate is uncultured . I will not take it upon myselfto pass judgment . But, and this I can say with some assertion , chocolate made in the good old- fashioned way , withcareful consideration paid to every detail , to ingredients andto processes of manufacture , is still un equalled for delicacyof flavour and aroma by any chocolate manufactured byshort - cut methods .

I am fully aware of the errors and shortcomings of thefirst edition of this work . They were inevitable , seeing thatI worked almost single-handed , but they have been correctedand improved , respectively ,

in the present edition , so far asin me l ies . Indeed , most of the work has been re-written ,and much , too , has been added , a labour which , at this time ,I could not have accomplished alone .

On the practical side , I have received the most ableassistance from Mr . A . B . Bradley and Mr . W. P . Paddison ,the former in connection with the chemistry of cocoaand chocolate , the latter in providing photomicrographs .

Mr . Bradley , by his numerous experiments and analyses ,has acquired more rel iable information than I could pos siblyhave hoped to secure by myself . His work on sugar is , inmy opinion , particularly valuable and points out the correctdirection in which to turn to cheapen chocolate , withoutlowering its quality . In this direction , we have workedtogether for many years , with the result that , with the kindand most extensive cc-operation of Mr . John Carr—withoutwhom our work would have been abortive ,—a new andvaluable asset has been added to the chocolate industry .

I am not a little indebted to Mr . W. J . Magenis in the

compilation of this edition . In the most indefatigablemanner , he has hunted down published information onthe subjects in hand , often finding it in most obscure

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

journals , which , otherwise , would have remained unknownto me .Mr . W . L . Dubois , formerly of the United States Bureau

of Chemi stry , who has sent me private communicationsconcerning, and the analyses of , many American chocolates ,has also rendered me great service , at the same time addingmuch to the statistical value of this book . To him I ammost grateful , and I wish him luck in his new undertakingwhere he will be able to continue h is researches in thechocolate industry .

From Messrs . Joseph Baker, Sons and Perkins , Ltd . ,both

in London and New York , I have received very greatassistance , and it is gratifying to me to be able to recordmy indebtedness to this firm , which , though absorbed from1915 until the armistice in making shells and other munitions to assist in bringing the war to a successful conclusion

,

can now boast of providing machinery,equalled by few

and surpassed by none , for use by manufacturers of cocoa ,chocolate and confectionery .

Though the superiority of some German machinery forthe industry , especially of mills and granite rolls , before thewar , cannot be denied , it is certain that the British manufacturer can hold his own to-day . His business is difficult andspecialised , and it is particularly pleasant to observe thatthe engineering firms in this country , making this class ofmachinery

,have taken advantage of their opportunities to

pass the foreign competitor .

Prior to 1914, Messrs . Lehmann , of Dresden , producedsome of the finest chocolate and cocoa machinery in theworld

,and many examples of their excellent work stand

to their credit in the best factories in Europe and America .

It is rather early to pass j udgment on the machinery thatGermany is turning out to-day , but , from the orders in thehouses of Mr . Weygandt and Messrs . Bramigk Co. ,

Messrs . Lehmann ’s agents in New York and London , respec

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION x1

tively, it is clear that the same thoroughness and goodworkmanship , that characterised that firm’

s machines of

old, are expected by their former clients and adherents .I am indebted both to Mr . Weygandt , and to Mr . HillaryofMessrs . Bramigk Cc . , for many kindnesses and , especially

, for permission to show illustrations ofmachines for theexcellence of which I can vouch .

Messrs . Savy Jeanjean et Cie . , Courbevoie, near Paris , alsoreadily responded to my request for illus tration blocks of

their Enrober and Carameli sing machines, the former

of which is, unquestionably , the best automatic coveringmachine on the market . I welcome this Opportunity ofexpressing my appreciation of their ready a ssistance .To many others , too numerous to mention by name,

to the critics of the fir st edition of this work, who have been

many , and to those engaged in the manufacture of cocoaand chocolate , I tender my warmest thanks for the assistance , criticisms and courtesies which have so greatly helpedme to bring this work up

- to-date .

R . W .

SURB ITON ,

SURREY .

CONTENT S

PREFACESINTRODUCTION

PART IHISTORY , BOTANY AND AGR ICULTURE OF CACAO

CHAPTERI . History and Growth of the Cacao Industry11 . Stati st ics of the Cacao IndustryII I . Botany and NomenclatureIV. The Agr icul ture of Cacao—A . Selection of Site ,

Soi l , Manure and SeedV . The Agriculture of Cacao—R . Planting , D i seases ,

Prun ing and Pi ckingVI . Fermentation of the Bean sVII . Preparation of the Beans for Market—Washing ,

D rying , Fini shing or Poli shing ; Résumé of

Chapters IV. to VII . inclus ive—Importance of

Natural Condi tions , and of Processes of Fer

mentation and Curing in Determining Quantityand Quality of the Fini shed Cacao

VIII . Characteri stics of the Principal Kinds of Commercial Cacao Beans

IX . Compos ition ofCacao Beans

PART I IMANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE S AND COCOA PowD ERsCleaning , Sorting and Grad ing Cacao , pr ior to

RoastingRoasting of Cacao—Analyses of Bean s , Ni bs and

Shells , before and after RoastingNibbing , Husking andWinnow ing th e Roasted Cacao

-Analyses of N ibs and Shells . and thei r Proportions in th e Roasted Bean

XI I I . Mi lling—Preparation ofCocoa Powder—Express ionofCacao Butter Soluble Cocoa Powders

38—47

77—89

129—134

135—145

146—16 1

162—183

CONTENTS

PAGESAnalyses of Cocoa Powders Soluble D ietetic,Proprietary, etc.

Preparation ofChocolate—Mixing—Refin ingShort Cuts to the Manufacture of Chocolate—In

fluence ofMethod on Qual ity 2 17—236XVII . Moulding Chocolate Tablets , Croquettes , Neapoli

tans and Fancy Shapes Tapping, Cooli ng ,Wrapping 237—260

XVIII . Analyses of Plain Eating Chocolates and ChocolatePowders 26 1—275

XIX . Recipes for Making Chocolate—Plain and Fon

dant Chocolates . and Chocolate Powders 276—289Mi lk Chocolates and Mi lk Chocolate Powders

Analyses and Recipes—Nut Chocolates , etc. 290—306XXI . Mi lk Chocolate and Chocolat Fondant —Methods

ofManufacture 307—323XXII . CoveringC hocolate

—Manufacture and AnalysesUse of Enrober,”etc. 324—340

XXIII . Aroma and Flavour due to Variety ofBean , Process !ofManufacture, and Flavouring Materials , suchas Vani l la, Spices , Essences , etc . 341—353

XXIV . Nutri tive Valu'e and Digestibi li ty of Cocoa Pre

parations 354—36 7

PART I II

CHEMISTRY OF CACAO .

A . SURVEY OF THE COMPONENTS OF CACAO , COCOAAND CHOCOLATE .

B . METHOD S OF ANALYSIS

A .

XXV. Survey of the Component Parts of Cacao BeansHusk 37 1—399

XXVI . Survey of the Component Parts of Cacao BeansNibs 400—416

XXVII . Cocoa Powders and Chocolates , and their Component Parts 417—433

XXVIII . Microscopical Examination ofCacao, Cocoa, Chocolates , etc . 434—447

ILLUSTRAT IONS

TO FACEPLATE

Cacao PodsTheobroma 0 8 0 3 0A wel l-watered Cacao Plantation , TrinidadCacao Trees Shaded by Madre de Cacao,

”Tr in idad

Pi cking the Cacao Pods, Trini dadCarrying the Cacao Pods to th e Sl i c ing Heaps , TrinidadA Heap ofCacao Pods ready for Sl icing , Tr in idadOpening the Cacao Pods , Tr ini dadSweating Box , Trini dadArtificial ly D rying Cacao , Tr inidadCacao Beans Drying in the Sun , TrinidadClaying Cacao, Trin idadDancing the Cacao, TrinidadSorting Cacao Beans on a D rying Floor, Trin idadBagg ing Cacao for the LocalMarket , Tr inidadBagging Cacao Beans for Shi pment , Trinidad

FIGURE1 . Cacao Bean Sorting and Cleaning Machine, with Sorting Band2 . Cacao Bean Roaster, for Open Fire .

3 . Improved Gas Cacao Roasting Machine. Externally heated ,

either by town or producer . gas

4. New and improved N ibbing , Husking and Winnowing Mach ine.

Front view5. New and Improved Nibbing , Husk ing and Winnowing Mach ine.

Back view6 . Cacao Germ -separating Machine7 . Double Cacao Grinding Mi ll , with 33 -inch and 36-111011 Top

Runner Stones8 . Triple Cacao Grinding Mi ll9 . TripleCacaoGrindingMi ll , with 33 inch and 36-111011 Top Runner

Stones10 . Ten -Pot Hydraulic Cacao Butter Press , wi th Pump , etc .

1 1 . No . 7 Large, Patented Melangeur ,"wi th AutomaticDi scharger ,coupled with Three-Roll Upright Refiner

PAGE

133

143

xvi ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE12 . Battery of two Grani te or Porcelain Three-roll Refiners13 . Patent Five-rol l Upright Refiner , wi th Chil led Rolls and

Spring Bearings14. Five roll Steel Refiner , wi th Chi lled Metal Rol lers , al l Water

cooled15. Combined Refiner and Water-jacketed Melangeur16 . Bausman D i sc Reducer and Refiner17 . Cross -section and Second and Fourth -Floor Plans of Amor

phous Sugar Plant , wi th Refinery System18 . E levation and Thi rd -Floor Plan of

“

Amorphous Sugar Plant,wi th Refinery System

19. Automatic Tempering Machine for Stiff and Liquid Chocolate,Mi lk Chocolate, Coverings , etc.

20. Noi seless Shaking Table2 1 . Patent Mould fil li ng Machine ,

combinedwi th Improved Cont inuous Tapping Table

Chocolate Moulding, Tapping and Cooling Installation23 . Weigh ing and Moulding Machine, for al l classes ofChocolate24. Large Si ze, New Des ign Conche Machine .

25. Steam -jacketed Chocolate Mixing and Knead ing Machine26. Champion Coating Machine27. The Enrober Covering Machi ne28. The Enpholda Automatic Covering Machine, w i th Cooling

SystemThermos Carameli s ing MachineMi tscherl ich Bodi es between the Lobes of the Kernel .x 300 diam .

Mitscherl ich Bodies , enlarged . x diam .

32. Cacao Husk, showing Bundles of Spirals . x diam .

33 . Crushed Cacao Nibs . x diam .

34. Cocoa, Adul terated with Arrow root Starch . x 100 diam .

35. Ground Crystal Sugar. x 70 diam36 . Transformed Sugar x 70 diam37 . Chocolate Mass , made with Transformed Sugar, taken from the

Mixer. x 70 diam .

38 . Chocolate Mass , as seen in F ig 37 , once Refined on Steel Refiners . x 70 diam .

INTRODUCT ION

THE persons who habitually take chocolate are thosewho enjoy the most equable and constant health and areleast liable to a multitude of il lnesses which spoil the enjoy~

ment of life . In such words does Bri l lat Savarin describethe virtues of chocolate , and , whether from the fact thatcocoa preparations do actually assist in maintaining goodhealth or for the reason that chocolate is the most pleasingconfection to the palate , it is certain that the growth of thecacao industry , in the last three centuries , is little short ofremarkable .

First as a beverage , then as a sweetmeat , chocolate hassteadily worked its way into public favour , and it is safe tosay that in no civilised country of the world is the Princeof sweetmeats unknown , and that , wherever civilised manhas explored ,

travelled or sojourned , there may be founda wrapper

,yellow , blue , red or white , that once contained

a tablet of some well - known brand .

The popularity of chocolate is well deserved , for , besidesbeing a sweetmeat , this confection possesses a food -valueof a high order . Dr . Johnson has shown that cocoa essencecontains as much flesh - forming bodies as the solids of driedmilk

,and Professor Forster Thas compared the heat -giving

power of cacao and cocoa preparations with some of our mostvaluable foodstuffs . Thus

1 kilo of lean beef gives calories .

1 fat beef

B r i l lat Savar in , Phys iologic du Gofit .

”

1 Professor J. Forster , Ueber hola di sche Kakao . Ein Beitrag zumVerstandn is

der Bedeutung des Kakaos al S Genuss und Nah rungS -Mittel . ’w .c.

xvi i i INTRODUCTION

litre of cow ’s milkkilo ofhens ’ eggs (av . 18 eggs)

husked earth -nutspeaswhite breadcacao beanscacao masscocoa powderchocolate

These figures , which show the true food -value of variousof our nourishing foods , explain the remarkable sustainingpower of cocoa preparations , a characteristic which isrecognised at the present time by our explorers, athletes ,soldiers , sailors and others engaged in work or pastimes whichentail great physical endurance .

The ancient Mexicans appreciated the stimulating andsustaining properties of chocolate , for Benzoni tells us that ,during the time of festivities , they used to spend al l theday and half the night in dancing with only cacao fornourishment .

During the Great War,the value of cocoa preparations

as food was greatly'

appreciated by the fighting troops . Inall ranks of all the services

,chocolate was used both as an

emergency ration and as a luxury . It was a convenient andconcentrated form of pleasant foodstuff which no expeditionary or attacking force could afford to do without , andmany a man has blessed the sender of a parcel , containingchocolate , and has owed his life to that wonderful confection .

Without tobacco,rum and chocolate , placed in the order

of their necessity,an army in modern warfare would be

defeated even with a sufficiency of guns and ammunition .

Apart from the valuable properties of chocolate as a food ,there remains the all- important fact that it is pleasing to thepalate . Al l classes

,all ages

,both sexes , at all times and in

672 calories .

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xx INTRODUCTION

degenerative effect on the nervous system,at any rate of a

character analogous or comparable with that so well knownto follow even the moderate use of alcohol .”

We have occasion to refer briefly to the matter again inlater pages , when the history of the growth of the cocoa andchocolate industry is under consideration

,but it is of

interest to observe , here, that there was some justification forthe attacks made upon the beverage by Ranch ,

in 1624.

Further , the reason for mentioning at all , in this place , thedepressing fact of the stimulating action of cacao is that theauthor has cause to believe that moderation i s often exceededth slight toxic effect to the consumer . The consumption

of chocolate (a cocoa product with some 50 per cent . of sugaris implied) is enormous , and is increasing among theyounger generation , especially among young girls . Americais

,perhaps , even worse than Europe at the present time

in this respect— it is as well to make a virtue of necessityand it is a matter of speculation how much of the dyspepsiaand nerves of the youth of both continents may beattributed to the immoderate use of chocolate . In America

,

caffeine is already added in small quantities to some softdrinks

,smaller quantities , possibly , than are present in tea ,

coffee or cocoa , but , nevertheless , added for the specificpurpose of giving a “ kick”to an otherwise sugary concoc

tion of no individuality . It is not suggested that a drughabit would be , or is likely to be , formed by the consumptionof tea , coffee , cocoa , chocolate or soft drinks containingcaffeine , or its allies , naturally present or artificially added insmall quantities ; but it i s desired to convey to the rabidfood fanatics

,dieteticians , alcohol -prohibitionists and others

of like kidney , with which the world at present abounds ,that a cocoa- drinker or chocolate - eater is not entirelyguiltless of the delights of stimulation which the more saneperson does not grudge him , and that the world , at large ,would prefer to eat and drink what it enjoys because

,or in

INTRODUCTION

spite , of the fact that it is stimulated thereby , though itsdays shall be curtailed

,rather than be legislated to consume

immaculate food and drink,though its life shall be prolonged

There is also much to be said for time -honoured custom andhabit .

Did time and space allow , there are stories to be told onthe romantic side of chocolate of its divine origin of thebloody wars and brave exploits of the Spaniards whoconquered Mexico , and who were the first to introducecacao into Europe , tales almost too thrilling to be believedof the intrigues of the Court of Spain and of celebrities whomet

,and sipped their chocolate in the parlours of the coffee

and chocolate houses,so fashionable in the seventeenth and

eighteenth centuries . But there is little room for romancein a technical work of this sort , or in these prosaic dayswhen even the Odour of Sanctity has been reduced toa chemical formula . The Food of the Gods is nownothing but a scientific blending of certain chemical compounds , and chemists , instead of priests , are protecting thefair name of chocolate .

Prescott ’s Conquest ofMexico , and Ogi lby’

s Descr iption ofAmerica , etc .

4 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

book, which included fanegas of cacao , an amountapproximately equal to tons , besides turkeys ,a quantity of maize about equal to tons , and anincredible amount of game , vegetables and condiments of

every kind .

The value of the cacao beans as coins depended uponthe i r s1ze , and they may have been primarily looked uponas valuable from the mythical history of their origin .

The history of cacao , as given in Mexican mythology, isnot without interest , for it would appear, from one of themost sacred traditions of the Indians of Mexico , that we areindebted to Divine providence for its introduction to earth .

Quetzalcoatl , god of the air , was commissioned to conveyto man the seeds of the quacahault or cacao tree whichwas one of the few growing in Eden for the delectation andfood of the gods and thefirst sons of the Sun .

In the golden days of Anahuac or Mexico , when thegarden prophet resided on earth , the land teemed with

fruits and flowers without the pains ofculture a single earof Indian corn was as much as a man could carry , and thecotton , as it grew , was dyed to the hues required by man .

The air was filled with intoxicating perfumes and the sweetmelody of birds

,and things were always as they ought to be .

Quetzalcoatl incurred the wrath of one of the principalgods and was compelled to abandon the country , but hewas so much beloved by the people of Mexico , to whom hehad taught the use of metals , agriculture and the arts of

government , that his return was looked for with confidenceand pleasure , and a temple and altar were erected to hisworship . He was said to have been tall of stature , with awhite Skin ,

long dark hair and a flowing beard ; and thisdescription , corresponding in the main with that of Cortesat the head of the Spanish invasion , prepared largely for theeasy acceptance of the Spaniards into the hearts of the people .

The garden prophet was worshipped under the name of

HISTORY AND GROWTH OF THE CACAO INDUSTRY 5

Votan , which signified an adder clothed with preciousor divine feathers ,

”a highly compl imentary title. Besidesoffering burn t incense , h is worshippers were wont to laceratetheir tongues , as further proof oftheir devotion , a proceedingwhich , in these days , would hardly be considered complimentary , as it might imply that they were not desirous oftasting the Food of the Gods .”

The Emperor Montezuma took no other beverage thanchocolate , flavoured with vanilla or spices , and so preparedas to be reduced to a froth of the consistency ofhoney .

”

Golden goblets , with spoons of the same metal or oftortoiseshell finely wrought , were used by Montezuma whendrinking his chocolate , and the cup , after being drained ,was thrown into the lake surrounding the palace . At theconquest of Mexico , a vast quantity of treasure was takenfrom the lake , and , judging from the number of gobletsfound and from the amount of chocolate prepared daily forthe emperor ’s consumption fifty jars or pitchers itmay be assumed that Montezuma was very partial to thebeverage .

The beans were roasted in earthenware vessels , groundbetween stones and mixed with cold water, to which wassometimes added a dash of capsicum , probably as a flavouring material , though possibly as a means of increasing thedevotion of the sore- tongued worshippers of Votan .

The richer people flavoured their chocolate with vanillaor spices and sweetened it with sugar or honey . The liquidwas whipped into a froth , and one early historian is carefulto point out the importance of Opening the mouth wide ,in order to facilitate deglutition , that the foam may dissolvegradually and descend imperceptibly , as it were , into thestomach

,and closes with an eulogy on the beverage so

prepared .

The exact date of the introduction of cacao into Mexicofrom Eden is obviously rather difficult to determine , but


De Candolle ,* who has made a close study of the historyof all plants of economic importance , has stated with someassert ion that the tree had been in cultivation in Americafor three or four thousand years .The planting of the seed seems to have called for special

ceremony among the original cultivators , the Shedding of

the blood ofman , beast or fowl being, apparently , one ofthenecessary operations .

Bancroft , writing of the Maya races of the Pacific , saysBefore planting the seed , they hold a festival in honour

of their gods , Ekchuah , Chac and Hobni l , who were theirpatron deities . To solemnise it they all went to the plantation of one of their number, where they sacrificed a doghaving a spot on his skin the colour ofcacao . They burnedincense to their idols , after which they gave to each of theoffi cials a branch of the cacao plant .”

According to Ximi nez , the blood of slain fowls was .

sprinkled over the land to be sown, a performance certainlymore profitable to the soil than burnt offerings .History does not relate of the cacao tree being of any

commercial importance however , until the conquest ofMexico , when the Spaniards found the people of the countryful ly appreciative of its value .For some years the Spaniards kept the secret of chocolate

preparation in their own hands , so closely indeed that weread that , during the war between Holland and Spain , theDutch sailors , on finding cacao beans in some Spanish shipswhich they had captured , threw them overboard with thescornful description Crottes dc brebfis .

”

The Spaniards did not long remain in undivided possession of their secret , for , in 1606, we find that one AntonioCarletti , who had himself learnt to appreciate the finequalities of the beverage in Spain

,was instrumental in

bringing them to the notice of the ItaliansOr igin ofCultivated Plants .


From this time onwards , the popularity ofcacao preparations spread freely to al l parts of Europe, though , in 1624Franciscus Rauch, in a book which had a wide circulation ,

stated that the consumption of chocolate was ‘

largely respon

sible for the committal ofmany excesses, especially in the caseofmonks , for whom he urged that its use should be forbidden .

This , however , was an isolated case of attack againstthe use of chocolate, and the latter part of the seventeenthcentury was particularly prolific with its crop of articles andtreatises lauding chocolate as a pleasing and nourishingbeverage.The idea that chocolate inflamed the passions was

prevalent for a long time , and even as recently as 1712the Spectator states, I shall also advise my fair readersto be in a particular manner careful how they meddle withromances , chocolate , novels and the like inflamers , which Ilook upon as very dangerous to be made use of dur ing thisgreat carnival”(the month of May) . We have alreadyreferred to the probable accuracy of the statement in theIntroduction .

Chocolate made its first appearance in France in the

reign of Louis XIII . , probably through the agency ofCarletti who was teaching all Europe the process of roastingthe beans , in spite of the fact that the Spaniards were stilljealously attempting to guard the method ofpreparation .

It is recorded in a number of places that chocolate wasintroduced into Europe from Mexico in 1520 and sold inLondon coffee houses in 1650. It is around the latter datethat we find a flood of published references , though ,

as inmodern times , there can be found one original writer fromwhom many others have drawn their information .

In 1648 , there was published A New Survey of theWest Indies ,

’ by the true and painful endevours of ThomasGage , now Preacher of the Word of God at Acris in the

County of Kent .” In th is work were described the origin


of the name chocolate, the method of preparation , theprocess of drinking the beverage, and the original storywhich has already been given . The last -named is describedin these words But how might this Cacao with the otherIndian ingredients be had in England even by trading inSpain for it , as we doe for other commodities ; or notsleighting it so much as we and the Hollanders have Oftendone upon the Indian seas : of whom I have heard the

Spaniards say that when we have taken a good prize , aship laden with Cacao , in anger and wrath we have hurledover-board this good commoditie, not regarding the worthor goodness of it , by calling it in

’

bad Spanish Cagarula deCarnero or sheep ’s dung in good English .

”

Gage ’s work has been freely quoted by most of the earlywriters , though a book published by one Johannes deCardenas in Mexico , in 1609, and called Del Chocolate ,

”

seems to have been overlooked . Cardenas states that thedrinking of chocolate had become quite common not onlyin the Indies but among the Italians

,Belgians and Spaniards ,

especially at the court , and that he had not seen anythingwritten upon the subject except by a certain DoctorMarchena . The same author describes the method ofmaking the sweetmeat or drink with crushed cacao beansflavoured with various substances , such as pepper, vanilla ,aniseed and sugar

,of which last he personally liked a little

but not too much . According to Cardenas , the sweetmeatwas made up into little balls by the Mexican women andexposed for sale in the taverns .

In 1652, we find a book entitled Chocolate, the Nut ofthe Cocoa Tree manufactured in a peculiar manner, but ,apart from a few recipes

,the work is without interest . It

is , however, recorded that j ust previously , in 1 650, coffeeand chocolate began to be frequently taken at Oxford .

The Public Adverti ser (Tuesday , June l 6th) stated , in1657, that cocoa was first introduced into England in Queen

’s


Head Alley , Bishopsgate , though , with the exception of arepetition of this statement extracted from MercuriusPol iticus ,

”in June,1659, no confirmation can be found .

In the reign of Charles II ., a booklet entitled

“ IndiaNectar or a Discourse concerning Chocolate ,

”announcedthat chocolate could be bought in East Smithfield for63 . 8d. per pound

,a price which , even taking into considera

tion the altered value of currency , seems remarkably low .

The author of this work , Dr . Henry Stubbe , scholar andphysician to the King, has drawn largely from Gage

’s work ,

already mentioned , and adds little to our knowledge exceptto say that “ The northerly tract thereof (of America)principally seems to use the drink chocolate in New Spain ,

Mexico and the neighbouring Provinces and,indeed ,

it hath prodigeously spread itself not only over the WestIndies , but over Spain , Portugal , Italy , France , High andLow Germany , yea Turkey and Persia ; and hath beenrecommended by sundry learned physicians to the world .

”

Thomas Rugges , in Mercurius Pol iticus Redivivus ,1659—72 , mentioned Theere ware also att this time aTurkish drink to bee sould in every street , called Coffeeand another kind of drink called Chocolate which was veryharty drunk .

Even at this time , the best chocolate must still have beena luxury . In 1665, Le Comte de Cominges , the FrenchAmbassador in London

,writes in his correspondence

,

“ Iwait only till Persod, the King

’s Messenger , comes back tosend to you two cakes of Chocolate , the best in the world , withwhich I have been presented by the Spanish Ambassador .

”

That chocolate has not been entirely free from scandalmay be deduced from the lines , penned by Andrew Marvellin 1667 , after the sudden death of Lady Denham who wassupposed to have been poisoned in a cup of chocolate

What 's frost to fruit , what ’ s arsen ic to a rat ,

Was to fai r Denham—chocolate.


Uses were , however, quickly found for preparations ofcacao by the needy government of William and Mary ,

which , in order to raise the rest of the supply for theirMajesties resolved to introduce a bill to forbid the sale sof beer, ale , cider, mumm, c

'offee , tea and chocolatewithout a licence .” In 1690, on June 2nd, the resolutionwas carried .

There is an amusing and interesting recipe given byColmenero , in 1631 , which includes the addition of chilesor Mexican pepper , aniseed , powdered roses , logwood , sugar,almonds , nuts and a variety of other fiavouring matters tococoa for those qui jouissent d ’une bonne santé.

” InSpite of the complexity of the decoction , which must havebeen -very expensive to prepare and , incidentally, verynasty and of doubtful virtue , cocoa preparations workedtheir way speedily into popular favour , for we read in aletter dated February 1 1th

,1671 , that Madame de Sevigne

est desolee de penser que sa fil le partie pour Lyon n’

y

trouvera pas de chocolatiere .”

In 1659, one Chaillon David obtained the monopoly inFrance for making and selling chocolate , a privilege whichwas renewed in 1666 for twenty- six years . His factory issaid to have been in Paris near the Croix du Tiroir atthe corner of Rue de l ’Arbre-Sec and the Rue SaintHonoré.

Under Louis XIV. the use of chocolate became verygeneral in the country , and the advent of the first crop ofcacao grown in the French colony of Martinique, in 1679,marked the first step of organised cultivation .

In 1692 , the monopoly of manufacture and sellingchocolate, which had been previously in the hands ofDavid ,was transferred to Damame, who was entitled to hold itfor six years . There is , however, on record the advertisement of one Renaud who also sold chocolate in this yearand who , after describing in flowery language the delicacy


Blanco Fl . de Filipinas, 2nd edit . , p . it thrived

exceedingly , though no record of the arrival of the firstPhilippine cr0 p is recorded .

Chocolate was freely taken both in England and Germanyin the middle of the seventeenth century

,when coffee and

chocolate houses were in high vogue in both countries .of the Haymarket , celebrated for its chocolate

and fashionable customers alike at the commencement of

the eighteenth century , was typical of the many whichexisted at that time . It may be remembered that White ’sChocolate House is represented by Hogarth in the fourthpicture of his Rake ’s Progress .Another chocolate house is recorded as existing under

the House of Lords about this time , since inside a book wasfound : “

Bought in ye Chocolate House under ye Houseof Lords , 1712 .

The old Cocoa Tree coffee house , situated in St .

James ’s Street , Piccadilly , was a Tory rendezvous of QueenAnne ’s time

,and was afterwards transformed into a club ,

similar to White ’s which was in the same street .Ozinda

’

s Chocolate House , next to St . James ’s Palace ,was another Tory resort , but its owner was arrested in 1775for conspiracy with the Jacobites .

The “ Cocoa Tree ”sign survived as late as 1808 , butis then recorded as at a shop of a tea dealer in 302 , Holborn .

Another chocolate house is mentioned as being next toSlaughter ’s Coffee House in 1742 , and yet another atBlackheath .

There were,doubtless , many chocolate houses doing

business about this time,though the high prices of the

preparation must have kept it from the reach of all butthe very wealthy .

It is learned that a silver chocolate mill was a necessarypiece of equipment , but the present writer has been unableto find one of authentic antiquity . Probably it was similar

HISTORY AND GROWTH OF THE CACAO INDUSTRY 1 3

to a coffee mill and was subsequently used for that purpose .One such mill was advertised as being lost at , or stolen from,

the One Bell in the Strand , and , as it was engraved withthree boars ’ heads on fess of lozenge ,

”it is presumed thatit belonged to one of the ‘

titled gentry .

A patent was taken out in 1730 by Walter Churchmanfor making chocolate without fire. It was claimed thatchocolate , prepared in this manner , dissolved immediately ,

was smooth to the palate , of full flavour and left only avery fine sediment , being by the method made free fromthe usual Grit and Roughness so much disliked .

” This isparticularly interesting in view of the elaborate machineryrequired to -day to secure the same end . This chocolatecould be sold at 58 . per pound , with Vanel loes at 63 . perpound in competition with that sold by the best makersat 68 . per pound and Vanel loes at 7s . but be it observed

,

To be sold (only for ready Money) at his Chocolate Warehouse at Mr . John Young’s in St . Paul ’s Churchyard andby L . Brouse , Haberdasher of Hats in Great Turnstile,Holbourne.

”

In 1742 , in the Dai lyAdverti ser , is a reference to E . Bence,widow of Peter Bence , chocolate maker in Broad Street ,Soho

,who continues to make and sell all sorts of Choco’

after the Manner of Mr . Alphonce, Confectioner to theCountess Dowager ofAlbemarle .

”

Thereafter , references become much more frequent , arecipe in the Gentleman ’

s Magazine, 1791 the formationof a Cocoa Tree Club in London in 1747 a patent byJoseph Storrs Fry , May 7th ,

1795, etc .

In 1820, duty was paid in this country on lbs . ,

and,three years later , imported chocolate was allowed to

enter England . The following thirty years saw manydevelopments in the system of taxation of cacao and cocoapreparations , but , apparently , by this time the sweetmeathad got a hold upon the British public . In 1866, we find


lbs . of cacao and cocoa preparations imported intoEngland from France . More recent statistics are given inlater pages .Dr . Lindley , Professor of Botany , in a lecture to the

Society of Arts in 1851 , damned the English chocolatemakers with faint praise

,saying, We have the evidence

of one of the most skilful brokers in London who has hadforty years ’ experience of the trade , that we never get goodcocoa in this country . The consequence is that all the bestchocolate is made in Spain and France and the countrieswhere the finer description of cocoa goes . We get herecocoa which is unripe

, flinty and bitter, having undergonechanges which cause it to bear a very low price on themarket .” Before the same society, however , in 1874,

John Holm said , The Spaniards did not at first appreciatethe virtues of chocolate, and one of their earlier travellers ,Hieronymus Benzo

,describes it as a drink fitter for a pig

than a man .

’

It would appear,then

,that the taste for chocolate , as

prepared in the old days , was cultivated , for it is seldomthat anyone can be met at the present time to condemnit as unfit for human consumption on the ground of

unpleasantness .

From an article in Nature (II . ,497, written by

J . R . Jackson , we gain an insight into the older method of

preparation of chocolate . The beans were roasted in arevolving metal cylinder which caused the husks to shrivelslightly

,so that thev could be removed by fanning. It was

stated in the same article that large quantities of the huskwere imported from Italy under the name Miserables ,which were used in Ireland by the poorer classes . Jacksonwarns the people against adulterations of cocoa thepublic

,by using them

,sacrificing purity for convenience in

the preparation for the table .

” These adulterated powders ,he tells us, are prepared by grinding the nibs under heavy


heated rol lers, starch , flour, sugar, molasses and , in thecheaper kinds , other ingredients less wholesome , beingadded . The names “ Homeopathic and “ Soluble wereapplied to cocoas of this type , and Rock and Flakecocoas are also mentioned in this article . Jackson con

cludes his paper with a regret that the public shouldhave allowed their taste for pure cocoa to have becomevitiated , and with a recommendation that

“ the head of

every household might make himsel f analyst to his own

family, and so see that he does not get cheated eitherin pocket or health .

”

Our earliest botanical historians show some divergenceof Opinion as to the native land of cacao . Humboldtstates that the cacao tree grows wild in the forests of theAmazon and Orinoco basins Schach Tsays that it is alsoto be found in the wild state in Trinidad and De Candolle

,

the greatest authority , doubts whether the cacao plant isindigenous to Guiana , and continues , Many early writersindicate that it was both wild and cultivated at the time ofthe discovery of America , from Panama to Campeachy butfrom the numerous quotations col lected by Sloane 1; it is tobefeared that its wild character was not sufficiently verified .

Townsend ’s Dictionary of Dates records that , in1649, only one cacao tree existed in the Windward Isles,and that that was grown as a curiosity by an Englishman .

In 1655, the cacao tree was found in Martinique , and itscultivation commenced in 1660, but it is not until nearlytwenty years later that we find a record of a Crop appearingin Europe .Cacao was said to have been cultivated in Jamaica in

the early part of the seventeenth century, but , according toLong in his History of Jamaica ,

”the plantations were

Humboldt, 51 1 .

1' Gri sebach , in Flora ofB riti sh West Indies , 91 .

I Sloane,“

Jamaica.”i i . , 15


destroyed by a blast . It must have been about the sametime that disaster overtook the plantations of Trinidad , forSir A . de Verteuil mentions in his work on Trinidad that ,In the year 1727 a terrible epidemic spread in the cacao

plantation ,”a catastrophe which resulted in complete ruin .

Some thirty years later, the cacao industry was revived inthe islands by the Capuchin Fathers , who introduced thehardier but inferior Forastero cacao which

,Sir A . de

Verteuil tells us , is the variety at present cultivated on theisland of Trinidad .

Previous to the importation of the Martinique cropinto France in 1679, there is little doubt that allthe cacao consumed was obtained from Central America

,

as there is no real evidence to show that the cacaotree was known to be growing wild or in cultivationelsewhere .

The result of such a limited area of supply was, verynaturally , to cause cacao preparations to assume a highprice in those days , and was , for a long time , a serioushindrance to their general use among all classes . Theimprovements of means of transport , and the enterprise ofplanters and manufacturers , have now enabled chocolatein all forms to be placed within the reach of even the verypoor , a condition of affairs which has greatly popul arisedchocolate confections .

The first record of the manufacture of chocolate on thelarge scale is about 1756, when , it is said, Prince Wilhelm vonder Lippe erected a factory at Steinhude and brought overPortuguese workmen especially experienced in the art ofchocolate preparation .

France claims to have been the first to erect a factorywith mechanical devices for the preparation of chocolate,the honour being due to M . Carbonne , who seems tohave been inspired by the possibilities of driving themachinery by water -power in the same way as hi s oi l


mill which he conducted in conjunction with his chocolatefactory .

In those days , the world’s output of cacao was extremely

small , and it is interesting to note that , in 1909, it was estimated that a total of 391 million pounds of cacao was pu tupon the market and that many hundreds of factories werebusily at work, in all countries , presenting cocoas and plainand fancy chocolates to an ever-ready public .

CHAPTER II

STATISTICS OF THE CACAO INDUSTRY

IN Spite of the war, the cacao -producing countries haveshown a steady increase in output till , in 1917 , the latestyear for which figures are at present obtainable

,the world ’s

estimated production amounted to over 742 million pounds .Of this , some 320 million pounds were grown in the BritishEmpire .

The increasing supply of,and demand for, cocoa and

chocolate are clearly exemplified in the growing imports ofthe raw materials . England

,France

,Germany , United

States, Holland , Switzerland and Russia have all shownlargely increasing imports of cacao beans in pre-war days ,the figures for home consumption in each country showing asimilarly large increase .H . Jumelle estimated the consumption of cacao in

Europe in 1900 as close upon 65 million kilos . Of this

quantityT

Germany consumed 20 mill ion kilos.

France consumed 16

England consumed 12

Spain consumed 10

Russia consumed 1

This estimation of cacao consumption in'

England,

approximately equal to million pounds , seems too lowwhen the 1900 official return of raw and manufactured cacao ,consumed in the United Kingdom . is compared with it .

H. Jumelle, Le Cacaoyer , 1900.

1' The United States , whi ch i s not included in Jumel le’s estimate, was at the head

of al l cacao-consuming countries for the year ending June 3oth , 1909 , a total of 130mi ll ion pounds ofcacao, raw and manufactured , being recorded for that country.


Unfortunately, comparative figures for later years have notbeen obtainable .

In Table II. wil l be found the quantities of raw cacaoconsumed by the most important countries for the periodof the three years prior to the war .

TABLE II .—TheWorld

’

s Consump tion ofCacao, 1911—1913 .

Uni ted StatesGermanyHollandUni ted K ingdomFranceSwi tzerlandSpainAustria-HungaryBelgiumRussia

Other countries

An analysis of the statistics for the production of cacao,

during the years 1912—1917 inclusive , is shown in Table III .,

whilst the relative importance of cacao-growing, in some ofthe chief countries of production , is shown by the followingfigures

Export ofCacao in cwts . per square

San ThomeGrenadaTrinidadSan DomingoGold Coast (Colony and Dependencies) .EcuadorVenezuelaBrazil

Estimated

STATISTICS OF THE CACAO INDUSTRY

TABLE III .—Production ofRaw Cacao.

*

1915.

772 933 1 01 1 07 1 1 057 764 560 1 443 236 1 819 280

TrinidadGrenadaJama icaSt . Lucia

DominicaSt . VincentMontserratTotal , British West Ind ies

Total , British Empire

Other foreign.

countries

World ’

s tota l i f

The ports of entry have,since the war , been necessarily

somewhat modified,and the fol lowing particulars , as those

most recently obtainable,have been taken largely from a

very able article appearing in the Bul letin of the ImperialInsti tute in 1919.

Bul l . Imp erial Ins ti tute, 19 19 , xvn . , l .TFigure for 19 15.

1 Estimates .

Included in other foreign countries .

Colombia, Mexico , Togoland , Gaboon , German New Guinea , Madagascar , FrenchGuiana, German Eas t Africa , Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Reunion and New Caledon ia ,

and in 19 15—17 , also Cameroons , Guadeloupe, Samoa, Martin ique and Costa R ica.

fll Approximate figures .

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

New York—Since 1913, America has become’ the greatestconsumer of cacao , the total importations for the yearending June 30th , 1917, amounting to over tons

,

valued at eight and a quarter million pounds sterling . In

1918, they had increased to tons , valued at overeight and a half million pounds sterling.

The bulk of the cacao imported into America is consumedin that country, though , during 1915and 1916 , there was anexceptionally large re-export trade to Denmark and Sweden ,

but , in 1917 , the re-exports to Europe fell off considerably .

The imports from the chief countries into America, duringthe years ending June 3oth , 1914 and 1918, were

1913—14. 1917—18 .

From

B ri tish Wes t AfricaBrazi lEcuador

Br it ish West IndiesDominican RepublicVenezuelaUni ted KingdomPortugal

'

A simultaneous decrease in the imports ofprepared cocoainto America and a corresponding increase in exports oflocal ly-made cocoa products should be noted , thus

Imports (foreign Exports“ (domestic

merchandise) . merchandise) .

Quantity. Value. Value.

Quant ity exported not recorded in offi cial trade returns .

STATISTICS OF THE CACAO INDUSTRY 23

The prepared cocoas and chocolates were obtained mainlyfrom the Netherlands, and smaller quantities from theUnited Kingdom . Up to 1914, some cocoa products werereceived from both Switzerland and Germany .

Hamburg.—Hamburg was , before the war, with the

exception of the years 1909 and 1910, the largest Europeancacao port . The year 1913 showed a net import intoHolland alone of cwts . , valued at T he

total imports for that year into Holland were cwts . ,of which nearly 90 per cent . came through other Europeancountries . Ofthis quantity , Java provided cwts . , theWest I ndies cwts . , and South America cwts .

of raw cacao as direct importations in 1913 . Amsterdamreceived the greater portion of the Java-grown cacao .

Cacao used to enter Germany through the port ofHamburg before the war . The quantities

,consumed in that

country , fluctuated somewhat and amounted to someor tons below the consumption of the United

States . It is interesting to record that about one - thirdof the cacao , imported into Germany in those days , camefrom British possessions , mainly from West Africa .

Havre—In 1909 and 1910, Havre occupied the premierposition as chief port of entry for cacao in Europe . In

1913, it was passed again by Hambur g. France consumedcwts . of raw cacao , valued at in 1913 ,

and,in addition , cwts . of cocoa products , valued at

The cacao entering Havre came chiefly fromBritish West Africa , British West Indies , Brazil, Venezuela ,Dominica and Ecuador .

London—In 1914, London held fourth place among thecacao importing ports of the world , Hamburg, Havre andNew York , in the order named , coming before it .

Assuming 1913 to be a normal pre -war year, theBritish possessions produced in that year about two and a

half times as much raw cocoa (cacao) as the United Kingdom

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE24

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imported from al l sources . Again , only about one half ofthe importations of raw cocoa (cacao) into the UnitedKingdom came direct from her own colonies and proteotorates , in spite of the ample supplies available, the otherhalf being from foreign countries . The apparent uneconomica] situation is further emphasised by the fact that foreignnon-producing countries manufactured the raw product ofBritish possessions and largely suppl ied the manufacturedarticle to the United Kingdom .

”

During the war the situation altered and a continuallyincreasing amount of raw cocoa (cacao) was obtained fromBritish possessions as the following figures shew

Total value of raw

cacao imported. From Briti sh Possess ions

This is satisfactory so far as it goes , but it is still moregratifying to learn that not only has the United Kingdomimported more cacao from

'

British possessions during thewar , but it has taken and retained a larger proportion oftheir total output .Tables IV . andV. , taken from the Bul letin ofthe Imperial

Insti tute, showing imports and exports of raw cacao and

cocoa preparations in and from the United Kingdom duringthe years of thewar , are, perhaps , of greater interest than a

written survey .

It is almost impossible to speak of the future so far as

Russia and Germany are concerned . The former countrvbefore the war chiefly dealt with re-exports of raw cacaofrom the United Kingdom . In 1916, nearly one-fifth of our

STATISTICS OF THE CACAO INDUSTRY 29

total re-exports went to Russia ,but , in 1917 the abnormal

conditions led to an almost complete cessation of this trade.

Germany, until 1914, held the chief place as importer of rawcacao from the United Kingdom, but it is not possible at thistime to foresee the future for that country .

To those interested in the study of cocoas and chocolatesand in the characteristics of these products shown in variouscountries, the following particulars may appeal

Importing country . District or country of origin .

France ( 1913) B ri t ish Wes t Africa cwts .

B rit ish West Indies

B razi l

VenezuelaDomin ica

Ecuador

West Africa (other than B rit ish )Hol land ( 1913) Java

West Indies

South America

Switzerland ( 1913) B razi l

ColombiaOther South Ameri can countries

Central America

Afr icaAustria-Hungary ( 1913) B ri t ish West Indies

B razi l

Vid Germany cwts.

Sw itzerland 10,000—1 1 ,000 cwt s .

Belgium ( 1913) 80 per cent . ofabout 130,000 cwts . viaUn ited Kingdom .

Portugal , France, Germany and Hol land.

Belgian Congo cwts

Spain ( 1913) Fernando PoEcuador

Venezuela

The statistics , next given , are interesting as showing theprogress in the chocolate industry in Germany , Switzerlandand other countries during the war . The German figures

given are in marks , and, so far as that country’

s industry isconcerned , they do not include A. G. Stol lwerck or theprivate concerns which , unlike the corporations , are notcompelled to give al l data and figures concerning theirprofits, etc .


1 (z) . F ifteen ofthe la rgest Ca naan m and ch eetah corporations .

1918 . 1917 . 1915.

Gross profi ts 17mmW

4M ) “

(b) . Figure:in (a) { sanding p rivate concern , approximately.

Gross profits

Net profi t

2 . Nettleand Angk oSwia Conden sed M ilk Compa ny,m , Sw itzerland.

1mm profits

,009

Net profit

Dividends , per cent . 25 25 25

3 . Peter, Cai l ler, Kohl",

Gross profits

Net profit

Dividends , per cent . 22 -0 fr. 169 fr.

4. A.0 . Chocolate Tabla , Berne, Switzerland.

Gross profits

Net Profit

Dividends , per cent . 6 -8 6 -6

A new law , wh ich still obtained in Germany in 1919,

had reduced the taxes on sales by 2}per cent . , but theluxury tax had been increased 25 per cent . Honey cakes ,confectionery , package chocolate, cocoa powder, chocolatesubstitutes and any cocoa preparation came under theluxury tax. A package of chocolate weighing, for example,100 grms . ,

cost 3 marks 50 pfennigs , to which a luxury taxof onemark was added . Thewhole industry rose up in armsagainst this imposition , claiming that cocoa and chocolatewere essentials and not luxuries .

‘CHAPTER III

BOTANY AND NOMENCLATURE

LINNIEUS , in his classical work of 1720, gave to thecacao tree the dignified name of Theobroma cacao,

”

signifying cacao as “ Food of the Gods .” In so doing , hewas either actuated by a desire to give to the origin of hisfavourite beverage an honourable and distinguished title,or else he was influenced by a treatise published in1684 byBuchat, a French doctor, who described chocolate as an

invention more worthy of being called food of the gods thannectar and ambrosia.

It is probable, also , that the Mexican word for chocolatechocolatl (supposed to be derived from chOco,

”

cacava, or cacana the fruit of the tree quacahault ,

”and latl water) , supplied him with the species

designation .

The genus Theobroma is included among the Buettneriaceae, a tribe of the order Sterculiaceoe, of which sometwenty Species are known to occur in the wild state inCentral and South America .

Theobroma cacao is the one, of the several species nativeto the tropical regions extending from Mexico to Brazil ,which supplies a large proportion of cacao beans for cocoaand chocolate-making purposes , and which is chieflycultivated for its good quality and yield .

Among the most important species of the genusTheobroma are T. bicolor , pentagona, sylvestri s , ovatifolia ,

and angustifolia, al l said to be quite distinct from Theobromacacao.

Theobroma bicolor or Tiger cacao , has been used in

Greek Gear God Bpwpa food.

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

852

Sobw

fi

hca

fioa

mai

n

:.

380

Ba


The flowers of the cacao tree are very small and, in a

manner similar to those of many other tropical trees , are

carried on the main stem of the branches and on the trunk ,singly or in clusters . The blossoms , though of a bright red hue,are quite insignificant , and, in due season , they are succeededby pods of an angular cucumber shape, at first green , butbecoming yellow and red on ripening .

The period elapsing between setting and ripeningis about four months .The fruit pods , hanging away from the leaves and in

singularly isolated positions on the main and strongest partsof the tree, present a curious spectacle to agriculturists oftemperate climes , though in the tropics it is not an uncommonsight among trees bearing heavy fruit (Plate L) . It isprobable that such an arrangement of flower and fruit hasbeen produced from the necessity of securing for smallflowers prominent positions for their better detection and

fertilisation by insects , and of providing strong supportson which heavy fruit could ripen and provide seed for theperpetuation of its kind .

The trees produce leaves , flowers and fruit throughoutevery month , and, in the West Indies , the cr0p is gatheredtwice in the year , the first time in May or June, the secondin November or December .The fruit , when ripe , is of a rich golden- red colour .

Within an,outer shell , of about half -an - inch thickness , is

contained a sweetish pulp , enclosing twenty to forty almondshaped seeds which , when fermented , finished and dried ,represent the cacao beans of commerce.

Opinion is considerably divided as to how the varieties of cultivated cacao should be classified , but , thoughin the main al l systems are based upon the appearance of the beans , there are certain botanical differenceswhich enable a closer system of classification to be

established .

BOTANY AND NOMENCLATURE

J. H. Hart, in his treatise on Cacao , makes thefol lowing divisions of the varieties cultivated in Trinidad

Class I. :Criollo—fine ; thin- skinned .

(1) Variety (a) Amari l lo (yellow) .

(2) (b) Colorado (red) .

Class II. Forastero—thick- skinned .

(3) Variety (a) Cundeamor verugosa amari l lo.

(4) (b) Cundeamor verugosa colorado.

(5) (0) Ordinary amari l lo.

(6) (d) Ordinarycolorado.

(7) (e) Amelonado amari l lo.

(8) (f) Amelonado colorado.

Class III. :Calabaci l lo—smal l- podded thick,smooth

skinned ; flat-beaned .

(9) Variety (a) Amari l lo.

(10) (b) Colorado.

Though other systems of classification divide the varietiesinto more or fewer classes , among the latter being Sir DanielMorris ’s method of including Calabaci l lo under Forastero ,al l existing cultivated cacaos can be included under one ofthe three headings given by Hart , with the possible exceptionof T. pentagona .

Criollo cacao trees are not so sturdy and do not producesuch regular crops as those of the two latter classes . The

shells of the pods are soft and relatively thin . The bean,fresh from a Criollo pod , of either red or yellow variety ,is quite rounded and, when cut , shows a white, or nearlywhite, interior , which is not so bitter or harsh to the palateas that of the Forastero which in turn is less harsh thanCalabaci l lo varieties . The shells of beans of Criollo cacaoare thinner than those of either of the other varieties .From Criollo cacaos are obtained the finest beans for

chocolate and cocoa making, those of Java and Ceylon

D . Morris Cacao How to Grow and How to Cure it .


being characteristic of this class . C. J. J. van Hal l saysVenezuela Criollo may be considered as the typicalCriollo ,

”and he bears out Preuss’ statement that Criollo

cacao does not include Trinitario or Carupano , whichare Venezuelan names for Forastero .

” Besides Java andCeylon , van Hall mentions Samoa, Madagascar and

Nicaragua as also providing cacaos of this variety , and

another sub-variety, the Porcelaine, to be found in Java,

is identified as possessing a very thin and easily cut fruitwall , with a smooth surface and insignificant ridges that giveit a strong resemblance to Amelonado ,

”a Forastero

sub-variety . Caracas or Mainland cacao is usual ly placedin the Criol lo class , though some of the lower qualityCaracas is , undoubtedly , of Forastero origin .

Forastero cacaos , which include some of the Venezuelanand certain strains of Caracas varieties , are distinguishedby the pale purple interior of their beans when out freshfrom the pod . The shell of the pod is relatively hard and

thick and bears deeper and more pronounced channels ,running the length of the pod , than either Criollo or Calabacillo cacaos , thus making the cross- section of the podstar- shaped . Van Hall states that while the countrieswhere true Criollo is to be found are only few , the Forasterois grown in al l the cacao-growing countries , either togetherwith Criollo (Venezuela, Java, Ceylon , Nicaragua, Samoa,

‘

Madagascar) , or alone in different sub -varieties (Ecuador,San Thome, Trinidad , Gold Coast , Surinam, Antilles ,and while Criollo is very uni form , having, aside from localtypes , only two varieties , the true Criollo and the unimportant Porcelaine,

’ Forastero is a collective name for a

great number of sub -varieties .”

Calabaci l lo cacaos , which Sir Daniel Morris , the Commissioner of Agriculture for theWest Indies , includes underthe class-heading of Forastero , are formed into a separate

C. J. J. van Hal l , Cocoa, 1914.

BOTANY AND NOMENCLATURE 37

division by Hart . The Calabaci l lo is , according to van Hall ,the lowest Forastero variety, and that writer agrees withMorris in his classification . The same author states thatthe planter avoids using Calabaci l lo seeds, knowing that thequal ity is very poor and that it ferments slowly . The treeof this variety is the strongest grower and hardiest of al l

and is chosen by planters for growing on very poor soil andunder climatic conditions unsuitable for the finer and moredel icate cacaos . The pods of Calabacil lo are small , smoothand very much more rounded than those of either Criolloor Forastero cacaos . The beans are flat and have a bitterand astringent taste, characteristics which are typical ofbeans of inferior qual ity and low market value.

The reader, interested further in the botany and nomenclature of cacao , cannot do better than consult the twoexcellent works of van Hal l and Hart , to which referencehas already been frequently made. Both books are voluminous and detailed and are the works of experts in cultivation . It is considered that sufficient information hasbeen provided to enable the reader to look upon cacaobeans , as they come into themarket , with more than passinginterest , though it is impossible here to give further detailsfor their identification without encroaching on the spaceto be devoted to the subsequent manufacture of cocoa and

chocolate products—the object of the present work .

CHAPTER IV

THE AGRICULTURE or CACAO

A. SELECTION or SITE, SOIL , MANURE ,

SEED .

TIIE cacao planter, in common with his brethren , thefruit farmer and the agriculturist of every clime, must bea man of considerab le observation and determination ,* forthe successful culture of his crop is largely dependent uponan intimate knowledge of the natural conditions existingin the place selected for h is plantation and upon the pluckwith which he faces the possible destruction of his trees bydisease or by the act of God, more to be feared in tropicalthan in temperate regions .Science, which of recent years has been directed more

and more to agriculture, has proved a useful asset to thecacao planter , helping both his observation , by givingreasons for observed phenomena, and h is determination ,by putting into his hands weapons with which to combatdisease.

In these days of severe competition,it is most necessary

that the planter should possess modern sc ientific knowledgeof soil values and such other items of agricultural chemistryas concern the improvement in quantity and quality of hiscrop .

In this and the following chapter , though it is impossibleto deal fully w ith these questions of much economic importance to the cultivator, chocolate-maker and public alike,an attempt has been made to show how the quality and

yield of cacao beans may be influenced bv the naturalconditions of soil , climate and kind , by the application of

l'

ide Vai l ima Letters , by R . L . Stevenson , December 7th , 1891.

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

from the prevailing winds , well watered , and yet welldrained , with a good depth of alluvial soil , on which restsa thick deposit of decayed vegetable matter, easy of access ,and in a district distant from lagoons or marshes , for thesake of the proprietor ’s health . Such a spot in a climatesimilar to that of Trinidad could not fail to produce regularcrops of the finest quality of cacao .

”(Plate II.)

Selection of Soi l .—Close observation of a large numberof analyses of soils , suitable and unsuitable for the propergrowth of the cacao tree, made by Professor Harrison in theGovernment laboratories of British Guiana, by Mr . Carmody ,Government Analyst of Trinidad , and others , has led to thegeneral conclusion that nitrogen , potassium salts , phosphoricanhydride and lime are absolutely essential to soils for cacaocultivation , whilst excess or deficiency of silica and silicatesis detrimental .The percentages of silica and silicates present are chiefly

of importance owing to the effect which sand or silica hasupon the mechanical state of the soil . Too great a quantitymeans too light a soil , with too small a proportion of otheruseful components ; a smal l percentage of sand and silicaindicates a heavy clayey soil . Analyses by the first experimenter show that good soils contain nitrogen from 0-1 to0 309 per cent . ; potassium oxide from 0 118 to 10 72 percent . phosphoric anhydride from 0 044 to 02 93 per cent .l ime from 0 356 to 4 981 per cent .Poor soils contain nitrogen from 0 057 to 02 65 per cent .

(usually about 0 1 per potassium oxide 0 029 to0 109 per cent . ; phosphoric anhydride from 0 002 to 0 157

per cent . (usually about 0 05 per lime frommerest traces to 0 5 per cent . (in one isolated case 41-787

per

The suggestion that these four components of the soilare of the greatest importance is verified not only by ourknowledge of plant foods in general , but also by the analyses

THE AGRICULTURE OF CACAO 41

of thecacao tree, shoots , leaves and fruit , made byMarcan'

owho estimated

.

that an acre of twenty-year-old trees wouldcontain 201 lbs . of nitrogen, 95 lbs . of phosphoric anhydride,251 lbs . of potash, and 400 lbs . of lime.

These figures roughly show the composition of theexisting tree and

, obviously , do not represent specificamounts of components annually or occasionally extractedfrom the soil , but they clearly demonstrate the need of theexistence of these four components , if good and regulargrowth is to be made by the trees .

Chemical analysis of a s oil alone is of l ittle use to theagriculturist , for it is quite possible for land to possess al lthe ingredients requisite for the growth of any particularplant and yet to be totally unsuited for its successful culture.

The plant nourishment may be in a form unsui table forroot absorption , or, again , the mechanical nature of the soilmay prevent the valuable part of the components from beingproperly assimilated .

It is necessary , therefore, for the intending cul tivator of V

cacao to take into consideration many other conditions ofgreat importance, apart from the chemical composition and

mechanical state of the soil , such as natural drainage of theland , situation of the plantation with regard to light , air

and winds , taken with which chemical analysis of the soilshould be a most useful guide and added factor in determining the suitability oi the land for cacao cultivation .

Selection of Manure—When the mechanical conditionof the land is unsuitable, or, from chemical analysis , it isfound that one or other of the necessary components islacking, a deficiency which will be evidenced by slow and

retarded growth of the tree, production of few leaves ,premature falling of the crop , disease or blight , it will benecessary to make use of manures to correct and adjust theprevailing conditions .

Marcano, Essai d’

Agronomie Trop icale.


It is impossible to teach in writing those manures thatshould be used and how they should be applied , for there aremany schools of thought , each claiming their suggestions ofkind and application to be the most efficient .

‘Of chemical manures there is no end, but , of al l manuresknown , the normal product of the farmyard is the one inwhich the cul tivator places most reliance. The excreta

from horses contain approximately 25 p er cent . of solids ,of which 3 5 per cent . are potash and soda , per cent .phosphoric anhydride, and 0-6 per cent . nitrogen . Such a

manure, thoroughly blended with’

soil before the seed isplanted and applied at the rate of 20 to 30 tons per acre,makes an admirable al l -round dressing for cacao . As it isprobable that such a quantity of stable manure would notbe easily obtainable for a plantation of large acreage, thejudicious admixture of nitrate of soda,

bone- ash superphosphate, or dried blood , would enable the planter toreduce proportionally the quantity of natural manure.

Nitrate of soda has a tendency to cause a luxuriance offoli age it also causes plants to grow thicker and to matureearlier . It is most suited to clay soils , but , owing to itssolubility in water , it cannot be economically appl ied beforethe crop is sown .

Bone-ash superphosphate is also suited to clay soilsand is intended to promote early maturity of crops .

Dried blood is most beneficial on light soils and, appliedin fine powder , at the rate of thirty to fifty bushels per acre,proves a most valuable manure for cacao trees .Manures , applied when the trees are in full growth ,

should be carefully pricked into the soil about the roots ,the greatest care being taken not to injure the branchingroots in any way, a precaution which cannot be too careful lvobserved .

The injury to the roots and the wounding of any otherpart of a growing tree allow access of fungi and wood para

THE AGRICULTURE OF CACAO

sites and afford a means of escape to the stimulatingjuices which convey nourishment to every part of thetree. All injuries should be attended with the greatestcare, and a prompt dressing of tar and clay applied to thewounds .An interesting list of manures , which have proved success

ful in cacao culture, is given by Wright ,* from whom the

following particulars have been taken

Nature ofmixture.

Basic slag, 4 cw ts . per acre.

Sulphate of potash , l cwt. per acre.

St . Lucia (1) Basic slag, 8 cwts . per acre.

Sulphate of ammonia , 1 cwt . per acre .

(2) Basic slag, 4 cwts . per acre.

Stable manure, 3 tons per acre.

Sulphate of ammonia . 1 cwt . per acre.

Grenada (1) Basic slag, 8 cwts . per acre.

Sulphate of ammonia , 112=cwts . per acre.


Sulphate of potash . l cwt . per acre.

Dominica (1) Mulching with grass and leaves .


Sulphate of potash , 1g cwts . per acre.

Dried blood , 4 cwts . per acre.

(1) Lime and organic matter ; the lattereither as leaves or cattle manure.

(2) Basic slag, 5 cwts .Ammonium sulphate, 200

.

1bs .

Manures rich in readily soluble nitrogenand potash .

Cockran Tgives the following blends of artificial manures

H. Wr ight , Cocoa , 1907 , 180 .

1' M. Coch ran , Report of Analys is of the Cocoa Tree Planters

’ Association of

Ceylon , 1898 , 1 1 .


as suitable for application to soils found to be lacking in oneor other of the necessary components

I .

Superphosphate of lime, 36 per cent . solubleSulphate of potash , 50 per cent . potashNitrate of soda

(Or sulphate of ammonia, 186)

Bone mealSulphate of potashCas tor cake

III .

Thomas ’s phosphate powderSulphate of potashCastor cake

IV .

Thomas ’s phosphate powderSulphate of potashB lood meal

Fish manureBone mealSulphate of potash

Nitrate of soda

(Or sulphate of ammonia ,

Blood meal

(Or castor cake, 200)Bone mealSulphate of potash


The work of Dunlop and Jones ,'

l‘ in Dominica, on the

increased yield per acre of cacao and the subsequent financialadvantages of the use of manures , is most thorough . It is

TABLE VI.—Mai n Seri es . (Jones , Domi ni ca .) Yi eld for

Seventeen Years , 1900—17 .

,Plot 1 . Plot 2 . Plot 3 . Plot 4. Plot 5

Dried blood .

No records were kept .

lbs . lbs . l bs . lbs . lbs . 1 8 . lbs . lbs . lbs .

1 1 38 1 540 1 494 1 599 1 300

3 752 0 001

1 570

885 3 0501 28 1

779 3 0171 519

3 8271 007

4 43 1

1 801

W. R . Dunlop , Wes t Indian Bul letin , xvi . , 2 , 12 1 cl seq.

1 J. Jones , Wes t Indian Bul letin , xvi . , 4, 324 cl seq. Al so Annual Report, 1916—17 ,

Agricultural Department, Dominica.

808

8 14

7631 105

9721 1 34

979

1 461 1 743


not intended to give full details of the experiments made,but , owing to the huge increase in production brought aboutby the use of suitable manures , and, in view of the fact thatthe present work may reach the hands of those interestedin this subject of such great economic importance, Tables VI .and VII . have been included here as most striking examplesof the application of science to agriculture.

TABLE VII . —(Jones , Domini ca .) Average 14nn -

ual Return

for F ifteen Years .

Wet cacao.

Manurial treatment .

Per p lot . Per acre. Per acre. Per cent .

No manurePhos hate and potash

Drie bloodDried blood, phosphate and potash .

Mulched w ith grass and leaves .

Mulched wi th grass and leavesCotton seed meal .

No manureMulched wi th grass and leaves

The above table gives . the average annual return ofwet and dried cacao , in pounds , for fifteen years in the caseof the first five plots , and for nine years in the case ofplots six to nine. The last column shows the percentageincrease of each plot over that without manurial treatment .Selection of Seed. Having briefly dealt with the sites ,

soils and manures most suited to cacao plantations , thereremains the very important consideration of seed selection .

Cacao seeds possess but little vitali ty and readilysuccumb to dry air and to alternations of periods of dampand dry weather, and they are, therefore, not easily sent todistant parts so as to be in a fit condition for germination atthe end of the journey .

CHAPTER V

THE AGRICULTURE or CACAO

B. Pns xrme ,DISEASES , PBL

’

NING, Prcx mo.

P l an t i ng

THE seed selected and the land prepared,i t remains for

the planter to decide whether he w ill place the seed directinto the land, when the pos ition which the tree wi ll take upwi l l be permanent, or rear the seedl ings in a nursery, tilltheir size and strength fit them . to be transplanted to theOpen plantation .

In the former case, the seeds are carefully placed into theloosely broken ground about 1 inch deep and 6 in ches apart ,inthe form ofa triangle, and a little light earth is sprinkl edover them and is gently trodden down with the foot . Eachtriangle is placed about 12 feet apart .As the trees grow , the weakl ings are weeded out ,making

more room for the stronger-growing shoot to develop . It isa general rule that the higher the elevation ofthe plantationand the poorer the soil the nearer may the trees be allowedto grow , a distance ranging from 12 to 15 feet each way

probably meeting al l requirements .It must be realised that no definite rule can be laid down

for planting or for any other of the operations of the planter,which are necessarily only to be learnt by experience, but ,for a mental picture of a plantation , the descriptions here

given will serve.

In planting in nurseries , the same system of sowing isemployed, but added facility for individual and personal

THE AGRICULTURE OF CACAO £49

inspection is afforded . In the nursery , the seedlings are

tended until some -2 feet in height , care being taken that nodirect heat from the sun shall fall on t he plants , a dangerwhich is prevented , both in the nursery and in the Openplantation , by shelters , ei ther 'of an artificial nature or oftrees which afford plenty of shadeIn Grenada and other hil ly districts , the formation of the

land is used to advantage for providing the necessary protection from the sun and wind , and , in these '

places , no treesare grown , nor artificial structures erected , for that purpose.

In the lower lands of Trinidad, open to the uncheckedinfluence of the elements , protections from both wind and

sun are erected and grown , shelters from the former beingusually built outside the plantation , whilst shady trees aregrown in rows side by side with

,the cacao . That protection

from the sun is'

considered not only desirable but essentialfor the successful culture of cacao finds further proof in thefact that the principal and larger trees selected are usuallythose providing the greatest shade and are seldom, if ever,of economic value.

Varieties of Erythrinas known as Bois Immortel , or

Madre de Cacao (“ Mother of Cocoa to use the

Spanish name, leguminous plants of dense shade (Plateare most generally employed in Trinidad , and, though fromthe nature of the plant they probably aid in accumulatingnitrogen in the soil around the root s , their timber is quiteuseless , even for fuel , and the boughs of the tree have theunfortunate characteristic of falling in wet and windyweather, with probable 1nJury to the cacao growing beneath .

Cacao has been successfully cultivated in Grenadawithout shade, and the planters consider shade- trees bothunnecessary and h armful . Some planters of Jamaica are

of the same opinion , and van Hall has stated that in Surinam ,

though the rainy season is followed by very dry months ,cacao could be grown successfully without shade- trees , if“ 0 4


the plantation were properly conducted . Opinion differson this matter, though the Trinidad planters speak of thenecessity of shade- trees in no uncertain voice. Permanen tshade- trees for cacao are generally considered necessary inCentral America , Ceylon , Trinidad , Fiji , Tobago , BritishHonduras , Samoa and the whole of West Africa, includingSan Thome.

There are many other trees besides those mentioned ,

grown for the purpose of providing shade and especiallyfavoured in different districts , among the smaller plantsbeing Zea mays , castor oil , cassava and banana or plantain ,

each of which provides seed , fruit or root of some commercia li l nportance.

It is noticeable, however , that , until the rubber plantcame into such prominence, the larger trees used for shadingcacaowere of little or no economic value. TheHeveas , fromwhich Para rubber is obtained , are now largely used for shadeand , though comparatively slow growing, yield a produce ofequal , if not greater, value than the cacao trees they shelter .Appended is a list of shade- trees commonly used in

cacao-producing countries z—Adenanthera pavonina ,Albi z

zi a moluccana , A. Lebbek, A. odorati ssima ,A . stipulata ,

Erythrina li thosperma,E . umbrosa,

E . indi ca , E . ovalifoli aE . velutina ,

Artocarpus integrifoli a,A. nobi li s , Cassia Si amea ,

Casuarina equi setifoli a,Eugeni a Jambos (Jambo) , Fi li cium

decip i ens , Meli a dubi a,Mesua ferrea ,

Pi thecolobium Saman ,

Casti l loa elasti ca,Mant Glaziovi i , Hevea brasi li ensi s ,

Gli ri cidi a maculata, Pterocarpus indi cus , P . marsup ium,

Valeri a acuminata , Acaci a pycnantha, Cedrela serrata, C .

Toona ,Eucalyp tus leucoxylon ,

E . marginata, Grevi l lea robusta

M icheli a Champaca,Myri sti ca laurifoli a,

Azadi rachta indica,

Peltophorumferrugineum, Swi eteni amacrophyl la, Tamarindus

indi ca, Thespesia populnea, and others .

Vide al so H. Wrigh t in Cocoa , 1907 ; C. J. J. van Ha l l in Cocoa, 1914 ;

J. Hinchley Hart , “ Cacao, 191 1 W. J. Johnson , Cocoa , etc . , 19 12 .


Other plants , -which , whilst providing a certain amountof shade, are grown for their commercial value as inter or

catch- crops between the cacao trees , are lemon grass , citronella ,

cotton , ground-nuts , cassava, chillies , pepper, bananas ,yams , coffee, tobacco,

~rubber , tea, camphor and coconuts .

Di s eas es .

A matter of no small importance to be considered inselecting shade- trees is their immunity from disease.

As a general rule it may be stated that the cacao tree isnot subject to the attack of parasitic fungi , but ill-drainageof the land or close proximity to other trees affected withfungoid disease may speedily bring about an epidemic inthe plantation .

Canker ”and B lack rot are the two most deadlydiseases to whi ch cacao is prone. The former, probably themost widely spread cacao disease, is due to a fungus allied.

to Nectri a,which attacks the bark of cacao and other trees ,

and which has now been named Nectri a Baini i . Thisdisease has been observed in Antilles , Surinam , Kamerun ,Ceylon andJava . The investigations of Rorer ,* in Trinidad ,and of Petch ,Tin Ceylon , have shown that canker is dueto Phytophthora Faberi , which is also often given as the causeof the “ black rot ”of cacao pods . Experts again differon this question of identification , the main difficulty arisingfrom the fact that , though it would appear that both diseases ,the one to the stem and branches and the other to the pods ,are due to the same parasite, they do not necessarily occurside by side on the cacao fields . Indeed , fields that are

disposed to an annual outbreak of canker often showlittle or no blackening of the pods , and vi ce versd. Van Hall

J. B . Rorer , Pod -rot , Canker and Chapon-w i lt of Cacao, B ul leti n Department

Agricul ture, Tri n idad , July,19 10 .

1‘ Petch , Cacao and Hevea Canker, C i ro. Roy. Bot. Gardens , Ceylon , 1910 , v. , 13 .

4 - 2


denies that Nectri a is the cause of canker, but admits th a tthe disease is always fol lowed closely by the appearance of

this second parasitic fungus , wh ich , however , he does notconsider as playing a role of any importance. The latteralso is due to a

‘ parasitic fungus named Phytophthoraomnivora (or Faberi ) , similar in many ways to the blackrot of the potato , Phytophtlwm infestans and to Peronospora generally .

“ Black rot attacks the cacao pods , sending its filaments well into the interior of the pod which , in time, i sturned into a black pulpy mass , whil st the fungus appearson the outside surface of the shel l as a white mould . Th isfungus has been identified in cacao plantations in al l distric ts ,especially in Ceylon and Trinidad . There is l ittle doubtthat it was Phytophthora omn ivora which destroyed the cr0 psand prosperity of Trinidad in 1727, a disastrous episodealready mentioned as being reported in De Verteui l ’s bookon Trinidad .

A new disease appearing in the West Indian cacaoplantations was noted by Bancroft"in 1910. This parasiticfungus belonged to the genus Colletotrichum and had pre

viously been recorded from other cacao-producing centres ,especial ly from Surinam ,

though this seems to have been i tsfirst appearance in theWest Indies . It has been mentionedby Hall and Drost ,1

'

Delacroix,I van Hall § and Von Faber I!in their studies on fungi parasitic to plants , and, besidesbeing extremely contagious , it causes complete deteriorationof the pods , making them hard and woody , and sapping thej uices which protect and nourish the beans .An interesting article on cacao diseases on the Gold

C. K . Bancroft , W. 1 . Bul letin, 1910 , xi . , 34 .

1 Ha l l and Drost , Recuei l des Trav. Bot. Ne’

vri 1908 , iv. , 343 .

I Delacroix, Champignons paras ites des plantes cult ivées dans les regions chaudes .

Bul letin de la Soc. Myc. dc France, 1905, xxi . , 191 .

5C. J. J. van Hal l , Cocoa , 1914 .

I F. C. Von Faber , Die Krankheitcn ti nd Paras iten dos Kakaobaumes , 1909.


Coast appeared 1n Trop ical L ife (July , It recordeda new disease from Calabar and in theWestern Province at

Olomu . The first indications took the form of scalingfrom the outer bark in the vicinity of the forks wherebranches came off. On the branches above and below a

fork the bark mostly scaled away , leaving only smallpatches . No cacao disease of similar symptoms had, at thattime, been recorded from Kew .

In the Gold Coast , pod diseases are most common , andmany root diseases have also been reported , the latter beingdue chiefly to Hymenochaete

'

rwxia (Berk) .

Thyridaria tarda (Bancroft) , described as an ubiquitoussaprophyte,

”has caused considerable trouble among the

cacao tree roots , though van Hall has doubted whether theso- called Thyridaria root rot

”can be attributed to this

fungus .The suggested remedies are such as would be applied to

any tree suffering from disease, namely , the strengtheningof plant -growth by addition of manure to the soil , installation of a proper drainage system and the removal of al lpossible means of contamination , by lopping off the diseasedbranches of affected trees , and a complete destruction , byfire, of the refuse thereby created .

It is not an uncommon practice for the pods to be shel ledon the plantation itself for the removal of the beans , thehusks being allowed to rot on the surface of the land untilsufficiently decayed to be dug in . This practice constitutesa danger of spreading disease among the cacao trees , andit is most essential that al l affected husks should be removedoutside the plantation and burnt forthwith . A check 0 11

disease may often be brought about by the use of Sprays ofsolutions containing sulphate of iron or copper, fungicideswhich have proved most efficacious in combating the potatoblack rot and corn smut (Usti lago carbo) in thiscountry .


Among the insect pests mentioned by Hart as caus in gthe greatest trouble to cacao planters are the paras o lants ” (z

‘Ecodoma cephalotes) and the“ cacao beetles

(S tei rastoma hi strioni ca) .The

“

ants ,”which remove portions of the cacao le a f

often afflicted by the growth of certain fungi , upon th e

conidia of which the ants feed , are most persistent in the irdepredations , and, in Spite of sulphur or tobacco fume s ,they will often recur at the sites of their former nests . So

much damage has been done in the past to plantations bythe ravages of these

“

ants that the Legislative Counc i lof Trinidad can pronounce any district , troubled with th epests , to be in quarantine.

The cacao beetles ”deposit their eggs in the barkand wounds of the tree and, by boring small holes throughthe branches , cause boughs to fall in windy weather . Th e

most satisfactory cure for this pest seems to be the cuttin gaway and burning of infected parts , or the more cautiousprobing to remove the beetle. In either case, the woundsin the tree must be dressed with tar and clay or oth erantiseptic mixtures .The

“ cacao beetle S tei rastoma depressum is morefrequently mentioned by agriculturists than S . hi strioni ca .

A full description of this pest has been made by Ballou ,

entomologist on the staff of the Imperial Department forthe West Indies , and is reproduced in an article whichappeared in the Journal oftheRoyal Soci ety ofArts (August ,1909, S . depressum has been reported commonly inthe West Indies and Surinam ,

where both the adult beetleand the larva cause immense damage. The adult feedslargely on the tender bark of the young plants and depositsits eggs in crevices in the bark . The egg hatches , and thelarva burrows into the bark where it feeds , grows and

develops . The direct damage done by the larva results inthe weakening of the tree, caused by the sap

-flow being cut


off, whilst the nibbling of the adult seems to cause more an

offence to the eye than any direct damage. The indirectresult of the depredations of both stages of the beetle is tocause the tree to be‘more liable to attack by fungi which,as we have seen , are formidable foes of the cacao planter.Van Hal l refers to the beetle as one of the worst pests inTrinidad , Grenada, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Venezuela,Surinam and Demer

'

ara, and mentions a paper by Guppy ,which'

we have not consulted , as giving a clear expositionof the life-history of this pest and of the methods ofcombating it .The aphis fly and lice, common to al l vegetation , are to

be found on the cacao tree, and, though no real harm is

caused by their presence, the cleanly planter will endeavourto keep them away by Spraying and other preventivemeasures .Vegetable parasites and orchids , words used indiscri

minately in Trinidad for one and the same thing, are manyand have been described in articles submitted to theAssociation of German Chocolate Makers . There is little doubtthat al l such cancerous growths sap the energy of the treeand should be removed at the earliest opportunity by cuttingas close as possible to the point of juncture.

P r un i ng.

Parasites and the seeds of disease fall upon the treeunder most favourable conditions for their growth when thesap is down , and when the dead wood abounds . It is amistake, however, to cut away al l the old wood at once, asheavy pruning always stays the growth of a tree by reasonof leakage of sap which must occur when incisions are made.

The object of pruning is primarily to produce an even ,symmetrical tree with plenty of foliage and fruit , to removeboughs which are past bearing and to induce new growth .

In young trees with a single shoot , three or , at the most ,

56‘

COCOA ANI) CHOCOLATE

four small branches should be allowed to form at the side swith as much regularity as circumstances wil l permit . In

the same way, by judicious pruning, the secondary an d

tertiary branches Should be induced to grow at regula rintervals .In the early stages , the wood should be pruned when in a

state to be pinched and not cut , and, whenever a kni feis employed , the greatest care should be taken that raggedcuts are not made.

Later, when knife and saw are brough t into use, sym

metry, by removal of the oldest wood and encouragemen tof young shoots in the most desirable positions should beaimed at, and the wounds should be covered with some

antiseptic mixture.

Prun ing is best carried out at the close of a cr0 p , whenboth flower and frui t are absent , and , though it is oftendesirable and necessary to prune wh ilst - the crop is on th etrees , care must be exercised lest injury occur to the frui tand, more essential still , to the flower of the next season ’sfruiting.

P i cki ng.

When the trees are three or four years old they commence to flower , and , after they have once produced fruit ,regular crops may be expected for fifty or more years , ifproper care is taken . The yield usually continues to increasea little til l it reaches its maximum in the tenth , eleventh ortwelfth year .The fruit , which has already been described , is gathered ,

when in reach , by means ofa hand knife, the cacao hook orpruning knife, fitted to the end of a long stick or bamboo ,being used for gathering the fruit on the higher branches .

(Plates IV V . and VI .)The flowers for the following crop usually occur at the

point of juncture'

of the fruit with the tree ; consequently ,

CHAPTER VI

FERMENTATION OF THE BEANS

FERMENTATION , which has been looked upon from veryearly times as a necessary process for obtaining cacao of

finest aroma and flavour, may be regarded primarily as th e

most convenient method of removing adhering pulp and

of obtaining the bean in a suitable state for quick drying.

It is undoubtedly true that the cacao commanding th ehighest market price is usually fermented , so that a good dea lmay be said for the first argument in its favour . Howeverthat may be, the difficulty of removing the pulp clingingto the beans and of rapidly drying the cleaned seeds , withoutal lowing germination to commence, would be accentuated ,

if fermentation were not resorted to .

Germination of the bean would entail a loss of a certainamount of fat, but , by quickly killing the embryo and lifeof the seed by fermentation or sweating before the morereadily assimilated sugars are used up , this valuable portionof the bean is preserved .

The value of fermentation has been discussed by manywriters , but probably the most complete attempt toreacha conclusion is that made by H . H. Smith , the editor ofTrop i cal Life, i n his work The Fermentation of Cacao ,

”

published in 1913 . In this treatise can be found essays byDr . Axel Preyer , Dr . Oscar Loew, Dr . Fickendey, Dr . A.

Schulte imHofe, Dr . J. Sack , Dr . Lucius Nicholls and others .The book includes not only much original research on cacaofermentation , but the considered judgment of men whosebusiness in life has been the study of the cacao industry .

FERMENTATION OF THE BEANS

A great deal of information may be drawn from this work ,and the chocolate manufacturer who studies his productscannot do better than obtain a copy of this admirablecollection of essays and read it .

Still more recently , Knapp has shown a careful comparison between fermented and unfermented beans inTrinidad , and, taking into consideration the fact that thiswriter is also familiar with the technical side Of the cocoa

and chocolate industry , his Opinion carries no little weight .

It is,therefore, intended to examine the differences existing

between fermented and unfermented beans of the same kind ,as seen by Knapp , and later to study the processes Operative

in fermentation .

Compari son of Fermented Cacao Beans wi th those Dried

di rect in the Sun .

Dried Beans . Fermented Beans .

Plumper or rounder .

Cri sp , usual ly darker outs idenote the dark brown colour ingdepos ited ins ide of shel l .

Looseness ofshel l . Shel l t ight . Shel l more or less free.

Colour of interior Slate colour to black . I B rown l ight and dark browns(and purp les ) .

Cons istency of interior Leather to cheese. Brittle ; crumbles readi ly.

Beans .

Trinidad Criol lo l Unfermen ted 1 -682

1 Fermented l ~7 l 6

Unfermented 0 -893Trini dadCalabaci l lo Fermented 08 54

The above tables Show the extremes in differences , and,

in practice, the dried beans are usually slightly fermented .

A.W. Knapp , Practice ofCacao Fermentation , from Trop ica l L ife, 1919 , x. , 42


When roasted , however , the product from the unfermentedis inferior in every way to that from the fermented beans .This bears out our previous contention and is a matter ofcommon knowledge at the present time.

As we have pointed out Often enough , the advantages tothe manufacturer of finished products , such as chocolate,biscuits

, etc. , of a raw material prepared in a certain manner ,need not find favour in the eyes of the producer of that rawmaterial . Indeed , the direct advantages to the two producers may be in opposition , though the indirect advantagesof placing on the market a suitable raw material can onlyresult in good business to both . Such a case can be seenin this instance where the planter may reasonably Objectto a loss in weight of his bagged beans , by fermentation , forthe advantage of the manufacturer of cocoa and chocolate.

Yet it would be a short -sighted policy for the planter to putthis forward as an argument for not fermenting his beans .Whether or no this argument carries any weight with cacaoplanters , whose practice it is to omit fermentation altogetheror to conduct fermentation in a slip - shod fashion , it is difficultto say. We can give them the benefit of the doubt andquote on their behalf the work of Perrot ,* who recommendsthe treatment of cacao beans with a 1 per cent . s olution ofsodium or potassium carbonate and the removal of thepulp mechanically , after the beans have been subjected toheat in the presence of moisture. The same author recommends the sterilisation of plantation cacao , by means

'

ofsteam , and a subsequent drying , in order to Obtain a moreuniform product from one and the same plantation .

- By

these means , Perrot claims to obtain a better product thanby fermentation . Knapp , at the Third International Congress OfTropical Agriculture,Tdiscussed the value of Perrot

’

s

method which had been tried , at the request of the former ,

E . Perrot , Comp t. Renal , 1913 , c lvi . , 1394—6 .

1" A. W. Knapp , Trop ical L ife, vol . i i . , 227 cl seq.

FERMENTATION OF THE BEANS 61

in Trinidad . He said , the'

alkal ised beans ;were clean andlight in colour, showing that the alkaline carbonate hadfacilitated the removal of the pulp . (The beans were soakedfor thirty minutes in a solution containing 2 ozs . of washingsoda to 4 pints of water .) The shape was slightly flat, theshell fitting tight . The interior of the bean was heliotropeto slate blue, and was compact and cheesy . The steamedbeans were dark on the outside, showing that the pulp hadbeen difficult to remove. They had a compact and cheesyinterior, the colour of which showed various shades of brightviolet .”

On roasting, the beans treated in this way did not come upto the promising report of Perrot , and they showed thewell-known properties of unfermented cacao , being dul lpurplish in colour , with an inferior odour and an astringenttaste.

Granting, therefore, that there may be plantel s whoconsider; from their standpoint , that cacao is not improvedin quality by fermentation , and who , therefore, not only donot practise this operation , but will even go to greaterexpense to avoid it , the chocolate manufacturer is in noway uncertain as to the relative values of fermented and

unfermented beans . Themarket price is sufficient indicationof his Opinion .

Table VIII . Shows some figures , Obtained by Harrisonin his work on fermented and unfermented beans , of especialinterest in this place. It is worthy of note, however, that ,unlike the results of many other observers , the fat -contentof the bean is higher than that Of those merely dried .

These few remarks upon the advantages of fermentationwould not be complete without reference to the work of

FickendeyTwho, like Perrot , felt convinced that naturalfermentation could , with advantage, be replaced by mecha

J. B . Harrison , 1897 , from Cacao , by J. H. Hart , 1900 and 19 1 1 .

1 Dr. Fickendey in The Fermentat ion ofCacao ,

”by H. H. Smith , 1913 .


ni cal and chemical treatment:Fickendey claimed that themost important changes brought about by natural fermentation , with the exception only of development of aroma, can

be induced also by the immersion of the cacao in 96 per cent .alcohol or by freezing . Both the browning of the cotyledonsand the removal Of the bitter taste can be secured by thistreatment , after subsequent exposure of the beans to the air ,the former being due to the oxidation of the tannin substances to which , in the first place, is attributed the bitterness or astringency . Being confronted with the difficultyof obtaining aroma, Fickendey decided to experiment withfermented beans , and

,finding

, apparently as a discovery ,that the oxidation of the tannin substances increased rapidlyin weak alkaline solutions ,

‘

he proposed that , after thefermentation , the beans should be soaked in a 5—10 per cent .potash solution for ten minutes and subsequently dried .

By this treatment he claimed the following advantages

(1) Reduction of the acidity of cacao .

(2) Increase of activity of the enzymes , enabling themto act more freely and the beans to lose more bitterness .

(3) Assistance to the cocoa manufacturer in renderin gh is product more soluble.

TABLE VIII.

—Composi tion of the Kernels of the Beans ofForastero, Dried, and Fermented and Cured. (Harrison )

WaterAlbuminoidsIndeterminate nitrogenousmatters

TheobromineCaffeineFat

Glucose


by Fickendey’

s process , and n umber 5 merely washed and

dried . In the cases treated by the Fickendey process ,beans from a plantation in Victoria, Cameroons , weresubmitted to the cooling method without fermentation , byreducing the green beans to a temperature of 0° Centigrade ,

maintained for three hours . The beans , so produced , werepronounced by a German firm of chocolate manufacturersto possess a good aroma and flavour .

Sample.

Per cwt .

fig.

e rmented .

Aboutfigs;

to 55s .

No 3 . 52s .

No. 4. Fickendey. 538 .

No. 5. 508 .

The changes which take place during fermentation will beconsidered more fully later in this chapter, when ~the resul tsof analyses of beans , before and after fermentation , are dealtwith,and, for the present , it will be assumed that improvement of the kernel and ready removal of adhering pulp are

the main objects for which fermentation is employed , thereason why s uch improvements or advantages are obtainedby the process being discussed as necessity arises .The pods , after they are picked , are sorted into grades

according to their quality , the over-ripe, under-ripe and

di seased being put on one side.

The grading completed , the pods are broken eitherin the plantation or in the fermenting house, the latter placebeing preferable owing to the p ossibility of the decayinghusks conveying disease to the trees if allowed to remain inthe plantation .

The shelling or breaking is performed by a cut with a

knife on one side of the pod , which is then broken open withthe hands (Plate or the more primitive method of


TABLE X .—Composi tion ofSweatings takenfrom theRunnings

of Sweating Boxes , and ofOriginal Pulp .

Sweatings ,Calabaci l lo and

Forastero.

Water 84 817

AlbuminoidsIndeterminate nitrogenousmatters

Glucose .

Sucrose .

Astringent matter, etc.

Alcohol .Tartaric acid (free) .

Acetic acid (free)Acetic acid (combined)Iron peroxideMagnesiaLimePotashSodaSulphuric anhydridePhosphoric anhydrideChlorine

Tartaric acid (combined) .

TheobromineCaffeineFat

StarchPectin , etc .

Cacao redDigestible fibreWoody fibreSilica


dashing the pods on a log of wood , as employed in Nicaragua,may be resorted to .

The beans and pul p are removed from the broken podsand conveyed to the sweating house, where they are al lowedto stew in their own juice in vats (PlateVIII ) , until theinteriors have assumed the cinnamon-red colour so muchdesired .

The exact condition to which the beans must bebrought by fermentation is known only to the practicalplanter, but , whether the process is carried out in vats ,as in Trini dad and Ceylon , or fermentation is allowedto proceed in the beans packed warm from the sun insacks , as is the custom of the small grower in Venezuela,

the results achieved are the same in their most essentialpoints .In order to appreciate fully the action taking place

during fermentation , it is first necessary to know the composition of the materials employed in the process .Professor Harrison has made careful analyses of the pulp

and beans before and after fermentation , and; though it willbe unnecessary to quote in ful l al l hi s results , the collectedfigures in Tables IX . and X . will give most of the information required .

The beans and their adhering pulp, during the process offermentation , rise in temperature from 30

° to 40° C. in aboutthree days , finally reaching 48

° or 49° C. , if a good fermentation has been secured . The fermenting mass should never beallowed to reach a higher temperature than 60° C. , and, inorder to prevent this , frequent turning of the beans isnecessary .

The following results , collected by Preyer, showing thetemperature of fermentation in different districts , stated byvarious Observers , are of interest

Dr . Chi ttenden in prize essay on Fermentat ion of Cacao, Agr icul tural Record,

1890.


Method of fermentation. Temperature emp loyed .

Heap ing method (Ceylon )In th e upper hal f 30—40° C.

In the lower hal f Outside temperature to

30°

C.

Chi ttenden Some samples fermented wel l at 26 7°C.

Wi th themethod in vogue in Trin idad 46—4 9° C.

Morr is By the method pract i sed in the

West Indi es About 60° C.

Strickland Three-tank system (West Indies )In tank 1 Not over 46—49° C.

In tank 2 Not under 35° C.

In tank 3Fr iederic i Th ree-tank system (Cameroon )

In tank 1 30—3 3° C.

In tank 2 35—38° C.

In tank 3 Not over 43—45° C.

Th ree -tank system (Surinam) Never above 45° C.

Three-tank system (Ceylon )Tank I 1

Tank 2Tank 3

Johnson Heaping method (Gold Coast)

In Trinidad , Knapp made the following observations asto temperature in the sweating boxes

After Degrees Cent . Degrees Fahr.

1 day 86

2 days 98

3 days 1 17

4 days 1 1 8

5 days 120

6 days 120

Hudson ,* at a St. Lucia estate, British West Indies ,has carried out a number of experiments on fermentationand has formulated certain axioms , borne out

' by his experience. Of these, the following are the most interesting

(1) Thehigher the temperature, obtained and maintainedfor some days by primary natural fermentation , the better

G. S . Hudson in The Fermentat ion ofCacao, by H. H. Smith , 1913 .


the class of cacao turned out . (The maximum limi t oftemperature reached in Hudson ’s experiments was 1 19° F .)

(2) The addition of Dr . Lucius Nichol ls ’ pure fermentand yeast food solution induces a higher and more prolongedbeneficial fermentation .

(3) The daily changing of cacao from box to box bya wooden spade, thereby transferring the bottom seeds tothe top , is most necessary to obtain the best results .

(4) Beneficial fermentation ceases as soon as the bottomof the box falls below 100° F .

(5) The larger the quantity of cacao fermented the

quicker is a high temperature attained and lost but smallquantities , whilst requiring a longer period, can be fermentedjust as efficiently as large.

(6) The preservation of heat and moisture by a thickleaf cover is amost necessary part of the process , but wherea pure ferment is not added , the cover can be beneficiallyomitted from the first and second boxes , to allow the

“ cacaofly more free access to the beans , to deposit fermentationgerms upon them .

In the same essay ,Hudson records temperatures of beansduring fermentation , with an average air temperature of78

° F . and the average humidity 79, as ranging between76

°

F .

—88° F . after three-quarters of a day, and 108°

F .

116° F . after 5% days , when the temperature begins to fall .

By using Dr . Nicholls ’ ferment and solution , under identically the same conditions , the temperature continued to riseup to the end of 62 days , though his figures do not showhigher temperatures than when natural fermentation isallowed to take place, contrary to the Opinion expressed inthe second axiom .

Preyer,* in his articles on cacao fermentation , states thatthe mi cro-organisms , engaged in the Operation, attack the

Axel Preyer , Woch . fu r Brau . , 1901 , xvi i i . 277 , and Der Trapenpflanzer , 1901,V. , and in The Fermentat ion ofCacao,

”by H. H. Smith , 1913 .


husk and kill the embryo , whilst the soluble matters andenzymes diffuse through the dead tissue . According to thiswriter, the fermentation should be stopped when the outerskin is loosened , so as to be readily removable in a subsequentwashing process . The same author states that the yeasts ,isolated from the vat liquors during a Ceylon fermentation ,consisted of buddi ng fungi , similar to Saccharomyces ellipsoideus and S . membrancefaci ens , and a new Species whichhe named S . theobromcePreyer , to which he attributes specialactivity .

The whole process Of fermenting and curing may occupyfrom nine to twelve days , though three days may be sufficientfor the first operation , if fermentation starts at once underideal conditions of temperature.

Needless to say,there can be no set time given for the

completion of fermentation , the prin ciple underlying theprocess being the attainment of certain ends , dependentupon variable conditions . Schulte im Hofe, in an essay inSmith ’s book on The Fermentation of Cacao,

”already

frequently mentioned , says ,“

In the Cameroons it wascustomary, at first , to allow the cacao to sweat from threeto four days , but now the period has been prolonged . In

San Thome the methods employed are more advanced , andthe period of fermentation (or sweating) is not alwaysregulated by time, but often by the appearance of the bean ,but even here the fermentation is usually allowed to

continue too long .

”The present writer is in agreement

with Smith , who has commented on the fact that the SanThomécacao coming to his notice does not give the impression of being over- fermented .

Schulte im Hofe, Knapp and many others have describedthe appearance and other characteristics of beans whenproperly fermented . These may be summed up as

follow

(1 ) Change in exterior from almost white to a rich brown ,


that other yeasts and ferments , possessing proteolytic oralbuminoid-Splitting enzymes , are also actively engaged insecuring the general result of the fermentation process .The loss of starch from the bean , during fermentation ,

must be attributed to the diastase content of the saccha

romyces , as observed by Pfeffer ,* or to the diastase ofsecretion which al l seeds contain , and which plays so important a part in providing soluble nourishmen t for the growing

plant , during the germination of the seed .

The loss of the alkaloid theobromine, during fermentation ,has been much disputed . Indeed , Sack has claimed thatthere is an increase of the theobromine shown , but thisstatement has been refuted by both Brill and Knapp , andthere does not seem to be any scientific support for Sack

’

s

contention . Knapp is more emphatic , for he has statedthat I should say defini tely that there was no change inthe theobromine content , only I am not absolutely satisfiedwith the delicacy of the methods commonly used for estimating theobr’omine. With regard to the estimation oftheobromine in cacao products , various methods are considered in a later part of the present work .

To recapitulate in proper sequence, the process of

fermentation is as follows

(1 ) Conversion of starch into soluble dextrin and sugarby means of diastase, an Operation which would take placenaturally wi thin the bean at the commencement of thefermentation process , even if no saccharomyces were present .

(2) Some of the Sugars of the pulp , and the original andnewly formed sugars of the beans , are next converted intoalcohol by the sugar-Splitting enzymes of the saccharomyces ,with a consequent rise of temperature.

(3) The alcohol , so formed , rapidly undergoes fermentation by the agency ofMycoderma aceti , with a still further riseof temperature. At the same time, there occurs a loss of

Pfeffer, Ueber die regulatorische Bi ldung von Diastase.


albuminoid matter, both in the pulp and bean , attributableto the action of proteolytic ferments .

(4) In the presence of air , an oxidation process withinthe bean , resul ting in colour changes due to the action ofan oxidase.

The chemi cal action during the process of fermentationhas the effect of withdrawing the soluble matters , containedin the kernel , to the liquid running away from the fermentingmass , and, consequently, the quantities of the solublemi neral matters , chiefly consisting of potash and phosphoricacid , are found to be considerably reduced in the fermentedbeans and increased in the sweatings .The astringent matters , to which the acrid taste of the

fresh beans are due, are undoubtedly hydrolysed during thefermentation , as they are found by analysis to be in greatlyreduced proportions both in the fermented pulp and beans .The relation between astringency and the presence of tanninshas already been recorded ; that between astringency and

correct fermentation is of considerable interest to the

chocolate manufacturer .In the case of the Calabaci llo bean , the loss during

fermentation and curingin one instance was 62 5 per cent . ,of which 590 was water and 3-5organic andmi neral matters .Some loss of alkaloids , gums , vegetable fibre, astringent

matters and cacao-red occur s in the beans during fermentation , besides the more apparent losses in sugars , starch and

albuminoid matters , the only gain of real importance beingin acetic acid , the result of fermentation , and certain mi neralmatters which may be attributed , partially , to the accumulation of dirt .

In later analyses by Professor Harrison of a mixture ofbeans contain ing one-fifth Calabaci l lo and four-fifths Forastero varieties before and after fermentation and curing, thelosses and gains of the beans during the process are stillmore marked , the latter being entirely confined to 02 57


acetic acid , 0-010 iron peroxi de, and 0 010 silica , whilst thetotal loss amounted to 64 062 per cent . , of which 56 419 waswater, 0 429 sucrose, 12 80 starch , 0-301 glucose, 1 -258astringent matter, 09 82 albuminoids , 1 -167 digestible fibre,and 02 70 cacao-red.

Before concluding this chapter on fermentation, it is aswell to consider one or two aspects that have not as yet beenmentioned . There are two distinct processes in cacaofermentation that should be kept strictly separate :(1) thefermentation of the pulp , i .e. , the sugary mucilaginous massin which the beans are embedded , and (2) the changes in thesubstances of the beans themselves .The fir st process of fermentation takes place in the pulp

or j uice, which contains about 10 per cent . sugar (dextroseandlaevulose) and 3 per cent . mucin , and which shows an acidity ,chiefly due to malic acid , of approximately 1

17, N. solution .

The specific gravity at 15°

C. is about 1 063, and 100 008 .

of juice contain some 0 638 grms . of mineral ash , of whichabout half the amount is due to equal proportions of calciumand magnesium carbonates . The juice is , then , an excellent .

medium for the growth of yeasts and bacteria, and it is , ofcourse, due to its fermentation that the rise in temperatureis secured , sufficiently high to kill the germ in the beanwithout injury to the enzymes which play so important apart in the second process .Many experimenters have suggested that the jui ce Should

be used as a source of commercial alcohol or vinegar, andthere does not seem to be anypractical difli culty in theproject .Yet, so far as the present writer is aware, no attempt hasbeen made to place the scheme on a commercial footing,though the subject will be found discussed at some lengthin many of the technical books and journals dealing withthe fermentation of cacao . Smith , in The Fermentationof Cacao ,

”has gone so far into the matter as to place on

paper some calculations which make very good reading ,

FERMENTATION OF THE BEANS 75‘

and which accentuate at least the necessity for an intelligentinquiry into the possibility Ofproducing vinegar and alcoholas by

-products of the cacao plantation .

Commencing with the world ’s annual average output Ofcacao for the years 1910 to 1912 as English tons ,and the assumption , from Hudson

’s figures , that 2 gal lonsof vinegar result from 200 lbs . of cacao , it is clear that

gallons of vinegar could be added to the world ’spresent production . This vinegar, when properly preparedand thoroughly mature and clear, has been described as

excellent . Very occasionally one meets with cacao vinegarthat appeals to the palate as the very perfection of vinegaralthough it is not deficient in strength its great points areexquisite mellowness and freedom from al l bite. But theoccurrence of such a fine brew does not appear to be commonfrom the many adverse reports on cacao vinegar that canalso be found . The correction of faulty production ofvinegar can only be a matter of adjustments of conditions ,and

, as has been remarked before, there seems no practicalhindrance to its successful preparation , save, perhaps ,insufficient knowledge of the manufacture of vinegar on thepart of the planters , which could be easily remedi ed .

With regard to the production of alcohol , the literature onthe subject seems confused between the manufacture of analcoholic beverage and that of commercial alcohol . Smith ’sfigures , in the Preface to his work, Show that the sale of thejuice would bring in a total of a year , if sold at3d. per gallon . This total , divided among the planters al lover theworld , does not seemworth considering, especially asthe sale and preparation of the alcohol would entail an alteration to the existing system of curing the beans and the

necessity for finding a market for the j uice whic h , presumably, would be used only by local distilleries , when theyexisted .

It is pointed out by several writers that the cacao juice


fulfils al l the conditions necessary to the making of a palatable spirit by distillation and even to making ofwine. In

Para, we are told , many of the planters pay more attention toproducing an intoxicating drink from the green cacao than tothe commercial beans themselves . The characteristic flatness of Para beans has been attributed to the squeezingwhich the beans are made to undergo, in order to free themfrom the last drop of liquid . NO confirmation of this reportcan be found , however .The possibility of separating or utilising the pectins from

the cacao juice has not been overlooked , as Knapp has

suggested . A cacao jelly is occasionally made from the

j uice by adding an equal bulk of sugar . Its manufactureis very Similar to that of guava jelly , but the luscious flavourof the latter cannot be approached by the rather insipidflatness characteristic of Cacao jelly .

A. W. Knapp , Trop ical Life, x. , pp . 42 , et seq.


6 per cent . , both for Cameroon cacao . Schulte im Hofehas told us that , in the Cameroons , at first the cacaowas washed after fermentation had been completed , wherebythe remains Of the fruit pulp adhering to the beans wereremoved . As in chocolate factories the shell is removedfrom the kernel in any case, it is immaterial whether some

of the fruit pulp still adheres or not . This fact was soonrecognised , and now the beans are not washed but generallydried immediately after fermentation .

” There is no needto comment upon this clear indifference to the fin ish of theproduct and to the real needs of the chocolate manufacturer ,

especially at the present time with high freight rates . The

advantages of washed beans to the cocoa and chocolatemanufacturers can be seen when the returns of husk and nibfrom different beans and the price obtainable for thewinnowedhusk ,

”the manufacturer ’s by-product

, are discussed .

The beans should be placed in sieves or troughs and

thoroughly stirred and scrubbed under water, till all adheringorgani c matter is removed and the beans are clean and

smooth, when they are ready for drying.

D r yi ng .

The method adopted for drying may be by exposure of

the washed cacao to the heat of the sun or by a system ofhot water or steam pipes under cover, if the climate does notlend itself to the open-air process (Plates IX . and X ) .In Trinidad , the beans , which are not always washed ,

are exposed to the heat of the sun on open wooden floors ortrays , which are covered up , when it rains , either by a

movable roof or by placing the trays under a fixed shelterIn Ceylon , the washed beans are dried either artificially

or by the sun ’s heat , as slowly as will allow the danger ofthe formation of mould to be avoided , a process accelerated ,without injury to the quality of the cacao , if proper fermentation has been accomplished .


fact that a number of possible ethereal substances are add edto the essential oil of cacao during fermentation . Th e s e

ethers , formed in the fermenting juice, penetrate the h u s k

and enter with other liqui ds , during the fluctuating change sof temperature , into the interior of the beans . At least , t h eless volatile of these ethers will be retained within the bea n ,

if subsequent drying is suffi ciently slow . This hypoth e s i swas confirmed when , later , the analyses of the essen t i a loil of cacao were made, showing that the earlier fraction s ,distilled , were rich in esters of the order expected , an d

analogous to those occurring in other spontaneous frui tfermentation taking place at comparatively high tem

peratures in the presence of a free supply of air .

The whole question of drying of cacao has been w el l

reviewed by Hudson , whose original work should be con

sulted, if further information be required .

The process of drying can be summed up in the wordsof Schulte im Hofe Whatever system may be selected ,themain thing always is to use the lowest possible temperature for drying, but , above al l , any further acidification , orthe formation of butyric acid and the development of

moulds , must be avoided .

F i n i s h i ng .

In order to accelerate the drying of the beans w ithou tapplying extra heat , especially during the damp weather ,the planters of Trinidad , Venezuela and certain othercountries make use of fine dried earth , which they sprinkleover the beans and intimately mix in with the drying mass

(Plate XL) .This provides a ready method of removing any remaining

pulp, as the drying beans are frequently raked over , and the

friction, of one bean rubbing against the other, soon causes

the adhering matter to fall away . Other purposes whi chare served by this treatment are an improved finish in the


matter is used indifferently with the seed contents in manufacturing chocolate or cocoa,

”yet we are aware that there

has been , and still unfortunately is , some grain of truth inhis suggestion . But we cannot al l be tarred with th e

same brush ,”and the present writer knows of more than one

manufacturer, both in England and in the United States ,who positively refuses to pay for clayed cacao on th eground of extra weight which is of no value. Besides , i fclay is to be added to cocoa and chocolate, why not add i tin quantities that make it worth the while Of course ,

Hudson ’s suggestion is really nonsensical , for the bulk of

chocolate manufacturers certainly do not adopt this methodof adul teration , which , besides being primitive, is Open tothe Objections of easy detection and the production of grittygoods . Clayed cacaos of Ceylon , Central America and

Samoa are, moreover, more often than not , beans of thehighest quality , being of the Criollo or thin- skinned varietywhich would

,in any case, command higher prices than

beans of Forastero or Calabaci l lo origin for the excellenceOf their aroma and their high fatcontent .Excessive claying has , however, been practised , and

the Board of Agriculture of Trinidad caused posters to beplaced in the colony , early in 1914 , to the effect that “

if

excessive claying be not discontinued , it will be necessaryin the general interest of the colony to bring this matterto the notice of the Government , with a view to the introduction of legislation making excessive claying a puni shableOffence.

”Originally , the use Of clay was considered to be

the best means of preserving cacao beans , and, withoutdoubt

,its use materially renders the husk impervious to

moisture, and so prevents decay and the growth of moulds,whilst assisting in retaining the cacao aroma . In addition

,

the uniformity Of colour , produced by rubbing the beans inclay , adds considerably to the appearance of the sample .

It has been already pointed out , however, that claying

PREPARATION OF THE BEANS FOR MARKET 83

is , to-day, no criterion of qual ity, and the beans coming intothe market are judged for their flavour and aroma, thepercentage of fat the cotyledons contain, and the returnfrom a given weight of beans—that is to say, the amountof nibs or cotyledons , obtained from a given weightof the raw beans , which should , alone of the cacao beans,be used in the manufacture of chocolate and other cocoapreparations .The quantity of clay permissible is, of course, impossible

to give. Hart suggests about 3 lbs . to the barrel of cacaobeans or about 1 lb . to every 100 lbs . of wet cacao , but ,clearly, the quantity , used , must depend upon the needs ofthe planter in the first place, and, secondly, upon the degreeof dryness to which the wet beans have already attainedbefore claying is commenced .

Olivieri has given figures of 1 to 4}1b. of red ferruginousearth per barrel (110 lbs .) of wet cacao .

Buyers are, tod ay, certainly incl ined to give less forclayed cacao than formerly, as they real ise that the

earth is dead loss to them . Bannister T found that theintegument of clayed cacao beans from Trinidad con

tained as much as 5 12 per cent . of sand and per

cent . of silica . As a general rule, the amoun t of clay onclayed cacaos does not exceed 2 per cen t . of the com

mercial beans .

Quoting from Johnson ’s book on cocoa the

present writer is in entire agreement with two of the

largest cocoa and chocolate manufacturers in this countrywho

,in reply to some questions put to them regarding

treated cacao beans , said : We consider the preparation for the market Of by far the largest proportion ofBahia,

Trinidad , Grenada, San Thome and Kameroon

cocoa is perfectly satisfactory to the consumer, and

Ol ivieri , Treati se on Cacao

1‘ Bannister, Jour. Roy Soc. Arts , 1890.


disl ike any tampering w ith the bean as by wash ing,

claying, oi ling, etc. and again ,

“

In buying cocoa w e

certainly do go into the question Of loss Of weigh t

by moisture and shel l , and have careful ly worked out a

table of the various cacaos showing their difierent lossesIn many cases the loss through mois ture and shell amoun ts

to some 25 lbs . and over per cwt .

”

Pol i s h i ng.

In certain countries , even where the use of earth iscustomary, the fear that mildew should attack the dryin gbean is so great that a process of hand -rubbing,

”or

dancing,”is sometimes employed (Plate XII ) .

Dancing consists of treading'

the layers of drying beanswi th the naked feet and, as with hand-rubbing,

”serves

the double purpose of removing adhering matter and mi ldewfrom the beans , by friction of one against another, and of

giving a fini sh or polish .

It is difficul t for anyone but an experienced person to saywhen the cacao has received sufficient drying, but , fromanalyses of the un roasted shells and kernels of bean sbought on the market , it would appear that the cacao maybe considered sufficiently dry when the moisture conten tof the shells has been reduced so as not to exceed 13 per cen t . ,and of. the kernels 8-5 per cent . These figures, given byZipperer, are undoubtedly excessive, and the present writerhas seldom handled beans with more than 8 per cent . of

moisture, which should certainly not be exceeded . The

amount Of moisture in the kernels or nibs has beenvariously given 52 3 per cent . (Trinidad) , 4

-75 per cent . to

4-90 per cent . (Forastero-Amelonado) , 42 0 per cent . to540 per cent . (Caracas) , 4 50 per cent . to 6

-50 per cent .

(Forastero-Cundeamor nibs 4 55 per cent . to 5 00 per

Z ipperer, Untersuchungen fiber K’

akao , etc. , 55, 56, 57


cent . (Gold Coast) , etc. Figures as high as 12 per cent .have been recorded by Playfair and Lankester and 116 0 percent . by Boussingaul t , but such large figures as these are

very unusual .A good deal of care is necessary during the

‘

Operationof polishing.

”The beans , from continual friction , assume

a pol ished Spanish mahogany”

appearance, if correctlydanced ,

”according to Hart . When the beans appear in

this state, the heaps should be opened out , and dryingshould be allowed to proceed as rapidly as possible. On the

following day , the heaps are again danced ,”wh ich , wi th

the drying heat of the sun , fixes the pol ish upon the Skin ofthe bean .

Rapidity of drying after this stage determines the degreewith which the pol ish is fixed , and Hart recommends treatment in a rotary dryer .Patent automatic polishers , one by Barnard and another

called the Malins-Smith cacao polishing machine, are

described by Hart , and there can be no possible difficulty insecuring the desired result by machine, since the operationis essentially to seal up al l possible cracks and crevices inthe husk of the beans , to strengthen the shell and to preserveit from cracking during transit to the market , processeswhich can be conducted as efficiently by machine as byhand .

Any accusation of a desire to give weight to the beansbv claying must be removed if pol ishing is also

adopted , for , though , of course, some clay is workedinto the husk , the maj ority of it is rubbed off by pol ishing.

”As Hart has pointed out , some countries prefer to

wash the beans instead of claying and‘‘

pol ish ingf’

It matters little which process is adopted , provided thateach is scientifically controlled , and that the beans comeinto the market as the cocoa and chocolate manufacturerrequires .


RESUME OF CHAPTERS IV . To VII . INCLUSIVE .

IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL CONDITIONS AND PROCESSES OF

FERMENTING AND CURING ON QUANTITY AND QUALITY

OF THE FINISHED CACAO .

Natural Cond i t i ons .

Site, soil and seed play very important parts in determining both the quality and quantity of the resulting bean s ,inasmuch as they constitute those natural conditions whichregulate the production of good healthy crops of fixedvarieties of cacao .

The site must be one sheltered from prevailing w inds andshaded from the direct rays of the sun , both conditions beingaccomplished by selecting a plantation in the shadow and

under the lee of high hills or mountains , or by erectingartificial shelters and growing shade trees to serve the doublepurpose.

The soil should be of good light loam , of reasonable depth ,

and should contain sufficient quantities of nitrogen , lime ,

potassium salts and phosphoric anhydride.

Good drainage and freedom of the soil from salt are mostessential to the successful cul ture of cacao .

In the absence of any or al l of the necessary componentsof the soil, manures to supply the deficiency should beapplied . Stable manure, when obtainable, is most to berecommended for its safe application and efficiency .

If these conditions of site and soil are observed indistricts , where the temperature never falls below 69

°

F . ,

and whi ch possess a normal rainfall , a good acreage yield isassured .

The seed is one great factor in determining quality and

may be chosen from Criollo , Forastero , or Calabaci l lovarieties of cacao .


Proces s es of Fermen t i ng and Cur i ng.

Fermentation commences with the conversion of some

starch by diastase into soluble starch and sugar, fol lowed byalcoholic and acetic fermentations which reduce the proportion of sugars in the bean .

The process of fermentation Operates both on the pu lpand the beans . In the pul p , alcoholic fermentation raisesthe temperature and is followed by acetic fermentation .

The rise of temperature is sufficient to kill the germ withoutpreventing the action of the enzymes which are containedwithin the bean and necessary to bring about the changes inaroma and colour .The benefit to thebeans , brought about by fermentation ,

may be simulated by other processes , such as heat , treatment with alkali solutions , etc.

, but , so far , fermentationhas been found to be the simplest and most efficient methodof bringing about the desired result on the plantation , eventhough it may be less easy of scientific control than th eother processes suggested .

During fermentation , the beans lose a certain amount ofmoisture, albuminoid matters , alkaloids , gums , fibrousmatters and cacao-red, besides the greater losses of starchand sugars .The best temperature for fermentation is about 49° C. ,

and 60°

C. should never be exceeded .

* The whole processmay occupy from nine to twelve days, though three daysmay be sufficient under ideal conditions .The most obvious advantages gained from the process of

fermentation and curing are : (1 ) To improve the qualityof the kernel by loss of astringent matters (2) themodification of the colour of the kernel from purple to a fine cinna

Preyer, in Der Tropenpflanzer, 1901 , points out that , in Ceylon , themos t favourable temperature for fermentat ion i s 38° C. , above which infer ior resul ts are obtained .

Th is , however , i s not universal ly accepted as the opt imum temperature. Vide a lsoChapter VI.


mon-brown ; (3) to render the removal of adhering pulpmore easy , enabling the beans to be more quickly driedand (4) to toughen the skin of the bean so as to make it moreimpervious to mildew .

It is advisable to wash the beans immediately afterfermentation to prevent further action , and to regulate thedrying

,so that the maximum time is taken without risk of

the formation of mildew .

It seems to be unanimously agreed that slow dryingis desirable, though only sl igh t chemi cal Cxplanation isforthcoming.

To prevent mildew from attacking the drying cacao , it iscustomary in many countries to sprinkle fine dry earth,usually of a red and ferrugin ous nature, upon the beans .This Operation also gives a better appearance to the beansand removes the remains of any adhering pulpIn some countries , hand- rubbing or dancing is

employed in order to remove adhering matter and mi ldewfrom the drying beans , by friction one with another, andto give a fine polished appearance to the cacao .

CHAPTER VIII

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL KINDS OF

COMMERCIAL CACAO B EANS

IN the foregoing chapters, it has been shown how th e

appearance of the beans , prepared for market , is affected bythe variety of cacao grown and by the varying systems of

fermentation , drying, finishing and polishing, employed inthe different cacao-producing districts .By means of these external differences in the finish ed

beans , it is possible for the purchaser to tell , with practice,the land of their origin and, taking into consideration th eappearance and flavour of the internal kernel , to determi nethe nature of the variety of cacao grown and of the processeswhich it has undergone in preparation for the market .In considering the descriptions of the beans which

follow,it must be borne in mind that blends may be foun d

on the market and that seasonal differences , especially during the harvesting of the bean , may be responsible for

variations in appearance and flavour from the genera lcharacteristics here given .

The cacaos on the market are of either American , West

Indian, African or Asiatic origin . American cacaos includethose from Ecuador (Esmeraldas , Guayaquil Arriba , and

Guayaquil Machala) Venezuela (Caracas , Maracaibo , Carupano , La Guayra, and Puerto Cabello) Surinam (Berbiceand Essequibo) Brazil (Para,

Maranhao and Bahia) , andCuba .

The cacaos of most importance derived from the WestIndies include those of Haiti , San Domingo (Samaria) ,Trinidad , Grenada and Jamaica .

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMERCIAL CACAO BEANS 91

From Africa come the cacaos of San Thomé, Cameroon ,Gold Coast (Accra) and Fernando Po.

The Asiatic cacaos of most importance are from Ceylonand the Dutch East Indies (Java) .The Gordi an divides cacaos into two groups , thus

Fine sorts or Edelkakao.

”—Venezuela, Ecuador ,Trinidad , Grenada, Ceylon , Java,Jamaica, Surinamand Lesser Antilles .

Ordinary sorts , or Mi ttelkakao.—Bahia, Kamerun ,

San Thome, Samaria, Accra and Haiti .

In 1914, Surinam appeared as Mi ttelkakao with GoldCoast , Para, Lagos, etc. whilst Greater Antilles appearedas Edelkakao .

The production of the fine sorts throughout the cacaoproducing coun tries has fallen off from a figure of 79 percent . of the total in 1895 to 32 per cent . of the total in 1912 .

In the latter year, 32 per cent . represented ki lo

grams and the total kilograms , the total outputof the two kinds in 1 895being given as kilograms .In 1909, of the total cacao consumed in America, 54 per cent .were ordinary sorts , in Germany 75 per cent . , in France48 per cent . , and in England 46 per cent . The averageprices during 1909, 1910 and 1911 on the Hamburg marketare sh own as follow

Prices in Marks per 50 K i lograms net (1 mark1909. 1910. 19 1 1 .

Summer Arriba 66 65 615Trinidad 56—58 55 57 57—59Kamerun 51 54

Bahia 51—56San Thome 51—54§Samaria 51

Accra 48—50Haiti 45

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

Amer i can Cacaos .

1914 Output, tons.

ECUADOR1917 output 40,000 tons (estimated) .

(1) Esmeraldas—Th is district , in 1914, produced abou t75 tons of cacao whi ch is known by the name Esmeraldas .

”

This is the only cacao, not of Forastero origin , grow n

in Ecuador. Th is variety is.

of finer and nobler qual i tiesthan other cacaos grown in the province and more closelyresembles Venezuela Criollo . Esmeraldas cacaos are sel domfoun d on the market and are mostly consumed local ly .

Beans Small , heavy , plump , almost round but sligh tlyol ive- shaped . Shell : Yel low-brown of unequal colour .

Kernel :Dark violet . Flavour :Mild and fin e.

(2) Guayaqui l Ariba or Arriba—Grown in the provin ceof Los Rios , which produced, in 1914, about ton s .

The main crop is reaped between March and June and i s of

Forastero origin , variety Amelonado . It is generally recognised that the best qual ities of Arriba are only sl igh t lyfermented , which necessitates a very thorough drying

, if

the best product is to be secured . The drying is conductedentirely by the aid of the sun , and earth or clay is not used,

with the results that drying is often very incomplete and

that mouldy Ecuador cacao is not uncommonly found on

the market . Prime red Summer Arriba cacao is of th efinest qual ity and is principal ly sent to European markets ,Germany and Holland taking the greater portion before th ewar . America has , however, increased her consumpt i onof Arriba cacao considerably in recent years .Beans : Flat , irregular, of unequal colour . Shel l : A

light brown , lighter than most Ecuador cacao . Kernel :Dark on outside, lighter towards centre. Flavour :Fine ,

somewhat scented and sweet to the palate.

(3) Guayaqui l Machala .- A very variable cacao, of less

value and of lower quality than Arriba,”grown in the


origin , the former Forastero and similar to Carupano cacao.

The beans are nearly always clayed ,”to avoid moul d , an d ,

consequently , appear clean and of brick-red hue. A greatpart of the Caracas cacao goes to France and Spa in ,

though both England and the Uni ted States have learn edto appreciate the fine quality of its flavour .

Beans : Irregular, but large and ohve- shaped . Shel lOf the smaller varieties , thick, of the larger varieties , thi ncovered with smooth reddish brown earth . Kernel Pa le

brown to rich brown colour . Flavour Fine and full , w ithpronounced chocolate aroma .

(2) Maracaibo.- The cacao shipped from the port of

Maracaibo is , correctly speaking, Caracas cacao or Sur in amcacao , but it should be of the highest quality grown in th e

western portion of Venezuela, whence come the best cacaos .

The production of Maracaibo is not large, and the bes tof it goes to the French and Swiss chocolate manufacturers .

It is mostly of Criollo origin .

Beans :Medium to large, irregular, similar to Caracas .

Shell Smooth , covered with reddish brown earth . KernelRed-brown in colour . Flavour : Strong, somewhat har shto the palate, but of pronoun ced chocolate aroma.

(3) Carupano.—Mostly grown in the eastern provinces

round Cariaco , Carupano, Rio Caribe, Aragua, etc. , and alongthe Orinoco , of which Ciudad Bolivar forms the centre.

This cacao is of inferior quality, of Forastero origin ,

and it is mainly shipped from the port of Carupano . In

1909 , the export of Carupano cacao was over 41:mi lhonkilograms .Beans : Flat and smaller than Caracas . Shel lUnclayed and similar in appearance to “ Trinidad ,

”of a

dark colour . Kernel : Red-brown to purple in colour,

according to degree of fermentation . Flavour Often sour

to smell and bitter to the palate, yet, after roasting, of goodchocolate flavour .


(4) La Guayra .—Some of the best cacao on the market

is shipped from the port La Guayra . This va

riety shouldbe almost entirely of Criollo origi n, cultivated In the val leysnear the coast . In 1909, the export of La Guayra cacaoswas more than Bi mi llion kilograms .

Beans : Full and plump . Shell : Simi lar to largeCaracas cacao, reddish brown or dark orange in colour .Kernel : Rich brown . Flavour : Sweet , nutty and ofpronounced chocolate aroma .

(5) Puerto Cabel l0 .

—Grown in the west of Venezuela,this cacao , like La Guayra,

”Should be of the finest quahty

and should command the highest prices . A certain quantityof large Caracas cacao , grown in Chuao , Choroni , Ocumareand other places between Puerto Cabello and La Guayra,is shipped from Puerto Cabello and passes under that name.

Between Puerto Cabello and La Guayra is grown the pureCriollo cacao , and the product from these parts is the finestin the world . The exports from Puerto Cabello , in 1909 ,werebetween two and three mi lhon ki lograms . The descriptionof the beans is similar to that of La Guayra .

1911 output , 2 ,806 tons.

1913 output , 2,978 tons .

The quantities of Surinam cacao on the market are

comparatively small , though increasing . The Gordi an

classified it as Mittelkakao. The cacao , after fermenting,is immediately dried without washing, a fact which accountsfor the poor appearance of Sur inam beans , seen by thepresent writer. The point has been raised by Dr . J. Sackand others that buyers were prepared to pay only 2 cents .

per kilo more for washed than for unwashed cacao in themarket , and that , with the low price of 55 to 60 centsthe process of washing did not pay the planter .The beans are mostly clayed , but often with what

appears to be dark earth or cinders , and the beans, examined ,

SURINAM


have been of rather inferior quality, which may be classedwith Carupano or low Trinidad cacaos .Dutch Guiana has doubled its output between 1912 an d

1917 , the former year showing tons, the latter

tons, of which the maj ority went to Hol land , Englan dimporting

,in 1912

,some 50 tons and, in 1915, 500 tons .

1914 output , 23 tons .1917 output , 3 5 tons .

The variety of cacao cultivated is Forastero , and, fromrecent examples of beans examined , there does not seem to

have been any improvement in the methods of preparat ion .

This is doubtless due to the facts that cacao-growing is an

industry for smal l farmers only and that,owing to th e

difficulties of transport and labour, improvements in the

system existing and a more studied effort to secure uniformproducts would requi re considerable capital . Otherw i se ,

the product might be made at least of second grade quali ty .

The two principal districts are Berbice andEssequibo , an d ,

though the writer is given to understand that both ban ksof the Berbice River provide equally good land for cacao,

theEssequibo cacao, examined , seems to be of better quah ty .

The general description of British Guiana cacao isBeans : Small to large, very variable ; Essequibo ,

the larger sample examined . Shell Covered with grayishearth, easily removed from the nibs . Kernel Dark brow nor purple, very variable. Flavour :Harsh and smoky to

the palate.

BRITISH GUIANA

1914 output , tons .

1917 output , tons .

(1) Pa‘

ra or Para Maranhao.

—The output of Para cacaohas remained nearly stationary , varying between th reemillion and five million kilograms Since 1 894. Bahia cacao ,

on the other hand , has showed a fairly steady increase. Th e

BRAZIL


together . Shell : not easily detached from the kern e l ,frequently found with dried portions of pulp adherin g .

Kernel : Dark violet in colour . Flavour : Bitter b u taromatic , in which the chocolate flavour is not verv

pronounced after roasting .

O th er Amer i can Cacaos .

14 output , 9 tons .B HRITISH ONDURAS

17 output , 8 tons (estImated) .

Cacao is of minor importance in this colony , w hichproduces chiefly gum chicle, mahogany , bananas and coco

nuts . In experiments , Forastero cacaos have shown th e

best growth , but there is no indication that an increase i noutput of cacao is to be expected .

NICARAGUA .

The Criollo variety of Nicaragua is very fine and largereven than Venezuela cacaos . One large plantation belongsto thewell-known French chocolatemanufacturer ,M.Men ier ,

who grows a Forastero variety . Fermentation at th isplantation is carried on for four or five days , the Criol lo cacaofor about two days .

1914 output,325 tons .

C ROSTA ICA

1917 Output , not known .

The best class of cacao is obtained from Matina nearPort Limon , but the cultivation is of little importance.

COLOMB IA .

Approximately 400 tons annually are exported , mos t lyto France, the produce from the Cauca valley being bes tknown in Europe. A considerable amount of the caca o ,

grown,is converted into chocolate in local factories , whi ch

flourish owing to the extreme popularity of the sweetmea tamong the natives .


though , in 1912 , it reached a height of tons . L ik eSamaria,

”the Haiti cacao is of low quality, owing to car e

less preparation . There is little uniformity among the bean s ,and, often , dirty admixtures , which do not encourage popularity among the purchasers , are included . The author h a sbeen unable to obtain samples of genuine Haiti and can

give only the appearance of the beans as recorded by oth ersBeans Smaller and of 1088 value than those from th e

American continent , but somewhat similar to Para .

”

Shell Often very much clayed and, consequen t ly ,

very brill iant in colour . Kernel :Dark brown or pur p le .

Flavour :Poor and unpleasant .

14 output , tons .DSAN OMINGO

17 output,

tons (estlmated) .

The republic of San Domingo , though a part OfHa i ti,

has shown considerable progress in cacao cultivation . Th e

rapidity of the growth of this industry is shown by van Ha ll,

who gives figures of total output , in 1 890, as kilograms and, in 1912 , as The cacao is known as

Samaria and is of the variety of smooth Amelonado,

originally brought from Trinidad , though fine VenezuelanForastero cacaos have been imported with some success .

The main crop is picked in March to June, and a less important crop in October to December . Of Samaria,

”thereare both plantation and

“ local qualities , the latterbeing the produce of the small farmers . The former commands a rather high price, though the Gordi an classesboth as Mittelkakao,

which , indeed , it is , being a lit t lesuperior to that of Accra from the Gold Coast . Sanchez

,

San Domingo and Samana, from the last -mentioned of wh ichthe cacao takes its name, are the chief ports of Shipmen t .At present , the two first-mentioned ports ship the greates tpart of the cacao for the district .Beans :Of irregular shape, flat. Shell :Red-brown in

7


colour . Kernel :B lue-black on the outside, dark marooncolour towards the centre. Flavour Bitter and poor .

914 output , tons .917 output , tons .

Most uniform Of al l the cacaos , to which a great dealof attention has been paid . It was stated a few voars backthat the cacao

’

had deteriorated in quality , and a Commissionwas appointed , in 1914, to inquire into the matter . It wasfound that the Trinidad cacao had fallen in value onlyrelatively to some other cacaos , owing to greater care beingnow taken with the latter . Criollo cacao is not grown inTrinidad , but mixed varieties, al l of Forastero type, makethe bulk of the cacao seem uneven . The main crop isgathered in November, December, January and February .

Fermentation is not yet very uniform, and the beans areeither dried direct or clayed and polished ,

”as already

described . Trinidad cacaos are of the finer sorts and usuallyfigure after Ecuador .

Beans Large, broad , more or less flat . Shell Smoothand polished , of red-brown hue, when treated after fermentation , liable to Show mould , when untreated .

,

Kernel z Red

violet or red-brown . Flavour :Pronounced fine chocolateflavour , when properly fermented .

’

Superior Trinidadcomes on the market under variously branded names , ofwhich Chaguaramas , La Réunion , L

’

Esperance and San

Juan may be quoted .

1914 output , tons .1917 output , tons (estimated) .

Grenada cacao has shown very great improvement ofrecent years and is classed among the finer qualit ies . It

may be compared to Trinidad ,”

Surinam ,

”and

Carupano .

”

Beans : Smaller than , but Similar to , Trinidad .

Shell :Pale red-brown,usually loose and easily detached.

TRINIDAD

GRENADA

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

Kernel :Dark blue-violet , with paler fracture. FlavourSl ightly bitter, but similar to Trinidad .

”

1914 output,

tons .

1917 output , tons (estimated) .

The increase in the industry is slow,though of cous i

derable importance, and is simultaneous with the incr easein the banana industry . The type of cacao grown is Forastero , as in al l the Antilles .The quality is Similar to Trinidad , but Sl igh t ly

inferior . In the Annual Report oftheDepartment ofAgr i cu lture

, 1914—15, it is stated .There is every reason to p lacethe highest confidence in the soundness of cacao as one of th eleading staples .Beans Usual ly flat and long, irregular . Shell Bet ter

sor ts similar to unclayed Trinidad ,”poorer qualities h ave

thick shel ls and are moist to the touch . Kernel Brown ,

or purple-violet . . Flavour :Only sligh tly aromatic , rath erbitter and harsh .

JAMAICA

O th er Wes t Ind i an Cacaos .

1914 output , tons .GUADELO PU E

1917 output , not known .

Cacao was introduced into Guadeloupe from Martin iq ueand is mostly of Amelonado variety . Progress is not likelyto be made in cacao cultivation in the island , owing to th erestricted area suitable for the cr0p .

Beans : Similar in appearance to Jamaica . Shel lGray and Often moist to the touch . Kernel :Usually brow n

,

when well fermented . Flavour :Astringent and poor .

MARTINIQUE l1914 output

,440 tons .

( 1917 output , not known .

Towards the end of the eighteenth century ,Martin ique

and San Domingo produced almost the whole of the cacao


cacaos are quoted to-day (early 1920) in the market ,ordinary to fine,

”1 158 . to 1308 .

Afr i can Cacaos .

(1914 output , 32,793 tons .E

l1917 output , 30 tons .

The island of San ThomeIS about half covered with cacaoplantations which produce the principal crop in Octobe rand November and a smaller crop in March and Ap ri l .Fermentation is usually allowed to continue for five or s ix

days , when the beans are dried . According to '

Chevalier , *

the common variety of cacao grown in San Thomé i s

Creoulo,

”originally imported in 1 822 from Bahia , in

Brazil , by the Portuguese, and must not be confused w i thCriollo . Creoulo amarillo and

“

C. colorado a re

both grown , and another variety , called by Cheval ier ,

Theobroma sphaerocarpa, and by the Portuguese Cacao

caranja or Carupano or Cacao amarillo redondo,

”

is also to be commonly found . San Thome cacao i s

classed by the Gordi an as Mittelkakao and lies , in quali ty ,

between Bahia and Samana cacaos . England , Germany ,

'Holland and America have al l been large consumers of th iscacao . San Thomewas placed fourth on the list of cacaoproducing countries in 1916, being preceded by the GoldCoast , Brazil and Ecuador , and fell to fifth place in 191 7 ,

Trinidad just passing it in the latter year .Beans :Very variable, flat, rather convex on one side .

Shell :Rich brown , and easily detached from the kernel .Kernel Rich brown . Flavour :Soft and aromatic to th epalate.

SAN THOME

( 1914 output , 4,000 tons (estimated) .CAMEROONl1917 output , not known .

Of the late German African colonies , Cameroon

(Kamerun) was the most important in cacao production .

Aug. Cheval ier, Le Cacaoyer dans l’

Ouest Africain .


Samoa had about one- fourth the output of Cameroon , andTogo about one- fortieth . Cameroon is ordinarycacao about equal to Bahia and fair grad

’

e San Thome.

”

The type of cacao grown is Forastero , but the planting ofCriollo types has been considered . It is doubtful , however ,whether Criollo would thrive in this rainy country . Besides“

Cameroon , there is also an inferior cacao called Victoria,”

which is about on a level for quality with Accra .

Beans Small , flat, irregular . Shell Rough , due toimperfect artificial drying . Kernel Dark violet , harsh ,coarse and bitter to the palate, sometimes smoky , from the

artificial heat used in drying.


The growth of the cacao industry .

in the Colony and

Protectorate of the Gold Coast is phenomenal , rising from1 85 tons in 1 898 to nearly tons in 1917 , or a rise insterling of some to over In 1917

,the

United Kingdom took over tons,and France and

America about half that quantity each l The variety ofcacao grown is a Forastero-Amelonado , similar to the

common San Thome cacao , and appears on the market as“

Accra . It is a mistaken notion to imagine that GoldCoast cacao is unfermented ; it is , mostly , insufficientlyfermented or carelessly fermented , with the result that theproduct is of low quality . Added to insufficient fermentation , the beans are not washed , are carelessly dried , resultingin much mouldiness , and are imperfectly selected , if at al l .Progress is , however , being made in instructing the nativehow to secure a better product , and,

within the next fewyears

,considerable improvements may be expected .

*

Accra”is at present the lowest grade of cacao on themarket , with the exception , possibly , of Haiti beans .

GOLD COAST (ACCRA)

For agricultural experiments , see Rep . Imp . Inst. , NO 7 1 , June, 1910 .


Beans Small and irregular. Shell Dirty brown , oftencovered with mould . Kernel Variously coloured , rangingfrom purple to brown , according to extent of fermentat ion .

Flavour :Harsh and bitter .

914 output , tons .output , tons .

The cacao is chiefly grown in the districts on the coas t ,where primitive methods of curing the beans are adopted .

The method of cultivation is similar to that in San Thome.

The general description of the beans is the same as for SanThome cacao .

FERNANDO PO

O th er Afr i can Cacaos .

14 output , tons .

17 output , tons .

Most of the cacao exported from Nigeria is know non the European markets as Ibadan and is of a l ow

grade, inferior to the ordinary Gold Coast product . Th e

variety , usually grown , is Amelonado and is capable of grea timprovement . The Department of Agriculture of th e

Southern Provinces is encouraging scientific methods of

cultivation and curing, and it is probable that improvemen tin the quality of the cacao will be shortly noticed .

The cacao from Lagos Colony is of a similar type and

quality .

NIGERIA

( 1914 output , not known .

{ 1917 output , 15 tons (estimated) .

Uganda is making only very Slow progress , but is bein gencouraged by the establishment of experimental station sat Kampala and elsewhere. Sierra Leone also grows a sma l lamount of cacao , but , owing to its bad climate, is not l ikelvto become a cacao-growing colony of any importance .

Much the same may be said of East African Protectorate .

UGANDA


A j1914 output

,650 tons (estimated) .

A

t1917 output , not known .

Both Criollo and Forastero types of cacao are grown , theformer resembling Java and Ceylon Criollo .

FIJI (1914 output , 5 tons .

l1917 output , not known .

SAMO

The production of cacao is unimportant in Fij i and isunlikely to be extended , owing to the cyclones , prevalent inthe neighbourhood , and to the mountainous nature of thedistrict .

1914 output , 1 ton .

1917 output , not known .

SEYCHELLES .—Ab0ut 4ton annually .

The cacao industry in both Mauritius and Seychel lesis of little importance and dying in the latter place, wheremore attention is being given to growing coconuts , vanil laand rubber, and to the fisheries .

1914 output , 475 tons .1917 output , 765 tons .

The Belgian Congo has not yet become an importantcacao-producing country . The cultivation is in the handsof small proprietors , who pay more attention to rubber thanto the production of cacao .

MAURITIUS

BELGIAN CONG

As i at i c Cacaos .

1914 output, 2 ,731 tons .

1917 Output , 3,635 tons .

Ceylon Criollo or OldRed Ceylon , famous al l over theworld

,is gathered in October to January . The beans are fer

mented, and they areusuallywashedwhen a short fermentationhas been adopted , plantation Ceylon beingparticularlyclean . The Ceylon beans resemble the Java produce closelyand are of light colour and Sweet taste. The produce ofCeylon is not uniform , and there is a good deal of poor cacao

CEYLON


put on the market . The native Ceylon is usually of th elower quality , and, owing to the introduction of Foras te r otypes , much of the cacao is of poorer flavour than the b e s tOld Red Ceylon .

Beans : Very pleasing appearance, smooth and rou n d .

Shell :Clean and light coloured . Kernel Usually ch o colate-brown , sometimes violet . Flavour : Mild and sw e e t

when properly fermented . Lower qualities often bitter or

astringent .


Like the Ceylon Criollo , Java Criollo is of very fi n e

quality . This variety is usually fermented for one to th r eedays , and every day the cacao is turned over at least on ce .

The Forastero variety is fermented a little longer, and th e

beans are nearly always washed . As in Ceylon , the bean sare dried in the sun ,whenever possible,and sorting is carefu l lvcarried out . The result is an excellent product , genera l lyuniform in quality . Al l the Java cacao is Shipped toAmsterdam and sold at public auction from each plantationseparately . Widodaren and Getas are the namesof two of these plantations . There is some poor quali tyJava put on the market , especially that infested by th ecacao moth ,

”which attacks the pods and the beans beforepicking, and which causes enormous losses annually .

Beans : Rather larger and rounder than the bes tCeylon . Shell : Slightly lighter brown than Ceyloncacao . Kernel :Pale brown . Flavour :Mild and Somewhat aromatic .

O th er As i at i c Cacaos .

The other islands of the Archipelago , besides Java, thatproduce cacao are Celebes (Makassar and Menado) , Ternate,

Amboina , Sumatra (West and East) and B al i , to a total ofsome 60 tons annually .


With regard to the interior of the beans, the kernels or

nibs should part easily from their shells or husks on

crushing between the fingers . The whole bean should b ecrisp or brittle and shoul d break down easily , the interi orand exterior separating readily . Unfermented cacao doe snot behave in this way, and the kernel is deep violet o r

purple in colour , with a sour flavour, and is difficult toseparate from its shell .As has been already observed , fermentation mod ifie s

both the colour , from violet to chocolate-brown, and th e

tannins and other astringent matters by oxidation to les sobjectionable substances . Consequently , an imperfec tlyfermented bean will be both violet in colour and bitter or

astringent to taste. Sometimes , if the beans have beenallowed too much fermentation or are improperly wash edand dried , a distinct sour, vinegary odour will be noticedwhich , whilst being largely removed in the subsequen troasting, is indicative that care has not been expendedin their curing on the plantations .

Another item to be considered in judging cacao i s th enumber of beans going to a given weight , or the weight of agiven number of beans , the heavier the beans the higher theprice, al l other thi ngs being equal .Thus one record is shown as follows

Cacao . Weight of 100 beans .

Trinidad (ordinary) 98 grammes .Trinidad (good) . 132 -2

Trinidad (fine) 178-7

Grenada (medium) 104-5

Grenada (fine) 131 -0

Caracas (good) 130 8

San Domingo (good) 1 100

Surinam (fine)Surinam (small beans) 71 -5

Fabrication du Chocolat, 1910 , by J. Fritsch .


Bahia (good) 118-0 grammes .

Mexico (good) 136 5

Africa (good) 1280

Or , again, some comparative figures from the author’slaboratory show the following

Cacao . wigghgii gbz

a

gzs

s . Price (early

Grenada 120 5-7 1263 . to 1273 .

Grenada 1 16 5-9 1268 . to 1273 .

Grenada 126 6-2 1268 . to 1273 .

Trinidad 94 7-1 1233 .

Venezuela (fine) 72 6 25 1673 . 6d.

Accra 1 16 5-35 1123 .

In these last cases , it will be observed that size had littleor nothing to do with the market price, but , as will be seenfrom the column under “

Loss on Roasting,”the Trini dad

beans were more dirty or moist than the Grenada cacaoand were, consequently , of an inferior grade.

The amount of total ash is indicative also , to someextent , of the cleanliness shown in preparation of the cacao ,or of the amount of earth left on the shell . The followingtable is by Fritsch

Cacao . bean .

Trinidad (ordinary)Trinidad (extra fine)Trinidad (good)MexicoSan DomingoGrenada (fine)Grenada (medium)CaracasBahiaAfricaSurinam (fine)Surinam (smal l beans) .

Ash per cent . of the w hole

36 4

4-27

3 12

3-06

3-31

1 12 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

The value of washing cacaos is shown in the follow ingtable , taken from a Report of The Imperial Institute (Jun e ,

1910)

Calculated on the husked samp les .

Per cent.

Method ofpreparation.

Moisture. Fat.

I. Fermented 8 -5 days , and washed

IVa . Fermented 4-5days , and washed

IVb. Fermented 4-5 days , unwashedVa . Fermented 6 -5 days , and washedVb. Fermented 6 -5 days , unwashed .

VIa. Fermented 7 -5days , and washed

VIb. Fermented 7 -5 days , unwashed

TABLE XI .—Proportion of Nibs, Husk and Germ i n

some Cacaos .

After roast ing.

Cacao.

Nibs . Husk . Germ.

Per cent. Per cent . Per cent

Trin idad

H (San Juan )Grenada

St . Lucia

Finally , the variations shown by the same class of bean sin the return Of nibs ,

” number of beans to the pound ,”


compared wi th the market prices at that time and with th oseat present ruling, give some indication of the relation th atexists between physical characteristics ofthe beans and th eirvalue to the chocolate manufacturer.Ordinary Jamaica 1909 ;

—BeanIrregular, damp to the touch , strong vinegary and W inv

odour. Shell :Damp , not easily detachable, tough , some

times covered with whi te efflorescence, 1 1-1 per cent . of the

bean . Kernel Harsh and bitter, pale violet to red-brow n ,

usually showing whi te at fracture.

Nati 'oeCeylon (51a , 1909 —Bean Medi um,

irregul ar but flat. Shell Thin,dirty , not easily detach ed ,

10-75 per cent . of the bean. Kernel :Dull red-brown , b it terbut pleasant flavour.San Thome (55s .

, 1909 ; —Bean : Sma ll ,dry, clean , shiny, flat . Shell Cinnamon-brown ,

thin , dr y ,

show ing veins , easily detachable, 1 1 -07 per cent . of bean .

Kernel Violet-brown , pleasant aromatic chocolate flavourdry and brittle. A good , cheap bean in 1909.

Superior B ahia (57s ., 1909 ;

—Bean :Sma ll .irregular, showing veins . Shell : Varying considerab ly in

cleanl iness , dry , thin , readi ly detachable, 1 1 -3 per cen t . of

the bean. Kernel Red-brown,uninteresting, bitter .

M iddling-red Trinidad (62a , 1909 137s .

,—Bean

Irregular, hard , clean , flat . Shell Bed-brown,thin , tough ,

not readily detached , 12-5 per cent . of bean . Kern elTough , rich violet or violet-brown ,

pleasant cacao flavour .

F ine Guayaqui l Arriba (72a , 1909 ;

Bean : Irregular, rough , flat, dry pulp often adherin g and

causing beans to stick together . Shell : Red-brown to

nearly black , dry , not easily detached , 1 1 -2 per cent . of bean .

Kernel : Rich dark brown , fine scented flavour, dry and

friable.

F inest Trin idad (70a , 1909 ;—Bean

Medium,irregular, sligh tly flattened . Shell : Thin , drv

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMERCIAL CACAO BEANS 1 15

showing veins , not easily detached , 15-9 per cent . of bean .

Kernel Brown to violet , fine cacao flavour, sli ghtly bitter.Good P lantation Ceylon (77s . , 1909 ;

Bean :Plump , olive- shaped . Shell :Thicker than NativeCeylon , brick- red, very clean , dry , easily detached , 7-4 percent . of bean . Kernel : Brown , fine, p leasant aromaticflavour, soft and fatty .

Good Middling Costa Ri ca (56s . ,—Bean :Clean ,

hard , dry , shiny, flat on one side. Shell Dry, thin , easilydetachable after the bean is broken , 10-5 per cent . of thebean . Kernel : Friable, slightly bitter and astringent

,

devoid of pronounced flavour .Some figures , given by Hart , on the valuation of cacao are

interesting. He showed three samples : I . VenezuelanFine Clayed ,

”valued at 14 cents . per pound II. TrinidadFine Estates ,

”valued at 14§ cents . per pound ; and III.

Trinidad Ordinary , at 14 cents . per pound, and he

estimated the losses during roasting, etc., in much the same

way as is performed in the author ’s laboratory . The

following are Hart ’s resul ts

TABLE XII.-Losses in Manufacture ofCocoa Powders .

Weight received .

When roasted and cleaned

Weight ofhusk .

Weight of dry cacao after fat wasremovedWeight offat extracted fromLoss during roast ing and clean ing .

Loss duringgr inding and express i ngoffat 0 -82 0 -62

8 . Total loss'

1n manufacture 1 -59 1 -13

Per cent . Per cent .

Dry cacao powder 55-0 56 -0

12 -3 16 4Fat10 l bs '

Loss 32 727 6mm

Husk 416-3


The losses , shown , are certain ly greater than those occurring in bulk , and it will be noticed that the clay , w h encomparing samples II . and III. ,

is estimated at about 15percent .

TAB LE XIII.—Average Weights and Dimensions of

and Cured Beans .

Cacao,

Length Breadth . Th ickness .

In mi l l l In mi ll imetres. metres .

G rma.

VarietForastero L i sa Co adqForastero L i sa Amar i l loForastero Amelonado p equenoForastero amelonadoTheobroma sphaerocarpa

The figures , shown in Table XIII . , are not , of coursein any way absolute, but merely indicative of the averagesize and weight of the different varieties .To recapitulate briefly—a well- fermented bean is apparent

by its brittleness and the ease with wh ich the she ll i sremoved from its kernel , and from the brown colour (w ithabsence of violet) of the interior, from its mild flavour andabsence of bitterness and astringency . This applies to the

better varieties of cacao grown , and, clearly , the ch aracteristics must alter somewhat for different districts .

“

Caracas ,”

Puerto Cabello and“

Maracaibo are

often covered with light red or brick-red earth , Trinidad

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

The percentage of moisture and fat, both of greateconomic importance to the manufacturer, cann ot be

accurately gauged by consideration of the external qual ifications of the bean , alone, or without aid of the ch emi st .It is proposed , therefore, in the next chapter, to give the

chemical composition of the commercial bean in genera l andof the varieties in particular, found by the author and byother workers , among whom should be mentioned Ridenour,Harrison , Zipperer, Dekker , Booth and Ewell .

CHAPTER IX

COMPOSITION OF CACAO BEANS

CACAO beans , in common with other seeds , contain al l

the substances necessary to nourish the growing plantduring germination , and, apart from water, the componentparts may be divided up under the headings organic and

inorganic constituents .

The organic bodies may, in turn , be divided as follows

(1) Carbohydrates—such as starch , cellulose, l ignin

,

saccharose [sucrose or cane- sugar] , glucose.

(2) Oils and fats—consisting in the main of olein ,palmitin , stearin , and their mixtures .

(3) Pectose group—pectose, pectin and pectic acid .

(4) Vegetable acids—such as tartaric and acetic acids .

(5) Albuminoids or proteids—f—such as vegetable albumen .

(6) Amides—diffusible nitrogenous bodies , such as

asparagin .

(7) Extractives—s uch as chlorophyll , tannin, and the

alkaloids .The inorganic constituents consist of sal ts of various

metals , which occur in plant life mainly as

fPhosphates )Nitrates

I'

d 'Silicates Potassium .

norgamc”01 SSulphates Sodium .

Chlorides Calcium .

Carbonates of Magnesium .

fOxalates Iron .

IMalates Manganese.

Organic acids ( Tartrates ( Aluminium.

AcetatesCitrates

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

TAB LE XIV .—Ana lyses of. Raw Beans of Calabaci l lo

Variety, grown in Trinidad .

Beans , cutc and pulp . Cuticles . Kernel .

FermenlFermen Fe rmen

tedsaid Dried . ted and Fresh . Dried . ted and

cur

100 -000 100-000'100 -000 100 -000 100-000 1 00 -000

Total nitrogen 2 -134 1 -542 2 -134 1 -603 2-472 2 -240

In cacao beans , the most important organic and inorgan iccompounds occurring arewater, starch , fat , glucose, album en ,

theobromine,.

cacaOrred, cellulose or fibre, a small quan ti ty ofcane- sugar and mineral or ash , which last consists of silica tes ,phosphates , sulphates , chlorides , and carbonates of pota ssium ,

sodium,calcium , magnesium , iron and aluminium .

The foregoing table, which the author has arranged fr oma collection of strictly comparable analyses , made by Professor Harrison , throws more light on the composition of

cacao beans than any number of words . This remarkab leset of analyses was conducted with the intention of asoertaining the changes taking place in the cacao bean durin gfermentation , but , in the general way, it is quite unnecessaryto carry out any such elaborate analysis .

122 - i . lNI) f'

HOf'

HLATE

Ve fl' large numbe r of ana ly s es of c ommercial ea r

-am

ha ve be en made bv Ridenour fa few of which are giv en

Ta ble XVI.,and rep res ent the comp os ition of the bus ier .

bean .

Fi la inm-r"point ed out that these figures of Riden our

could not be taken as rep resent ing norma l beans . but . W 1

the except ion of the low percentages of s tarch in the bean s

from S urinam . and the rather low fat va lues . there are

importan t difference s in the figures from those obtainedot her obs erve rs .

Th e nex t table show s analy s es of the huske dbean , ma n

in:Various inve s t igators at w ide iv differingr times

TAB LE XVl l .

-l nnlyses ofKernels ofRaw Cacao.

b uh n a

Gua v aqni l . ("arm-at Trin idad . Surinam. Foras

tero

m lV. VI .VII . vm . xx. x. m

as 6 4 am can:see:6 -67 70 7 1 26 5 ca n

1 1 to s s l i -tifl 19.-es 2 1 - 1 1 . a mr :7 1 1 m 0 -77 m o

,i n ?» own new 14 2 1 -7 0

1' m 3 22 -68 art-es mm 5 1 - 37 45-7 1 34. 311-44 sa ss 52 - 1-1

+20 7-65 1 1-07 4-20 6-41 6 am

an a s» t oo am a so 3412 !m en 3 76 4 17 3 4 47 3

"an? e ra are.

l Wt u h cri ich Der Ka lmo um] d ie Rchokolade , 18 59 . 37 .

l l [V V”X i Plasti cs and Taffy, Pharm. Joann, 1885, XV. , 764.

i l l V Vi X Z i ppe rer , l'

ntersnc h . ti ber Kakao, 36 , 57 .

VI" V P Booth ,TM Ana lyst , 1009 . x

-a' lv

q 137 .

Ht l i t-i i , Di r-t . App . (‘

hcm 1905.

X”J B Harr i-ton in l‘

aeao,by J. H. Hart , 19 1 1 .

Any va ria t ions which may be observed in the figur es of

ana lyses , made, by different individuals ,may be attributed tothe varying qual ity of the cacaos examined , whi ch , as h a

been previous ly pointed out, is largely dependent upon th e

conditions under which it has been grown and upon the p rocesses to wh ich the beans have been subjected . The es tima

tion of fibre. cel lulose , etc. will always differ with differen tRidenour, Amer . Jml r . I’Imrm. , l 893 , lxvn 202 , etc .

1 Dr . l-‘

i ls inger, Chem. Zr i l . , March , 1897 , xx i i.

COMPOSITION OF CACAO BEANS 123

observers , owing to the various methods employed in theirdetermination . This question has been considered fully later .As will be seen from the figures given , the principal

components of cacao bean are the fat, albuminoids, starch ,woody fibre, water, ash and theobromine, which togetherconstitute about 85 per cent . of the husked bean . Of these,the fat and theobromine are of the greatest economic value,as the former provides the cacao butter of commerce, which ,besides being used for chocolate-making, has certain applications in pharmacy , while to the latter are due the stimulatingproperties of cocoa and chocolate. Cacao-red and the

aromatic oils are of far greater importance than theirquantities present in cacao beans would suggest , and, thoughit is not usual to estimate them by analysis , themanufactureris fully alive to t heir existence and importance.

Colour and aroma of the resul ting cacao preparationsare points which must be studied, if high- class productionsare to be made. The attainment of both qualities is mainlyin the hands of the planter, but the manufacturer can workwonders by careful manipulation in roasting and otherprocesses of manufacture.

It is not intended to gi ve, here, details of the variouscomponents which go to make up the cacao bean , thesebeing reserved for the third part of the book , which dealsessentially with the analysis and chemistry of cacao .

The results of analyses of the kernel of raw cacao havebeen shown , and there remains to be considered the composition of the husks or shells , which should not be employedin the preparation of cocoa and chocolate, but which shouldconstitute a by

-product of the industry .

The husks or shells do not find any application of commercial value until after the beans have been roasted , whenthey may be employed as cattle food , for the preparationof brown colouring or flavouring matters , for extraction ofthe 3 or 4 per cent . fat, or even , when crystallised in sugar,

124 AND CHOCOLATE

as a sweetmeat . Cocoa teas , made from cacao sh ell,have appeared again , recently , on the market , and the

extraction of alkaloids from the husk has assumed some

importance.

In the table of analyses by Harrison , given at the

commencement of the chapter, will be found the compos ition

of the husks of the same variety of bean , dried and fermen ted

and cured . Other analyses show the following to be the

components of raw husks

TAB LE XVIII . —Analyses ofHusks ofRaw Cacao.

Caracas . Trinidad . Puerto Cabe l lo.

TAB LE XIX .—Analyses ofHusks of Raw, Unnamed Cacao,

or Mean Analyses .

I. Laube and Aldendorfi in Konig’

s D ie mensch . Nahr . u . Genus -rm, i . , 261 .

II. Zipperer, Untersuch . uber Kakao, etc .

”

III. Dekker , Chem. Cen tr . , 1902 , i i . , 1217 .

IV. Harrison in Hart’

s Cacao, 95.

With the exception of the percentages of fat in the kern eland of husk in the whole bean , the analysis of cacao previousto its roasting is of comparatively little importance and of

PART II

MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATES AND

COCOA POWDERS

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

The percentage of moisture and fat , both of gr eateconomic importance to the manufacturer, cannot be

accurately gauged by consideration of the external qua l ifications of the bean , alone, or without aid of the chem ist .It is proposed , therefore, in the next chapter, to give th echemical composition of the commercial bean in general andof the varieties in particular, found by the author and byother workers , among whom should be mentioned Ridenour,Harrison , Zipperer, Dekker , Booth and Ewell .


The percentage of moisture and fat , both of greateconomic importance to the manufacturer, cannot beaccurately gauged by consideration of the external qual ifications of the bean , alone, or without aid of the chemist .It is proposed , therefore, in the next chapter, to give thechemical composition of the commercial bean in general andof the varieties in particular, found by the author and byother workers , among whom should be mentioned Ridenour,Harrison , Zipperer, Dekker , Booth and Ewell .

CHAPTER IX

COMPOSITION OF CACAO BEANS

CACAO beans , in common with other seeds , contain al l

the substances necessary to nourish the growing plantduring germi nation , and, apart from water, the componentparts may be divided up under the headings organic and

inorganic constituents .

The organic bodies may, in turn , be divided as follows

(1) Carbohydrates—s uch as starch , cel lulose, lignin ,

saccharose [sucrose or cane- sugar], glucose.

(2) Oils and fats—consisting in the main of olein ,palmitin , stearin , and their mixtures .

(3) Pectose group—pectose, pectin and pectic acid .

(4) Vegetable acids—such as tartaric and acetic acids .

(5) Albuminoids or proteids-f—such as vegetable albumen .

(6) Amides—diffusible nitrogenous bodies , such as

asparagm.

(7) Extractives—s uch as chlorophyl l , tannin , and the

alkaloids .The inorganic constituents consist of sal ts of various

metals , which occur in plant life mainly as

Phosphates-lNitrates

I'

d 'Silicates Potassium .

norgamc act 3Sulphates Sodium .

Chlorides Calcium .

Carbonates of Magnesium .

fOxalates Iron .

lMalates Manganese.

Organic acids ( Tartrates Aluminium.

Acetates( Citrates


which they are attracted and, becoming stupified by theglare, fall into the water and are drowned .

In cases where the eggs have been deposited on the

sacking , the maggots are less easy to destroy in time toprevent them from attacking the beans , as the newlyhatched larvae seem to make their way through the sackingto the beans and, when more developed and after thedamage has been done, crawl out and swarm over the room .

At this stage, they can be attracted to the water in the pans ,used for destroying the moths , and large quantities can bedrowned in this way. Spraying the sacks with formalinsolution is also very efficacious .A systematic sorting of the beans and bags before storing

is undoubtedly the best remedy against the depredationsof moth and maggot , whilst good ventilation and frequentlime-washing of the walls of the storehouse will greatly aid

in keeping these pests in check .

Further information regarding the cacao moth , itslife-history and methods for destruction , can be found inthe records of the Association of German Chocolate Manufacturers .

*

Sor t i ng.

In the most primitive form of sorting, and when onlysmall quantities of cacao are to be handled , manual labouris employed , but , in large factories , it is obvious that such a

process would be most costly .

Consequently , the makers of plant for the manufactureof cocoa and chocolate have turned their ingenuity to

devising machinery by means of which a large bulk ofbeans can be sorted and cleaned . The principle underlyingal l sorting machines is the progress of the beans through a

series of sieves of varying meshes , which are usually providedwith a rocking motion

,in order that full advantage of their

surface may be taken .

G. Reinhardt , Korr . Verb. deutsch . Schokoladefab. , 1891 , vn .


According to the number of grades required , usually twoor three, the beans must pass over a number of sieves ofdifferent meshes , each sieving being led to a separate outlet .Subsequently , the grades may be picked over by hand , toremove any defective beans or foreign material that mayhave escaped the sieving.

It may occur that it is only necessary to pass the beansover the first mesh , if the sample is fairly even in size, inwhich case they are run from the sieve on to a travellingband , where they are rapidly freed from shrivelled beansand foreign refuse by Operators standing in front of thebeans as they are carried by .

The machine, illustrated (Fig . made by Messrs . JosephBaker, Sons , and Perkins . Ltd. , is constructed so that thebeans are fed from a hopper into an inclined revolvingcylindrical sieve, divided into six divisions of differentmeshes . The rough beans , in passing over the first division , are rid of dirt , dust and small foreign matter , whilethe remaining divisions grade the beans into various sizes .

It is obvious that a certain amount of foreign matter, ofsimilar size to the corresponding grades , will be found in . thedifferent receptacles among the beans , and,

to obviate thisdifficulty , a band of canvas can be arranged to take thebeans falling from one or two of the different divisions to bepicked over by hand . Such a machine, occupying a floorspace of 121 X IOQfeet , is 64feet high and is fitted with a

sorting band and capable of large output .

CHAPTER XI

ROASTING OF CACAO—ANALYSES OF BEANS , NIB S AND

SHELLS , BEFORE AND AFTER ROASTING

AFTER the process of ssorting, the beans are next submitted to roasting, an operation of great delicacy and of

far- reaching effects .In the earliest days in the history of chocolate, the

Mexicans used to roast their cacao in earthenware vesselsover an open fire, and, as is the case with the Chinese cooksof the Philippine Islands of the present day,

they succeededin reducing their appliances for the manufacture of chocolate to a portable form .

A vessel , for roasting the beans , and a pestle and mortar ,for pounding the roasted nibs , comprise al l the apparatusnecessary for the preparation of chocolate, and, in spite ofthe great advances made in the machinery for the manufacture of cocoa preparations on the large scale, the principlesunderlying the modern machines are the same as those ofthe primitive apparatus employed by the Chinese cook .

The advantages to be derived by roasting are

(1) Development of the aroma of the beans , broughtabout by changes occurring in the volatile oils at a hightemperature.

(2) Modification of the colouring matters of the bean .

(3) Gelatinisation of, or rendering soluble, some of thestarch granules .

(4) Oxidation of the tannin and other astringent matters .

(5) Drying of the husk and bean , so that the former canbe readily removed , and the latter be freed from moisture,


the presence of which would hinder the complete mixing ofthe fatty nibs , when crushed , and tend to destroy the keeping qualities of the cocoa and chocolate, prepared from the

damp nibs .The following table shows the changes taking place in

the composition of the bean during roasting, as given bytwo observers

TAB LE XXL—Analyses ofNi bs of Cacao Beans , B efore

and After Roasting.

Arr iba . Caracas . Trin idad . Trinidad . Caracas .

B efore After Before After BeforelAfter Before After Before After

1

Moisture 8 -35 8 -52 6 33 6-25 6 -50 7 48 6 20 7 -85 6 -34 2 -63

Fat 50 -39 50 O7 52 68 52 -09 50 -31 49 24 51 57 48 -1 4 43 -66 41 -89

A l bumen 19 -40 16 84 12 05 1 5-58 17 -23 1 9 62 15 80 1 9 -22 1 1 -90 1 2 -02

Th eobromine . 0 -35 0 30 O 33 0 -3 1 0 -77 0 50 O 40 0 -42 0 -85 0 -93

Starch 5-78 9 10 8 29 1 1 -59 7 -65 9 85 l l 07 8 -72 4-98 5-70

Cel lulose or

woody fibre 2 -70 2 59 2 40 2 -59 2 -61 2 54 2 63 3 -84 1 3 -01 1 9 -64

4-1 7 3 92 2 87 4-1 2 3 -60 3 -70Ash 4-1 2 3 89 4 1 1 3 -75

The first four of these analyses are by Zipperer , made in1 886 ; the last two are selected from Ridenour

’

s work oncacao and chocolate in the Ameri can Journal of Pharmacyin 1 895.

It is somewhat diffi cult to reconcile the results obtainedby these two investigators , for, not only are the valuesobtained for albumen , starch , cellulose and theobrominewidely different , but there are shown sometimes an increasein moisture and a decrease of fat after roasting .

It is possible, however , that some of the proteid matteror albumen , as estimated by Ridenour , may be included inhis values for extractives , and it is noticeable, also , that thesum of that observer ’s figures for starch , cane- sugar and

glucose more readily approaches to Zipperer’

s figures forstarch . Cane- sugar , glucose and extractives have not beenincluded in the above table, though Ridenour estimated


their content in the bean , and they may be found in theAmerican Journal ofPharmacy, vol . lxvii . , p . 202 .

The important changes that occur, during roasting,are made apparent in the analyses of beans , beforeand after roasting , given in the preceding table,which shows in column I.

,

tho whole raw bean ; II . thewhole roasted bean , and III . roasted “ nibs ,

”reduced topaste.

The form which analysis of nibs usually takes in modernwork is illustrated in the next table,* in which it will benoticed that the alkalinity of the ash and percentage of fibrefigure prominently

TAB LE XXIII .—Analyses of Nibs of Roasted Cacao.

African . Grenada .

G

3:f" 323"Caracas . ! Bah ia . Ceylon .

Mineral matter , total 2 -60 3 -16 2 -73

Mineral matter , soluble 1 -04 1 -32 0 -95

Si l icious matter 0 -03 0 -04 0 -08

Alkal ini ty of mi neralmatter as K ,O 0 -38 0 -55 0 -53 0 -44 0 -74

Cold water extract 1 1 -80 9 -80 1 1 -40 12 -00

Ni trogen 1 -84 2 -26 2 -32

Fat 50 -20 50 -80 55-70

Fibre 2 -94 2 -48 .

The reason for the inclusion of figures showing the alkal inity of the ash and the percentage of fibre is to detectaddition of materials which should be foreign to pure cocoaand chocolate. the former providing information as towhether the cacao has been treated with alkali for makingthe so- called soluble cocoa, described more fully in a

later chapter, the latter to detect the percentage of huskwhich has been allowed to remain in the roasted nibs , andwhich should be kept at the lowest possible figure in themanufacture of good cocoa and chocolate.

N. P. Booth , The Ana lyst, 1909, xxxiv. , 143.

ROASTING OF CACAO 139

Analyses of the shells , by the same author, show th e

following results

TAB LE XXIV .—Analyses of Shel ls of Roasted Cacao .

African . Guayaqui l . Ceylon.

Mi neral matter, totalMineral matter , solubleSi l icious matterAlkal inity ofmineral matter as K ,O

Cold water extractNitrogenFat

Fibre

Boussingault , in hi s book , Le Cacao et le Chocolat ,gives , among others , analyses of cacaos before and afterroasting, which will be found in Table XXV .

From these results , unlike those shown in Table XXL ,

it would appear that a very considerable increase in the

TABLE XXV .—Analyses ofNibs , wi thout Shel l and Germ,

B efore and After Roasting.

Puerto Cabel lo. Martinque. Guayra.

Before. After. Before. After. Before.

percentage of fat occurs on roasting , a fact which cannotentirely be accounted for by the loss of water which takesplace at the same time. These figures , however, bear outexperiments , frequently made by the . author , who has re

corded increases in fatcontent , over that of the raw beans ,during roasting to as high a temperature as 145

°

C. for as


long as thirty minutes . The temperature of the roast drops ,of course, on admission of the beans (to about 1 10

°

and

the long roasting results in burnt cacao . There is a markedincrease in fat up to fifteen minutes ’ roasting, and, afterthat time, the fat begins to decrease, probably due to theabsorption by the husks and to subsequent destruction byburning .

The percentage of theobromine is also affected by thetemperature of roasting , thus

Before roasting, certain nibs yielded 1 -1 1 per cent .

theobromine.

After roasting at 120° C. for fifteen minutes , the same nibsyielded 0-77 per cent . theobromine.

After roasting at 230° C. for eight minutes , the same nibsyielded 0-25 per cent . theobromine.

M eth od of Roas t i ng.

The roasting of cacao is conducted in an apparatus and

manner similar to those employed in roasting coffee, thoughthe temperature is not allowed to rise so high as in the lattercase.

It is assumed that the beans have been graded and sorted ,the varieties separately , if the beans are of different sizesor together , if they are more uniform . If the varieties ofcacao differ greatly in the size of the beans , they will beroasted separately if similar , then a combined roast maybe made, though an experimental roast is consideredadvisable.

The object of roasting is to facilitate the removal of thehusk and to develop aroma . A temperature about 100° C.

may be employed , if a partial roast is to be made, as , at thistemperature, the husks are rendered just sufficiently friableto be removed readily . A fully roasted bean may require135

°

C. , in order to develop its aroma to the best advantage,but , in any case, the process must be continued until the


and usually comprise a large trough or box , lined with sheetsteel , with a perforated false bottom on to which the beansare discharged from the roaster . Cold air is then drawnthrough the mass of hot beans , by means of a fan , to theoutside of the building, and the whole is rapidly broughtdownto a moderate temperature.

Roas t i ng M ach i nes .

In France, the most favoured roaster is the Sirocco ,which consists , essentially, of one spherical receptacle revolving in another . Between the two spheres pass the hot fluegases from a coke stove, set apart from the roaster itself .The hot gases are circulated by means of a forceddraught . The beans are introduced into a h0pper at the

top of the roaster, and, when the inner receptacle is in position

,the charge is let down into it , the fines opened , and

the sphere revolved .

In order to ascertain the progress of the roasting, a

sampler is fitted into the axle which , being hollow at thisend and open on one side to the inner chamber , enablesbeans to be withdrawn at various stages in the operation .

Beneath the roaster is fitted a large circular open metaltrough in which can be made to revolve a series of fans orbrushes that quickly cool the beans let down into it , afterthe roasting is complete. The bottom of the trough isusually perforated and attached to an exhaust fan whichdraws cool air through the hot beans .Other systems of dry roasting are based on the same

principles , though , frequently , the flue gases are allowedaccess to the beans direct , a course which , whilst capable ofgiving satisfactory results , can only be recommended whereconstant supervision is given during the Operation , as thebeans roast more quickly and are, consequently , in greaterdanger of being over-roasted . Where such a system is inuse, the greatest care should be taken that the coke fire,

ROASTING OF CACAO 143

supplying the hot gases , is quite bright and clear , and freefrom any smoke which might taint the beans .A machine, made by Messrs . Lehmann , of Dresden

(Fig . has been designed for giving very quick roasts andconsists of a drum revolving over an open fire, while theprocess is material ly assisted by the passage through the

Fi t}. 2 .—Cacao Bean Roaster for Open Fi re. (See p .

By permiss ion of Messrs . Bramigk 4:Co., London.

drum of a hot air current , entirely unconnected with thefire gases . By reason of the hot air displacing the vapourscoming off the beans and forcing them through the ventilation pipe in front of the drum

,the roasting is considerably

accelerated .

This machine is charged through a hopper at the back

144 COCOA AND CHOGOLATE

and is made to discharge automatically , whilst -the drum i s

designed to revolve while charging, an advantage which

preven ts the over- roasting of the beans that first come incontact with the hot metal .

The sampler is placed in a similar position to that of theSirocco roaster , namely,

in the drum axle.

CHAPTER XII

NIBB ING, HUSKING, AND WINNOW’

ING THE ROASTEDCACAO—ANALYSES OF NIB S AND SHELLS , AND THEIRPROPORTIONS IN THE ROASTED BEAN

THE cacao beans , after having been roasted and rapidlycooled down on one of the exhaust coolers already described,

are next taken to be husked or deprived of their shell . Thisprocess briefly consists of cracking the beans between twoset rollers and, subsequently , sieving and Winnowing . In

practice, the broken pieces are made to pass over a seriesof sieves of different mesh , while an air draught , travellingin an opposite direction to the nibs , blows the husk fromthem .

The beans should not be allowed to get stone- cold beforepassing through the rollers , as the cold , crisp kernel is liableto . be broken up into very minute pieces which , being of thesame weight as the shell , may be blown away into the huskreceptacle and cause considerable loss .The quality of cocoa and chocolate is largely dependent

upon the completeness of this process , for it must be realisedthat the nibs of cacao beans , alone, should be used for cocoapreparations and that the inclusion of husk must be lookedupon as adulteration .

With modern machinery , there can be no excuse for thepresence of any quantity of husk in a cocoa or chocolate,as

,by a careful adjustment of the fans , an -almost complete

separation of ni'b and husk can be effected .

The problem of estimating the percentage of husk incacao preparations has always been of great consequence,and Filsinger , one of the earliest investigators of cacao and

NIBBING, HUSKING AND WINNOWING 147

its preparations , describes a method of calculating the shellcontent by a sedimentation method in glycerine and water .This process , however, is incapable of giving reasonablyconsistent results .*

The determination of,the quantity of cellul ose, present in

a cacao preparation , is some indication of the extent ofcleaning, or adulteration , .to which the beans have been sub

jected, as the greater the proportion of husk the higher willbe the value for cellulose.

TAB LE XXVI .—~Estimations of Cel lulose in Cleaned

Roasted Ni bs .

Cel lulose .

For 100 partscacao.

The above table shows recent results for the estimationof the percentage of cellulose, present in pure cacao paste orground cleaned nibs , given by Dr . Bordas , Director of theLaboratories of the Ministry of Finance in France, at theSeventh International Congress of Applied Chemistry heldin London , in 1909 .

The estimation of cellulose alone, however , may bemisleading, as extraordinary fiuctuations occur among differentvarieties , as also among beans of the same origin . Moreprecise and accurate figures may be obtained bv taking

See al so Chapters XXX . and XXXII.

10—3


into consideration also the quantity of ash , its alkalinity andits composition , and, especially, of the amount of silicic anhydride of which the husk contains a much larger quantity thanthe kernel .The composi tion of the ash , obtained from various cacaos ,

is given by Bordas as follows

TABLE XXVII .—Composi tflon of Ash .

810an on. Mgo. P20 5. K go. NagO

Sol . Insol .sand .

A very accurate method for detection of added husk tocacao by estimation of the pentosans , fully described in a

later chapter , has been devised by Adan .

* The Committeeof the Bromatology Section , at the 1909 International Con

gress of Applied Chemistry , suggested that the followingresolution shoul d be submitted

The Congress , believing that the determination ofpentose and pentosans affords an excellent criterion of thepurity of cocoa powder, recommends the adoption of thisdetermination in the routine analysis of cocoa .

Adan ’s results are embodied in Table XXVIII .

From these figures , it will be seen that the inclusion ofhusk in cacao preparations , whether deliberate or accidental , should be readily detected by the chemist . The

determination of the quantity present i s less easy and has

been discussed at length in Chapter XXXII .R , Adan . In terna l . Cong. App . Chem , 1909 , vi i i . , c . 194 .

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

Meth od of N i bb i ng, Hus ki ng and Wi nnow i ng .

In al l machines employed for nibbing, husking and

Winnowing, the first step is to crack the beans , freeing thenibs from the shell for subsequent separation . This isbrought about by passing the cacao through two rollers ,which are so adjusted to the size of the roasted beans thatthey do not crush too severely, but crack the outer crispshell and enable the nibs , or portions of the kernel into whichit is divided , to fall awayThe fragments pass into an inclined revolving cyl in

drical screen , divided into meshes of various sizes the firstdivision removes the dust and very small particles of cacao ,while the remaining divisions grade the nibs according totheir size. A current of air , capable of being regulated so asto effect the separation of husk from particles of the nibs ,which may be of the same size as , but specifically lighterthan , the shell , is supplied to each division by means of aseparate fan .

The cylindrical sieve may contain any number of meshesof different sizes , according to the number and dimensionsof the grades required . In the larger machines , there may

be six or eight divisions , though the more usual number isthree or four .

N i bb i ng, Hus k i ng, and Wi nnow i ng M ach i nes .

In one machine, made by Messrs . Joseph Baker , Sons ,and Perkins , Ltd. , the beans are passed through two rollers ,capable of being set to any required dimension to suit thesize of the sample, or for the purpose of regulating the gradeof the nibs . The crushed beans are carried to the top ofthe machine by an elevator and are discharged into an

incl ined cylindrical sieve. Separation of the husk from the

nibs is efficiently carried out by fans , with independent airinlets , which can be separately controlled . The machine ismade with six or eight divisions . and the cylinder has a


corresponding number of different meshes , whilst two of thesections are fitted with narrow longitudinal openingsthrough which the germs pass , excluding the greater partof the cacao which passes over into later divisions .Complete separation of the germ from the finer cacao is

carried out in the germ separator . This separator is describedlater as an independent machine.

The heavier pieces of shell , to which some cacao hasremained adhering, and the pieces which have not passedthrough any division of the sieve, fall , at the end of the

‘

machine, into a worm conveyer and are returned to bepassed again through the rollers .

In the ordinary Winnowing machines , the germ , the deadembryo or radicle of the seed , is not separated from the

nibs at this stage, but , being of a hard , gritty and fibrousnature, and of coarse flavour, it must be removed beforeconverting the nibs into cocoa powder or chocolate.

Themachine, illustrated (Figs . 4 and is themost up - todate production of the firm of Messrs . Joseph Baker, Sons ,and Perkins , Ltd. The front view shows , on the left -handside, the hopper

.

into which the beans are fed and the nibbingapparatus just below it . The cracked beans are elevatedfrom the nibber up the upright tower on the left and passdown the chute on to a flat sieve whi ch is kept oscillating .

The nibs and shells both fall through the perforations of thesieve into collecting spouts , placed just beneath , whichbring the nibs , etc. , to the side of the machine over sheetiron baffle plates . By means of the fan ,

situated at the

further end, the shells are drawn upwards and delivered tothe spout to

.

be seen on the extreme left of the back -view ofthe machine. The fine dust , etc. , drawn up also by the fan ,

is blown over into the settl ing chamber, which can be seenmost clearly on the left of the illustration of the back-view .

The settling chamber consists of a number of calico tubeswhich allow the air , but not the dust , to escape, the latter


FIG . 6 .—Cacao Germ -separat ing Mach ine . (See p .

By permiss ion of M ess rs . Josep h Baker, Sons , and Perkins , Ltd.

fal l ing into a chamber at the bottom , whence it is deliveredto the end chute by a worm convever .

G erm - S ep ar at i ng M ach i ne .

The separation of germ is usually effected in a cylinder,either perforated with longitudinal slits through which the

NIBBING’, HUSKING AND WINNOWING’ 155

germ and small cacao pass , to be separated again by a systemof Winnowing, or the cylinder may be indented in such a

manner that the cavities are capable of taki ng the smallfragments of cacao , but will not hold the elongated germ,

“

orvi ce versé.

The cacao grains in the cavities pass upward beyond a

light scraper, until they reach a certain elevation , when a

brush removes them from their holes , and they fall into a

trough , whence a worm conveyer carries them away . The

germ , on the other hand , not fitting into the cavities , remainsbelow the scraper and,

by the tilt of the cylinder, is madeto pass in an opposite direction to the cacao , completeseparation being thus effected .

The nibbing, husking and Winnowing machine, alreadydescribed , fitted with a germ separator , will occupyapproximately 122 feet by 7 feet floor space, and be about9 feet high .

The following figures , adapted from those given byHart ,*

as the result of some experiments on the loss , etc. , duringmanufacture of cocoa powder, are interesting . Only smallsamples were dealt with , however, and the percentage lossis , consequently , higher than it would be on the manufacturing scale.

TAB LE XXIX .

—Losses in Prel iminary Preparation ofthe Beans for Mannfactnre.

Fine clayedVenezuela.

Before roast ingWeight of husk

Loss (apart from husk)Weight ofdry cacao after mmova l offat .

Weight offat extractedLos s duringgrindi ng and expres s ion offatTotal loss on manufacture (includinghusk )

J. H. Hart ,"Cacao, 1900, 1 13, and 191 1 , 255.


The figures have been calcul ated on 100 parts of beenand have been adjusted to sui t the requi rements of manufacturers .

Filsinger,* from a sample of 100 parts of Machala cacao .

containing an equal proportion of large and small beans ,

obtained the fol lowing divisions : 70 parts large nibs , 9 2parts medium nibs , 0 8 parts radicles or germ , 10 parts husk ,

4 parts cacao waste, 6 parts loss . The four parts of cacaowaste, on further sifting, yielded about 30 per cent . each of

nib,husk and cacao dust , the remainder being waste and

loss .The great improvements which are said to have taken

place, in recent years , both in the quality and yield of thebeans , and in the machinery for preparing them for

chocolate manufacture, are not very apparent from the

following figures , showing the losses sustained during pre

paration , given by Bernhardt,Tin 1 889 .

TAB LE XXX .

—Losses in Preliminary Preparation of the

B eans for M anufacture.

Mean . Maximum. Minimum.

The next table shows results obtained in the author ’slaboratory at Messrs . Peek , Frean and Company ,

Ltd.,

London ,from roasting and hand -picking cacao beans . The

proportions of shell , nib and germ ,and the loss on roasting,

found in a few varieties of cacao from a large number ofsamples , are given . For valuation of cacao beans for the

Fi l s inger , Z ei ts ch . iifient. Chem . , 1898 , 8 10 .

TB ernhardt , Chem. Zei t , 1889, 32 .


Other figures , obtained by different workers with th e

beans as they appear on the market , are given in the nexttable.

TABLE XXXIII .—Hask in Different Vari eti es of Cacao

Beans , Cleaned and Roasted .

Husk . Per cent .

Cacao.

Cleaned beans . Roasted beans .

Puerto Cabel loArriba , ordinaryArriba, superior

Caracas

Guayaqui l

Trin idadSan ThomeCeylon

Bahia

CameroonSamanaCubaHait iMachalaBalao

It is possible to remove, by the use of good husking andnibbingmachines , 10 per cent . coarse shells and some 2—3 percent . of finer debri s , wh ilst about 1—2 per cent . of the finestparticles find their way into the nibs . It is not possible toremove every trace of the husk, though 95 per cent . of thetotal quantity is capable of elimination , if care is expendedand the machines are efficient . A certain quantity of theinner fine membrane adheres very closely to the nibs andcannot be removed by Winnowing or sieving . Cacao mass

(the nibs after mi lling) will show up to 2 per cent . of husk,and cocoa powders , with 30 per cent . of fat, will often befound to contain as much as 3 per cent . , though , in bothcases , a higher figure is usually recorded .

At the Congress of Cocoa and Chocolate Makers held at

Berne, in 191 1 , it was suggested that the provisional stan


dard for cacao mass , cacao paste or bitter chocolate, shoul dbe as follows

To consist of the products obtained by grinding ofroasted and decorticated cacao beans deprived of theirhusks , and free as far as possible from germ and embryo .

According to the use to which it is to be put , it is permittedto add or remove a variable proportion of cacao butter . Anyadded flavouring must be harmless .

”

It was obvious from the discussion that the qual ifications were included to meet the requirements of certainmakers and vendors of bitter chocolate or cacao mass forcertain purposes . The first paragraph should have stoodalone. In addition to the first paragraph of the above, thefollowing details might be included among the requirementsof pure cacao mass

(1) To contain not less than 45 per cent . of cacao butter .

(2) To contain not more than 4 per cent . of ash ormineral matter, (ratio of soluble to insoluble ash not toexceed 2

(3) To contain not more than 6 per cent . of moisture.

(4) To contain not more than 2-75 per cent . of pentosans .

(5) To contain not more than 13 per cent . of starch . (whichmust be ascertained to be due to the cacao only , by meansof the microscope) .

(6) To be free from added or included husk, cacao buttersubstitutes , starch , sugar, flavouring matters , etc.

The pentosan figure, shown, is merely an indication of theamount of fibre present and represents some 6 per cent . ofcrude fibre. This , by whatever method the estimation ismade, is certainly a maximum figure for good bitter chocolate which , in the writer

’s Opinion , should not contain morethan 5 per cent . of crude fibre. The analyses of al l goodchocolates show that this figure (after allowance has beenmade for added sugar and cacao butter) is not exceeded in


the cacao mass from which the chocolate is made and is anindication , again , that the best chocolates are the result ofcare and attention to detail . Chocolate containing 10 percent . of husk , or more, can readily be detected by a trainedpalate.

The other side of the question is efficiency and economy ,and it is unnecessary to fine the Wi nnowing and sieving downto such a point that any considerable quantity of smal lpieces of nibs pass away with the husk . The facts thatforeign cocoa merchants used to pay high prices for thehusks

, especially from German factories , and that husksfrom certain factories in this country still command a highprice show,

among other things , that , often , a considerablequantity of valuable cacao , that might have been saved ,still finds its way into the by-products of some chocolatefactories . Delicacy and ease of adjustment of themachinery,

used for this purpose, are, therefore, essential to an up-to

date chocolate plant , and it cannot be pretended that somefirms , that the author knows , are as fully aware of the necessity and desirability of attention to this matter as its impartance demands .This is only one point

,of many arising in the

manufacture of chocolate, that belies the statement thatany fool can make good chocolate out of good materials ,

”

for , starting with the best cacao beans and the best of otheringredients , the finished chocolate can be ruined by allowing ,through inattention or through imperfect machinery , toomuch husk to find its way into the nibs .The need of removing the germ is as important as that

of depriving the nibs of husk , since this is a hard body which ,besides being valueless for flavour and slightly bitter, isextremely gritty when ground . The advantages , gained byinstalling a germ- separating machine, quickly repay the

small expenditure. The author has made chocolate with a

preponderating quantity of germ present and has found not

CHAPTER XIII

MILLING - PREPARATION OF COCOA POWDER—EXPRESSIONOF CACAO BUTTER SOLUBLE COOOA POWDERS

A'

r this point comes the parting of the ways . If thebeans have been fully roasted , the nibs , after passing throughthe nibbing, husking and Winnowing machine, may go

directly to the mills to be ground down to a paste for furthertreatment , to obtain

(a) Cocoa powder .

(b) Chocolate.

If, however, the beans have been partially roasted

(whether treated previously with alkali solution for makingsoluble cocoa powder or not) , they have been dried onlyjust sufficiently to faci litate the removal of the husk on thenibbing and husking machine. The nibs , in such cases , maybe ground on granite rollers , since, being insufficiently roastedfor passage through the mills , it is required to reduce themto a paste either for expression on the cocoa presses or forconversion into chocolate, which latter may also be aecom

pl ished by placing the nibs , with or without sugar, in a

melangeur .”

The methods of treatment of the nibs have now becomeso numerous that it is neither desirable nor necessary todiscuss any particular process , but rather is it preferable toconsider the special uses of every machine that has beenfound to be suitable for the general manufacture of cocoaand chocolate, individual processes being detailed as theyarl ee.

MILLING 163

The greatest advantages of milling are

(1) Preliminary reduction of the nibs to a moderatelyfine condition .

(2) Thorough blending of the mixed and blended nibs .

(3) Convenience of storing block bitter chocolate, inpreference to boxes of nibs .

(4) Maturing of the cacao, when stored in blocks .In addition , there are numerous small advantages to be

derived from milling, among others the saving of waste, if,by any chance, the blend has been incorrectly made

'

or the

beans badly roasted , materials which would have otherwisebeen incorporated with sugar and added cacao butter, ifthe nibs had been pounded down with the sugar in a

melangeur .Apart from this , milling prevents the living from hand

to mouth in the factory , which would otherwise take place,and enables a stock of bitter chocolate, correctly blended ,to be always ready to hand .

For the manufacture of cocoa powder, there can be noquestion of the great advantage to be derived from the

reduction of the nibs to a moderately smooth homogeneousmass , in which most of the fat cells have been rupturedsufficiently to allow easy expression of the fat in the press .

Th e Cacao M i l l .

In modern mills , the nibs are fed into a hopper, so thatthey fall between a pair of revolving . stones , the highestand first of a series through which the paste will have topass during the grinding process .As the nibs contain a large percentage of fat, they are

readily reduced to the liquid state by the appl ication ofheat , and,

to this end,the stones under which they pass are

usually encased in steam-heated jackets . The greatest useof the steam-jacket is , however, at the commencement ofmi lling, to heat up the cold stones , as subsequently , the

1 1 - 2


heat of friction is sufficient to maintain the necessarv

temperature.

The grinding mil l may consist of a single pair, doub le ,

FIG . 7 .—Double Cacao Grinding M111, w i th 33 - inch and 36 - inch Top Runner

Stones . (See p .

By permiss ion of Messrs . Josep h Baker, Sons , an d Perkins , Ltd.

or triple pairs of stones (Figs . 7 , 8, and the liquid cacaorunning from one to the other, in succession , as it undergoesreduction to a smooth consistency . The cacao mass flowingfrom the last pair of stones is in a semi - liquid state at a

temperature of about 45° C.

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

The liquid that comes from the mills should be of sucha consistency that the fat has been largely expressed from

Fm. 9 .—Trip le Cacao Grind ing Mi l l , w ith 33 -inch and 36 - inch Top Runner Stones

(See p . 168 )

By permi ss ion of M essrs . Joseph Baker, Sons , and Perkins , Ltd .

the cells , and the nibs reduced to the finest state of divisionwithout undue heating , during their passage through thestones . In this state, the success of the previous processes

MILLING 167

can be well judged from the flavour. The cacao l iquor isusually run into pans and cooled . When solid , the cakesmay be removed and block- stacked , though it is doubtfulif any great development or improvement of flavour occurs bykeeping the bitter chocolate or cacao mass in this condition ,at any rate for any length of time. It is certain , however,that the bitter chocolate, if kept in this way, should bestored in a cool , clean room, otherwise it will tend to meltand waste, and the cocoa moth is by no means averse tolaying its eggs upon the blocks of chocolate, especially ifthey are undisturbed for some weeks .

An interesting point of some importance is to be notedhere, especially by the chemist or the person who selects thesample for analysis . After leaving the mi lls and standingto cool in the pans , the l iquid is inclined to separate intolayers , the upper containing most fat, the lower part mostof the heavier particles . It is not uncommon to find as

much as 60 per cent . of fat in the upper layer, if the coolingto a solid state has been slow . For this reason , shallowpans are advisable and most commonly in use, since theremight be a tendency , if larger and deeper pans were em

ployed , to throw in more of the upper portions of the blocksfor a mixing, with a consequent excess of fat. In sampling,this is a continual source of annoyance, and, when analysingor tasting the cacao mass in cake form,

this point shouldnot be overlooked .

Single, double, triple, or even five- stoned mills can be

obtained from any maker of chocolate machinery, and,

though their introduction is of comparatively recent origin ,they are now looked upon as necessary additions to the cocoaand chocolate factory .

The reduction of the nibs to a fine homogeneous massfacilitates the incorporation of the sugar which i s added toit in the melangeur ,

”if chocolate is to be manufactured ,

and enables blends of different varieties of cacao beans ,


separately roasted , to be made, so that a uniform and evenmixture is obtained .

In the double cacao mill, illustrated , the capacity of

output is about lbs . of fine cacao liquor per ten -hourday. The machine occupies about 8 feet by 311; feet floorspace and is 7521 feet high .

It has been proved that stones of too large a diameteroften overheat the cacao and damage the flavour of theproduct . In the machine designed by Messrs . Lehmann ,

this danger has been obviated by very careful considerationgiven to the size limit , without curtailing the output . Onlya slight warming of the stones , by means of the steam coilsplaced underneath , is required before starting . The feeding apparatus is adjustable and acts automatically , whilstthe rate of progress of the nibs through the mill can be

watched through a glass tube connecting the hOpper to thefirst pair of stones and controlled at any time withoutdifficulty .

In America , the triple mills are most popular, and theauthor saw several of Messrs . Lehmann ’s machines withstones between 40 and 44 inches diameter doing excellentwork . The speed at which the fast pulleys are run isusually about 125 revolutions per minute and the machinerequires 15 horse-power .A considerable amount of attention has been paid to the

quali ty and size of the mill- stones used and to the speedwith which they revolve, since unsuitable stones , or of toolarge a size or too quickly revolving, overheat the cacaowith disastrous results . Here, too , the practical experienceof years is to the hand of the manufacturer or the would-be

cocoa and chocolate maker . The best stones are the Frenchburrs , which , cut in a certain manner to ensure close grinding with maximum output and minimum heating, cannotbe equalled when e rected

'

by the best engineers . Too muchheating has been obviated , usually by al lowing only thetop


point of water, in order to remove further portions of fatand moisture. In this way, about 50 per cent . of the fatpresent was removed , but the resulting cocoa powder was ofpoor quality , having lost its fine aroma and colour from prolonged boil ing in water, and was , moreover, liable to turnmouldy , owing to the presence of moisture which it stillcontained .

Other methods , stil l in existence, of lowering the percentage of fat in cocoa powder are by additions of starchand sugar . Such preparations cannot be termed cocoapowder ,

”which should consist of pure defatted cacao only ,

andwhich , when sold to the public , should bear on the packetor container printed notification of any added material .

T h e Cacao B utter P r es s .

The method now usually adopted in the preparation ofcocoa powders is to run the cacao mass from the grindingmills direct into a press , where it undergoes extreme pressure, applied hydraulically , whereby some 60 to 70 per cent .of the fat is removed . Some manufacturers prefer to runthe cacao liquor from the mil ls through a three or five- rollrefiner before passing it to the presses . In this way,

the

size of the cocoa powder particles is considerably reduced ,

thus increasing the yield of cacao butter and aiding thedisintegration of the powder in the later process .In the modern cup hydraulic press , of which an

illustration is given (Fig . the framework receivers andplunger dishes are of cast iron and are made with steampassages , so that the machine can be rapidly heated , readyfor use. The receivers slide forward on rails for filling, andthe capacity of a four-pot machine is about 90 lbs . per

charge of four receivers . If a smaller charge is required tobe expressed , any of the receivers may be fitted with irondummies , so that one or al l the pots may be temporarilyput out of use.

EXPRESSION OF FAT

FIG . 10 ,

—Ten -

pot Hydraul ic Cacao Butter Press , w ith Pump , etc . (See p .

By permission of Messrs. Joseph Baker, Sons, and Perkins,Ltd.

When the press is working, a piston fits telescopicallyinto each cup , and the pressure, provided by a pump

,forces

the fat from the nibs , whilst the close fitting of one part in


the other and the inclusion of filter -pads prevent the escapeof the cacao mass with the fat .

The fat, extracted by this method , will require filtering, ifit is to be put upon the market , though such a course will beunnecessary, if the butter is used direct in the factory . Ifpurification of the fat is necessary , it may be melted downand allowed to settle in a warm room , and the top portionmay be drawn Off, when al l the sedimentary matter hassettled to the bottom , or it may be filtered through a seriesof flannel bags .For filtering large quantities , special machinery has been

designed , in which the molten fat is passed first through a

hair sieve to remove larger particles of cacao , etc.,and

then through hanging removable filter-bags , kept warm in a

large tank . The tank receives the filtrate and is fitted witha gauge glass , so that the level Of the fat in the tank can be

ascertained .

Where large quantities of nibs are to be expressed , a

battery of presses may be employed with advantage, and

considerable economy and time can be effected by using anaccumulator , attached to one large powerful pump . The

pressure is maintained in the accumulator , which is con.

nected to the pump on the one hand and with the presses onthe other . The accumulator is coupled up wi th the pressesthrough suitable inlet valves , and, as each press is furnishedwith a pressure gauge and the necessary valves , and as the

actions of the pump and accumulator are automatic , theworkis greatly simplified , and a constant pressure is maintained .

The fat or cocoa butter of commerce, more correctlytermed cacao butter,

”should be paleyellow andof a pleasantchocolate aroma and flavour . If too great heat has beenused during its expression , the fat will be a dul l grayishwhite, whilst , if the beans , have been insufficiently roasted ,the smell and taste of the butter will be green and

unpleasant .


powder blocks and a Schutz O’

Nei l disintegrator for redu eing the powder further, coupled together, and with a coo l

ing and sifting plant from which the cocoa powder w a sdelivered direct into trucks . The cooling arrangemen t swere admirable and capable of easy regulation , and th e

cocoa powder which , though inevitably heated somewh a tin the disintegration , after passing through the cooler hadagain acquired an excellent colour . The maintenance of

colour in cocoa powder is no easy matter, if much frictionoccurs after it has become cold . It is for this reason thatsieving arrangements prove very defective, - and there i smuch to be said for wind- sifting, which separates the fin efrom the coarse particles to any degree, wi thout bringingabout dullness or whiteness in the cocoa powder . In th eautomatic plant of Messrs . Lehmann , the powder is sievedafter cooling, but it does not seem to suffer much in colourduring the process . The tailings are automatically carriedback to the disintegrator by a worm conveyer , where theyare again reduced and returned to the cooling chamber . Thepower required for driving the whole plant was supplied byone 25-h .p . and one 10-h .p . motor .With regard to the temperature to which cocoa powder

may be heated without deterioration of colour, it may be

asserted that it has always been recognised , firstly , that , ifcocoa powder is heated , it must be subsequently cooled ifthe colour is to be retained , and, secondly , that attrition ofthe cocoa powder , after cooling , is inclined to cause dullnessand grayness . The Massachusetts Chocolate Company(Eng. Pat. 1914) has perfected a system wherebythe cocoa cakes are broken and heated to a certain temperature, 120

° F . to 135° F . , to the former if the cakes are warmfrom the press , to the latter if the cocoa cakes are cold . By

these means , colour is imparted to the cocoa which it isnecessary to set .

”The setting of the colour is accom

pl ished by cooling quickly and uniformly in a current of air,

SOLUBLE COCOA POWDERS 175

at 40° F . to 45° E , which carries the powder and segregated

particles from the breaking machine through chambers containing cooling pipes , where, by contact with the pipes andwith one another, the cocoa is claimed to be reduced to a

degree of fineness equivalent to 90 per cent . efficiency .

Sol ub l e Cocoa Pow der s .

The term soluble,”as applied to treated cocoa powders ,

is undoubtedly a misnomer, for the property , attempted tobe acquired by the manufacturer of so- called solublecocoa, is in reality an emulsification , by means of which nodeposit is formed at the bottom of a cup of prepared cocoa,

even after prolonged standing . At first , this result wasobtained by the incorporation of starchy matters with thecocoa powder, so that the starch , gelatinising on additionof boiling water , made a sticky and vi scous mass whichmaterial ly hindered the heavier particles from settling.

Hassall was a strong Opponent to this method of rendering cocoa powder soluble and, in his book on Adulteration of Food , condemns the practice not only byshowing microscOpic drawings of pure cocoa powders againstthose of cocoas with the addition of starch , but alsoby quoting lengthy cross -examinations of witnesses at

the Parliamentary Commission, held to investigate the

matter .James Bell , in The Chemistry of saysMost of the other preparations of cocoa, whether sold as

soluble cocoa or chocolate, consist of mixtures of cocoa nibswith various substances ground together into a smoothpas te. In the manufacture of soluble cocoa, arrowroot ,sago or some other starch , and sugar, either dry or in theform of a syrup , are combined with the cocoa nib paste. The

admixture of starch with the cocoa past-e tends to mask the

Hassal l , Food i ts Adul terat ion , etc . , 1876 .

TJ Bel l , The Chemi stry ofFoods ,”1887 , 74.


presence of the fat and to render the cocoa more readilymiscible with boiling water .”

C. J. Van Houten was the first to attempt to treat cacaowith chemicals, so as to render it more readily retained insuspension when mixed with water, without the addition of

foreign starches .By treating cacao with alkalis , such as potassium or

sodium hydrates or carbonates , ammonia,or magnesium

carbonate, the tissues of the kernel are partially disintegrated , and the material is capable of suspension in water ormilk to a greater degree.

The slight saponification of the fat is also largelyresponsible for the formation of a satisfactory emulsionthat will not al low the heavier portion of cocoa to depositon standing .

The addition of alkalis to cacao has not met with uh

qualified approval , and there are many who , while readilyacknowledging the superiority of the beverage resultingfrom the beans or cocoa so treated , are not prepared toadmit that the inclusion of chemicals is not prej udicial tohealth .

* The nutritive value and digestibility of alkalisedcocoas are discussed in a subsequent chapter .The so- called “ solubility of modern cocoa powder is ,

however , a distinct advantage to the consumer , and, in theOpinion of many , the treatment greatly enhances theflavour .

Bordas fr has discussed the matter at some length and

admits that , though French manufacturers, in general , donot add alkali salts for the purpose of producing solublecocoa, the importation into France of foreign cocoa, so

treated , has , of late years , reached very large proportions .In considering the desirabil ity of addition of alkalis from thepoint of view of health , and the need of regulating by law

Vi de di scuss ion in Reports ofCongres s at Geneva and Paris , 1908, 1909.

TBordas , Ann . des Fa ls if, 1910 , i i i . , 61—70.


ammonia will not bring about this increase of soluble ash ,

but , on the other hand , these Operations will not increasethe ash figures at al l , the only point in their favour .Potash treatment improves the flavour and Odour of

cocoa powder and darkens the colour, the latter effect beingdue, probably , to the oxidation

‘ of the alkali salts of tannicacid which is to be found in untreated cacao . Further, th etreated cocoa powders are not alkaline in reaction themselves, whilst untreated cocoa powders are acid , due both toacid salts of phosphoric acid and to tannic and other freeorganic acids . The effect , then , of the addition of alkaliis to neutralise acidity , with the formation of potassium saltsof phosphoric , tannic and other acids which , on incineration ,will yield an alkaline ash .

Owing to the weakness of its basicity compared w i thpotash , ammonia is far less efficient , and the difficulty of

removing the objectionable ammoniacal flavour is Obvious .If too much alkali is added , clearly , the cocoa powders

will show an alkaline reaction , and,on calculation , it is

found that from 2—3 per cent . of added alkali , as K2003 , issufficient to bring about neutrality . Analysis of VanHouten ’s product shows from 2 05—3 05 per cent . calculatedas KzCO3 on the dry powder .The usual mistake of manufacturers , commencing to

make soluble cocoa powders , is that of adding too muchor too strong alkaline solutions . It is necessary to add justsufficient alkali to neutralise the organic acids , and of justsufficient strength to Open effectually the pores of the tissueof the bean . Two parts of potash to 100 parts of the beanshould be quite enough to accomplish these two objects .Treatment with steam is effective in rendering cocoa

soluble,”but for another reason . Cacao contains about

12 per cent . of starch , calculated on the fat- free nib , and theac tion of steam is to cause the starch grains to swel l , whenthey readily take up water and become more or less soluble

SOLUBLE COCOA POWDERS 179

on the addition of the liquor when the beverage is prepared .

The cocoa becomes viscous by this treatment , though , inreality

,it should not be different to the cocoa beverage pre

pared , in the proper manner, by the addition of boiling milkor water and by a subsequent further boiling , when thestarch grains will swell , producing a viscous beverage without preliminary treatment oi the powder .

M eth ods of Ap p l i cat i on of Al kal i .

The treatment of the cacao with alkal i may be accom

pl ished with water and heat , with or without pressure, withthe alkalis potassium ,

sodium or magnesium carbonates ,usually used in Holland , or with solutions of ammonia or

ammonium carbonate, often employed in Germany . The

hydroxides of sodium and potassium are also used in theproduction of soluble cocoas .The alkalis may be applied before, at the time of, or after

roasting, before the pressing, and, consequently ,after mill

ing,or after the pressing .

There is , therefore, plenty of scope for the manufacturer ,and, if one method does not give the required result , anothermay be tried , for the treatment with any one alkali , at anyone stage, does not produce a ocoa similar in flavour orqualities to that treated at a different stage in its manufac

ture wi th a different alkali .If the cacao is to be treated before roasting , the beans

may be subjected to the influence of steam and ammonia,

which is the method suggested by Staehle in a Germanpatent . In this process , he suggests that the operation becarried out below 100

°

C. , and the beans subsequentlyroasted at 130

°

C., when the ammonia , being volatile, is

driven off, and the aroma of the cacao is developed .

Neumann , in a French patent obtained in 1909, washesthe beans in a solution of alkali at 50° C. The cacao isremoved , and the temperature gradually raised to 120

°C. ,

1 2—3


when the beans are roasted . In subsequent processes , th eshells are removed , and the nibs ground to a paste, when ,

before or after expressing the fat, themass is again gradual lyheated to 100° C. and ground in a melangeur from one

to twenty - four hours . By these means , he claims to Obta ina soluble cocoa powder of fine flavour .The beans may be treated wi th alkali after a sligh t

roasting ; thus , in one process, the beans , after being gentlyheated and shelled , are sprinkled with a solution of potassiumcarbonate containing 1 -5 per cent . to 3 per cent . of th ealkali . If too much alkali has been added so as to give an

unpleasant taste to the cacao mass , a solution of tartaricacid is added to neutralise the effect . The mass is now

fully roasted over a gentle fire in a clean roaster , and grea tcare has to be taken to prevent the treated cacao from burning. as the mixture, clinging to the revolving roaster, i slikely to become superheated where in contact with themetal .Subsequently, the dried cacao is expressed .

Neumann , in an English patent , 1910, adopts a somewhat similar process . By this method , the beans are com

pletely roasted and husked , and the nibs , reduced to a

coarse meal , are slightly pressed , to get rid of some of the fat .

The partially defat ted cacao is then treated with alkali andagain pressed .

Pieper, in a German patent of 1893, besides providing a

specification , gives scientific'

arguments in favour of h i sprocess . Briefly put , the process and arguments in i tsfavour are as follow —The raw beans are treated with an

alkaline solution to neutralise the free acids , of such a

strength that neutrality is not exceeded . The beans are

allowed to ferment , somewhat , for twelve to forty-eight hours ,dried and roasted . The fermentation process in a neutralor slightly alkaline solution is said to render the albuminoidsmore easily digestible, whilst the roasting converts thestarch into dextrins after hydration . The fermentation is


given off, the greatest care being taken that the cacao , nowdeprived of its protective coating and husk , does not burn .

The subsequent treatmen t, milling and pressing, is the same

as for ordinary cocoa powder . The ni bs may be dried beforethe second roasting by placing them in shallow trays in thehot room or by other convenient method .

In yet another process , magnesium carbonate, or , better ,a strong solution of caustic potash (90—95 per cent ) , ismixed in , or sprayed on , to the cacao paste from fully roastedbeans , and

, after thorough mixing, the treated mass ispressed in the usual way . Another process is described as

follows To 100 lbs . of cacao paste are added 2 to 3 lbs .of potash , dissolved in 1 to 14 gallons of water, and the

whole is thoroughly kneaded in a dough mixer or apparatusof similar construction . If ammonium carbonate is usedinstead of potash ,

to 3 lbs . are used for the same bulk of

cacao pastewith the same volume of water . The treated cacaois then placed in the hydraulic press, and thefat expressed .

”

The application of alkali may be made, after the fat hasbeen express-ed,

in the form of a liquid spray , and, in suchcases , potassium carbonate, and not ammonia or ammoniumcarbonate, solutions should be used , as it is extremely difficult to rid the treated cacao of the ammoniacal smell , if nohigh temperature is emp loyed subsequent to their application . In al l cases where aqueous solutions are used , careshould be taken to free the cacao mass or powder from water ,as , without such precaution , the resulting powder is l iable toturn mouldy .

There are other processes for making soluble cocoapowders , which do not entail the use of alkalis , but , as thesedepend largely on treating the cacao with boiling sugar , i thas been thought desirable to defer their discussion until al ater chapter which deals with cocoa preparations and mixtures of cocoa with sugar, milk powder , etc.

There are,also

,many mechanical processes for rendering

“ SOLUBLE”COCOA POWDERS 183

cocoa soluble. To quote one example (Engl ish PatentBergmul ler recommends the treatment of the

cacao mass at 60°—65° C. in a centrifugal machine for fourt o five hours when , it is claimed , the cacao butter is broughtto the surface of the particles , whence it can be more readilyand completely expressed in a hydraulic press , under a pressure of 600 atmospheres at about 88° C. or the cacao massmay be treated with one litre of water per 100 kilos of cacaopreviously to putting the mass into the press , the waterbeing absorbed by the hygroscOpic particles of cocoa. Suchdevices , however , whilst probably facilitating the removal ofa large quantity of fat, do not make for a good cocoa powder,but rather for a large yield of cacao butter .Owing to the considerable demand for soluble cocoas

in recent years , it has been found necessary to increase theefficiency of existing machinery and to create new , in orderto accelerate the process .

The following plant is necessary to manufacture about1 ton of pure soluble cocoa essence per ten-hour dayThemachines should be obtained only from the best engineersin the industryOne machine for cleaning and sorting cacao beans .Two cacao-roasting machi nes .One exhaust fan , with two cooling trolleys .One cacao- crushing, cleamng, hulling and separating

machine.

One germ- separating machine.

Three triple cacao mills .Three hydraulic cacao butter presses , wi th one accumu

lator .Two Universal , or similar mixers .One automatic pulverising plant , consisting of

One breaking machine. One pulveriser .One sifting machine.

Total h .-

p . required , about 20.

CHAPTER XIV

ANALYSES OF COCOA POWD ERS, SOLUBLE, DIETETIC,

PROPRIETARY , ETC.

ACCORDING to‘

the processes to which the beans have beensubmitted, described in the preceding chapters , so will thecocoa powders, prepared from them, show, on analysis , varying fat andash -contents anddiffering values for the alkalinityof the mineral matter .Thus , a powder which has been heavily expressed may

show as low a fatcontent as 10 per cent . , rising to 40 percent . , if the pressure of the extracting press has been light .Or , again , the application of alkalis , such as potash and

potassium ,sodium or magnesium carbonates , will be more

apparent in the analyses Of the finished cocoa powder, if i thas been made to the nibs , cacao paste Or powder, than incases where the beans have been treated still in their shells .The volatile alkalis , ammonia or ammonium carbonate,

will not show on analysis , as it is improbable that they formany stable compounds with the component parts of thecacao , and they are unlikely to appear in the ash . On the

other hand , a cocoa powder showing a very high percentageof nitrogen may be suspected of being treated with , and not

freed from, ammonia , though it is unlikely that any ammoniaor its compounds could be present without serious detrimentto the flavour .Stutzer,* however, who has made a close studv of the

effects of the different processes of manufacture on the

resulting analyses , claims to be able to detect cocoas preStutzer, Zei tsch . angew. Chem , 1891 .


Ceylon , is given in Table XXXV . which , besides show in gthe percentage chemical composit ion

,indicates th e

mechanical condit ion of the cocoa, a matter of greatimportance both to the consumer and manufacturer .

TAB LE XXXV .

—Analyses ofCocoa Powders .

Van Rown

Houten’

s . tree’

s .

l b les EPPB 8

Price per l b . ( 1899 ) 2s . 4d. 28 . 1d. 38 . 0d. 28 . 9d. 28 . 9d. 18 . 2d.

Water ( loss at 100°C. ) 3 -99 4-30 2 -94 3 -82 5-04 4 -58

Fat (cacao butter ) 25-01 30 -70 30 -10 32 -50 26 -40

Albuminoids and theo

bromineMuci lage, gum, etc .

Sugar, glucose,dextrin

Starch and digestiblefibre

Indigest ible fibreAsh or mineral matter

l OO°OO 100 -00 100 -00 100 °OO 1000 0 1000 0

Melt ing point offat 289°C. 294

°C. 289 °

C. 294°C. 26 -7

°C. 283

°

C .

Contain ing n itrogen 3 -50 3 -22 3 -42 3 -05 1 -77 1 -55

Containing potash 1 6 6 1 -56 4-49 42 4 2 -68 054

Mechan ical condi tion

Powder passed th roughs ieve holes tothe square inch )

Res idue left on s ieve

100 -00 l oO°OO 100 -00 100 -00 100 -00

In considering these figures , the author points out that,

in Cadbury ’s and Fry ’s cocoas , about two- thirds of theoriginal fat of the cacao had been removed , but that theywere otherwise untreated . Van Houten ’s and Rowntree

’

s

cocoas were taken as samples of cocoa powders from whichtwo- thirds of the original fat of the cacao had been removed .

but which had been treated with potash salts .

To both Tibbles ’ and Epps’

s cocoa powders , othermaterials , such as starch and sugar

,had been added , and,

consequently , in these powders , the chemical components ofcacao were found in reduced proportions .

ANALYSES OF COCOA POWDERS 187

In the four samples , Cadbury’s , Fry

’s ,Van Houten’s and

Rowntree’

s , no foreign starch or sugar was present , theamount of reducing matter and starch, found , being due tothat naturally existing in cacao .

Analyses of various commercial cocoa powders are

published from time to time, and, in TableXXXVI . , will befound a few in which the alkalinity of the ash (the number

of cos . ofINCacid required to neutralise the ash from 2 grms .

of sample) has been converted into figures to conform withthat value, as usually expressed .

TABLE XXXVI .—Analyses of some wel l -known Brands

ofCommercial Cocoa Powders .

Rowntree’

s B looker’

sVan Houten 8 Extractgutch

Constituents .

0‘

I I

4-33 4-53 4-05

4-24 4-28 8 -64 7 -96 8 -48

1 -33 3 -68 1 -8 1 3 -82

3 11 6 29 -80 29 -78 29 -66

9-88

0 -69

I . E . E . Ewel l , Bul l . No. 1 3 , U.S . Dep t. ofAyricul l arc.

11 . Florence Yap le, Chem. Z eit . , 1895, Rep . 2 1 , 240.

III. C . G irard, Internal . Cong. App . Chem , 1909 , Sect .VIII . C . 185.

In considering the figures for the alkalinity of the ash inthe above table, it should be noticed that Girard

’s valuesare made on the ash soluble in water only , whilst Ewell

’sfigures, being on the total ash ,

will include the calcium and

magnesium carbonates , which would not be found among thesoluble portion .

Girard , whose work, already quoted , was primarily


undertaken for the purpose of studying the presence o f

oxalic acid and the estimation of the same, gives some table sshowing the analyses of various cocoa powders of commerceand the composition of their ash . His results are so particularly valuable and enlightening that it has been though tdesirable to include them here in full .

TABLE XXXVII . -Analyses of some Commercial Cocoa

Powders .

Bens Sucl i B loo.

dorp_ ard . ker .

Conté. Menler

insoluble 2 1 -06

solub leAlka l lnlty of solubleash as K gO

Sucrose N i l . N i l . N il . N i l . N il . N i l . N i l .Reducingmatters Traces . Traces . Traces . Traces . Traces . Traces . Traces .

Fatt

ymatter

Melt ng-point offat 31 0°

30-4°

Je a n refractorvalue offat —17 -5 —18 -5 —18 -5

Baponlflcation value193-6 192 -3 193 -0 192 -8 192 -6 193 -6

Iodine value offat 35-4 39 -4 38 -0 36-3 34-9 37 -6

Theobromlne 1 -88 1 -94

Oxal lc acld 0 566 0-504 0-630

Leaving for one moment the ash and its values , thesignificance of the other figures is worthy of brief consideration at this point .Sucrose—The absence of sucrose in the powders shows

that no addition of sugar has been made and that thebeans were well fermented (s ide Chapter IX . , Table XIV . ,

Sucrose) .Reducing Matters—The presence of only traces of

reducing matters shows that the beans have been well fermented, for cacao kernels have been shown to contain 15

per cent . of glucose and other reducing matters , when merelydried , and up to 10 per cent . , if slightly fermented . If the

beans have been thoroughly fermen ted , there should be onlytraces of reducing matters .


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them soluble and that their addition , as also of the sodain the first , had succeeded in fixing the phosphoric , car

bonic, and sulphuric acids , originally present , as insolublecompounds . That is to say,

the alkali , added , attracts toitself the acid portions of the powders forming soluble salts .

with the result that , on analysis , those cocoas treated withalkali are found to contain soluble ash with greatest proportions of potassium , sodium or magnesium salts ofphosphoric , carbonic and sulphuric acids , according to thealkali used .

In the last three cocoa powders , the comparatively lowpercentages of potash , soda, and phosphoric and carbonicacids in the soluble ash tend to show not only that thecocoas were prepared without the addition of alkali

,but

also that the remainder of these components , not to befound in the soluble ash , are combined in some probablycomplex form which will not spl it up without the presenceof excess of alkali , but which will , consequently , figure in theash insoluble in water .Not without interest are some results , recorded in the

Lancet of January , 1905, to which we have occasion to referagain in a later chapter . The authors of this researchendeavoured to ascertain the effect of alkalised cocoa powderupon the digestion , or rather to obtain the digestibility and

nutrition values of different cocoa powders . They showedthat the cocoas , if treated , were in no sense alkaline,though possibly alkalised .

”The statement appears in

this article that , of the eleven cocoas purchased in the

open market we have not found a single one to contain anything in the nature of an alkali . They were either acid inreaction or perfectly neutral as regards alkali . By alkaliwe mean either the carbonates or hydrates (caustic) of theso- called alkaline metals (potassium or sodium) . Moreover, in no instance was the slightest trace of soap found ,formed by the action of the alkali on the cocoa fat .

” It has


always been the contention of the author that proper lyalkalised cocoa powders should not be alkal ine in reacti on ,

yet, in the face of the table published by the writers in th e

Lancet, their subsequent statement seems unwarranted an d

uncalled for Certainly as regards the well-known man u

TAB LE XXXIX .—Ash and Alka l ini ty of some Cocoa

Powders .

Total mineral Alkal inity of A lkal iCocoa . matter ash reckoned in

(ash ) . as potash . cocoa.

1 . Bensdorp’

s Soluble, II. None .

2 . Barry’

s Essence, I.

3 . Van Houten ’

s Soluble Cocoa ,

4. Epps 8 Cocoa Essence, I.

5. Fry 3 Concentrated Cocoa , I.

6 . Cadbury 8 Cocoa Essence, I.

7 . Mazawattee Cocoa , II.

8 . Schweitzer’

s Cocoat ina, II.

9 . Suchard’

s Soluble Cocoa , II.

10. Rowntree’

s Elect Cocoa , II.

1 1 . Loose Cocoa , II.

1 . Sl ight ly alkal ine potass ium sal ts , but neutral as regards free alkal i .

2 . Sl ight ly ac id react ion.

3 . S l ightly alkal ine react ion due not to alkal i , but to organic salts of potass ium ,

and phosphates otherwi se perfect ly neut ral .

4. Acid react ion .

5. Acid react ion .

6 . Acid react ion .

7 . Neutral react ion .



10. Neutral , rich in organ ic sal ts ofpotass ium, including phosphates.

1 1 . Neutral , r ich in organic sal ts of potass ium, including phosphates .

facturers of cocoa which is sold in this country whetherEnglish or Dutch ,

there is here no evidence whatever of the

use of alkalis in the preparation of cocoa. There is abundant evidence, on the oth er hand , showing that the naturalorganic salts of the cocoa have been materially increased as

regards both some of the Engl ish and Dutch manufactured


exceed per cent . of potassium ca r

bonate.

At the end of 1915, after the examination of three cocoapowders , purchased in a large store in Paris , the Laboratoire Central du Min istere d’

Agriculture announced tha tthe statement on the label , Cacao en poudre garanti pur ,

”

could not be applied to these cocoas, since they showed th efollowing analyses , later confirmed by

'

independen tanalysts

Moi sture per cent

Fat per cent .

Ash per cent .

Alkal in ity ofash ,as K per cent . of

dry defatted cocoa .

It was clear that , had the cocoa been alkalised for°

any particular purpose of benefit to the manufacturer , theamount of alkali in the ash would have been higher thanin normal cocoa, calculated on the same basis , a pointoverlooked by the writer in the Lancet. It was fromthis standpoint that Arpin carried out his research ,

and that Rocques , at the same time, devised his methodfor estimation of alkalinity . Arpin found the followingresults from raw beans , after the husk and germs h adbeen removed

Trinidad . Ibarra . Chuao.

Moi sture per cent .

Fat per cent .

Ash per cent .

Alkal in ity ofash , as K 2CO

3

per cent . of dry and

defatted cocoa

Arpin , Ann . des Fals if. , January, February , 19 17 , xcix . , c . 10.


It was thus established that raw untreated cacao had an

ash showing an alkalinity in excess of that allowed by theFrench decree of 1910.

In the same research , Arpin gives the following table,in which the present author has also included the figuresfor germ

Raw husk of

a Accra . Bah ia. Cl iuao.


Ash per cent .

Alkal in ity ofraw shel l s

Alkal in ity ofdr ied shel l s

Alkal in ity ofroasted germFat per cent .

After further examination, in which the good fai th of themanufacturers of the cocoa powders was established , thefollowing points were formulated by Arpin

(1 ) That cacao husks show a variable moisture- contentand that the driest are those which might be suspected ofhaving been treated with an alkaline solution .

(2) That the ash - content varies from per cent . to

per cent . (in the specimens of husk examined) withoutthe alkalinity increasing proportionally . The ash is composed of inert bodies , sand , earth , etc. ,

which increase themineral - content that those varieties examined , which gave

per cent . and per cent . of ash , respectively , hadbeen earthed or clayed .

”

(3) That the alkalinity of the husks of cacao is the samewithin limits of l per cent .

(4) That the husks of Accra beans aremost alkaline

per cent . calculated on the dry husk) , whilst the cacao itselfdoes not reach the figure 2 75 per cent .

(5) That the husks of Bahia cacao (termed non- alkaline)are almost identical in alkalinity per cent .) to that of

13—2


the husks of Carupano per cent .) and Chuao per

cent .) which are called alkaline cacaos .

(6) Finally , that the husks ofMadagascar cacao , thoughtermed an alkaline cacao , are less high in alkalinity thanthose of Accra which is a non -alkal ine cacao .

Generally speaking , these"figures show that husks of

cacao, showing greater alkalinity than per cent . , havenot necessarily been treated with an alkaline solution or

with a solution capable of giving an alkali on incineration .

The present author fears that a fundamental errorappears in al l these figures , owing to the fact that Arpin h astaken for granted that Chuao and Madagascar cacaos hadbeen treated with alkaline solutions and that the Accra ,

Bahia and Carupano beans had not . In any case, the conclusion , reached , that the small quantity of husk finding itsway into the cocoa powder, accidentally or through carelessness on the part of the manufacturer , is without appreciableeffect upon the alkalinity of the finished product , seemsjustified .

D i etet i c , P r op r i etary , and oth er Cocoa and C h ocol ate

Pow der s .

Cocoa powders should contain the roasted , partiallydefatted kernels of cacao beans only . The chemical composition of such cocoa powders

'

w i l l depend upon the amountof expression to which the nibs have been subjected . If 30

per cent . of fat has been expressed , which is usually thehighest limit in practice, the resulting cocoa powder willshow 25—35 per cent . fat , 4—5 per cent . ash ,

3—5 per cent .fibre, 12—17 per cent . nitrogenous matter as albuminoids ,1 1—20 per cent . starch , and 4—5 per cent . moisture.

Soluble cocoa powders , treated with alkali , shouldconsist of the roasted , partially defatted kernels of cacaobeans ,

‘

w ith the addition of sodium or potassium hydroxideor carbonate, or magnesium carbonate, and, if the nibs have


gives the follow ing analvs is per cent . ash (alkalin i tyas KZO per cent . fat , per cent . fibre, 260

per cent . sugar, and much arrowroot starch .

Under th is heading must ce rtainl y be included chocolate

powders which , consisting of powdered chocolate, or cocoaand sugar and starch , give simil ar analyses to that of Epp s

’

s

cocoa . There is , however, this difference,that the latter ,

being a standard proprietary article, is mixed with grea t.care and from careful ly selected ingredients , whi lst some of

the chocolate powders that have come under the author ’snotice have not shown much careful selection of ingredien tsand have, more frequently than not

,been freely mi xed

wil l cocoa'

shell powder . Chocolate powders are, as a

rule, very cheap , but there is no reason why theyshould be nasty , and, if good clean starch has beenadded to powdered chocolate, the resulting preparationshould be as good and wholesome as the best proprietaryarticle .

The chocolate powder prepared by the Chocolat MenierCompany showed the following analysis , according to Ewell

per cent . ash (alkalinity as KzO 21 -31 per cen t .fat, per cent . fibre, 58 per cent . sugar, and no addedstarch .

J. Bel l , in his Analysis and Adulteration of Foods ,also gives an analysis of a prepared cocoa thus : per

cent . moisture, per cent . fat, per cent . sugar ,19-19 per cent . starch , per cent . nitrogen the starchand sugar were both added .

Clayton has made analyses of different samples of

cocoa essence, which consisted of partially defatted and

otherwise treated cacao ; a very complete investigationinto the component parts of the ash , obtained from them ,

was made.

Recommendations have been made, from time to time, to

E. G. Clayton , Chem. News , 1902 , lxxxvi . , 31 .


treat the cocoa powder with boiling sugar, and many patentshave been taken out to this end .

Greiser , in an English patent , 1909, suggested that moisture and volatile bodies , that affect the flavour , should beremoved in a uniform manner by heating the finely-groundcocoa (with or without the addition of sugar) in vacuo at,

say, 70° to 90° C. Or , themass might first be boiled in vacuo,

then melted with a suitable proportion of sugar and againboiled in vacuo.

Langen , in a French patent , 1909, proposed to treatthe partially defatted cocoa with a boiling solution ofsugar in a vessel fitted with a suitable stirrer . The

mixture was stirred until cold , and the mass of chocolate,

thus obtained , powdered and pressed into moulds ormixed with milk powder . By this treatment , he claimedto obtain a readily soluble cocoa or chocolate for use as a

beverage .

Many more such instances could be cited , though theyare only worthy of consideration as showing the extent towhich the subject of rendering cocoa soluble has beenstudied . It must be admitted that the majority of thepatents taken out are not only of li ttle value

’

formaking thecocoa soluble,

”but the processes employed usually spoilthe aroma of the cocoa and are quite impracticable to workoutside the laboratory or experimental room .

Foreign matters with medicinal and other special virtuesare frequently added to cocoa powders , amongst othersbeing acorn and barley meal , malt , milk powder , driedegg

-albumen , saccharin instead of sugar for persons suffering from diabetes , kola seeds , peptone and other suchmaterials .In a US . patent , 1910 Collett and Eckardt have recom

mended the addition to cocoa and chocolate of one or moreferments , capableof producing lact ic acid from carbohydrateswithout evolution of gas .


There can , however, be only a very limited sale for a l lthese kinds of preparations , and, as this work deals essential ly with cocoa and chocolate and not with al l the poss ibl ecombinations that might be made with other materials ,

further consideration of them has not been considerednecessary .


rollers . A melangeur may be used , or the cacao liquo rDisc machine which i s so popular in America . There are ,

however , good and sufficient reasons why cacao should no t

be ground in contact with iron or steel , as, even after roasting, the cacao nibs contain an appreciable quantity of moisture which , with the tannin in the cacao , is apt to impart a

metallic flavour to the chocolate or cocoa . After the addition of sugar and cacao butter to the nibs , however, the percentage of moisture in the mass is considerably reduced , andthis fact , in addition to a further loss of moisture duringmixing, makes the effect of iron upon the chocolate mass

negligible. This point is considered later, in the chap terdealing with short - cuts to chocolate manufacture.

Sweetened chocolate should contain the kernels ofroasted and shelled cacao bean , with the addition of notmore than 60 per cent . of sugar , with or without a smallquantity of flavouring matter .The base of sweetened chocolate will, therefore, be pure

unsweetened chocolate or the cacao mass running from th e

mills . To this base is '

added a sufficiency of sugar and

flavouringmatter , in such a way that a smooth homogeneousproduct shall result .

M eth od of M i x i ng.

The mixing of the sugar and flavouring matters with thecacao mass is conducted in a large revolving pan in whichrun a pair of granite rollers melangeur The pan ,

revolving horizontally , carries the chocolate mass under therollers which , being capable of adjustment up and down , arethemselves caused to revolve by the friction of the pastepassing under them . One or both of the granite rollers may

be also power-driven .

It is advisable to give the cacao mass some thirty toforty -five minutes ’ working in the mixer or melangeurprevious to introducing the sugar , as , in this way, a certain

PREPARATION OF CHOCOLATE 203

homogeneity is obtained in the base, and the work of therefining machines is somewhat facilitated .

The sugar should be ground in a disintegrator or sugarmill and passed through a fine lawn mesh . It is usual todry the sugar before being mixed in with the cacao mass ,but the importance of this point is discussed elsewhere.

Much time will be saved if the melangeur is heatedup to a temperature 5° or 6° above the melting-point of thecacao butter , say, to 40

°

C.,and. in order to bring about

immediate blending of the sugar and cacao mass , bothingredients should be heated to about 35° C. before beingplaced in the melangeur .”

The chief uses of the melangeur, which has beenbriefly described , are to obtain the complete blending of theingredients , to reduce the mass to a finer state of division ,and to lighten the paste. The first object is brought aboutby the revolving pan ,

travelling at a fairly high speed , carrying the mass under and round the rollers , assisted by

two scrapers that turn the paste in the required direction .

The constant friction of the pan ,which travels at a higher

speed than the rollers , rubbing on the cacao mass at the

two obstructions , raises the temperature of the.whole and

gradually reduces the particles to a finer state of division .

After the paste has been passed through the refiningrollers , the mass is dry and lifeless , and it is necessary toplace it again in the melangeur ,

”to recover some of its lifeand limpidi ty . This is brought about by the constant friction of the chocolate mass on the rollers and by the re-melting and re-distribution of the cacao butter which has driedup in the process of refining .

As will be seen later, better results are obtained byalternate refining on granite and steel rollers , with an intermediate or subsequent treatment in the melangeur .”

Since , however . the tendency has been to reduce the numberof refin ings and to increase the intensitv of levigation ,


granite rollers have been largely replaced by the steelrefiners which , undoubtedly , are very effective in reducin gcacao and sugar particles to an extremely fine state of div ision in the shortest possible time. Saving of time has beenfurther responsible for the introduction of the Bausman

Disc machine which , with proper handling, is capable of

giving good results with chocolate. For those who con

sider quantity and speed of output before the quality of

their product , the complete equipment of a chocolatefactory is composed of mixing kettles and Bausman Discmach ines . There are many such factories in existen ce ,

especial ly in America, though the author can say, withoutprejudice, that the results are not those of which to beparticularly proud .

T h e n Mel angeur .

The melangeur, illustrated , is admirably suited forthis work . Each roller is fitted with a raising device, whichenables an easier starting of the machine after stoppage,does not allow thumping of the rollers on the granite bottomof the pan and causes an easier and more rapid grip on th elarger pieces of sugar and cacao, if the latter is put into th e

pan in lumps .The melangeur is capable of being heated by a steam

coil, placed immediately beneath the pan , so that the tem

perature can be quickly raised to the required point beforethe charge is introduced . Such a machine occupies a floorSpace of 72 feet by 6 feet and is 51 feet high . Iron dustproof covers can be provided with these melangeurs at

a little additional cost‘

and will often prove advantageous ,when the chocolate paste is run continuously in the machinefor any length of time.

Melangeurs can be bought with one or two rollers ,simple or conical shaped according to requirements , and thecapacity of the machine can be made to hold a charge of


anything from if cwt . t o 10 cwt s . In th e machine, illu strated (Fig . the melangeur is shown fitted with a n

automatic discharger , coupled to a three- roll uprigh trefiner .The dry sugar, flavouring matters and cacao paste

having been well mixed in the melangeur,”the crude

chocolate will be in a semi- liquid form, somewhat resembling a very soft dough . The

'

mass will be slightly grittyto the teeth, due to the particles of sugar and the coarsergrains of the milled cacao , and must undergo at least on erefining process before anything in the nature of a finishedchocolate is obtained .

If the idea of the manufacturer is merely to mix h i singredients together , there is no reason why a steamjacketed mixer or kneader should not replace the melan

geur which , as has been pointed out, . has also a refin ingeffect and is particularly adapted for reducing a dried pas teto a semi - liquid condition . In America,

the steam ket tleis commonly used for this purpose, and can be looked up onpurely as a mixer . A clever refinement of this principle isshown in a machine made by Messrs . Joseph Baker , Sons ,and Perkins , Ltd.

—a water-jacketed melangeur whichis recommended especially for melting down and for amal

gamating added cacao butter or substitutes with the chocolate paste. The melangeur granite runners revolve ona stone bed, and gr inding and mixing are thus accomplishedwhilst the tempering is going on . This machine, with a

capacity of lbs . , occupies about 5 feet 9 inches by5 feet floor space, is 4 feet 10 inches high , and is well suitedfor restoring limpidity to a chocolate paste after refining

,

or for preparing the original mixing , to bring it to a conditionfit for refining.

T h e Refi ner .

The refiner consists of a series of connected rollerswhich revolve at different rates of speed , allowing the


chocolate mass to pass between them to be ground both bycrushing and by tearing .

An extremely hard form of granite, diorite, has been foundto be the most serviceable material with which to constructthe rol lers , and the quarries , from which the granite of thegranite refiners was obtained,

were, in 1914, in the hands ofthe principalmakers of chocolate machinery , such as Messrs .Lehmann . Since the war , several other hard granites havebeen tried with complete success , and the manufacturers of

FIG . 12 .—Battery of two Gran ite or Porcela in Th ree-rol l Refiners . (See p .

By p ermis sion of Messrs . B ramigk cf:Cc., London.

chocolate machinery in this country are independent of theGerman stones . Porcelain rolls have also proved thoroughlysat isfactory .

Many modern refiners have cylinders of polished chilledsteel , which not only reduce the chocolate to a finer state ofdivision in a given time than can be obtained with a graniteset , but they have the additional advantage of being able tobe water- cooled—a necessity which arises on the cylindersbecoming heated from over- friction or continual running .

The rollers in the older - fas h ioned granite refiners wereplaced in a horizon tal position , whilst the modern steel orgranite roller machines are upright , of which the former hasa parallel water- cooling system attached .


FIG. l 3 .—Patent Five-rol l Upright Refiner , w ith Chil led Rol l s and

Spring Bearings . (See p .

By p ermissi on of Messrs . Jos ep h Baker, Sons , and Perki ns , Ltd .

Upright steel roller refiners are now made by al l makersof chocolate machinery , one of the illustrations showing a

machine made by Messrs . Joseph Baker , Sons , and Perkins ,


about a higher speed , larger output and finer grinding thancoul d be obtained on the ordinary granite rollers .

The rollers are of chilled steel , carried on lever arms ,

with spring-bearings and hand- lever adjustment . Thes eadvantages enable a much closer adjustment of the roller sto be made, and, being of chilled metal , they are muchharder, will take a finer polish and remain truer in use thanif made of granite. The spring bearings and the fact tha tthe cylinders or rollers are water- cooled make it possible torun the machine at high speeds , ensuring a large output and

great efficiencyThe five- roll upright refiner with chilled steel rollers and

appliances , as described , occupies a space 45 feet Wide by72 feet long by 6% feet high .

If necessary , a battery of refiners ‘

can be formed , th echocolate paste from the last a rol ler of the first set beingtransferred by means of a scraper to the hopper of the next .The advantage of this system is that , where a chocolateneeds and can stand a second or third consecutive refining,

time is saved by automatically feeding the once-refin ed

chocolate through a second or third set of refiners , Withouthaving to wait to transfer i t to pass through the same

refiner a second or third time.

The chocolate mass is taken from the melangeurstraigh t to the hOpper of the refiner in which the first rolleris revolving slowly , carrying on its surfacesufficient chocolate to transfer it to the next , which travels at a higherSpeed . The upper sets of rollers revolve still faster and

,

being set close, grind the chocolate to a fine state. A

scraper removes the chocolate from the last roller, eitherinto pans placed beneath or into the hopper of the next set .

Al l chocolate, for whatever purpose it may be intended ,should be passed through the refiners once or twice, thebest quality of eating- chocolate being refined as many as

six or eight times , between various periods of rest , given to it

PREPARATION OF CHOCOLATE 21 1'

in the hot cupboard or hot room, and further treatments in

the melangeur .”

It must be understood that , if the grinding in the cacaomill has been satisfactory, the cacao particles will be verysmall . In any case they are soft , and, if no husk or germhas been allowed to enter the cacao mass , the particles willbe readily crushed by a short treatment on a refiner . The

sugar particles , on the other hand , though also very small,

if the crystals have been crushed in a disintegrator or othersuitable mill and the powder subsequently wind- si fted , arehard and appear gritty between the teeth . A very smallquantity of sugar , insufficiently ground , will give this effect ,and it is not uncommon for a certain amount of the chocolate mass to pass through, untouched , on the outer edges ofthe refining rollers , if the latter are not absolutely true. Thisfact is another cogent reason for obtaining machinery fromthe best engineers manufacturing cocoa and chocolate plant

,

since the finishing of refining rollers is an art, in which onlythose who appreciate the importance of perfectly true rollersindulge.

The author, from his earliest connection with chocolate,has always been amazed at the number of refin ings t o whichit seemed necessary to submit chocolate. There is l ittledoubt that , by very careful adjustment of the refiningrol lers and the use of sugar reduced to an impalpable powderbefore mixing with the cacao mass , very fine chocolate can

be made with only one refining . There is , however , thisobj ect ion, that chocolate, so refined, must be restored, afterrefining , with a large amount of cacao butter , in order tobring it to a state sufficiently limpid for moulding . Itwas for this reason that the author investigated the wholequestion and, starting on the assumption that it was sugarthat required the close r efining, ascertained the size ofparticles that could be felt as grit between the teeth . The

investigation led to a number of interesting observationsl 4—2


and, fin ally, to the able research work of Bradley,* who ,in

conjunction with Messrs . Peek , Frean and Company,L td . ,

Rowntree and Company , Ltd. , and Joseph Baker and Son s ,Ltd.

, elaborated a system for the preparation of sugarwhich could be as easily crushed as the cacao particles . Th esy xtem of manufacture of so- called amorphous sugar i sde cribed later and opens up the only possibility of emp loyin; a short - cut to chocolate manufacture, known to the

at ) r , without deterioration of the product .‘

qe chocolate mass , after the first mixing, whicheversuga has been used , is in a soft , doughy state, but , afterbeing passed through the refiner once, it is reduced to a dry ,

light powder, similar in appearance to cocoa powder , on lymore flaky .

This is partly the result of cooling down on the rollers ,which should never be run whilst hot , and partly from the

crushing of the sugar particles , which tends to dry the

chocolate by exposing a greater superficial area to be

covered by the fat .

In this dry,powdery state, the chocolate is not in a fit

condition to undergo further immediate refining, but i tshould be placed in a pan in the hot cupboard , to recover, andthen run for a short time in the melangeur,

”before beingagain passed through the refiner . The hot cupboard isespecially useful . in factories with a continuous call upontheir kettles or melangeurs .

By constant consecutive refining, there is a tendency tofatigue the chocolate, that is to say, to reduce it to a

powdery state from which it will not recover without addition of more cacao butter . This may often be the case afterthe first refining, if too large a quantity of sugar has beenused or if the cacao nibs are not of a very fatty nature, butit may be avoided in later refin ings by giving the cacaomass a rest in the hot cupboard , when the butter will tend

B rit. Pat . Spec , 1919.


There is little doubt that chocolate fatigues mo reeasily on granite than on water-cooled steel roller refiners , an dspecially so is this the case when milk chocolates , con

taining a great deal of body matters , are undergoing th eprocess .The alternate refining on granite and steel refiners h as

certain advantages which are discussed fully in a la terplace. It is doubtful , however , whether granite rollers w i llever

'

) e employed to any great extent in chocolate factor iesage since the output of the product from the steel refinersis v« Jmuch greater than, and the quality but little inferiorto t i t from the granite refiners .

degree to which chocolate is refined is entirelya ter of taste and requirements ; that for use for

0 ) ng sweets or fancy centres and biscuits requiresle . refin ing than the finest eating-chocolate, thoughthere are many people who still prefer the coarse and

gritty chocolate bars for eating purposes to the smoothand finely

-milled product , now so common on the market .This subject has been discussed in al l its aspects in the nextchapter .Speed of production does not result in the highest

standard of quality , and it is undoubtedly true that thetreatment in the melangeur,

”for an extended period ,enhances the flavour and consistency of the finished product and,

in time, would reduce the chocolate to as fine a

state of division as would be at tained by the use of a refiner .The same result may be obtained in the conche machinewhich is described in detail later . This prolonged trea tment , however , must be an expensive item in a factorywhere the machinery is driven by steam or electricity ,

though , in a water-driven factory,the cost is comparative ly

insignificant . In the former case, therefore, greater reliancemust be placed on the efficiency of the refiner which reducesthe chocolate to a fine state in a short space of time, th e


melangeur being used for obtaining the required consistency .

It must not be imagined that refining consists of merelyrunning the chocolate paste through the refiners , for severalimportant points must be considered before the requiredresul t and output can be obtained . The judicious adjustment of the rollers is a point of no small importance, whilstthe speed of running , in a great many chocolate factories, isoften too rapid . Both these points must be carefullywatched ,and the difficulties can be overcome by placing a skilled andcompetent man in charge of the refiners . The result ofrunning the rollers at too high a speed will be the heatingand drying of the paste, which , as has already been shown,can only be cured by addition of more cacao butter or by prolonged treatment in the hot cupboard or the melangeur,

”

both remedies result ing in loss of profit , in ingredients , time,and labour . It is a mistaken idea of economy to purchasecheap refiners or those made by unknown makers . Muchtime and experiment has been put into the development ofthe modern refiner by the best engineers , and the chocolatemanufacturer would do well to take advantage of the eXperience acquired by such experts as Messrs . Joseph Baker,Sons , and Perkins , Ltd. , and Messrs . Lehmann .

T h e Hot Cupboard or C l os et .

”

The hot cupboard , or hot room , which has frequentlybeen mentioned , is one of the most essential fittings of thechocolate factory , especially if the melangeurs are

working up to their full capacity .

It has already been shown that chocolate pastes , afterbeing fatigued by the refiners , recover their texture afterbeing placed in the hot cupboards or closets for a few hours .

Many pastes , that seem too dry ever to recover, will be foundto revive, if left in the hot cupboard for twenty- four hours

,

and no extra addition of cacao butter will be needed .


The hot cupboard is also employed for melting ca caobutter and chocolate base and for warming the sugar , p riorto mixing them in the melangeur .”

The heating chamber consists of an iron frame with i ronshelves and is fitted with overlapping double swing doors .The heating is effected by steam in the space at the bot t omof the chamber . The usual storage capacity is about600 lbs . of chocolate to each yard of space, and the com p leteunit measures about 10 feet long by 22 feet deep by 65}feethigh . For extension purposes , additional lengths of 3 to 4feet can be obtained .

The hot room is , of course, even more suitable for dealing with large quantities of chocolate than is the hot cup

board , and the temperature to be maintained should be as

high as possible, consistent with the materials to be han d led .

The milk-fat inmilk chocolate is liable to turn rancid a f terlong exposures to very high temperatures , so that in tel l igence must control the temperature and time of treatmentin the hot room , as in every other operation during themanufacture of chocolate. The correct temperatures for workingmilk chocolate are discussed in Chapter XXI .


1910—1 1 to 1914—15, so that modern pre-war sta t is tics

may be consideredU.K . US A . German y .

lbs . lbs . l bs .

1910—1 11911—121912—131913—141914—15With the cessation of war, we may expect an increa se in

America, owing to the greater production and less restr ictionin consumption of sugar, to prohibition and, finally, to the

great wealth of the country and to the prosperity of its

working classes .A slight increase in the United Kingdommay be expected,

and a decrease in Germany, owing to h er inflated consump tionin 1914—15, due to the fact that she could not exporther surplus of sugar and that the present sugar productionis lower than in pre-war days .‘

How far the consumption per head in America w ill bemodified in the first year or two after the war , owing to the

exporting of larger quantities of sugar to Germany and to

Europe generally , it is not possible to say . She will , also,doubtless figure as a very large exporter of chocolates andcandies to the war-ravaged countries .It may be truly said that , both in Europe and America.

the end of thewar saw , immediately , a very greatly increaseddemand for sweet - stuffs , and among them chocolate . So

great was the demand that quality shrank into the background , and it is doubtful whether, for many years to come,the public will recover its discriminating taste, or, if itdoes , whether the manufacturer will pander to it . Particu

larly does this apply to America, where, at the moment,

there is no bottom to the market , and where, rightly or

A large quantity of sugar was used in Germany, dur ing the war , for the manu°

facture ofglycerine, a process wh ich was developed to a h igh state ofemciency .

SHORT-CUTS TO THE MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE 219

wrongly , special attention is directed to mass-production , tocope with the demands . So far as America is concerned ,this state of affairs may continue for a. long time, and, evenwith the greatly enlarged businesses and the erection ofnumberless new chocolate houses , the rapidly increasingpopulation and its powers of expenditure will preventcompetition among the manufacturers from being felt toany great extent . The limitation of sugar productionseems to be the only factor that may adversely affect theoutput of chocolate in the United States , and the writer isnot one of those who believes that , simultaneously with thecheapening of sugar at some future date, the demand forchocolate will fal l offgreatly in that country .

The question of quality is not an easy one to discuss . Inthe year 1920 in which this is written , quality is of lessaccount than it was in early 1914, that is to say,

chocolatewill sell itself, to a very large extent , in any part of the worldat the present time, provided that it is palatably sweetand that it tastes of chocolate. There is also a very largesale of so-cal led chocolate even without these reservations ,which could not have found a market in pre-war days . Th e

question ofquality is , therefore, of less significance now that

it should be. Yet , owing to the fact that old conditir

must obtain sooner or later ,quality must be again consideif future development of the trade is to take place.

*

America and Europe are not on the same planeregard to quality , the requirements of the general puteither continent being as different as chalk from cheemore apt simile than appears on the surface.

In America, the cult of the smooth chocolate has notbeen developed , and, to the European , the majority of

It is interest ing to note that , s ince these l ines were w ritten , even the best manu

facturers of chocolate have compromi sed on th i s point and are providing both goodh igh -

priced chocolate and cheap low-

grade stuff, of which the latter is s imi lar to the

worst war chocolate and could not have found a market in pre-war days .

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

American mi lk and plain chocolates taste crude and un

fini shed . To the American, the European chocolates app earslimy and insipid , and the writer has heard milk chocol a tefrom Europe frequently described in the United States as

Cowy .

” In justice to America, it shoul d be remark edthat judgment should not be passed upon the Americ anchocolates recently flooding the English markets . Mu chharm has been done to the American chocolate tradethrough exporting to Europe products of very poor quali ty ,

probably on the assumption that anything would sell duri n gthe shortage. As a statement of fact , there are many man u

facturers in the United States capable of producing as gooda chocolate as any to be found on this side of the water ,but

,unfortunately , too few show their capabil ity .

This is certainly not the place to discuss thepros and con s ,advantages and disadvantages , superiority and inferiority , ofeither product . Every country has some strong partiality tospecific qualities or strength of flavour, a partiality der ivedfrom the pleasing or displeasing effect of aromas upon th e

sense of smell . Thus , the prevailing tastes for vanil la inFrance and for lemon in England are examples of one formof partial i ty . It is no question of good or bad taste, butonly one of like or dislike.

In chocolates , plain and milk , there enters also th e

question of the feel on the tongue, roughness or smoothness ,and,

by gradual stages , Europe has transferred its affectionfrom caramels , their smoothness and flavour, to milk chocolate, thence to the smooth

“ fondant chocolate, now so

universally popular . In this way,the coarse chocolate of

old has largely disappeared .

America does not seem to be passing through the sames tages , and it possesses very few houses which specialise ineither fine, smooth milk or fondant ”chocolates . Coarsevarieties of milk chocolate are most common , and the verv

great populari ty of fancv chocolates with filled cen tres,


world must ask himself, at some time or the other, wheth erthe throwing together of the necessary ingredients , w ith a

rough. mixing and a certain amount of grinding or refin i n g,

gives the best results as seen in the finished article.

By such a process , chocolate, and good chocolate, can be

made, but only if the ingredients are of the best , and p rovided certain fundamental principles are observed . B u t

individuality cannot be obtained by these means , and con

siderable care in detail must be expended if the best flavour edchocolates are

.to result . It is only so that Cadbury

’ sMexican and Bournville chocolates , Terry

’s B i t terchocolate, Chocolat Lindt , Peek Frean

’

s Meltis , Marqu isvanilla chocolate, and many other of the fami liar bran dswith individuality have won their deserved popularity in th eface of keenest competition . It is true that , as soon as

competition ceased during the war—for it was then rath era question of supplying an unprecedented demand wi thacute shortage of al l the necessary ingredients—the quali tyof these well-known makes fell off. It could not have beenotherwise, but now it rests with the manufacturer to determine how soon the public will recover its old pre-war di scr i

mination and to return to his good standards .This general argument has brought us to a point which

is of the greatest importance to the future of the chocolateindustry , namely , as to whether there is any Short - cut to th emaking of chocolate. It is hardly necessary to say that sucha question is not being considered here for the first time. Itis of the utmost interest to themanufacturer to know whetheral l the costly machinery, at present found in an up

- to-datefactory , is really necessary , seeing that chocolate, in the old

days , was made in a pestle and mortar and that , in theevolution of the art of chocolate manufacture, new machineshave been constantly added and old machines improved until

,

in order to produce the finest “ fondant”or milk chocolates,

complex machines , of highest credit to the engineer, have


to-day become apparent necessities . The answer is Simpleto understand , yet somewhat complex to put in black and

white.

Firstly, come in the matter of competition, met by themanufacturer, and the necessity of finding a chocolate ofsufficient individuality and attractiveness to tickle the

popular fancy . In order to secure character in a 0h0 00 19 f6 ,

a Specific flavour must be either added or else secured , b a

Special treatment of the chocolate during manufact "e.

In the first case, additional machinery is not required , tthe devices of the manufacturer may extend to any of e

machines adapted for cooling or heating or Special gr indor to the invention of a new machine, such as

horizontal”or conche, to secure a required result .With regard to the conche,

”there has never bee.

machine so much discussed . What is the use of a

conche What result , unobtainable on other machines ,does it effect , etc. The conche provides a machinespecially adapted for running continuously for a large numberof hours with theminimum amount of friction in the bearingsand mechanical parts of the machine, but with a maximumamount of friction and movement given to the chocolate,which can be kept at any required temperature. A

“ melan

geur might do the same work, but it is both a clumsydevice for this purpose and is open to the objections thatthere is greater friction involved in the machinery parts andthat it is less easily adapted for temperature control . Addedto this , the conche keeps every portion of the chocolatepaste in continuous and even violent motion , which securesa result unobtainable in a melangeur ,

”chaser or kettle.

But the conche might be just as wel l excluded from a

factory, or substituted by a kettle, if the chocolate is notallowed to remain under the agitating and rubbing movement for at least thirty- Six hours . In the conche,

”too ,an after-development and improvement of flavour can be


encouraged by heat , provided , of course, allowance has b eenmade in the roast , in the Simplest and most economical w ay

and without loss of aroma that might , and naturally does ,occur in an open melangeur or kettle.

The next consideration for the manufacturer is as to h owmuch the finest qualities of chocolate owe their virtues to

the machinery employed . At the outset , it may be asser tedthat you cannot make good chocolate out of. bad mater ia l sand that good materials may be spoilt by inattention todetal l , even with the best machinery , but more easily by th euse of bad machinery . Taking the first of these sub

considerations , even an efficient roaster may provide in consistent roasts , or burn the beans , if care is not exercise d .

A badly adjusted husking machine may allow too muchhusk to find its way into the chocolate mass ; a cocoa mi l ] ,w ith stones set too close, may burn the cacao mass , and so on .

Through every stage of manufacture, attention to detail an dto adjustment of machines is essential to the production of

good chocolate.

AS to the use of bad machines , it is clear that mach inervincapable of careful adjustment i s Open to al l the dangers ofgood machinery without the advantage of cure, secured byattention . Again , machinery, made by engineers not ful lvcognisant of the materials that have to be handled on th emachine, is liable to al l sorts of imperfections , to the detr iment of the chocolate. Ofthis class of machinery, thewriterSpeaks feelingly and can but warn prospective chocolatemanufacturers against them .

Next in importance, is the old debatable point of th erespective merits of steel over granite rollers in the proces sof refining . When steel refiners were first introduced , theyrevolutionised to a great extent the chocolate industry .

They enabled chocolate makers to refine more closely and

quickly their chocolate products , but , even to this day, thereare many manufacturers and technical men who are not

226 COCOA. AND CHOCOLATE

contact with iron to be made safely and without the c a caomass acquiring a metallic flavour .Steel mills for cacao mass , or for direct grinding of th e

mass with sugar, are, to the writer’s way

'

of thi nking, i n ad

missible in the preparation of the best chocolate. Fu r th erthan this , the action of a cocoa.mill is not only to reduce th enibs to the finest state of division possible within the l im itsof the time and Space, but , also, to rupture the cell sacs and

to free the enclosed fat ; in other words , it is desirab le to

rend or tear the fibre rather than to grind . The best meth odof doing this is between two stones.

With regard to refining , much the same remarks ap p ly ,

especially in the latter sense. The action of rapidly revo lv

ing steel rollers is to crush , and, indeed , they crush and

refiney ery’

efficiently, Since there is less need to rend th e

fibres of the cacao once that has been done on the stones ofthe cocoa mi ll . But , those who have tried refining from th e

cold chocolate block on a granite mill will admit that thatmethod , too , has its advantages , which , in the production ofquality , far outweigh to a chosen few the advantages of sp eedand mechanical efficiency of later types of refiners .This argument for superiority of granite over stee l is

Often spoken of as f‘ hair- splitting,

”and, in these days of

large outputs , most manufacturers have been forced to

admit that the differences in the flavour of the chocola te.

resulting from the two procedures , are of so little importan cethat it is doubtful whether the public would realise them

,

whilst the efficiency and speed of grinding by the modernsteel refiners are SO great that he cannot afford to ignore th efinancial advantage to be derived .

Each one to h is taste, his conscience and his pocketA great many attempts have been made to reduce th e

quantity of machinery and the time taken for refiningchocolate. Some of these efforts have met with commerc ia lsuccess , but, except in the last few years , claims havenot been


made that the finest chocolate can be produced by theseShort-cut processes . It should be stated, in defence of themanufacturers of these machines , that the claims, at the

outset , have been moderate, but that it is the chocolatemakerwho has often seen in the adoption of these machines a

cheap method of manufacture of his product which he passesOff on the publ ic as finest eating- chocolate. So long as thepublic can be induced to buy such preparations by cleveradvertisement , or so long as it lacks discrimination , the use

of Short- cut machines will be found eminently satisfactoryto the chocolate manufacturer . Our own Opinion is thatthe best eating- chocolate cannot be produced on thesemachines , for reasons stated earlier in the chapter , whilst wereadily acknowledge the value of such inve tions as the

Bausman Disc machine, the Walkerx

Inach ine and

other similar devices for the manufacture of coveringchocolates in acheap and Simple manner .It is not our wish , therefore, to decry these efforts at

improvement in chocolate manufacture, just because certainextravagant claims are made. On the contrary , we wish topoint out the direction in which the chocolate manufacturermay, with advantage, adopt such inventions . For the

manufacture of covering-chocolate, for coating fancy chocolates , biscuits , etc. , there is no doubt that the BausmanDisc machine, especially , will be found eminently serviceable and profitable. Indeed , in America, the author wasstruck with the great possibilities of being able to equip a

chocolate factory with kettles and Bausman Discmachines only . It was not , however, until the author lookedinto the product that he realised that , with even the greatestcare expended , the result ing material lacked the finish thatwe expect to find in good eatingchocolates . In America,

as we have observed before, the public is not particularlydiscriminating, and, for this reason alone, the BausmanDisc machine finds , at the present time, considerable

15—z

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

popul arity among manufacturers whose business is simp lein that they can sell al l the chocolate they can m ak e

without serious consideration having to be given to qua li ty .

On the other hand , there are many excellent firms who w ou ldscorn to sell to their public covering- chocolate as a fin e

eating-chocolate.

1 . Th e B ausman D i s c M ach i ne .

The Bausman Disc reducer s is used for the s am e

purpose as the cocoa mi lls , i .e.,to reduce the nibs to a li quor

in as fine a state Ofdivision as possible. The principle un derlying this machine, as in the Bausman Di sc refiner a lso ,

is the passage of the nibs between three grooved , steel di scs .

of whi ch the centre one alone revolves . The more modernmachines are water- cooled , so that the heat of friction sh a llnot affect the cacao mass detrimentally ,

and . in thi s arran gement , lies the great advantage over stone mills , which , at

best , are bad conductors of heat , owing - to the mater ia l of

which they are made. It is certain that the faces of

the outside discs can be kept cool , even when cl ose

grinding is in Operation , though the author admi ts to

the dislike of treating cacao mass on steel rollers or dis cs,

or of allowing it to come into contact with iron or stee l ofany sort .The quantity of cacao liquor that can be reduced on a

Bausman Disc machine varies from 200 to 300 lbs . p er

hour, according to the closeness of the grinding, a triple m i llbeing capable of an output of 150 t o 250 lbs . per hour, thoughthis has been increased somewhat of late, owing to impr ovedmethods of cutting the stones . There is , therefore, a savin gboth in output and space by adopting the use of a D iscmachine, since the floor Space occupied by the latter is on ly2 feet 6 inches by 4 feet 4 inches . The power requ iredfor the Disc reducer is only 5 hp , the speed of th edriving pulley being 350 to 400 rp m . The horse- pow er


diameter . The power necessary to drive the refiner is 15h .p

the number of revolutions , required , being 300 t o 350 perminute. The refiner is especially suitable for reducing chocolate paste, after mixing , to a suitable smoothness for use as

covering-chocolate, but , as has already been indicated , somemanufacturers use the machine for preparing eating- chocolate which is not of the smoothest variety . The dics requirere- cutting fairly frequently , owing to the large output,200 t o 300 lbs . per hour according to the degree of finenessrequired , and the more modern mach ines are equipped witheasily moved discs , which, it is recommended , Should bereplaced when Showing Signs of wear . The chief disadvantage of this refiner lies in the necessi ty of adding largequantities of cacao butter in order to secure a satisfactorv

ouptut .

It is claimed by the makers that the Bausman Discmachines are very sanitary , in that the cacao liquor and

chocolate paste are protected from dust and externalcontamination . Further, it is claimed that the aroma isconserved by keeping the preparation away from the air.

An i llustration of the Bausman Disc machine (to left),and the Bausman Disc refiner (to right) is shown inFig . 16 .

2 . T h e Wa l ker M ach i ne .

The Walker machine consists of two conical , grooved

cylinders , the one Situated above the other each fittingclosely with , and revolving within , a hollow,

grooved conical

cylinder . The chocolate paste passes from one to the other

and undergoes a crushing or disintegration in its journey.

It is necessary , in order to Obtain the best results , to crush

the nibs to a liquor before mixing with sugar and passingthrough the cylinders . The sugar can be quite coarse and

crystall ine, and only a medium covering-chocolate can be

made on this machine.

WOLATE 233

s of aroma and

much time wasarticle, re l uired,the public is

wi l l to just i fy t he

ls that clef. re

.e rn inclinaia re

,usually (1

“ mg treatmen'

.e

and the ad! ofmethod of -

wkmg

a following chapter ,consider an especiallyn ation of the mostannfacture.

employed in making“i t it is the grittiness of

"m e away or to round off,w refiner, the latter in a

wortance attached to thishe found to be mi splaced .

w i l l on the small and largea lums sugar has now come

. e p in the right direction forThe. principle underlying

s o ft sugar is prepared instead‘

n -r appreciating the fact thatm lucing the particles beyonda n the grittiness felt by then produced , is of such a nature.1w r , it will be at once reduced.~r be felt as grit between thezavagant in cacao butter,v reduced the larger is the


cacao butter, present in the beans , thehigher the temper a turemay be allowed to rise.

Any suitable machine may be used , the only ess en t ialbeing, according to the inventor, that sufficient chu r n i ngand rubbing of the particles should take place, to liberate thenecessary heat . For example, as a type of apparatus th atwill perform the process , a machine can be used wh e reintwo sets of rapidly rotating paddles or the like, interlock i ngin their paths in a well -known manner, are used to effec t th epurpose.

”Needless to say, the Speed must be hi gh . The

chocolates produced by this process , as seen by the auth or,do not call for great enthusiasm as to flavour, though th e

state of divi si on 18 very fine.

5 . Comb i ned Refi ner and Water - j acketed M e l a n

geur”(Fig. Water - jacketed

“ Mel angeur ,

”

Con t i nuous Refi n i ng M ach i ne

may each be used to produce satisfactory covering-choco lateand do not call for special mention . Messrs . Joseph Baker,Sons, and Perkins , Ltd make each of these combinations andSingle machines , and can provide further information as totheir output , cost , etc.

6 . Amor p h ous Sugar .

Instead of looking to the modern chocolate machin es ,which must be recognised as fulfil ling their duties veryefficiently , the author , for many years , has been inclined tolook to the modification of the ingredients , in order to effectincrease of output without deterioration of the product .Any attempt to reduce appreciably the time taken in , or tocut out any of the Operations of , chocolatemanufacture h a s,so far , been met by failure, in that the product , resulting, h asbeen inferior in quality and aroma . There is a great deal tobe said for time-honoured customs where the quality of a

manufactured article is concerned , especially when deal ing

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

SHORT-CUTS TO THE .MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE 235

superficial area to be covered and the drier the resul tingpaste, or the greater the quantity of cacao butter necessary

Fl o. 18 .—Elevat ion and Thi rd-Floor Plan of Amw phous Sugar Plant , w ith

Refinery System. (See p .

By permission ofMessrs. Josep h Baker, Sons, and Perkins , Ltd.

to be added , to bring the chocolate to its correct consistency .

Many fondant chocolates on the market suffer from this


defect , Since their analyses Show unnecessarily high per

centages of fat .

Considerable improvements have been made in thisprocess by Bradley , Carr, Messrs . Peek , Frean Co.

,L td.

,

Messrs . Rowntree Co.,Ltd.

, and Messrs . Joseph BakerSons , Ltd. , and the method of manufacture of the suga r hasbeen described in English patent 1919 . Thispatent describes a refinement of the processes , mention ed inEnglish patents of 1903 and of 1904,

in

which the manufacture of amorphous sugar is given infull detail . It Should be remarked, incidentally , that a verygreat additional advantage to the chocolate manufac turer ,especially if he makes confectionery also , is to be foun d inthe fact that the system may be adapted to include a m in iature refinery , in which white syrups or sugars can be produced from raw sugars , a matter of very considerableimportance in these times , besides providing handsomeremuneration . A line drawing of the system is Show n inFigs . 17 and 18

, and the results , obtained in chocolate bythe use of amorphous sugar , are to be seen in the photomicrographs Shown in Chapter XXVIII. ,

Figs . 35 to 3 8 .

3333 ( TX U AND CHO COLATE

extracting mach ine. automatic weigher, or other des i r ab le

labour-aim ing device . immediately prior to moul di n

When ke t tles are used. th is process is not necessary , as th e

chw elm-e can be ma intained in them at anv req ui r e d

temperature.

Where an airs exrr act-ing machine is employed . the ch e m

la te . a t a. temperat ur e Of 253"to 34

°

C must be fed in t o

mm inno. ar nm i to a tempera:are s in i i iar to that ofthe c a s t—al’h e i tw o int e .

i

n mi s s ing fromt h e hop p er . 15 fi rm e d a?

l o in aI :m o .r sma l l “

rec entac ie . “ h ence it

a . em‘ al Ji ' i l l ! ’ .nn i :s .

‘

i l f JV 3 s amp le .iev ic e inn

i t ngfi l s at

.

It .

‘

s‘

u m ih tu r. l t x‘

t‘ tu wi JV M itt en! ) 3 M .

”5 023 .

‘ x' i lx . r. . an ap p ar atus se i nen nac m axi n g:

° i Ji . ii"J“

111 21 7 111 1"

III

m .

“

nzai zzzzi v am Hi t te r

WH U ‘QS 5 " l g

as fi nd ! i t? I“

.

v‘“

x 4 , 1 \ 1 t:“

h un ts"

L e l i nem an}:

“

U r i“

i t uh ! Al l Vi 1 '

a i ,“ q ui

" «Agiw‘

h 4

“ l ‘ l

w . r H \ 3N

“

7” f w h h'

t‘BIR -QL

l i " N l 'l I”e 3 l . . in‘L “ 1

s. \ v s . re wan

‘c I “ i ,\s I t‘ s I a “ 9 “4 1111 11 . l ‘o l

MOULDING' CHOCOLATE TABLETS 239

Autom at i c Temp er i ng M ach i ne .

As has already been stated , before moulding , it is mecessary to get the mass of chocolate to a certain and constanttemperature, if the best results are to be secured . The sameremark applies to covering-chocolate before it is placed uponthe centres , Whether by hand or by machine. To this end.

Fm. 19 .—Automat ic Tempering Mach ine for St iff and Liquid Chocolate, Mi lk

Chocolate, Coverings , etc . (See p .

By p ermiss ion ofMem e. Bramigk d:Co. , London.

melangeurs mixers , steam kettles , etc. , may be used .

Such appliances are ,however , slow and laborious in operation .

and, since it is a well recognised fact that the taste, appearance and break of the finished chocolate depend , to a verygreat extent , upon the temperature of the material duringthe moulding process , it is not surprising that the engineers


extracting machine, automatic weigher, or other desi rab l elabour- saving device, immediately prior to moul d ing .

When kettles are used , this process is not necessary , as th echocolate can be maintained in them at any requ iredtemperature.

A i r -Extr act i ng Mach i ne .

Where an air-extracting machine is employed , the ch ocolate, at a temperature of 32

° to 34° C. , must be fed into th emachine, warmed to a temperature similar to that of the p a s te .

The chocolate, in pass ing from th e hopper . is forced by a

helical axle into a small receptacle, whence it escapes througha conical orifice and is cut by a simple device into requ ir edlengths or weight s .

In a mach ine'designed by Messrs . Joseph Baker , S ons .

and Perkins , Ltd. , an apparatus , somewhat resembling th ecartridge cylinder of a revolver , is placed in front of th eoutlet of the air -extracting machine and is fitted w ith s ix

tubes,in each of which works a piston . Each tub e i s

presented , in turn , in front of the outlet and, as soon as fi l led ,

is automatically emptied by the piston so as to deliver ,i f

required , on to moulds placed on a continuous travel l ingband . By altering the size of the tubes, the machine can

be adjusted to weigh from 3:lb . to 7}lh . , or from 1 oz . up to

1h .

The overall dimensions of the machine are 5}feet longby 2 feet wide by 4 feet high .

The air-extracting machines work very well for mediumand soft pastes , but irregular and rough lengths will emergefrom the outlet if the chocolate is too dryIn many factories , the air-extractor is dispensed w i th

,

especially where hard dry pastes are employed , and in suchcases , the chocolate is pressed directly into the clean drymoulds , when the subsequent action of t he tapping tablebrings the air-bubbles to the top where they burst .

9m AND CHOCOLATE

«if the clmcolnto industry have devoted much time a n d

attention to an automatic device for achievi ng the sam e

cud.

‘

l‘

lw Autmnatic Tempering Mach ine . illustrated (Fig .

is iu‘

obubh'

the lates t “and in mach ines for bringing chocol a t

eutiuna l icalh'

andmuxtinuomxly to anv requi red tempera t a r

for cmc i'itn:or m oulding . In one mi nute from the t ime t i

'

ciuxxi late is fed into the hOpper . the mass is s t eal ? a

co i nxis tcn tb i ic'a trxi to the t:inperatare req aired . T7:

mach itte is xi tl tt‘ict in O peration and t“ 0 specia l devi c 1.

van inner.ioux des ign auto i ia t ica

i mmadma n the tem p er }.

“ he. once the “ haw been at . i s:ed .

l‘

bc mach i ne “ insi s ts of a cas t i r on stand . about 1)

long x a number UL h-s-h uw roll er s wh i ch ar e

ar ranged w h ai rs f li ers ar e two wa tere t am lcs. and 1.main “

mun g)r aises “

la wa ter fr om ”he “fi ver:to the in ner 77mwhere zl i ,

’ wa ror s l ea:e a c x r

uean s c i i w e steam. hence

a. xer ias of conner t ubes to fi l e w i lo zv r ollers. The p ip e

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MOULDING CHOCOLATE TABLETS 241

Mou l d i ng.

Assuming that the chocolate is ready to be moulded ,whether or no it has passed through the air-extractor andweighing machines , and is at a temperature of 32° C the

paste of dry chocolate may be pressed by hand into themoulds , or, if of the softer varieties ,,

spreadwith apaletteknife.

Themoulds should be of polished whitemetal , thoroughlyclean and dry

,warmed to the same temperature as the paste.

These precautions are most necessary , as the finish of thetablet or moulded article depends entirely upon the carewith which the moulds are treated. Dull spots on the

surface of the fin ished , moulded chocolate are the results ofdull , dirty moulds , or they may be caused by the mouldsbeing cooler than the paste pressed into them . The graytop surface break of the chocolate may also be put downto this same cause.

The correct temperature of chocolate paste for mouldingis from 32

°

C. to 34°C.

, though many figures have beenpublished to show the varying temperatures for moulding atdifferent times of the year . Such variations of mouldingtemperatures should not occur in factories kept at a reasonably constant temperature throughout the year, say 20

°

C.

a matter of no great difiiculty in these days of efficientheating and cooling systems . Small tablets , however ,should not be moulded below 32° C. ,

whilst larger masses ofchocolate will hold the heat they contain the longer and mavconsequently , be moulded as low as , say, 30

°

C.

If variations of temperature do occur in the atmosphereof the moulding room, it is obviously necessary to increasethe temperature of moulding, during the cold , and to lowerit , during the hot weather . Experience is the best guide tothe correct temperature for moulding during fluctuationsof atmospheric temperature, though 5

°

C. on each side of thelimits , mentioned , will certainly meet al l requirements .It is advisable to make use of a thermometer to regulate

16


the moulding temperature, though ,here again , experi ence

steps in, and it wi ll be found that persons well versed in

moulding chocolate, and especially those who are cons tan tlyhandling the same variety , can tell , as accurately as any

thermometer,when the correct temperature has been reach ed ,by the feel of the consistency of the paste or by the heat ofthe chocolate felt on the lip .

If the chocolate is to be sold by weight and to bemoulded ,the weighed paste is pressed evenly over the mould ifmerely in tablets without a guaranteed weight , suffic i entpaste to fil l the mould is pressed or filled in with a pale t tekn ife, and the surplus chocolate removed by runnin g the

knife over the surface of the mould .

Many curious defects occur on moulded chocolate tabl ets ,such as white streaks and dull patches . Most manufacturers pay no attention to these slight imperfections , wh ichare liable to appear on tablets in themost carefully controlledfactories . The author has investigated many of these faul tsand has collected the following information which may proveserviceable to the chocolate manufacturer who takes a pr idein his product . For “ fondant”chocolate, the best temperature at which to place the paste into the moulds is betw een32

°

and 34°

C. The moulds must be perfectly cleaned , freefrom moisture, fat and finger marks . Dented or brokenmoulds also produce unsightly tablets and should be

discarded .

The temperature of the setting room into which themoulds are placed , or through which they pass , should not

fall below 1 ° C. , nor rise above 8° C. in normal cl imates W itha normal room temperature of about 17° t o 18° C. If thelower temperature is employed , the transition from the

setting”room to the packing room should be slow , the

temperature gradually rising to that of the normal room .

This will prevent the formation on the tablets of dew whichwould cause other troubles , such as sweating and discolora


showed both on the moulds and the moul ded faces of the

chocolate tablets .

(4) Chocolate at 30°

C. was moulded and cooled at about4°

C. The result was slight streakiness on the moulded facesof the tablets .The defects , enumerated above, arising in moulded tab lets

of chocolatemay also be caused by too hot or too cold , d ir ty ,damp or greasy moulds . Care expended in cleaning and

tempering moul ds is well repaid by the excellence of th e

finish of the tablets .When moulding milk chocolate, the paste may be t aken

straight from the conche ,”if at the correct temperature,

or after tempering to about 34° C. , which has been foun d tobe the best moulding temperature. Cooling is con du c tedat about 7° C. for from 30 to 35minutes , and it shoul d beremembered that milk chocolate cools much more s low lythan plain chocolate.

Mou l ds .

The appearance of a finished chocolate depends upon the

temperature at which the moulding is conducted , the n a tureof the ingredients and, especially , upon the quality of th e

moulds . The temperature of the chocolate and of th e

moulds is most important in securing a good finish to the

surface of chocolate, but no amount of care, expended in thisdirection , can ensure a high glaze if the moulds are imperfect .During the tapping or shaking process , the soft chocolate isshaken into intimate contact with every part of the surfaceof the mould , so that , if there are any faulty apertures , th echocolate, on cooling, hardens into them , and the subsequentknocking-out has to be excessive, reducing considerably thelife of the moulds and making the surface of the chocol atetablets unsightly . Undulations and irregularities of the

mould,which might easily escape detection on examinat ion ,

show up very markedly on the chocolate tablet produced inan imperfect mould.


The most satisfactory moulds , of which thewriter knows ,are those made by Anton Reiche, who are the sole makersof Plattinol ,

”a special compound metal that takes a very

fine polish and that , unlike tin -plate, is not a sur faced metal .The gloss obtained on the chocolate is superb , and themouldsare more solidly constructed and lasting in use than thosemade of tin . The cost of Plattinol moulds is approxi

Flo . 20.—Noi seless Shaking Table. (See p .

By permission of Mca n. Bramigk do Co. , London.

mately 30 per cent . higher than tinned moulds (at the

present time) but the excellence of the result and the

longer l ife make the h igher price of no account .The agents for Anton Reiche in Great Britain and the

colonies are Messrs . Bramigk Cc . ,92 , Fenchurch Street ,

London , E C) . 3 .

Th e Tap p i ng T ab l e or S h aker .

The chocolate-fil led moulds are then placed on the

tapping table (Fig. an apparatus which , by means of a


roughly toothed wheel placed beneath the table- sur face , i s

given a rapid and violent vibrating movement , and couse

quently, the moulds , placed thereon , suffer the same tr ea tment. The effect of this is to cause the chocolate to run intoevery corner of themould , completely filling it , and, by comi n ginto close contact with the polished metal , the chocola te isgiven a high polish when cold . Any bubbles which may be

retained in the paste are brought to the top and burst , bu tthey may be removed by a kn i fe, or by breaking them w iththe tip of the finger, if the vibration is insufficient to cause

them to burst of their own accord .

The noise, created by the bumping of the table- top and

of the moulds upon it , is very considerable, and, where m anytapping tables are at work, i t becomes deafening . There are

now, fortunately , on the market noiseless tapping tab leswhich reduce the greater part of this inconvenience w i th th e

exception of the noise caused by the moulds themse lves .

The clattering of the moulds cannot be obviated , as i t i snecessary to jar them continuously and violently , a res ultwhich could not be obtained if a fel t or other silencer W ereplaced upon the table.

The tables are adjusted so as to administer anyth ingfrom a very heavy shaking down to the merest vibrat ion

,so

that al l sizes of moulds , containing the thickest to the th innest tablets of chocolate, from hard , dry paste to the mos tliquid , can be efficiently shaken into the moulds and freedfrom bubbles .The average dimensions of a tapping table are 3 feet long ,

2 feet wide, and 3 feet high , but bat teries of tapping tab lesare now made, which greatly facilitate the work .

Batteries of any required length can be obtained fromMessrs . Joseph Baker, Sons and Perkins , Ltd. , or fromMessrs . Bramigk Co. , both of whom have also speciali sedin continuous mould-fil l ing, tapping and cooling p lan ts ,described later . The moulds are carried over the tapp ing


to the impressions of the mould which is slipped i n

underneath . After the chocolate, warmed to the cor rec ttemperature, has been placed into the receptacle, th e

plunger is lowered by the turning wheel , and , when gent lepressure is felt on the chocolate mass , a small quantity of th epaste is forced through the perforations of the bottom intothe corresponding impressions of the mould .

The surplus chocolate is removed from the mould-

p lateby a scraper , and the chocolate-fil led moulds are then pl a cedon the tapping table. In this way, a very large number of

moulds can be filled in a short time and at a much grea terspeed than by hand -fil l ing.

By so arranging the drop press , the chocolate can be madeto deposit , on plain sheets of t in , in drops of any size and can

be caused to assume a symmetrical , thin and flattened sh apeby placing the sheet on the tapping table.

The drops can be covered , if desired , with coloured sugaror hundreds and thousands ”before being placed in th e

cooling chamber . The modern power-driven Drop Pres sis a great improvement on the hand-machine. Part icu larsof the latest press , made byMessrs . Lehmann , can be obtain edfrom Messrs . Bramigk Co.

C h ocol ate Cool er s

When the moulds have been filled and tapped , th eyshould be cooled down , so as to harden the chocolate for

knocking-out . It has been shown by experience that the

texture and appearance of moulded chocolate are improvedby rapid cooling—facts which are probably due to the formation of small crystals of cacao butter when rapidly cool ed

,

whereas slow cooling would produce larger and coarsercrystalline formation . On the other hand , there are greaterdangers in too -rapid cooling, if the utmost care is not takento prevent the condensation of moisture, which will occurif the cold tablets are taken into a warmer and moister room


immediately from the cooling chamber . The deposition ofmoisture may also take place in the cold room itself, if theair is not kept dry by keeping the 'chamber closed as much aspossible.

It is true that themaj ority of firms make use of artificiallycooled rooms or chests in which the temperature is notallowed to rise above zero ,main lv for the purpose of accelerating the cooling process , but better , safer and more consistentresults will be obtained if a room, kept constantly at a lowtemperature, of say 8

°

C.,is employed for cooling down the

chocolate. In winter months , this should not be difficult toobtain , but, in the warmer summer days , artificial coolingwould have to be resorted to , unless the room were situatedwell below the level of the ground .

There are many systems for producing low temperaturesartificially , and they are al l based upon the principle ofabsorption of heat when a volatile liquid , such as an easilycompressible gas in condensed form, is allowed to expand tothe gaseous state. The cold , so created , may be allowed toact directly upon the cooling chamber , or to be impartedto solutions of salts , such as of calcium chloride, which ,flowing through pipes in and around the chamber, quicklylower the temperature. Liquid ammonia,

carbonic acid , andsulphurous acid are chiefly used for producing the cold , and,by a system of alternate expansion and compression, thevolatile liquids are reduced first to the gaseous state and thenback to the liquid form,

the result of the fir st process beingallowed to react in the neighbourhood of the cooling chamber,or upon the brine solution, without loss or escape of thegases .For large cooling chambers , the brine and ammonia

system is most economical . The brine may either circulatein pipes around the chamber , or be in turn deprived of itschill by a strong draught of air blowing through it , as it fallsover the cold ammonia pipes .


In smaller factories , where the cooling requirements are

not so great , the carbonic or sulphurous acid system, coup l edwith circulating brine, will be found to be the most servi ceable and efficient and to occupy only a small space.

The drying of the cold air acts as a safeguard aga i n stcondensation of moisture on the surface of the chocol a te ,

though the same danger by removing the cold , full mou l ds

to a warmer, moister room will stil l be incurred . To obvi a tethis , it is desirable to bring the temperature of the moul ds

slowly up to that of the factory , either by passing them on a

slow travel ling band through chambers of steadily increas i ngtemperature, or by placing them in a room at a temperat urebetween that of the cold room and that of the factory fora short time prior to knocking the chocolate from th e

moulds .When the chocolate and moulds have attained thenorm a l

temperature of the factory , the moulds should be sl igh t lybent backwards or gently tapped to remove the con ten t s ,which may then be packed in tin - foil and wrapper, ready forthe market .The moulds should never be struck hard to remove th e

chocolate, and, if moulded at the correct temperature, th erewill be no need , for the tablets will fall out without tapping .

If too h igh a temperature has been employed dur ingmoulding, the chocolate will stick tight to the mould , andthe surface will be Spotted with dull patches if moulded toocold , the surface will be whitish and marbled.

Dur ing cooling, the chocolate contracts and generatesfrictional electricity , which has been attributed to the

rubbing of the par ticles of chocolate on themetallic surface ofthe mould containing it . A certain Mr . Sanders , a chocolatemaker, observed this and found that , by continually heatingand cooling the chocolate, the power of generation of electricity gradually disappeared , but that it could be restored bvaddition of a small quantity of olive oi l .

The moul d-fill ing machine (Fig. 21 ) consists of a w a te r

jacketed h opper , for main taining the chocolate at the correcttemperature for moul ding, and is furnished wi th

Fm . 2 1 .—I’atent Mould -fi l l ing Machine , combined w ith Improved Cont inuous Tapp i ru:

Table . (See p .

By permi ss ion 0] Hum . Josep h B aker, Sons and Perk ins , Ltd.

blades whi ch keep the chocolate i n motion and of even

consistency . Apair of adjustable rollers , fixed to the bottomof the h opper , feed the ch ocolate into themeasuring cylin der swhich are so constructed as to be able to fil l any mould W i t hth e exact amount of ch ocolate pas te, soft or hard , that mav

MOULDING’ CHOCOLATE TABLETS 253

be requi red There is a cut-off arrangement which leavestails , and the machine is adj ustable for different

weights and can be regulated wh ilst running.

According to the consistency of the paste, the machinescan be run at varying speeds with stiff chocolate , somefifteen strokes to the minute, and wi th lighter pastes , sometwenty-five strokes p er minute wil l be found sui table. Thi smeans that from 60 to 100 moul ds per minute can be fil led ,accordin g to the size Of the tablets and to the nature of thechocolate.

The machine is made to take a tray of moulds about17% inches wide, outside measurement , and, when working onlarge tablets w ill deposit some nine tons of chocolate

per day. Any size tablets , neapolitans , croquettes , etc. , can

be deposited by th is machine, and, of course, the output willvary according to the size of tablet to be moul ded , but thestandard machine is made for a maximum deposit Of

2 to 24lbs . of chocolate per stroke. One Operator to feed themach ine is al l that is requi red , the remainder of the Operationbeing automatic . The moulds , after passing beneath thedepositor, are conveyed on to the tapping tables , over thewhole series Ofwhich they pass , whilst the chocolate is settleddown rapidly and evenly in to the moulds . The tappingtables can be adjus ted by means of a hand-wheel to fit anyrequired degree Of tapping at any point , and the vibration .

caused , is more rapid than on the ordinary tables , as thismotion has been found to be more effective. For liqui dchocolate, seven , for average work, nine, and for very stiffchocolate, twelve tables in series are recommended . A

further improvement is to provide the tables with dust -proofcovers with heavy plate-

glass tops whi ch , besides improvingthe appearance of the moul ding room and safeguarding thechocolate against dust , greatly minimise the noise of thetapping tables .An Operator empties the moulds from the trays on to the


mould in the form of a ribbon , without soiling the rims of th emoulds . From to chocolate tablets p er ten

FIG . 23 .—Weigh ing and Moulding Mach ine , for al l classes of

Chocolate. (See p .

By permi ss ion of M essrs . Bramigk d:Co., London .

hours can be deposited by this machine, which can be madeto deliver the moulds to an endless belt , thence to the

tapping tables and cooling chamber .

MOULDING’ CHOCOLATE TABLETS 257

The machine consists of a hopper, jacketed and fittedwith the necessary pipes and connections for steam-heatingand water- cooling, so that the correct moulding temperaturecan easily be maintained . The hOpper is also fitted withstirrers and thermometers . The chocolate is dischargedthrough an outlet at the bottom of the hOpper, and severalnozzles , for moulds of various widths, are suppl ied with themachine. If the machine is to be used for nut or almondchocolate containing whole nuts , a special stirrer and nozzleare necessary ; otherwise no alteration to the machine isrequired .

Wr ap p i ng.

The purpose of wrapping is twofold : to protect thechocolate from atmospheric moisture and oxidation and fromsunlight , and to make an attractive package.

So far as the fir st is concerned , chocolate deterioratesrapidly on exposure to damp and light , the worst possibleconditions being those obtaining in a shOp-window lighted by

gas , especially in winter time. The fir st effect of moistureis to dull the surface of the chocolate and, later, to causesmall drops of moisture to appear . The drops of water areabsorbed by the finely divided sugar which is dissolved , and,

even if the water is subsequently evaporated off, the appearance of the chocolate remains unsightly and has

, al l the

appearance of stale stock . Sunlight and warmth have theeffect , first , of melting the surface of the chocolate and, later,after the chocolate has set again , Ofturning the surfacewhite,dull and streaky , due to the partial separation of fat and

sugar , both light- coloured materials , from the darker cacaomatter . How far oxidation is responsible for the deterioration of chocolate in sunlight and warmth it is not easy to say,

yet it has been shown that chocolate wrapped in silverpaper or foil

,which is practically air- tight , is less liable

to these changes . It is certain that foil-wrapped chocolateis less affected by damp atmosphere indeed , well-wrappedW.C. 17


chocolate is entirely resistant to damp , though the adverseconditions of heat , often accompanying dampness ,

‘

s eem

to cause some deterioration , especial ly if applied con

tinuously,or intermi ttently , - over long periods of time. It.

may,therefore, be asserted that wrap ping chocolate in

silver paper or foil is beneficial to the producer and to

the consumer ; to the latter, also , because the chocolate ismaintained in more hygienic condition .

During the war , many substitutes for silver paper w eretried , waxed paper and other moisture-resisting papers , but,from examination of the chocolatewrapped in thesemater ials,it is certain that they were less effective in keeping the chocolate in good condition than tin foil . Before the war , aluminium foil was very popular , not only because it was s l igh tlvcheaper than silver paper,

”so far as its covering capac itywas concerned , but owing to the ease with which it cou ld beembossed or printed with fancy designs and colours . In

appearance, it made a very attractive wrapping, but , ow ingto the fact that it was full of minute holes , aluminium foilwas far less effective than silver paper in keepin g thechocolate in good condition . As both “

silver paper and

aluminium foil are sold by the pound weight , the latter be ingvery much lighter than the former though higher in p rice , a

pound of aluminium foil contains very many more sheetsthan does a pound of si lver '

paper which , though ch eaperby weight , has less covering capacity . It becomes , th en , a

matter for the manufacturer to decide which foi l to adoptfrom the economic point of view , though , as has beenindicated , there is no doubt which is the more eflicien t.

From the point of view of the consumer, who oftenimagines that wrapping is a means of enabling the manufac

turer to sell paper at the price of chocolate, it sh ou ld beemphasised that the matter has been discussed on manv

occasions . Whilst , weight for weight , tinsel or foil is moreexpensive than chocolate, some retailers have expressed the


chocolates and other sweets in their shop windows for any

lengthy period .

It is not intended to give an accoun t of wrapp ingmachines for covering finished chocolates with paper and foil .

Such machines can now be obtained in any country , thoughAmerica has Speciali sed particularly in this branch ofengineering.

BLOOM.

The bloom that appears on chocolates , usually after they have beenkept for some time, is simi lar in appearance to that of the bloom on

grapes—a soft bluish -white efflorescence showing on the surface of the

chocolate. The occurrence Of this bloom has been attributed to var ious

causes—to the fat, sugar, nature of the covering-chocolate used , and to

the conditions under which the chocolates have been kept . We h ave

cons idered this matter very closely, and we have not been able to find any

make of chocolate which is not subject to this defect under condi t ion s of

fluctuating temperatures . Firstly, it occurs on bitter chocolate or cacao

mass , hence the sugar theory may be dismissed ,and it w i ll occur on most

chocolates al lowed to cool very slowly at normal room temperatures, It

occurs more Often on very fatty chocolates , and, hence, is liable to be foundmost commonly on chocolate-covered goods , such as chocolate b i scuits ,fan

’

cy chocolates , etc . Secondly, stale stock of either of these kinds w illoften exhibit bloom,

”and microscop ical examination shows tha t i t is

due to minute crystals of fat . The occurrence of bloom is, then,

more easily understood if it is appreciated that it arises on the surface Of

chocolates which have undergone fluctuations of temperature above and

below the melting- point of the fat . It is true that dampness encourages

bloom and that foi l-wrapped goods show less bloom than the

unwrapped article, but we have been unable to secure exactly the same

appearance as bloom by submitting chocolates to damp air for even

long periods , and there is every reason to believe that close contact of the

foil with the chocolate would, to a large extent , prevent the format ion of

crystals Offat, at any rate, from standing out from the surface and givi ngthe characteristic appearance which is known in the trade as bloom .

”

B loom can be avoided in the factory by quickly cooling the goodsas soon as covered,

and by not allowing the chocolate-covered articles tostand about in a warm room once they have been set . The stock- room

should be kept at a uniform medium temperature, well below the me lt ingpoint ofthe fat, and, ifshopkeepers paid the same attention to the keepingof their own stock, there would be less trouble arising between manufacturer and retai ler owing to the deterioration ofchocolate due to thi s cause.

CHAPTER XVIII

ANALYSES OF PLAIN EATING -CHOCOLATES AND

CHOCOLATE POWDERS

PLAIN chocolates , the preparation of which has beendescribed in the foregoing chapters , should consist only ofroasted and shelled cacao beans , sugar, small quantities Offlavouring matters and added cacao butter .Booth has frequently pointed out the need for a definition

of chocolate in England and has strongly advocated that theaddition of starch and fats , other than those natural ly present in the cacao bean , and of shell powder, should beabsolutely excluded from any article which is to be soldunder the name of Chocolate.

”

The limit of 65 per cent . of sugar has also been suggested ,but

, at present, there is no legal standard for chocolate. The

analyses of several wel l-known brands are, perhaps , the bestguides as to what chocolate should be.

The quality of a chocolate does not , however, entirelydepend upon its chemical composition , but largely , also , uponthe nature of the bean used and the processes adopted , duringmanufacture. The degree of fineness , to which the chocolatehas been ground , is Ofconsiderable importance at the presenttime, since there is , in Europe at any rate, the demand for apleasant smoothness of consistency .

On the other hand , were it not for the careful attentiongiven to chemical analysis , the public might still be sufferingin the same way as in the days of Hassall

,though it would

seem that there is the greater need for definite legislation onthe subject now , as themethods ofadulteration are far moresubtle than in Hassall

’s time.


In reading Hassall in Food and its Adulteration ,

published in 1876, one cannot fail to be struck by the amaz ingfrauds that existed at that time, if al l he writes be correct ,and of the remarkable improvements in the nature of our

foodstuffs made in the last forty-five years . In quot ingfrom the

. work of Normandy, he says :“ Unfortun ately ,

however , many Of the preparations of the cocoanut (cacaobean) , sold under the names of chocolate, of cocoa flakes andof chocolate powder , consist of a most disgusting mixture ofbad or musty cocoanuts , with their shells , coarse sugar of thevery lowest quality , ground with potato starch , old s ea

biscuits,coarse branny flour, animal fat (generally tal low or

even grooves) . I have known cocoa powder made Ofp ota tostarch moistened with a decoction Of cocoanut shells and

sweetened with treacle chocolate made of the same

materials with the addition of tallow and of ochre. I havealso met with chocolate in which brickdust or red ochre h adbeen introduced to the extent of 12 per cent . ; an oth ersample contained 22 per cent . of peroxide of iron , th e restbeing starch , cocoanuts with their shells and tallow .

“ Messrs . Jules Garnier and Harel assert that cinn abarand red lead have been found in certain samples of chocola te,and that serious accidents have been caused by thatdiabolical adulteration .

”

Hassall , himself, from the examination of twelve samples ,found added starch in eight of them ,

ranging from 10 per

cent . of sago starch to 30 per cent . of wheat flour, bes ides alarge proportion of sugar . He says “

Besides the aboveingredients , several of the chocolates contained colouredferruginous earths ,

”and admits that , as chocolate is a com

pound article, there can be no valid objection to the inclusionof sugar and starch , provided that the composition is

acknowledged , the main points to be considered being theprice of the article and the proportions and quality of the

ingredients of which it is composed .


poin t of coconut fat is somewhat lower than cacaobutter, and it does not possess the same body . It w ou ld ,therefore, be included for no other purpose th ancheapening the chocolate, as it would not impart hardenin gqualities .Beef and mutton fat are not likely to be found in choco

late, as the combination Ofanimal fats and cacao butter donot keep well , and, after the chocolate containing either ofthese animal fats has remained in stock for a short time, i twill acquire a tallowy taste which will predomi nate overthe aromatic flavour Ofthe cacao .

It is , however , desirable to be prepared to meet with any

possible adulterant , and the methods of detection of an y

added matter found in chocolate, to date, will be discussedin the third part of the book .

In the quarter ending December , 1908, the BoroughAnalyst to the Southampton Town Council examined sevensamples of chocolate and, in his remarks on same, said tha tthis article was a mixture of cocoa with starch , sugar , and

other materials , varying in price from at least 23 . to 8d.

p er pound retail , the difference in price depending upon th e

quality and relative proportions of the materials . Th e

samples received were al l of the cheapest quality , retailedto the poorer classes at two ounces a penny . Their con stituents were cocoa, sugar, wheat - starch , coconut in two cases ,and, in four cases , condensed milk had been used . Thev

were al l free from oxide of iron which was sometimes usedto deepen the colour in the cheaper kinds . One of th esamples of milk chocolate was distinctly rancid , owing to

slight decomposition of the constituents , and would be

liable to produce disturbance of the digestive organs , ifpartaken of freely . With that exception , they were al l goodvalue for money and healthy heat -giving foods .Booth has made a careful study of the analys is of

N. P. Booth , The Ana lys t, 1909 , xxxiv. , 145.

ANALYSES OF PLAIN EATING-CHOCOLATES 265

chocolates , and, as the results , Obtained , are interesting andvaluable, a few of them are here included

TABLE XL .

—Analyses of some Plain Chocolates .

samp les .

Fat 34-60 336 0 25-60 22 -10 28 -10 23 -70 27 -40

Sucrose 46 -00 50 -50 53 -00 54 -00 52 -20 540 0 534 0

Nitrogen 0 -86 0 -8 1 0 -86 0 -93

Mineral matter 1 -45 10 5 1 -41 1 -22 1 -50 148 1 -32

Cold -water extract 50 -00 54-80 56 90 58 -10 58 -20 58 -90 56 -80

These figures Show,merely, the fluctuation in the com

position oi chocolate, due to the presence of different quantities of added sugar and cacao butter, and are typical ofthe maj ority of better- class chocolates on the market .The same author has, however, analysed several adul

terated chocolates , with the following results

TAB LE XLI.

—Analyses of some Adulterated Plain

Chocolates .

V. VIII .

Mois ture 1 -80 0 -80 1 -10 12 0 3 -80 3 -60

Mineral matter 1 -04 10 3 1 -96 08 5 0 -88 10 5

Fat 25-90 23 -00 23-30 30 70 32 -93 29 -80 27 -20 24-35

Sucrose 480 0 56 -00 56 -00 44 -00 46 -00 47 -00

Foreign starch 15-00 8 -00 7 -50 20 -00 N i l . 10-00 200 0Character of starch Arrow Wheat Wheat Maize Arrow Arrow

root root root Sago

F a t - f r e e cocoa

matter 10 -00 12 -00 12 -20 8 -30 20 -60 12 00 84 0

Fibre (calculatedon fat -free cocoamatter ) 88 0

The high percentage of mineral matter in sample IV. isat tributed to the addition of red ochre, and the 32 93 percent . fat, found in V. ,

consisted mainly of foreign fat .


It is impossible to fly in the face of these recordedfigures and to say that all chocolates are free from adu lteration Of added mineral matter and foreign fats , but it is ourexperience that the majority of chocolates on the market

are remarkably pure, with the exception of occasional addition of starch and cacao butter substitutes ,wh ich are usua l lvOf vegetable origin , and Of the careless or intentional inclusion of cacao husk or shell powder .Those chocolates with under 25 per cent . of fat w ere

probably of the dry variety, as the large proportion of sugarpresent , amounting to over 55 per cent . of the chocola te,

would have the tendency to dry up the existing fat and

render them more suitable for the preparation of chocola tepowders or for use as a beverage.

Chocolates containing 60 per cent . of sugar wou ld beincapable of being moulded without further addition ofcacao butter .Génin has divided h is analyses under the headings of

German , French and Spanish chocolates , and his resul ts are

collected in Table XLII.

TABLE XLII. —Analyses of some P lain Chocolates .

German . French . Spanish .

Moi stureFat

Nitrogenous matter

TheobromineSucrose

Starch

Cel lulose

Ash l -75 1 8 7 2 -43 3 2 3

From these figures , it would appear that the Frenchfavour the driest and sweetest chocolate,

the Germans preferring those more fatty . It is a pity that no figures are

given for cellulose in the Spanish chocolates , as the h ighM. V. Gen in , Encyc. Chimique, x. , 4504.


cacao , free from al l substitutes . Under the microscope,the sugar was seen to be in an extremely fine state of

division , and the mass was entirely free from husk or addedstarch .

Al l good fondant chocolates show about the same

analysis , the difference in the various flavours , consistencies ,etc. , being due to the blends Of beans , used , and to themethods of preparation .

Dubois , in a private communication to the author,h as

submitted some analyses of American chocolates , a few of

which are shown in Table XLIII.

TAB LE XLIII.—Analyses of some American Plai n

Chocolates .

SucroseFat

Crude fibreAsh

Water -insoluble ash

Water -soluble ash

Acid - insoluble ash

Alkal i -soluble ash

Alkal i - insoluble ash

Moi stureReichert -Mei ss l value of

fat

Refract ive index at

40°C. offat 14 562 14552

Sapon ificat ion value of

fat 195 60 206 30

Iodine value offat 30 -80

Crude fibre on s .-f. -w .

free bas i s 550 1 13 8

Ash on s .-f.

-w .-free bas i s 7 -85 9 -00

Water - insoluble ash on

s .-f. -w .

- free bas isWater -soluble ash on

s .-f. -w .

-free bas i sAcid -insoluble ash on

s .-f. -w .

-free bas i sAlkal i -soluble ash on

s .-f.

-w .-free bas i s

Alkal i - insoluble ash on

s .-f. -w .

-free bas i s

Only VI. and VII of these analyses are those of i on .

ANALYSES OF PLAIN EATING-OHOCOLATES 269

dant chocolates which , even at the time of the author ’svisit to America,

late in 1919, had not found great popularity on that continent . Further , it will be observed , fromthe chemical and physical constants of the fat , that otherfats , besides cacao butter, had been used occasionally .

In a searching investigation OfWiley , published in hisTests of Foods and Beverages , 1914, strong criticismswere passed on many American products . Without expressing any Opinion on the actual report , which is clearly that ofa fanatic , the author is of the Opinion that much good .wouldresult to the public if similar tactics were adopted in thiscountry .

In the report below , the starred products were thosemarked and rated at 85 to 100, as representing high qualityand ful l weight and measure, with accurate labelling and

reasonably conservative claims .N indicated non- commi ttal , rating between 76 and

84, given to products subject to such criticism , in my judgment ,

”as incorrect label ling, slightly short-weight , relatively

inferior quality, etc.

D indicated disapproved products , rated at 75 and

less , which were, in a few instances only , actually harmful ,but which were so classed because they were, in myOpinion ,

”of low quality, were misbranded , or carriedgrossly exaggerated claims as to effi ciency or nutritive value.

Ofthis class , there are no examples of the Specimens of cocoaand chocolate that Wiley examined .

Baker , Walter , (B Co. , Dorchester , Mass .

Breakfast Cocoa . (Claim absolutely pure untenable,as always .)

Bensdorp , Amsterdam, Hol land. (Bartlett , Stephen L . ,

N Royal Dutch Cocoa . (Good Dutch process cocoa, butpresence of added mineral ingredients makes statement Is acknowledged by the leading authorities


to be absolutely pure cocoa ’

especially object ionable . )

B lockers Amsterdam and New York.

B lookers’

Daaldera Cocoa . (Dutch process , 3% per een‘

alkali added , proper ly labell ed , good quahty . )B ugler

’

s,New York.

Cocoa , Huyler’

s . (Mineral ingredi ents sl ightly high no‘

added alkali,h owever . )

Lowney,Walter M . Comp any,

Boston,M ass .

Breakfast Cocoa. (Good quality extravagan t cl ainr

Un like any other Of special benefit to th ose 0:

deli cate

Ill ai l lard,Henry,

35th and 5ih Avenue, New York .

Mail lard ’

s Breakfast Cocoa . (Extravagant claims a

to solubi lity ,absolute purity n o cocoa 1~

th oroughlyMail lard ’s Premi um Ch ocol ate .

Peter Cai l ler Kohler Swi ss Chocolates Co.,Fulton

,

Breakfast Cocoa . (‘

Absolutely pure claim extrav a

gant . )Phi l lip s , C harles H Chemi cal Co.

,New York .

IVPh illi ps Digestible Cocoa . (NO righ t to the claim o:

special digest ibil ity ; phosphates added , about 21‘

per cent . of sugar and van il l a—declared on label s

Stol lwercl:B rothers , Inc.

,New York.

Gold Premi um Brand Chocolate .

Tan Hea ten and Sons , Hol land.

N Van Houten’

s Famous Cocoa , un excelled . (Gres t i‘.

exaggerated claims as to improvement of th e pro

duct by the Dutch treatment w ith al kal i . )

Wh i tman,Stephen F and Son , Phi ladelphi a ,

Pa .

Instantaneous Chocolate . (A sw eet chocolate about. l l zl l l

sugar , 24 per cent . fat sh oul d be so label led .)


be noticed that there are only very small differences in the

sugar and fatcontent of the different classes of chocolate.

Microscopical examination , however , reveals very great differences in the fineness of the sugar, and, again , it i s des iredto point out that the individuality of the special chocolatesdepends upon the quality of beans , used , and upon the

method of manufacture.

It has already been stated that , during the war , B r itainbecame the dumping ground for inferior chocolates . Manyof the products were most objectionable to taste, to smelland to look at , yet they had a certain sale at the t ime . It

is unfortunate that more full analyses were not condu ctedon the many samples that came for examination into our

laboratory , but there were more important matters on h and .

The few figures that follow in the next table, and th e com

ments made, at the time, upon some of those chocola tes , willshow

,to some extent , to what the British public subm i t ted

in the way of chocolates during the chocolate- famin e yearsof the war . The first chocolate is of American manu fac ture .

The second Dutch , and the third and worst Brit ish , and

these are only three selected from a very large numb er ofsimilar concoctions .


Ash per cent .

Cane sugar per cent .

Glucose per cent

Fat per cent .

Crude fibre per cent .

Butyro refractometer value of fat at 40

0

°

C.

Mel t ing point offat i n degrees C.

I . The flavour was most objectionable and coul d h avebeen obtained only from the most inferior beans . Th e

sugar particles , extracted with dry ether , showed large p i eces“

116 mm . in size and appeared to be only slightly , if a t

ANALYSES OF PLAIN EATING CHOCOLATES 273

al l , refined . The cacao mass was not fine and containedlarge quantities of husk . The fat was largely cacao buttersubstitute of low melting point .II . Most unpleasant to the palate, suggesting cacao h usk

and flavouring matter . The sample melted easily , and,

when the fat was extracted and the ether driven off, twoportions , one liquid and one solid , separated out in the proportion of 1 to 2, respectively . The chemical and physicalconstants of the extracted fat suggested a mixture of onepart palm kernel oil to two parts of cacao butter.III . Extremely unpleasant to taste, very gritty 1mder the

teeth and much inferior to any of the common brands ofgenuine chocolates , examined previously . Largely composedof cacao husk , sugar , syrup , cacao butter substitutes andstarch .

C h ocol ate Pow der s .

Chocolate powders , such as many makers now produce,usually contain from 20—25 per cent . of fat and 50—60 percent . of sugar, with the addition of foreign starch , in themaj ority of cases , to add to the thickening property of thebeverage and to the maintenance of the chocolate in a fine,powdered form .

Ewell gives the following analyses of some commercialchocolate powders

TAB LE XLV.—Analyses of some Commercial Chocolate

Powders .

25-84 25-94 18 -60

1 -51 08 1

51 -00 260 0 550 0

1 -66 3 -15 1 -16

Very smal l Much Much wheatamoun t of arrowroot . starch , somearrowroot . arrowroot .

E . E. Ewel l , U.S . Dep t. ofAgr icul ture, Bul l . 13 .


Bel l has given analyses of several prepara tions 0

cocoa, such as Iceland Moss Cocoa,

”B ock Cocoa,

TABLE XLVI.-Analyses of some American Chocolate

Powders .

Ground Ground Powdered

chocolate. chocolate.

Moi sture 1 -43

Sucrose 57 -77 41 0 8—54-46 44-14

Fat 189 0 199 5—25-04 1405

Crude fibre 08 ?

Ash 3 -16

Water-insoluble ash

Water-soluble ash

Acid-insoluble ash

Alkal i -soluble ashAlkal i -insoluble ash

Reichert -Mei ss l valueoffat

194-90

Iodine value offat

free bas i s


f . -s .-w .

-free bas i sWater-soluble ash

f. -s -w .-free bas i s

Alkal l -soluble ash

f . -s .-w .

-free bas isAlkal i -insoluble ash

f. -s .-w .

- free bas i sAcid-insoluble ash

f. -s .-w .

-free bas is

Butter fat

Microscop ical exami nat ion .

Casein

Flake Cocoa, and Chocolat de Santé,”

wh icl.

consisted of —5-5 per cent . of moisture, 17—25 per

cent . of fat, ni l to 25 per cent . of added starch , and

J. Bel l , The Chemistry of Foods , 1887, 89.

CHAPTER XIX

RECIPES FOR MAKING CHOCOLATE—PLAIN AND FOND ANT”

CHOCOLATES, AND CHOCOLATE P0\VDERS

FROM the analysis of a chocolate, it is very easy to r econstruct one possessing the same chemical composition , b ut. it

is exceedingly difficult , without much experience, to determine how a special flavour or aroma is obtained .

This is obvious , seeing that different methods in m anufacture will give different aromatic qualities to th e c acao

and that small quantities of an'

essential oil , blending w iththe natural aroma of the cacao , will completely a l ter the

flavour of a chocolate.

*

Treatment with alkali will give a certain resu lt , and

chocolate, so prepared , can be detected by analysis , bu t theblending of different varieties of beans , which i s of h ighimportance in chocolate-making, and the addition of a dropor two of an essential oil to a hundredweight of ch oco late.

cannot be so determined .

Various flavours , such as vanilla, cinnamon , an d other

Spices , coffee, oil of coriander and other aromatic bodie .

combine so well with cacao that nearly every manu fac turerof chocolate has some secret condiment , or blend of flavouring matters , with which to give his products a character , and

which , he claims , secures a unique result .Each country may be said to have its fancy in flavour

France prefers its chocolate mixed with almonds, haze l - n utor chestnuts in small quantities, to give a nutty flavour .Spain likes spiced chocolate, America consumes most ly mi lk

Vide Chapter XXIII.

RECIPES FOR MAKING CHOCOLATE 272

chocolate, often with whole nuts or almonds embedded inthe cakes , while England favours vanilla flavour. Everycountry

,moreover, has a slightly different variety of beans

from which to select , and the characteristic flavours of thevarieties of cacao beans , a s ubject already dealt with , playno small part in determinin g the final flavour of the resultingchocolate. Added to th is , special methods of preparation,particular to individual fac tories , enable an almost endlessnumber of combinations to be made.

It is not intended to give a very long list of possibleblends of cacao , for it would be useless , but a few selectedrecipes of known worth have been chosen .

D ry C h ocol ates .

FRENCH RECIPES .

Recipe 1 . (Emi le Duval in Confiserie Moderne.

l bs . ozs .

Arriba 2 3

Para 3 4

Machala 2 3

Large nibs 20 12

Almonds 1 2

Hazel-nuts 4 6

Cacao butter 1 2

Chestnut sugar 38

Ordinary sugar 16 0

Vanillin sugar 0 2

Ordinary sugar (second addition) 10 10

100 O

The figures are somewhat awkward , but they have beenobtained from an original recipe and increased to total 100,so that estimation of the percentages of cocoa, fat and sugarcan be readily made.

The chestnut sugar in the above recipe is prepared by


boiling the waste syrup , after the chestnuts for Ma r ronsGlacés have been crystallised in it , to 145

°

C. th e sugaris then briskly stirred , so as to cause granulation and a s andyconsistency sable and dried in a drying room pr ior toits addition to the chocolate. This sugar, which , owing to itsdark colour, has no other application in confectionery , can.

with advantage, be used in chocolate for its nutty flavour .

The chocolate from this recipe is one of the dry var iety,

and, for this reason , the whole of the sugar shoul d n o t be

added at once, but , after the first portion has been w orkedinto the cacao paste in

.

the melangeur, the mix tu re isplaced in a pan in the hot cupboard , to recover its softness .

The rest of the sugar is then added , and the wh ole well

worked again in the melangeur, refined to the requ iredsmoothness and moulded . This is not a chocolate of fin est

quality .

Water Ch ocol ates .

W hilst Speaking of chocolates of the dry variety ,it i

impossible to pass over the mention of so- called Water

Chocolates . Manipulation with water , to which man ufac

turers occasionally resort , is for the purpose of faci lita tingthe working of the chocolate paste in the process of man ufac

ture and moulding. Chocolates that contain only smallquantities of fat, say below 20 per cent . , are, clearly , more of

a doughy than of a liquid consistency and, consequen tly ,w ill

not stand close refining and are moulded only with d ithculty . It is not correct to say that such chocola te s are

fraudulent , yet, again , the public does not get what it eX p ectswhen water chocolates are palmed offon it . The Verband deutscher Schokoladen Fabrikanten ,

”at one t ime .

took up a severe attitude towards the use of fat- sa v ingmaterials , especially gum tragacanth and glue, for the d etection of which Welmans devised various methods of ana ly s is .

As one journal has tritely put it , Since glue has been abandoued , and the same results have been got with un adul


own experiences , and adds that it once had a block ch ocolateunder notice that was as hard as stone, which , as it con ta inedonly 18 per cent . of fat , must have consisted of 70 p er cent.

sugar, 2 per cent . butter, and 28 per cent . cocoa. A mass

with such a composition could not be made in the usua l warso as to be suitable for moulding.

There is no doubt , however, that sugar cont a in ing a

certain very low percentage of moisture is better for m akingchocolate than the bone-dry

,finely pulverised crys ta l , if a

simplification of the refining process and a saving of cacaobutter are to be considered ; The recent work of B r adleyand others has put the point beyond a shadow of doubt , andthe use of water in the manufacture of chocolate , for the

purpose of conserving cacao butter , is common know ledge.

The patents covering the manufacture of amorphoussugar,

”to which reference has already been made , alsoemphasise this point , but , as in al l processes , there are limitsbeyond which it is undesirable to go . The presen ce of

1—2 per cent . of moisture in the sugar, which subsequentlydries out till only some 0 5—1 per cent . is left , in order tosimplify refini ng processes and to make a small conserva tionof cacao butter, is a very different matter to addin g largequantities of freewater to a dry chocolatemass in a melan

geur ,”in order to bring the total percentage of cacao butter

below twenty . The fact still remains , also , that Water

chocolates ,”as ordinarily prepared , are inferior chocolates

for eating purposes , abnormally low in fat and of in feriorflavour .

Water chocolates may, however , be used for makingthe beverage Chocolate which requires only a smallamount of fat to be present , and many makers manu fac turethis quality of chocolate for this purpose, stating clear ly on

the labels of the packets the uses to which the con tentsshould be put .In order to conform with the suggested standard for

RECIPES FOR MAKING CHOCOLATE 281

sweetened chocolate, (see Appendix) a minimum of 19 percent . of cacao butter is indicated , so that chocolates containing one more per cent . would fall within the definition .

And that is al l that can be said in their favour .

D ry Ch ocol ates (Conti nued) .

Recipe 2 .

Recipe 3 .

100 lbs .

It is needless to enumerate more of such recipes , the lastmentioned being typical of the best chocolates of the dryvariety . If such a chocolate were well milled , it could notbe surpassed , the blend of Caracas , Para and Trinidad beansbeing ideal for flavour, whilst the percentage of sugar is nottoo high .

GERMAN RECIPES .

Recipe 1 .

100 lbs .

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

Recipe 2 .

100 lbs .

The cacao mass should consist ofthe better quality b eans,such as Caracas , Arriba,

or Puerto Cabello , for th e fines tchocolate, though each maker has his own secret blend .

Zipperer gives a list of several working formulas, su ch asone part each of Caracas and Guayaquil , one part ea ch of

Maracaibo and Maragh an , one part of Caracas to five p artsMaragnan , and so on .

In the second recipe shown above, it is certa in thatextra cacao butter would have to be added to faci litateworki ng, as the large proportion of sugar would tend to drythe paste.

SPANISH RECIPES .

Recipe 1 .

Puerto CabelloCaracasCubaSugarCinnamon

100 lbs .

Jacoutot, Speaking of this recipe, says Spanish chocolate is roasted in a special manner . It is its imperfectroasting which gives it the peculiar strong flavour which distinguishes it . The same au thor recommends that the

cacao be fir st washed in warm water and then boiled w iththe sugar and sufficien t water , til l the sugar rises in th e pan .

The pan is then removed , and the whole grained in th e usualmanner, as for Pral iné.

”The graining mass is loosely

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

in the melangeur and are, with advantage, added p riorto the first refining . If the Chocolate IS so treated , th egreatest care should be taken to free it from moisture before.moulding, and, consequently , the smallest possible quan tityof water Should be employed for making the a lka linesolution .

In some factories in Switzerland and Germany , the

chocolate is treated with alkali , as it is believed th at theflavour is improved thereby . This , however , is a ma tter ofsome difference of Opinion , and it is our experience thatthe chocolate of finest flavour is prepared by usin g thebest quality beans , properly roasted , without any furthertreatment .

In those factor l es where alkali is employed , th e cau sticsoda or potash is dissolved in the minimum quan tity of

water and added to the chocolate paste in the proportion oflb . to 2 lb . alkali to 100 lbs . of cacao paste. It is some

times th e custom to add the alkali to the cacao mass before.

t'

ddition of the sugar and to dry off the moisture in a

v.1m mixer, when the sugar and other matters are added

at later stage. In either case, after the paste has beendried out , the method of procedure is the same as for

ord i n ary chocolate.

Fondan t C h ocol ates .

Since the introduction of milk chocolates , the smoothn ess ,characteristic of them ,

i s expected by the public in p lainchocolates . The dry , hard chocolates are not so popu lar

as the smooth , fatty varieties (“ chocolate fondants w ith

the general public at the present day.

To meet the requirements , chocolate manufacturer s h avebeen compelled to introduce a confection containin g 30 percent . and upwards of cacao butter to replace the dry ch ocolates of 25 per cent . fat - content . To this end, cacao bu tteris added to the recipes of the older- fashioned , drier choco

RECIPES FOR MAKING CHOCOLATE h e"

)

lates , and the chocolate mass is refin ed to a much greaterextent than formerly . This means , of course, that the percentage of cacao mass is reduced and that free cacao butteris added in its stead .

The conche machine, described later when dealingwith milk chocolates , usually replaces the melangeur”forfinishing these smooth , fatty chocolates , and the mass , a fterbeing closely refined , is worked from thirty to forty hoursconsecutively , sometimes for a longer time, to acquire thecharacteristic fondant nature which is so pleasant to the

palate ,

Swiss chocolate manufacturers , whose work is simplifiedby the hydraulic power at their command , run the machinesday and night , carrying the manufacture of chocolatfondant to the end without any interruption . This continuous process gives the consistency , whilst the extremefineness , resulting from close refining, produces the smoothness , both characteristic qualities of this class of chocolate.

Chocolats fondants are, of course, more costly toproduce, owing to the additional amount of labour and poyver ,expended and to the larger amount of high-priced cacaobutter, used in their preparation .

The cacao butter , employed, is purchased on th emarketand is the outcome, or by-product , of factories where cocoapowders are more largely produced than chocolate, in thepreparation of which the surplus cacao butter, expressed inthe manufacture of cocoa powder, could be employed . The

fatty eating-chocolates more nearly approach in composition those used for covering various sweetmeats and biscuits ,though , for the tablet chocolates , greater care has to be takenthat the finest varieties of bean are used and that refinementis carried to the furthest degree.

To give but one example, from an infinite numberpossible, of methods of manipulation in order to secure a

certain flavour the following description will enable the


manufacturer to obtain a chocolate with a flavour more or

less closely resembling that associated with the name of

Lindt,according to the care with which the proces s is

carried out .

MIXING .

Arriba, or fine Venezuelan nibsCeylon , or Trinidad nibsCuban , Bahia , or San ThomenibsSugarCacao butterVanilla

The beans should be roasted only just sufficien tly to

enable the husks to be removed easily on the winnow er. A

temperature of 100° C. is sufficient for this purpose, and a

temperature higher than 1300 C. Should not be allowed . The

lightly roasted nibs are ground , preferably on granite rollers,mixed with sugar, refined on steel refiners , and then , aftercold blocking

,the hard blocks are levigated on grani te

refiners . A second refinement on steel refiners is advan

tageous .

Between each refining , themass is run in a melangeurfor 10—15minutes , and some cacao butter is added on theseoccasions . After two or three grindings on the steel refin ers .

followed each time by further levigation of the cold blocks onthe granite rollers , the chocolatemass is placed in a

“ conchemachine and heated from 80

° t o 90° C. for seven ty- two

hours . By these means , the semi- roasted nibs developtheir full flavour in the later stages of manufacture, and theheat , applied in the conche,

”also tends to caramelise the

Sugar , Slightly .

The caramelising machine of Messrs . Savy Jeanj eanet Cie. aimed to produce the same effect , and, though un

doubtedly the sugar is caramelised , the resulting choco lateis by no means of the same fine flavour that is produced bythe Slower process . The makers of this machine, how ever,


Such a recipe w i l l Sh ow ,on analysis , only 10 per cen t . 0 ;

fat , and, of course ,if it is des ired to increase th e fi g uru

the cacao mass may be in creased at the expense ofth e S l l gtl‘

.

or arrowroot .Unfortun ately , we more Often meet w i th a r efi l l

“

described as ordin arv chocolate powder , composed some

what as foll ow s

ORD INARY CHOCOLATE POWD ER .

Cacao mass

Potato starchShell powderS ugar

100 lbs .

We are confident , however , that , th ough such recipe

fin d their w ay into‘

books on cocoa and chocolate,l l

powders , prepared from them , do not often appear on t i .

market . During the war,it was a different mat ter

,and

many cases of heavily adul terated cocoa and Ch O CO lml

powders were encountered .

The addition of cacao husk or shell powder to cocoa an

chocolate preparation s is , however , by nomean s u ncommon

as th e follow ing extrac ts taken from The Times (Jun e 1 0 1 ]

1910) w ill Sh owAt VVest London , before Mr . Fordham ,

W. D .

summoned at the in stance of th e Fulham Borough CO l l l l l ' lfor selling cocoa wh ich contained 60 per cent . of p ow dere r.

cocoa sh el ls .

There w as al so a. summons against for sel ling a t

shop in Fulham a sample of cocoa wh ich contained 20 pe‘

cent . of cocoa shel l s .

”

The former case w as adjourned , the public analy st t‘

w

Fulh am being reported to h ave said as followsThe cocoa of commerce was made ofthe bean dep r iw fi.

RECIPES FOR MAKING CHOCOLATES 289

of its Shell . There was a certain amoun t of nourishment,no doubt , in the shell , but the fibrous nature of the shel lrendered the article very unpleasant . He did not suggestthat there was anyth ing deleterious in the sample before thecourt . The Shell was used for cattle food and in the cheaperform of chocolates . There was no standard in this coun tryfor cocoa .

”

CHAPTER XX

MILK CHOCOLATES AND MILK CHOCOLATE POWDE R S

ANALYSES AND RECIPES—NUT CHOCOLATES, ETC .

THE popularity of milk chocolates, which probabll'

synchronises with the Introduction of Peter ’s milk chocolate to the public , is well deserved . Whilst it is adm ittedthat the best milk are worthy of competing against th e bestplain chocolates , there are a large number of SO-called mi lkchocolates on the market , of a glutinous and coarse n ature,

which cannot compare in palatability with the coarsest ofthe p lain variety . Especially are these coarse milk chocolates to be found in America at the present time.

Booth,in a paper

‘

before the Seventh In ternation a l Congress of Applied Chemistry , recommended that milk chocolate should be legally standardised as a prepa ration.

composed exclusively of roasted , shelled cocoa beans , Sugar,and not less than 15 per cent . of the dry solids of ful l - creammilk

,with or without a small quantity of harmless flavour i ng

matter .”

In the better brands of milk chocolate, both Engl ish and

foreign , this standard is undoubtedly conformed with , but somuch depends upon the fineness , to which the prepara tion isground , that chemical analysis , alone, will not Show the

excellence of any particular brand .

Competition , however, is a wonderful leveller of qua l itv.

and , seeing that this exists in normal times to a high degreeamong chocolate manufacturers , competing brands of a

good price Show great Similarity in quality .

For the cheaper brands , it is only necessary to refer to a


methods of preparation and the qual itative, as well as quantitative, valuation of the components . Thus , tak in g the

analysis of the milk chocolates as showing

Engli sh Samp lesAverage .

Per cent

Milk fatCacao butterCane sugar .

and

Foreign Samp les .

Average . Max imum .

Per cent . Per cent .

Milk fat 8 1 13 6

Cacao butter 22-7 277

Cane sugar . 42 6 502

a recipe, composed as follows , will comply withanalyses in the main particulars

Recipe.

Cacao massCacao butterCane sugarVanillin sugarMilk powder (fullcream , 25 per

cent . fat)

100-00 24-5 6 81 43 0

According to the percentage of cacao mass and butter.

respectively , that is to be employed , so can the one be

increased at the expense of the other, always remembe ringthat cacao mass contains some 50 per cent . of cacao but ter.

Further , according to whether a dark or a light chocolate l:

required , so can these proportions be again varied , the hi gherthe percentage of cacao mass used the darker the chocolate .

Cacaobutter .

90 yielding 4 520 0 200

41 -0

2 75

MILK CHOCOLATES 293

So far as the milk flavour is concerned , 20 per cent . of milksolids of fullcream milk will usually be found to be sufi cient ,though , here again , if the cacao mass is also of high percentage, the flavour of the latter may be inclined to mask thatof the former .The strength

'

offlavour of the different beans , employed ,must also be considered in making a recipe, as it is quitepossible to use a large quantity of mild -flavoured cacao

,

whereas the same quantity of a full-flavoured bean wouldcover the flavour of the milk . To give a list of recipes is,therefore, quite useless to themanufacturer , who must

“

, firstly ,determine which milk chocolate he fancies and then , fromthe complete analysis , reconstruct a recipe. The methodof preparation that he adopts will , of course, play a considerable part in determining the flavour and other qualitiesof his chocolate.

To quote a few recipes only , in order to emphasise thedifference that may be seen in the proportions of the variousingredients , the following three have been selected

Z i pperer . Ffl’

tsch I . Fn'

l sch I I .

Cacao massCacao butterCane sugar

Mi lk sol ids (ful l -cream)Van i l laVan i l la sugar

100 -00 100 -00 100 -00

These, on analysis , would Show approximately

II . III .

Fat -free cacao massCacao butterCane sugar

Lactose

Butter fat


It will be observed that , of these recipes of Zipp erer andFritsch , only the second compares favourably with th e reconstructed recipe, already given . On the other hand, i t i s clearthat the main differences l ie in the amount of cacao m ass andcacao butter , present . It becomes , then , a matter en t irely oftaste and desire of the manufacturer who , provided h e has

sumcient fat , present in his Chocolates , to enable him to mouldit satisfactorily and to give the requi red consisten cy ,

i s at

l iberty to choose whether , on the one hand , he des ires a

full-flavoured chocolate, in which case he selects a recipewith a large proportion of cacao mass made from mi ld bean"

or with a smaller quantity of ful l-flavoured cacaos , or , on theother hand , a pronounced milk-flavoured chocolate, in whichcase he will , probably , reduce the cacao mass and in creasethe proportion of cacao butter .An analysis of a good type of British milk chocolate ha

been given in a number of the International Sugar Journal,1902 , which stated that ,wh i l st , hitherto , the British ch ocolatetrade had been in the hands of a few big firms

, yet th e manu

facture of mi lk chocolate seemed to have been a monopoly ofmanufacturers on the Continent. Since that time, how ever,

Analysi s of Cadbury’

s M i lk Chocolate.

Per cent.

Total fatCacao butter 22 60

Milk fatCane sugar 42 00

Milk sugarProteids or albuminoids 103 0

Ash

Moisture 1 ~60

Indigestible fibreUndetermined bodies 2 05

100-00


‘

Further, assuming that the whole of the lactose , found.

be due to that naturally present in milk solids , con ta in ing25 per cent . of fat and 38-5 per cent . of lactose, and thatthe remainder is pure roasted cacao mass and cacao b u tter

(added) , we obtain the following recipes , synthesised fromLaxa ’s analyses

TABLE XLIX .

—Synthesi s ofMi lk Chocolates fromTable XLVIII .

Cacao powder (fat free) 3 -2 13 -4 14-0 18 -4 3 1 -0 5-3 1 1 -6 15-2 8 7

Sugar 48 -3 39 -4 35-9 33 -4 33 -1 45-2 37 -3 46 -5 38 -9

Mi lk sol ids (or powder) 2 1 -9 20 -2 23 -7 2 1 -4 6-1 21 -8 23 -9 4 -0 25-0

Cacao butter (total ) 26-6 27 -0 26 -4 26-8 29 -8 27 -7 27 -2 34 -3

These results have been obtained by calculating th e totalamount of milk powder that would naturally contain the

lactose, estimated , plus 5 per cent . for the moisture-conten t .

If Laxa ’s supposition that lactose has been added dur ino

condensation of the milk be correct , the figures for m ilkpowder in Table XLIX . for samples 3, 4, 5, 8 and 10 w illbe high , and, consequently, the cacao powder, estima ted bydifference, will be correspondingly too low .

The.cacao butter is estimated by subtrac ting from the

total fat , found , that due to themilk solids , on the reasonableassumption that the fat -content of the milk solids w as

25 per cent . On the other hand , it must be realised th atskimmed milk is often used , a fac t which cannot be determined without the chemical and physical constants of theextracted fat .

Moreover , it must be understood that , if the amount ofroasted nibs or cacao mass is to be calculated , the figu resunder cacao powder must be doubled at. the expense of thosefor cacao butter , since cacao contains 50 per cent . of fat .

We have, therefore, the following percentages of cacaomass present in these chocolates (1) 52 per cent . , (2) 6

-4 per

MILK CHOCOLATES 297

cent . , (3) 26-8 per cent . , (4) 28-0 per cent . , (5) 36-8 per cent . ,

(6) 62 per cent . (with a small deficiency of cacao butter) ,

(7) 10-6 per cent . (with a large excess of cacao butter) ,

(8) 23-2 per cent . , (9) 30-4 per cent . , (10) 17

-4 per cent . (witha large amount of added cacao butter) .In the first edition of this work , the author criticised

Laxa ’s figures rather severely , but , in the light of morerecent work done on Milk Chocolates , it is probable that thesuggestion now made is correct , namely , that only analyses1 , 2 , 6, 7 and 9 are misleading.

It must be realised that th e interpretation of analyses andthe reconstruction into recipes , even in the hands of theexpert , are full of pitfalls , as it is necessary to know so muchbefore reconstruction can be performed with absolutecertainty . Thus , during the war and the Shortage of milk ,other albuminoids , besides those from milk solids , were used .

The necessary quantity of lactose was added to make up thedeficiency of that sugar, naturally occurring, and the addedfats were so adjusted as to give Similar chemical and physicalconstants to those of a fat extracted from a normal milkchocolate . The fraud was only detected by the writer fromthe albuminoids and the amino acids prepared from them .

Dubois has contributed , in a private communication , thefollowing analyses of some milk chocolates , most of whichwere made in America, selected from al l the best knownmakes in that country . (See Table L .)These results. only call for special mention in that , of the

better milk chocolates , examined , of which IV . and IX . are

typical , the ratio of sugar to milk solids is approximatelytwo to one . In some other cases , the percentage of butterfat, as in V.

, VI. and XII . ,is abnormal for the amoun t of

lactose present , if full -cream milk only were used . In the

latter case, it is possible that an explanation will be foundin the fact that

,in America,

it is not uncommon to add

butter fat , at a later stage, to milk chocolate mass made with

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results

TABLE LI.—Analyses of some Commercial and Laboratory

Samp les of M i lk Chocolate (Dubois) .

e er

number number Case in .

Soxh . Short. (tat) . (fat) ,found.

Per Per

cent . cent

33 -66 30-16

33 -02 30 -70

33 -25 31 -00

32 -42 30 -50 o

mo

m

In the first column are Shown the figures for m ilk solids .

known to have been added in the mixing, supplied , in the

three last cases , by the manufacturer . The last colum n

shows the total mi lk solids , found by analysis . It will beobserved that , with the exception of Huyler

’

s chocolate, the

figures , obtained by analysis , are higher than those given inthe formula, a fact which Dubois was inclined to .th ink wasdue to the imperfect method of the estimation of casein.

Baier has provided some analyses of cream chocolates andmilk chocolates , of which only the latter are shown in

Table LII.

“

Ordinary milk chocolate, like ordinary plainchocolate, is the designation under which recipes forinferior brands are described in books dealing with con

fectionery.

A good example of such a chocolate would result, if

prepared from the following recipe

E. Baier, Gordian , 1909 , No . 339.

MILK CHOCOLATE POWDERS 301

Cacao massCacao shell powderPotato starchSugarVanillin sugarCacao butter or substituteMilk powder (skimmed or separated)Colouring matter and flavouring

The possible combinations of cheap , substitute ingredientsare endless , and it is fortunate that the chemist is in a

position to detect the addition , especially in such cases asmilk and other chocolates which , being compound articles ,are without legal standardisation and are, consequently, notstudied from this standpoint by those controlling the conviotion for fraud under the Food and Drugs Act .

M i l k Ch ocol ate Pow der s .

The remarks made under Chocolate powders , in theprevious chapter , apply here, with the exception that milkpowder is added . In Chapter XVIII , Table XLVI. , are

shown some analyses of milk chocolate powders , which shouldbe compared with the approximate analysis given belowThe milk powder Should be fullcream, and no other

addition , such as of starch or shell powder, should bepermitted .

A g0 0d recipe is as follows

Cacao massCane sugarVanil lin sugarMilk powder (full - cream)

10

5

5

40

2

20

18

To desired tintand flavour .


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and considerable trouble between manufacturer an d re tailermay arise from this fact . Besides killing the natu r a l inset-t

life which is present in 90 per cent . of nuts , esp e c ia lly il .shelled hazels , roasting enhances the flavour , and i t i s for

this reason also that the process'

is to be recommen d ed .

Analysis of nut chocolates will always reveal a h igher

percentage of fat than in the case of plain chocolate s , a s the

nuts , themselves , contain from 30—40 per cent . of O i l .

The addition of ground almonds , hazel-nuts , p in e -n ut

pea-nuts and walnuts will Slightly lower the sapon ifi cation

value of the extracted fat and will considerably ra i s e the

iodine value.

Butter fat , or the natural fat of milk , will rai se thesapon ification value by a large amoun t and will h ave littleor no effect upon the iodine value. The importan ce and

estimation of these values will be considered in later ch ap ters.

A good nut chocolate may be prepared from eith er ofthefollowing recipes

Cacao massSugarRoasted hazel -nuts ,almonds or peanuts in paste

Cacao butterVanilla

More cacao butter will have to be added if whole nuts are

used . The method of procedure for manufacture w il l bethe same as for plain or milk chocolates , already described,though some diffi culty may be experienced in moul ding.

which should be conducted at the lowest poss ibletemperature.

MILK CHOCOLATES AND MILK CHOCOLATE POWDERS 305

It is un fortunately true that , during the war , milk chocolates and nut chocolates have been subject to adulteration .

It is less a question of including harmful ingredients than ofsupplying to the public a product under a misleading title.

We know of cases , where chocolates have been sold under thename of Milk Chocolates ,

”that only contained minuteproportions of milk solids , whilst the remainder of thealbuminoids were supplied from treated pea -nuts . Whilstwe do not consider such acts Criminal , we must term themdishonest .

Date Ch ocol ate , Egg Ch ocol ate , etc

To the making of special and fancy chocolates there is noend. Chocolate is one of the few pleasant , yet highlynourishing and comparatively cheap , foods which will blendwith most things , even wi th peppermint , and, as a matter ofcourse, it becomes the plaything of dieteticians and foodcranks . Moreover, the well-deserved popularity of milkchocolate, which was the first real departure from the

straight article, has raised hopes In the breasts of manufacturers that a similar demand mi ght be created among themasses for such articles as Date Chocolate, Egg Chocolate,Malt Chocolate, etc. hence the number of patents that canbe found for the manufacture and composition of thesepreparations .Mapleton ’s Nut Food Company , Ltd.

, in a Britishpatent of 1918 claims a patent , for preparing foodstuffs , which consists in treating cacao beans so as to producea paste, reducing frui t from the date tree or date palm to a

smooth pulp, and mixing the two together . The proportion

of 2 to 3 lbs . of dates to 1 1h . of cacao beans is suggested , andthe patent covers the use of apples , pears or apricots for thesame purpose. The author has seen this preparation , buthas no analysis of it . In 1917 , a sample of Date Chocolatefrom France, however , was analysed and Showed theW.C .


addi tion of some 10 per cent . of stoned dates to a. n orms .

ch ocolate. Thi s confection , presumably , had been p rep are r.

for supplying a cheap but pal atable chocolate dur i n g th

of cane sugar . The anal ysis showed

Analysi s of a Date Chocolate.

Per cent .

Moisture 5-56

Ash . 1 -83

Fructose 7-40

Cane sugar 31 -20

Fat

Fat- free cocoa and other soli ds 25 31

An English patent was appli ed for , in 1 914 , by B at es In

the manufacture and composition of an egg chocol ate cor

si stin g of a sui table mixture of roasted and shell ed cacal .

dried mi l k , dr ied yolk of egg, agar - agar and sugar .In 1 909 (English Patent claim was made for

process for th e production of a dietetic and lax at ive 0 .

neutral cocoa or ch ocolate material , consisting in addin.

to the cocoaor chocolate certain mi cro- organ i sms or en zvnnbein g ferments whi ch are able to develop lactic aci d In ti

digestive organs from carbohydrates contained in th e cum

or chocolate w ithout th e formation of gases . Num ernl t

instan ces , Simi lar to the last , could be quoted , b ut sul l

preparations must have onl y a very limi ted sale , so long a s l l

chocolate- consuming publi c does not Seek to find cures in irconfections .


necessarily enhance the virtues of the finished product onthe other hand , the fact that only a few of some of the bestmanufacturers of milk chocolate have adopted , and havecontinued to use, the process does not lessen the possibility ofaccuracy of this whispered secret . Yet, again , the proof ofthe pudding is in the eating thereof, and the author knowsof manufacturers who are using this process , but who havenot succeeded in convincing him that their product issuperior.Looking at the matter from both the scientific and food

specialists ’ point of view , it is obvious that , if milk isemployed ,sooner or later the liquid has to be reduced to dry solids inthe manufacture of mi lk chocolate. Secondly , it is clearthat , according to theway the milk is reduced to dry solids , sowill the chocolate possess a fresh milk -flavour , a pasteurisedmilk -flavour , a butter -flavour or a rancid fat-flavour . The

keeping qual ities of the chocolate, too , will depend upon itsmethod of preparation . Therein lies the real secret of themanufacture of mi lk chocolate, the preparation of whichcannot be described in writing, except in its broadest outline,since the final product depends , firstly , on the quality of themilk used , its freshness , its fat - content , etc.

, and, secondly, onthe processes through which it passes , whether it is reduced inan early stage, in vacuo, to a concentrated form with orwithout sugar, or boiled down with sugar in an open pan ,

orwhether it is reduced , direct to the form of a powder, by theSpray or Drum process . Each possible combination of these processes wi ll give a slightly differing result ,til],at the two extremes ,mi lk chocolate prepared from freshmilk, reduced at a low temperature to dry solids , with orwithout sugar, and that from mi lk powder , prepared frompoor mi lk at a high temperature, will be as different as cheesefrom chalk . No writer can do more than indicate the advantages , on the one hand , and the pitfalls , on the other, of anyprocess . Trusting, therefore, in the good sense of the reader,

MILK CHOCOLATE AND CHOCOLAT FONDANT 309

the author has no hesitation in putting forward the differentmethods of manufacture in broad outline, knowing full wellthat the long-established manufacturer of mi lk chocolatemay find the account wearisome and certainly lacking inminutiae, to which hemay attribute the superiority of his ownproduct .Milk chocolates are usually preferred light in colour ;

hence the blend of beans should be determined with thispoint in view. Both Java and Ceylon cacaos are lightbrown in colour andmi ld in flavour , so that . if used , a blend ofthese cacaos will keep the colour of the chocolate pale and

not allow the cacao flavour to predominate too greatly at theexpense of the milk . Trinidad , Maracaibo and Venezuelancacaos may also be used , but their flavour is stronger andtheir colour is darker than those of Java and Ceylon , andthey must , in consequence, be blended according to therequi rements of the manufacturer .In Germany, legislation demanded 127}per cent . of milk

solids in milk chocolates , and it is the general practice al l

over the world , for the best milk chocolates to contain at

least that quantity,many of the best Swiss makes showing ,

on analysis , 20 per cent . or more. Again , the best mi lkchocolates show , on analysis , a percentage of butter fat consistent With the milk solids present , as 1ndicating that fullcream , fresh mi lk, or condensed milk or milk powder fromfull-cream milk had been used . Skimmed or separated milkpowders are sometimes employed in the cheaper chocolates ,with , occasionally , a proportion of fullcream powder, in someof the better brands . It is , however, wrong to suppose thatskimmed milk powders are added in order to cheapen theproduct , firstly , owing to the higher price of such powderover sugar, and, secondly , owing to the fact that a separatedmilk powder contains practically no fat

, and that , consequently , costly cacao butter, or its substitute, has to beadded , in order to produce a workable chocolate paste.


With regard to the refin ings to which milk chocolates aresubmi tted , it seems desirable here to mention that , though theuse of steel refiners is recommended for removing from the

paste al l grittiness due to cacao or sugar, cold refin ing ongranite rollers is eminently suitable for “ milk chocolates .This latter process and its advantages have already beendescribed , and, in the following pages , it must be assumed bythe reader that it can be conducted after any one refining onthe steel refiners , after the chocolate has been block -moulded .

The powder , as it comes from the steel refin ers , is placed in a

melangeur and run with a little added cacao butter ;then , after a period in the hot room or hot cupboard , whenthe temperature should not rise above 50° C. , the chocolate ismoulded into blocks weighing about 56 lbs . each . The

blocks , as soon as cold and well set, are placed on a three orfive-roll granite refiner, which shaves off a thin layer witheach revolution of the rollers , and a levigation of the mass issecured that cannot be approached by any other existingsystem .

The use of the conche machine has also already beendiscussed , and , whilst it is perfectly possible to make goodmilk or fondant chocolate without such a machine, wi tha conche,

”results can be obtained which greatly add to thequalities of the finished products . The benefits acquired bythe use of a conche are several ; -a very perfect and

thorough blending of the ingredients employed , owing to thecontinuous and often violent motion to which the mass issubjected ; a rounding-off of any sharp particles that mayhave been left over after refining, brought about by themotion of the mass , by friction , and by the heat employeda smoothness , usually described as velvety ,

”which is theoutcome of thorough incorporation of the ingredients , and ofa certain degree of aeration of themass which is inclined to beflat and dead after refining ; a development of flavour ,secured both by the action of air and heat , depending upon

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

The addition of sugar to themi lk has a further advantagewhich is not obvious at fir st sight . Sugar crystals have tobe ground to a fine powder , un less

“

amorphous sugar isused , before it is mixed with the cacao mass in the preparationof chocolate. This pulverising of the sugar facilitates intimatemi xing and reduces the number of refin ings necessary tosecure, for the chocolate, a smooth consistency . By mixing itwith water and reducing the heavy syrup in the now wellknown “

amorphous sugar process , a soft , easily crushedsugar is obtained which greatly assists in the manufacture of“ fondant chocolate. In the presence of invert sugar , orparticularly lactose in certain very small proportions , theproduction of true amorphous sugar ”is greatly facilitated ,and, though the same product is not reproduced exactly inthe preparation of milk chocolate by concentrating sugar andmilk together, crystal cane sugar , in the presence of caseinand lactose, is reduced to an amorphous state resemblingthat of true amorphous sugar,

”more or less closely according to the care taken in its preparation and concentration .

Apart from the refinings on the steel or granite refiners , thislargely accounts for the smoothness so characteristic of thebest mi lk chocolates .A good proportion of fresh mi lk to sugar, for purposes of

concentration , is 100 to 25, which , in the case of a full- creammilk , would provide a proportion of twelve parts of dry milksolids to twenty-five parts of sugar on complete desiccation ,the milk containing 9 per cent . of solids other than fat, and3 per cent . of fat . Frequently , half the total sugar is boileddown with the milk , the remainder being added in the

melangeur , after the cacao mass , milk and sugar havebeen dried in the hot chamber .Wh en the milk has been concentrated sufficiently , accord

ing to the requirements of the manufacturer, to a very thickcream or to such concentration that it will just commence to

grain on cooling and standing, the sweet concentrated milk is


added to the correct proportion of cocoa powder or cacaomass in a melangeur or mixer and thoroughly incor

porated. It is clear that there is much water still to beremoved . Thi s may be done either by running the doughymass through a set of granite rollers and drying the thinsheets , so obtained , in a chocolate stove or drying room at

about 50° C. , or by running the mass down , till partially dryand granular, in a heated melangeur .”The former methodis suggested as more sui table when the concentration of themilk has been low, and when there is a very great deal ofwater to be removed , especially when cocoa powder has beenused . The latter method is more suitable when the milk hasbeen condensed to the point of graining, or nearly to thatdegree, when there will be considerably less water to beremoved , and when the violent agitation of the rollers of ,

the

melangeur will prevent the formation of large crystals ofsugar, which would occur if the sweetened milk , at that concentration , were allowed to stand . Themilk chocolate pastemust be completely deprived of its water, whichever processis adopted , and extra cacao butter has to be added , in orderto reduce the paste to a workable condition after the refiningsand before moulding .

In the case when the sheets of paste have been dried inthe hot room or hot cupboard , it is advisable to pass the massthrough a fine sieve, in order to prevent the formation oflumps in the melangeur or mixer , when , subsequently ,extra cacao butter and remaining sugar (if any) are added .

On removal from the melangeur,”the paste is refined and

again treated in the hot room for some twelve hours , a

heating which removes the remainder of thewater and whichreduces the paste to a suitable condition for another refining,or for placing in a conche machine, at about 45

°

C. , whichshould berun for a minimum period of forty-eight hours .When , however, the sweet condensed milk has been

added in the highly concentrated state to the cacao mass and


remaining sugar (if any) , the melangeur is run until thepaste is nearly free from water and has become granular .Then , the chocolate paste or granules must be dried in thehot chamber and, subsequently , refined , with the addition offurther cacao butter of which at least half of the totalquantity has been kept for this purpose, to secure the requiredconsistency . The operations that follow are further refinings ,with further additions of cacao butter , and conching,

”

until the chocolate has obtained the velvety consistency ,

so much desired . The temperature, . 45°

C. , should not beexceeded , and the conching should be continued up toninety- six hours .From CondensedM i lk—It is more than probable that the

chocolate factory will not be situated in a district from whichlarge quantities of fresh milk are obtainable. In such cases ,the chocolate manufacturer may establish condensing plantsin a good mi lk district , whence the condensed milk will beforwarded to the factory , or hemay purchase condensed mi lkin the Open market .When the manufacturer, by possessing his own condens

ing plant , can control the degree andmethod of concentrationOf the milk, he can prepare his chocolate in any way to suithis convenience and can manufacture a product similar inevery way to that prepared from fresh milk . If, on the otherhand , he buys his condensed milk in the open market , he isoften faced with the necessity of having to remove some60—70 per cent . Ofmoisture, which can be done by any Ofthemethods already indicated , though it is probable that hewould have to instal a vacuum apparatus Of some sort , toperform the further concentration in a suitable mannerbefore adding the milk to his chocolate mass . He may, ofcourse, if he wishes , call to his aid the hot room or dryingcupboard to as sist him in any subsequent drying-out process .

Al l the subsequent Operations will be the same as thosealready described under the heading From Fresh Milk .

”


sistency . One or more refinings on the steel refiners may be

carried out according to the degree of fineness requi red , andit should be remembered that chocolates prepared with milkpowder require more refining than those made from fresh orcondensed milk , owing to the granular, slightly hard ,particles of milk solids which do not always refine downeasily . Treatment in the hot room or cupboards , after eachtime the paste is run down in a melangeur following a

refining, is desirable though not essential , and the cacaobutter is added continually as the consistency Of the

chocolate paste demands .The chocolate comes offthe refiners as a fine, dry , light

coloured powder, owing to the fact that the fat has becomedistributed through the mass which , containing now a

greater superficial area to be covered , tends to dry up theliquid fat . It is after these refin ings that addition of cacaobutter will be found necessary .

As before mentioned , the cowy flavour is sometimesovercome in America by using skimmed or separated milkpowder which develops less easily the bad effects of hi ghtemperature , since it has been freed almost entirely of its fat ,and by adding . at later stages in the manufacture of themilkchocolate, fresh , dairy butter fat which , consequently, is notsubmitted to prolonged or too great heating.

Al l the processes for the preparation of milk powders arebased upon either the Just -Hatmaker (drum process) or theMerrell-Soule (spray) process , the improvements beingusually in the method of applying the milk to the drum, the

heat employed , or the preliminary degree of concentration ofthe milk, whilst the use of a partial vacuum is yet anothermodification . The spray process stands substantiallythe same tod ay as formerly , with some slight improvementsand modifications , and it is certain that this is the mostsatisfactory method , at present devised , for the preparationof milk powder suitable for the manufacture of milk choco


late. Owing, however, to the extremely fine state of divisionto which the milk solids are reduced and to the comparatively low temperature adopted in its preparation , the fullcream milk powder , by this process , is liable to turn rancidquickly on exposure to the air , and precautions to avoid thishave, consequently , to be taken .

Through the courtesy ofMr . Edwin P. Carpenter,managerOfCasein , Ltd. , the author is able to describe the method ofmanufacture of Trumi lk,

”which is simply pure, fresh , fullcream milk reduced to powder form .

As soon as the mi lk is received from the farmers , it isthoroughly cleansed of any impurities that may have got intoit through carelessness or inadvertence, by passing it throughseparators . The next process is pasteurisation of the mi lk .

The milk is then passed to the vacuum pan and reducedto 12 Beaumé, which equals a specific gravity of 10 88 .

The reason . for taking part of the water out of the milkin vacuo is that , by so doing, a certain amount may beremoved at less cost than by passing it through the hotchambers .

From the vacuum pan , the mi lk is carried to the variousdrying chambers or units . Each unit has its separatechamber and pressure pump . The drying chamber is a tiledroom about 9 feet square, heated with hot air to a maximumtemperature Of 766

°

C. , into which the milk is sprayedthrough an aperture about 1

10millimetre in di ameter, or

about the size Of the point of a needle, at 200 atmospherespressure. This spray is enveloped in a current of hot air ,drawn from a battery of steam pipes encased in insulatedboxes . An exhaust fan draws fil tered cold air throughthe heated boxes and discharges it into the heated chamber.The moment the fine particles of spray come into contact

with the hot air , the moisture is immediately evaporated andcarried Off, and the solids of the milk fall to the bottom ofthe boxes . To prevent loss of any milk solids , the hot air


passes through a series of light cloth filters which detain thepowder , but allow the moist air to escape. A shakingmotion frees the meshes Ofthe filters from powder which fallsinto a receptacle below .

The milk powder , so produced , is minutely fine and com

pletely soluble in water, whilst the natural fat, in an aqueoussolution Ofth e powder

,is in a state of almost perfect emulsion,

similar to that Of normal , fresh milk . By the above process , the albumen Of the milk is retained in its normal formand the enzymes of the milk are not destroyed .

There is no doubt that milk powder produced by the sprayprocess , correctly carried out , is vastly superior in solubilityand flavour to that made by other systems , such as theJustHatmaker, which involve the heating of the milk to a minimum temperature Of100° C. in order to secure desiccation—a

temperature suffi ciently high to cook th ealbumen Ofth emilk ,destroy

o

the enzymes and partially caramelise the sugar .There is no reason why the finest milk chocolate should not

be prepared from full- creammilk powder, such as Trumi lk,

”

which possesses the natural flavour so highly esteemed .

A remarkably uni form product is Obtained by the

Trufood process , which shows , on analysis , the followingcomposition

Per cent

MoistureFat

Milk sugar, etc. .

ProteidsMineral matter

Analyses , made by the author , of condensed milk and milkpowder , prepared from pure, fresh , fullcream milk, suitablefor the manufacture Ofmilk chocolates , are given


Fondan t Ch ocol ate .

As has already been stated , fondant chocolate differsfrom ordinary plain chocolate only in its velvetysmoothness , secured by an increased percentage of addedcacao butter and by the extremely fi ne state of division towhich each particle of the chocolate mass is reduced .

Analyses of fondant chocolates have been given in a

previous chapter, and it wi ll be realised that it is largely themethod of preparation that secures for these chocolates theindividuality characteristic of many well-known brands .On the other hand , care in selection of the blend Of beansmust not be ignored , and the characteristics of the differentcacaos must be borne in mind when constructing a recipe.

A fondant chocolatemay be mixed from the followingextremes of cacao mass and sugar, the higher the percentageof sugar, the more cacao butter that , necessarily , must beadded

Cacao mass 25 to 45 parts .Sugar 60 to 50

Cacao butter 14 to 4

Vanilla or Vanilla sugar 1

100 to 100

The cacao mass should consist of partially roasted nibsof a good blend of cacaos , should be free from husk, and

mi lled to a fine state of division . The sugar should be eitherfinely pulverised crystal sugar or, better, amorphoussugar , prepared according to the method briefly outlinedin a former chapter . Al l the cacao butter should not beadded to themixing at the beginning, but at least half shouldbe kept back to add, a little at a time, to the chocolatemass ,placed in the melangeur after each refining.

Subsequent processes are substantially the same as in themanufacture of milk chocolate. Thorough mixing followed


by refin ing on the steel refiners , a short working in the

melangeur with a little added cacao butter, a shorttreatment in the hot room, blocki ng offand cold refining ongranite rolls , further treatment in the melangeur, a

second refini ng on the steel refiners and another cycle or twoof . these processes , as desired , are all identical with the

procedure adopted in the manufacture of milk chocolate.

It is in the last stage,when the chocolate is heated and workedin the conche machine, that the procedure differs . Ifthe

cacao nibs have been fully roasted , the processes of manufacture of fondant chocolate may be said to be identicalwith that for milk chocolate, since the temperature shouldnot be allowed to rise sufli ciently to cause a further roastingof the cacao . In mixing

, say for thirty minutes ,'

the massdoes not rise above 45

°

C., and each refin ing on water- cooled ,

steel rollers lowers the temperature of the mass to about30

°

C. Each treatment in the melangeur for an houror so does not again raise the temperature above 45° C. , and

the hot room should not be above 60° 0 . Thus , in normalworking for fully roasted beans , the maximum temperature,reached , is about 50

°

C. If the chocolatemass is then placedin a conche machine, the temperature should be maintained around the maximum employed up to that time, ifconsistency alone is sought , though , in order , to impart theslight caramel flavour also , a temperature not above 65

°

C.

should be employed , as , otherwise, the cacao will burn orbecome over-roasted .

With partially roasted cacao , however, the final roastingand development of flavour are allowed to take place in theconche machine, and higher temperatures and longertreatment are, therefore, necessary . The general rules forroasting cacao beans for a half- roast have already been givenin an earlier chapter, and it is clearly impossible to s tateexactly how long , or how much , the chocolatemass should besubsequently treated in the conche,

”in order that the fullW.0 21


flavour of the cacao shoul d be developed. But , it may be

stated broadl y th at a gen tly applied heat over a long peri od

gi ves the best resul t in a con che for fondant chocolate,not on ly because the fin ish in g point can be more easi lydetermined , but also because the developing flavour i s moreeven ly attained and distributed th rough the whole mass .

FIG . 24.—Large S i ze . New Des ign Conche Mach ine. (See p .

By p erm iss ion of M es s rs . Josep h B aker , Sons , and P erkins , Ltd .

T h e Con ch e M ach i ne .

The modern conch e , or horizon tal machine , h as beendesigned for the purpose of giving a. fi ne fin ish in appearan ce .

flavour and con sistency to milk and fondant chocolates .

It con sists , essentially , of a tank w ith gran ite, or steel , bedupon which are made to run , to- and-fro, gr ani te roller s

CHAPTER XXII

COVERING -CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE AND ANALYSES

USE OF“

CHAMPION COATING MACHINE , AND“ ENROBER .

IN Chapter XVI . , the quick methods of manufacturingcovering -chocolate have been discussed , and the value of theBausman Disc machine, Walker machine and com

bined steam-jacketed kettle and melangeur,”

etc.,has

been considered .

In the manufacture of covering -chocolate, no less careshould be expended , if. a good preparation is to result , thanshould be taken in themanufacture of plain eating- chocolate.

It is often imagined that any chocolate is good enough forcovering soft centres , fruits , biscuits , etc. , and it is not

uncommon to find the outside coating of these confections tobe little better than powdered husk, sugar and cacao buttersubstitutes , artificially flavoured . This is a very greatmistake, for , whilst it is true that the state of refinement neednot be so intense, owing to the gritty nature of the centres ,a poor-flavoured chocolate greatly detracts from the subtleblending of flavour that should be experienced from a

correct combination of fruit or other confection with that ofcacao . There is nothing so pleasant as a cherry creamflavoured with K irsch ,

the whole covered with a thin coatingof fine chocolate, or the delicate flavour of orange-flower

water in combination with almonds in a good , soft nougat ,that blends perfectly with a good covering of chocolate, onthe palate. But , on the other hand , a rough coveringchocolate, strongly flavoured with coumarin , so often en

countered at the present time, is positively objectionable incombination with even the finest flavoured centres .

COVERING-OHOCOLATE 325

The method of manufacturing covering -chocolate is , up’

to the point of refining, identical with that of the best eatingchocolate. The best beans are selected , carefully roastedand shelled , and the ni bs milled and mixed with sugar and asufl

‘i ciency of cacao butter to bring the whole into a plasticmass . Subsequent treatment depends upon the system of

refining to be employed . Since, in order to secure an evenand not too thick a coating, the chocolatemust be verylimpid , there must always be in covering - chocolate a largerpercentage of fat than will be found in the best eatingchocolates . This certainly simplifies the manufacture ofcovering -chocolate.

The price of cacao butter does , of course, to a large extentgovern the amount of fat that will be found in coveringchocolates . Thus , in 1914, analyses , made in the author ’slaboratory , showed 38—40 per cent . of fat as the usualamount present in the best known coverings , whilst morerecently, in 1920, covering-chocolates , purchased in the openmarket , showed figures more near to 35—37 per cent .

Chocolate containing anything above 35 per cent . of fatwill work well for covering centres , such as creams , biscuits ,etc.

, though the higher figures , 38—40 per cent . , would bepreferable for machine covering, and in cases where only a

very thin coating of chocolate is required . For chocolatesgoing to warm climates , the amount of fat should be keptdown to a minimum, as a very soft chocolate is inclined torun and to discolour easily .

Amovement began , in 1908, at the Geneva Conference, tostandardise chocolate, but there was , very naturally , a greatdivergence of views as to the desirability of such a standardisation , for the most obvious of reasons that each manufacturer had developed his own system of manufacture and

was accustomed to include any ingredients that he thoughtfit, in accordance with his conscience. One British firmsuggested that covering -chocolate should be defined as that


whi ch contained additional cacao butter or wholesomevegetable fat, the total fat amounting to 31 to 32 per cent .

”

N. P. Booth , analytical chemist to Messrs . Cadbury Bros . ,pursued the subject again at the Seventh InternationalCongress of Applied Chemistry in 1909, when he deploredthe fact that , in Great Britain , any compoun d containingbut a smal l percentage of cocoa could be sold under the nameOf chocolate. Booth suggested definitions , amongst thembeing one for chocolate- covered goods as denoting forms ofconfectionery covered with chocolate, the composition ofthe

latter agreeing with the definition of sweetened chocolate.

”

Sweetened chocolate, he suggested , should be defined as

A preparation consisting exclusively of the products ofroasted , shelled , finely ground cocoa beans , and not morethan 65 per cent . of sugar, with or without a small quantityof harmless flavouring matter which , if present , should notexceed 2 per cent .

”

As it stands at present , covering -chocolatemay consist ofanything tasting similar to chocolate. That this was truethen , as now, is seen by the writings of one author of pre-war

days , who states that the idea of standardisation of chocolatewas looked upon with favour by the makers of the moreexpensive chocolates , but pointed out that it would excludea largemultitude of articles now sold as chocolate, andwhich ,while wholesome and toothsome, might be placed at a

disadvantage if too l imited a definition came to be adopted .

”

There was determined opposition on the part of those whocarried on what was regarded as a perfectly legitimate andacceptable trade.

”

At the International Congress of Cocoa and ChocolateManufacturers held in August

,191 1 , at Geneva,

resolutionswere passed defining Cacao paste, Cocoa powder, Chocolatepaste, Chocolate powder, Milk chocolates and Coveringchocolate on the lines adopted at the Geneva Congress of1908, but the Secretary of the British Manufacturing


lates , made in the author’s laboratory , at different times .Considerable variations occur , but the analyses have beenmade sometimes from bulk samples of chocolate, sometimesfrom

,the chocolate removed from bi scuits , soft cream centres ,

etc. , and the latter are, therefore, subject to such imperfections as may arise from the technical treatment of the

TAB LE LV~

.

-Analyses of some American Plain and

M i lk Covering-Chocolates .

Mi lk Mi lkcoat ing. coating.

P lain.Plain .

Cane sugar

Ether extractCrude fibreAsh


Water -soluble ash

Acid-insoluble ash

Alkal i -insoluble ash

Alkal i -soluble ash

Reichert -Meiss l value of

fat 03 0 5-76 3 -41

Sapon ificat ion value Offat 196 -4 194-9

Iodi ne value Of fat 36 -1 374

Re frac t ive index at 40° 0 .

Crude fibe on sugar-fat

free bas isAsh on sugar

-fat - freebas i sWater -insoluble ash on

sugar-fat -free bas i s

Water-soluble ash on

sugar-fat -free bas is

Al kal i -insoluble ash on

sugar-fat -free basi s 6 -30 4-30

Al kal i -soluble ash on

sugar -fat -free bas i s 3 -10 3 -20

Acid-insoluble ash on

sugar -fat - free bas isButter fat

Lactose

Mi lk sol idsMicroscop ic examinat ion No No No

adul adul adul

toraut . terant . terant .

49 -95

3 -07

3 -93

2 -1 1

1 -82

0 -14

2 -15

1 -60

3 1 -97 48 13

33 -96

48 35

34 -19

1 -30

1 ~48

COVERING-CHOCOLATE 329

chocolates during covering and from the centres which theycover .The above figures , sent by Dubois to the author, show

the analyses of some American plain and milk coveringch

'

ocolate’s (Table

It will be seen that both plain and mi lk chocolate coverings are made, the latter particularly in America, where thepubli c seem to like very light milk coverings and very darkplain chocolate coverings , so much so that , in the latter case,

artificial colours are Often added to produce dark or almostblack chocolates .The analyses , shown , do not call for any special remarks ,

the chocolates , both in England and America , being verysimilar in composition . On the other hand , so many of thechocolate coverings , examined , have been found to containcacao butter substitutes that , since it is known also that thismethod of cheapening the goods is commonly practised , it ishigh time that some form of legislation existed on the subject .The practice of adding cacao butter substitutes is harmless initself, seeing that the fats , used , are quite innocuous and equalto cacao butter in food-value, yet it is certainly desirable thatthe public should know what it is eating , and, for this reason ,that the addition of cacao butter substitutes to any form ofchocolate should be notified on the label Of the containerholding the confections .The addition of substitutes for cacao butter to

covering - chocolate may have the advantage of raising themelting point of the combined fats , though palm Oi l , recom

mended by more than one confectioner for the purpose, hasnot this advantage, seeing that its melting point is slightlylower than that of cacao butter . Many Of the vegetablestearins

'

can , however, be used to raise the melting point ofthe chocolate and

, as before remarked , though without anydeleterious effect upon the health , their presence should benotified on the label for the public benefit .


T emp er i ng M ach i nery .

In preparing covering-chocolate fer the covering tablesor covering machines , it is necessary to ensure that the

FIG . 25.—S team-jacketed Chocolate Mixing and KneadingMach ine. (See p .

By permissi on of M es srs . Joseph Baker, Sons , and Perkins , Ltd.

chocolate paste is at the correct temperature. For thispurpose, tempering machines , such as have already beendescribed for obtaining chocolate at the proper temperaturefor moulding, can be employed . A water-jacketed melan


temperature, upon which are placed small quantities of theliquid covering -chocolate. The chocolate must be about31

°

C. when used for covering, and the finish of the goods

COVERING-CHOCOLATE 333

depends very greatly upon the steady main tenance oftemperature.

In many factories , the centres are dipped , l iterally , byhand, that is to say , the cream, nougat , etc. , is dipped withthe fingers into the chocolate, transferred to a highly glazedpiece of paper or plaque,

”and the decoration put upon it

with the tip of the finger . In other factories , a light twopronged fork is used , and the cream is dipped beneath thechocolate in a bowl in front of the Operator , who puts themarking upon the chocolate with the prongs of the fork .

As the correct temperature for cooling chocolate toobtain the best finish has already been discussed , it is notproposed here to deal with the various methods of cooling.

Suffice to say that many of the chocolates appearing on themarket are spoiled by inattention to this consideration .

We will now turn to two methods of covering by machine.

The Champion CoatingMachine—Th is machine (Fig.

manufactured by Messrs . Joseph Baker, Sons , and

Perkins , Ltd.,is designed for the coating of basket goods

in large quantities .The machine consists of a double cast- iron pan , formed

to make a well for the chocolate, and an inclined table, todrain the chocolate from a tapping table back to the well .The pan is heated by means of a hot-water chamber betweenthe inner and outer pan , and the chocolate is kept at a

uniform temperature in the well by means of a rockingagitator , which i s run independently O f the dipping andtapping .

Thegoods , to be covered , areheld in position in thebaskets ,during dipping, by means of a wire screen , suspendedover the basket , which is released on the down motion of thebasket but which is held firmly on the top un til the baskethas returned to its stationary position . The screen is thenautomatically lifted , al lowmg the basket to be movedforward on runners to the tapping brackets , and another


basket is placed in pos ition from behind the machine, readyfor the dipping operation when the clutch is released .

The dipping movement is controlled by means of a leverwhich releases a clutch , and, on completion of one dippingmotion and the return to the top of the stroke, the clutchis thrown out automatically , and the dipping arms remainat rest .The tapping guides are supported in slides by two

vertical rods , attached to a cross - lever controlled by th e

pressure Of the Operator s foot , so th at light or heavytapping can be Obtained at will .When sufficient tapping has been applied , a sheet of

glazed paper , or a tin plaque,”the same size as the basket ,

is placed on the top and held in position by means of a lighthand -board . The supporting arms holding the basket aretipped over on their axles , till the basket is inverted , whenthe covered goods drop on to the paper or tin and are readyfor the cooling room .

It should be Observed that the baskets are, in reality , wiretrays , divided into partitions Of sizes suitable for the individual goods , to be covered . Girls fil l the trays or baskets withthe centres to be covered by hand , taking the empty basketfrom the side supports of the steam-heated drip- tank intowhich the emp tied trays have been slid after removing thecontents on to the paper or plaque. It is advisable toplace the trays or baskets , during fil ling , on steam-heatedmetal- covered tables , so that the chocolate does not solidifyon the wires .Six baskets or trays are supplied with each machine

and are, of course, made to suit the customer’s goods .

Another great point in favour of this machine isthat it is self- contained on its frame and requires no

foundation .

We have seen the 2-h .-

p . Champion Dipper at workin many places , and the machine is especially suitable for


satisfactory working, or a h igher temperature, which is apt toimpart a reddish colour to the chocolate on the fini shedgoods . Any amount , from 10 to 20 cwts . , of chocolate pieces ,according to the size of the goods to be covered and to theskill of the operator, can be turned out by one of thesemachines per day, and three girls , only , are requi red toattend each Dipper.

The Enrober (Fig. (Messrs . Savy, Jcanj ean d:Cie. ,

Pari s .) —Although made up of a great many parts , theEnrober is constructed on a very simplep rinciple. Itconsists , essentially , of an iron case , about 3 feet square and7 feet deep , which carries the chocolate tanks , hOppers ,heating apparatus , belt - conveyors and driving gear . It willturn out anything between and lbs . of finishedgoods in ten hours .

The pieces are fed into one end of the machine on a

travelling canvas belt they then pass on to a wire beltconveyer, within the case, where they travel through a

cascade of liquid chocolate. The surplus chocolate is removedby an air blast and by a slight tapping movement , and

the goods , after leaving the case, pass on to plaques onanother travelling web-belt , whence they can be removedto a cool room or passed continuously through the cool ingchamber , attached to the machine.

Except when placed on the feeding belt , the goods neverneed to be touched by hand , until ready for packing. An

automatic feeder has now been devised for distributing thegoods on the feeding belt , and one girl , with this attachment ,can keep the Enrober busy .

, There are two or three refinements , more recently madeto the Enrober,

”one of which is the “ bottoming attach

ment which allows a specially heavily coated bottom of chocolate to be put upon the goods . Another refinement is theKi hlgren system for decorating the tops of the chocolates . BytheKih lgren system, the goods emerge from the Enrober

COVERING-OHOCOLATE 337

and pass beneath minute streams of chocolate, squirtedthrough very narrow pipes , the speed and direction of theattachment determining the pattern .

Only 3 hp . are requi red for driving the Enrober,including the Kih lgren and bottoming attachments , theEnrober , alone, only requiring 2 hp . With the Kih lgren

attachment , the output falls by about one- seventh , as thegoods have to be adjusted , to a nicety , as they pass beneaththe streams of chocolate.

Though this machine is , in every way, satisfactory forcoating creams , nougats , biscuits and even larger articles , itsuffers from one disadvantage, namely , that the chocolatemust be in a very liquid state, if the coating of chocolate isnot to be thick . This impli es either that a large quantityof cacao butter must be added to the covering -chocolateor else higher temperatures , that are inclined to leavethe articles with a poor finish , must be employed . The

same remarks apply , at present , to al l automatic coveringmachines .The working process is as followsThe chocolate is fi rst put , at a temperature of about

90°

E ,into the chocolate tank under the machine, the

temperature of which is regulated by the steam-heated ,water-jacketed tank, so that the bulk of chocolate is maintained constantly at the required temperature. The chocolate is continually stirred in this tank by means of revolvingpaddles .The goods are fed on to the first feeding table between

steel rods which ensure that they do not touch each other .

Travelling along this table on a moving canvas hand, theyare delivered on to a short revolving wire which , in turn ,carries them over the roller of the bottoming attachment .Th is attachment consists simply of a small water-jacketedtank containing chocolate in which the bottom half of thisroller is immersed . In passing over this roller , the goods , inW.C. 22


The Enpholda (Fig . (Messrs . Lehmann ,Dresden .)

This machine has been specially designed for simplificationin construction , so that al l the working parts can be readilyreached . In other respects , it resembles the Enrober veryclosely . Themakers of the Enpholda claim several advantages over other machines , used for the same purpose. For

instance, the tank containing the covering-chocolate runs onwheels and can be drawn out , thus making it convenientlyaccessible.

Th is tank has , too , a large outlet and will automaticallyempty itself , when it is desired to change any of the coveringchocolate. The travelling wire band , unli ke those on othercovering machines , is made in sections , so that not only is riskof saggin g overcome, but , in cases of breakage, the part canbe more easily replaced , and, if spare bands are not available,the remaining bands can be continued in use. The heatingof the working parts is done partly by steam and partly byelectricity , or gas . The chocolate mass is , moreover, broughtup by a pair Ofrollers which grind any small lumps that mayoccur in the mass , thus removing al l risk of clogging.

The centres pass beneath the cascade of chocolate in thesameway as in the Enrober,

”and, by a mechanical arrange

ment , the chocolate is also raised from below,thus covering

the bottoms as well as the tops of the goods , while they are

travelling on the endless wire band . A blast of air from a

fan , as well as a shaking apparatus , removes the surpluschocolate, and, by adjustment of these devices , almost anythickn ess of covering can be secured . On leaving the

covering machine, the covered goods pass continuouslythrough the cooling chamber and are delivered at the otherend cooled , finished and ready for packing.

CHAPTER XXIII

AROMA AND FLAVOUR DUE TO VARIETY OF BEAN,

PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE , AND FLAVOURINGMATERIALS , SUCH AS VANILLA, SPICES, ESSENCES , ETC.

THE production of individual flavours in cocoas and

chocolates is attained by (1) selection of special variety orblend of cacao beans (2) special process of manufacture

(3) addition of flavouring materials , such as vanilla, Spices oressences .

Var i ety of B ean

In Chapter VIII the principal characteristics of thedifferent varieties of cacao beans have been dealt with, butthe reader must have experienced some difficul ty in imagining, as the author had in detailing, the various flavourswhich , though characteristic , are almost impossible ofwritten description .

Venezuela, Ecuador, Guayaquil , Ceylon , certain WestIndian and African beans may be said to be typical of thecacaos for preparing chocolates of the highest class , but , evenwith these varieties , blending is desirable, as less variationwill occur in the flavour of a mixture of beans than in theindividual kinds .Caracas beans are pronounced and characteristic in

flavour , Guayaquil Arriba Slightly scented , Trinidad bitterand rather strong, and Surinam Similar to Caracas . Al l suchcacaos will require blending with those of less pronouncedflavour, if chocolate of fine quality is to be produced .

Those beans of more bitter and harsh taste, such as

certain of the Ecuador, Para, Bahia, Guiana and Trinidad


cacaos , will require toning up with beans of higher quality ,whi lst the cacaos of insipid or neutral flavour, such as thoseofHaiti and St . Domingo , will be improved by blending withbeans of more pronounced character .Further discussion on this subject is useless , for experi

ment with the different beans will be of mere use to themanufacturer, who may require a certain flavour, than any

description that it is possible to give.

Improvement in flavour may be brought about in beansof musty odour or great bitterness by treating them withwater or alkali solution on arrival ‘

at the factory . The

processes , which have already been described in Chapters X .

and XIII . , consist of a post- fermentation , in the former case,and a modification of the bitter and astringent bodies in thebeans by treatment with alkali , in the latter . Besidesimprovement in fl avour, it is claimed that these Operationsgive better colour to the kernel and, consequently, to thechocolate, prepared from them . Many of the lower gradesof cacao , that come into the market covered with mould , andof a pale interior,may be treated in this way, with advantage.

P roces s of M anufactur e .

Treatment with alkali , temperature of roast , degree offineness to which the chocolate is ground , period of workingin the melangeur and conche,

”storage and packing ofthe finished chocolate, al l play an important part in determining flavour .It has already been pointed out tha t treatment with

alkali is supposed , by some, to enhance the flavour of a cocoapreparation , but , whilst this may be so with a cocoa powderwhi ch has the additional advantage of being renderedsoluble,

”it is not our experience that improvement is to befound in a chocolate, so treated .

The presence of the small quantities of soda or potash ,which the treated chocolates contain , is quite harmless ,


Over-roasting, if unaccompanied by a smoky flavour,is

not altogether unpleasant , if not excessive, and there is littledoubt that the native and original Mexicans , who practisedthe art Of chocolate making, roasted their beans to a higherdegree than is now customary . T he burnt flavour of overroasted beans is considered , by some, to be pleasant to thepalate, and certain Mexican chocolates of commerce areprepared from beans that have been severely roasted or bythe addition of small quantities of coffee berries to normalroasts .Caramelisation ofthe sugar , already added to the roasted

nibs , imparts a characteristic flavour to the finished chocolate.

This may be accomplished by heating the mixed chocolatepaste in an iron melangeur or conche from 1 15° C.

'

to

120°

C. , extending over a period of time of thirty to forty-five

mi nutes , so that the whole is gradually and evenly cooked .

Care must be taken that no chocolate adheres for any lengthof time to the hot , iron surface of themixer, as a strong burntflavour , of a most unpleasant nature, will result . When it isdesired to secure this caramel flavour , the beans should onlybe semi - roasted , as the subsequent cooking develops thehalf-acqui red aroma of the cacao at the same time as itcaramelises the sugar . The Operation of caramelisation may,

with advantage, be conducted in the conche machine,already described in the chapter on Milk Chocolate,

”and

elsewhere, as the receptacles are especially adapted forheating to high temperatures . The rise of temperatureShould be gradual and evenly distributed over the vesselcontaining the chocolate to be cooked . The author, however , favours a long treatment in a conche machine at a

comparatively low temperature, as the changes take placemore gently and evenly, and there is less risk of spoiling theproduct . This question has been considered at some lengthin a previous chapter .Similar, but , in our Opinion , inferior, results are obtained


Vani l la and Vani l lin—The vanilla of commerce is theseed pod of the parasitic orchid Vani l la p lanifolia which iscultivated in Mexico , Tahiti , Mauritius , Mayotte, Java,Seychelles and Ceylon .

The fresh pods do not contain much of the aromaticbodies characteristic of the vanilla beans of commerce, butthese are developed in the subsequent treatment , of a fermentative character , which the beans are caused to undergo .

Fine vanilla beans come into the market , in tin boxes , aslong moist black pods , usually covered with an efflorescence

of white crystals . These crystals are aromatic and volatile,and consist of vanillin and a certain proportion of benzoicacid. During preparation , it is necessary to dry the beans ,as not only do they rapidly develop mould , when moist , but ,in the dry state , they better retain their aroma .

Inferior vanilla,from improper curing or from trees of

other species of vanilla,bearing fruit of lower value, are

frequently treated by rolling the pods in synthetic vanillin,benzoic acid , etc. For the detection of such fraud , thechemical reactions of the possible adulterants Should beinvestigated .

From Brazil is obtained the species called Vanillon,possessing a long bean of strong, but less aromatic , flavour .Vanilla beans may be used either as vanilla sugar,

”inwhich

‘

case the beans are cut up fine and mixed with sugar,and thewhole reduced to a fine powder, or as extract , when analcoholic solution is prepared by soaking the beans in thesolvent .

Vani l la sugar. Vani l la extract.Vanilla beans (fine Vanilla beans (fine

ground) 1 part . ground) 4 parts .Sugar 5 parts . Alcohol 5

The vanilla extract should be prepared by soaking thepods , finely crushed or ground , in alcohol for forty-eighthours , when the clear extract can be decanted or fil tered off.


Vanillin has , approximately , forty times the flavouringpower of vanilla ; consequently , in the recipes , given , boththe vanillin sugar and extract will be stronger thanthe corresponding preparation from the natural bean . The

amounts of vanilla and vanillin , used in the preparation ofsugar and extract , are, of course, optional and can be

varied to taste and requirements .The flavour Ofthe bean is undoubtedly superior to that of

its synthetic substitute, less harsh and more delicatelyaromatic , but the advantages to be obtained by the use Ofthelatter are

‘

so great that they will outweigh the superiorflavouring properties of the former ; except in cases where themost delicate palates are to be pleased .

The handling Of vanilla beans and vanillin is attendedwi th some inconvenience, as the aromatic bodies they contain are most pungent and irritating to the nostrils . Moreover , they set up irritation of the Skin and cause sores whi ch ,though not attended by danger, are extremely unpleasantand distressing.

Almonds , Nuts , etc.—Hazel-nuts and almonds are used

extensively on the Continent for giving a slight nutty taste,though , when used in England , much larger quantities of nutpaste are added , and the compound

‘

article is sold un dersome fancy name, such as Noisette,

”“

Nut Chocolate,”

Nuttis ,”etc. Whole roasted nuts are , frequently ,embedded

in the chocolate and enable a harder product , which stillpossesses the nutty characteristic , to be made. Particularlyare Almond bars ,

”prepared in this manner, popular inAmerica at the present time.

When nut or almond-paste is added to chocolatemass , themelting-point of the mixture is considerably lowered fromthat of plain chocolate, owing to the presence of oil which thenuts contain . Consequently , a good nut chocolate is alwayssofter than the ordinary plain variety and is more difficultto handle in the factory . Cacao butter substitutes , possess ing

AROMA AND FLAVOUR 351

hardening properties , will , frequently , be found . in thecheaper grades of nut chocolates . The same remarks applyto milk chocolates , though the presence of the large proportion of casein tends to give body .

”

Soft chocolates ofthese varieties wi ll not possess snap ,which is so characteristic of hard plain chocolate. Snapis due, usually , to the presence of a large proportion Of cacaobutter , which itself possesses a hard , crisp break, and to thethorough, blending and working of the sugar and cacao massin the melangeur and other machines , during manufacture. This property may also be acquired by rapidlycooling the chocolate after moulding, and it is worthy ofnote that chocolate, cooled slowly , will never acquire snap ,

”

however long it is allowed to remain . The addition of oil,the presence of air -bubbles . in moulded chocolate, and

insufficient working , will al l tend tothe reduction of snap .

Sp ices , etc—The spices—c innamon , nutmeg, cloves ,cardamoms , and coriander—may be added direct to thechocolate paste in the melangeur ,

”though , owing to the

gritty nature of ground spices and to the fact that a certainamount of sand is always to be found in them, their essentialoils are employed , with advantage. Another point in favourof using the essential oils , in preference to the groun d Spices ,is that a more constant and equal flavouringmaterial can beprepared , as the natural Spices fluctuate considerably in thepotency Of their aromatic contents .It is not an uncommon occurrence to meet with ground

spices , on the market , which have been partially deprived Oftheir essential oils or mixed with starch , meal , etc.

, and

Spices , so treated , would , naturally , be of lower value forflavouring. The characters of the spices are too well-knownto need description , and thequantity , to be added to chocolate,too much a matter of taste to justify a catalogue of recipes .It is not intended , therefore, to do more than outline themethod of procedure for the preparation of spice flavourings .


If the powdered Spices are used , it is advisable to wash ,dry and grind the Spices on the factory premi ses , as such a

proceeding prevents any possibility of adulteration .

If the essential oils are employed , it is advisable, as withvanillin , to prepare an alcoholic solution , as , when the

flavouring mixture is measured out , the errors which willoccur in the volumes of many consecutive measurementswill be of the less importance the greater the dilution . Thiserror might be considerable, if the essential Oi l were usedpure and undiluted further , the advantages to be gainedby making an alcoholic solution for the preparation ofcinnamon sugar and clove sugar,

”by the same methodas vanillin sugar,

”are such that less intimate mixing will

be required , and less possibility of making serious erroroccurs . The addition of strong flavouring materials to a

food preparation is one of those matters whi ch , at' present ,

must be left to the discretion of the human automaton , and,

if errors are to be prevented , the processes must be renderedas fool-proof as possible, especially in a large factory .

A 10 per cent . alcoholic solution of an essential oil is a convenient dilution for working, and, where used per se, shouldbe added to the chocolate at as late a stage Ofits manufactureas possible, to ensure that the least amount of volatileflavouring matter escapes .There are many chocolate improvers on the market , at

the present , day but al l those that have come under ournotice have been prepared from essential oils of spices ,extract of cacao shells or coffee, or blends of them .

Coumarin and Heliotrop in .—Coumarin , or the flavouring

material of the Tonquin bean , is very commonly used incheap chocolate. Used , with nice discretion , in milk chocolate, it is not unpleasant , though , to the

“ connoisseur , the

flavour is indicative of poor quality .

Heliotropin is used for the same purpose as coumarin , butit is less penetrating and rather more delicately aromatic .

CHAPTER XXIV

NUTRITIVE VALUE AND DIGESTIBILITY or COCOA

PREPARATIONS

IT has seemed desirable to include a chapter on the

nutritive value and digestibility Ofcocoa and its preparations ,seeing that much misleading information has been publishedin 'medical journals .Already , some points have been considered in the Intro

duction ,and it is not intended to cover this ground again .

There is , however, a certain truth un derlying the objectionsraised to cocoa by physicians from time to time, though, asin al l physiological tests , it is not easy to prove, by facts andfigures , statements that have been quoted from very earliesttimes . That the benefits outweigh the objectionablefeaturesof the preparations there can , however, be no shadow ofdoubt .Thomas Gage in his work , quoted later more fully ,

states This cocoa though , as every simple, it containsthe qualities Of the foure Elements , yet, in the Opinion of

most Physitians , it is held to be cold and dry . It is alsoin the substance that rules these two qualities , restringentand obstructive, of the nature of the Element of the Earth .

”

Gerard , in his Herbal ”of 1636, just mentions cacao ,but only as a drink which they highly esteem in Americaand which is of an astringent and ungrateful taste.

Culpepper is silent on the subject .With the exception of the attacks made by Franciscus

Ranch in 1624, the earliest reference, yet found , to the

consideration of the physiological aspect of cocoa prepara

NUTRITIVE VALUE AND orccsrwz'

u r r 355

tions , Gage’s work appears to be the first attempt to study

the subject scientifically . Indeed , we learn from the“

Natural History of Chocolate, a pamphlet published byChristopher Wilkinson at the Black Boy over againstSt . Dun sten ’s Church in Fleet -street ,

”1682, that Mr . Gage

drank chocolate in the Indies two or three times every dayfor twelve years and he scarce knew what any disease wasal l that time, he growing very fat.

” Wilkinson , himself, hadeaten great quantities of the kernels raw without the leastinconvenience,

”and wr ites that he had heard that

Mr . Boyle and Dr . Sh ibbs have let down into their stomachssome pounds of them raw without any molestation ; thestomachs seemed rather to be satisfied than cloy ’d with themwhi ch is an argument they are soon dissolved . We know ,

also , that the Spaniards did not scruple to eat cocoa upontheir great fast days .But , in early times , when chocolate was looked upon by

the American native habi tués as a stimulant food and by thewealthy European as a luxury with certain secret powers ,it is not surprising to learn that , like al l stimulants , it wasrecommended by the Herbalists and Physicians for application according to the constitution of the consumer . ThusIn cold constitutions , Jamaica Pepper, Cirmamon , Nut

megs , Cloves , etc. , may be mixt with the cacao Nut In

hot Consumptive tempers you maymixAlmonds , Pistachios,etc. and sometimes Steel and Rhubarb may be addedfor young green ladies .” Wilkinson makes a naive sugges

tion that , hadRachel known of the existence of chocolate, shewould not have purchased Mandrakea for Jacob.

W. Hughes, in a book entitled The American Physitianor a Treatise of the Roots , Plants , Trees , Shrubs , Fruit ,Herbs , etc. , Growing in the English Plantations in America,

has provided a lot of information on the virtues ofchocolate and has stated Chocolate is most excellent innourishing and preserving health entire, purging by Expec o

23—3


torations , and especially by the sweat vents of the body ,preventing unnatural fumes ascending to the head .

”His

references to the properties of the Oi l will be given later .Yet another word of praise for chocolate is given by one,

Dr . Doran , who says , in his Table Traits with somethi ngon Them,

” I must not omit to mention that the favouritebeverage of Voltaire at the CaféProcope (Paris) was chocaa mixture of coffee (with milk) and chocolate. The EmperorNapoleon was as fond of the same mixture as he was ofChambertin and, in truth , I do not know a draught which soperfectly soothes and revives as that of hot well frothedchoca .

From Robinson ’s work, The Early History of CoffeeHouses in England ,

”are taken the following lines ,

which suggest that the beverage was less popular with thelower classes , at any rate in this country , at that time

The Player cal l s for Chocolate.

At whi ch the Bumpkin , wondering at ,

Cr ies , Ho, my Mi sters , what d’

ye speak ,D

’

ye cal l for a drink in Heathen GreekGive me good old Ale or Beer ,

Or el se I w i l l not drink I swear .

’

We were ever a conservative raceWe have occasion to refer , later , to The Indian Nectar

or a discourse concerning Chocolata, by Henry Stubbe andThomas Lord Windsor , dated 1662 . These two enthusiastshad collected recipes for the making of chocolate and had

placed them in the hands of an honest though poor man ,

Richard Mortimer, of Sun Alley in East Smithfield,”but ,

evidently , they were a little doubtful of the effects that theirpreparations would have upon the public , for they writeHe will attend on my Physician of note to receive hi sdirections (in experiments) and also to inform him if he wouldvary from my ways by any addition , etc. And again , later,they write : and, as I shall endeavour wholly to obl ige


a fermentation process and a species of roasting are employedto the same end should have been allowed to stand withoutfurther comment , since coffee also is fermented , andwe knowthat prolonged fermentation is detrimental to the aroma.

Nevertheless , the article is full of sound information , evenif it has to be selected for reproduction here, of a nature thatwe have not been able to find elsewhere.

Analyses of cocoas from the leading firms are given as

Analyses ofCocoa Powders .

MoistureNitrogenous matter (N x 63 )Fat

Mineral matter (ash )StarchCelluloseOther non-nitrogenous mattersTheobromine

The degree of fineness to which the cocoa is ground is amatter of considerable dietetic importance, as will be seenlater, chiefly because, when placed in water , an almost com

plete suspension is secured , and no sediment settles out ,whilst the digestive jui ces are enabled to have full play oneach minute particle taken into the stomach .

It was Shown that cocoas were usually acid in reactionand that , when acid , the tendency to settle out in the cupwas most marked . By the addition of natural salts ,

”the

cocoa became “ not acid to test papers , owing to theaction of alkaline organic salts , and yields practically nosediment in the cup , the exceedingly fine particles being in astate of perfect suspension , a condition which is assisted bythe salts .” This , of course, is known in the trade as rendering cocoa soluble,

”and is actually brought about , in this

country and al l over Europe and America, by the addition of

NUTRITIVE VALUE AND DIGESTIBILITY 359

alkalis . With this , however, the writers of the articlestrongly disagree, but , without wishing to be disrespectful ,we can on ly impute their denial to ignorance of the trade andto chemical methods . Passing over these verbal differencesof Opinion , we come to another table which is distinctlyinteresting as showing that , when addition of alkali is made,alkalinity appears only in the ash and not in the cocoapowder , as such . In spite of this fact , we must again differfrom these writers who say It has been freely stated that.some cocoas in the English market are largely manipulatedwith alkali . Our experience gives nosupport whatever tosuch a statement ,

”since they have fallen into anelementaryerror of attributing the alkalinity of the ash to the increase ofnatural organic salts of the cocOa and not to the addi tionof alkalis which , possibly , may have neutralised the organicacids of the cocoa . Yet , they are willing to grant that theiniquitous habit of adding alkali to cocoa is practisedin Germany . It is , indeed , often difficult to discrimi

nate between scientific facts and medical fancies in thispaper .For the experiments on digestibility of cocoa in artificial

gastric and pancreatic juices , Cadbury’s cocoa was taken as

an example of cocoa prepared from cacao beans Simply byroasting, grinding and pressing, to remove a certain quantityof fat Van Houten ’s cocoa was selected as an example inwhich natural salts are increased , and Plasmon cocoa as

representing a powder containing added matter in the formof dried milk solids (approximately sixty parts milk solidsto forty parts cocoa powder) , which should be soluble. The

following figures were obtained

Total dissolved Mineral

Cocoa . matters . matters .

Cadbury ’

s 3 20

Van Houten ’s 23 00 5-20

Plasmon


The increased solubility , by the use of alkal i , ofVanHouten’s

cocoa over that of Cadbury will be noticed in Column I.

Further,Van Houten’s cocoa was observed to be exceedingly

finely ground , in fact comminuted .

”So far as the proteids

are concerned , Cadbury’s cocoa yielded up to hot water

33 per cent . of its proteid matter, Van Houten ’s cocoa60 per cent . and Plasmon cocoa 70 per cent . , the totalproteids being 18 60 per cent . , 172 5 per cent . , and 54 43 percent . , respectively .

The amount of sediment , settling out , was next measured ,one gramme of each cocoa being boiled with water andmadeup to 100 ccs .

Cadbury ’ s cocoa 5 0 cos . sediment after half-hour .Van Houten ’s cocoa . 10 cc .

Plasmon cocoa 3 0 cos.

Evidently , and as might have been expected , Plasmon ,which was regarded as a soluble form of milk proteid , isrendered to some extent insoluble when added to cocoa .

As a matter of fact , the present writer, Speaking from experi

ence with this product , can assert that Plasmon was seldomtotally soluble in water and that the addition of alkali did ,of course , greatly increase its solubility , wh ilst the presenceof tannin in the cocoa will always render a certain amount ofmi lk solids , when present , insoluble in water .The experiments with the same cocoa powders and

artificial gastric and pancreatic juices are very interesting .

The cocoas were prepared (as directed by the manufacturers)by treating with boiling water . The infusion was brought to100

° F . (approximately the normal temperature of the humanbody) , and a definite volume of digestive fluid was added .

In the cases of gastric digestion , the mixture was acidifiedwith hydrochloric acid , and the pancreatic fluid was renderedalkaline with sodium carbonate. Digestion was carried out


The last experiments , made, were upon the same cocoas , butwith weak acids and alkalis in the absence of ferments .

Soluble inCocoa. weak acids .

Cadbury ’s 4150

Van Houten ’sPlasmon 58 10

In the figures shown in the first column , 73 3 per cent . ofstarch for Cadbury ’s cocoa, 2 70 per cent . forVan Houten

’scocoa and 1 -99 per cent . for Plasmon cocoa, must be included ,whilst , in the insoluble figures , the fibre will be found .

Many references to chocolates have appeared in the

Lancet, from time to time, but . as a rule, they are moreadvertisements of the product than attempts to providephysiological data .

In 1910, Albahary Ann . Falsif, iii . , 159 pronounced judgment on alkali -treated soluble cocoas . He

found that the so-called soluble cocoas were not moresoluble than natural cocoas from which the greater portionof the fat had been expressed . The larger quantities ofalkali , soap and colouring matter , going into solution duringinfusion

,caused the fat of the treated cocoas to be more

perfectly emulsified and the insoluble constituents to remainfor a longer time in suspension . The samewriter is emphaticin his denial that soluble cocoas are more easily assimilated than the natural cocoas and that the proteids and

other substances , present in the former , aremore soluble thanthose in the latter . Further , the presence of soap , resultingfrom the neutralisation of the fatty acids ofthe cacao butter,is particularly objectionable when the cocoa is consumed bychildren and invalids . The writers in the Lancet in 1905have stated , however, that no soap could be detected inso- called alkalised cocoas .It has been estimated that cacao , wh ich yields


calories , falls to calories heat value, if it is expressedso as to contain 15 per cent . of fat . By defatting the cacao ,non-digestible albuminoids rise from 8-2 per cent . to 14 9 percent . , and cacao fibre from 3-4 per cent . to 62 per cent . Onthe other hand , the process of expression of fat raises thetheobromi ne value appreciably .

It has already been pointed out that the alkalis , whenused correctly , are not present in cocoa powder as free alkali ,but in combination with phosphoric and organic acids inother words , the salts of the alkali are in a form u suallyconsumed by man in his ordinary food . Man consumes ,daily

,some 4—5 grammes of alkali compounds (calculated

as K20 ) in his food , and the proportion added , if a cup ofalkalised cocoa is also taken, amounting to a further

grammes of KQO, is insignificant .Forster estimated that 90 per cent . of the dry matter of

cocoa was readily digested , 80 per cent . of the nitrogenousmatters and 100 per cent . of the fatty and mineral mattersbeing easily assimilated .

Neumann T has made a very complete study of thedigestibility of cocoa powders by studying the effect of a dietof cocoa, with and without other foodstuffs , on the weight ofthe human body , and by analyses of the excreta. Albuminoi ds are absorbed , apparently , to the extent of a minimum of45 per cent . , when cocoa, alone, is used as diet . The

addition of cocoa to other articles of food seems to reducethe total amount of nitrogen absorbed , and the nitrogenabsorbed is also dependent upon the amount of cacao fatpresent , the less the fat the less are the nitrogenous bodiesassimi lated .

Cacao butter was shown to be absorbed to about 95 percent . , when consumed wi th other foods , the normal fat of

J. Fors ter , Hyg. Rand , 1900, 305.

1' Neumann , Die Bewerkung des Kakaos al s Nahr und Genussm. , R . Oldenburg,

Mun ich , 1906.


normal foods being absorbed to about the same amount .But , when consumed alone in cocoa powder, cacao buttershowed an assimilation of only 87-1 per cent . , as against89 6 per cent . when mixed , as cocoa powder , with otherfoods . It was shown that a cocoa powder containing about30 per cent . offat was the most easily assimilated .

Gautier has stated that 100 grammes of cocoa powder ,defatted to 25 per cent . of fat , contains 13 grammestheobromine, 17 grammes of nitrogenous matters of which 8

per cent . is albumen , and 10 to 12 grammes of carbohydrates .In one cup of cocoa containing 10 grammes of powder, onetenth of the quantities , shown , will be consumed . Gautierconcludes that the stimulating effect on a tired person oi acup of chocolate containing 14 grammes of sustaining matter,of which 7 grammes are sugar and 2-5 grammes are fat, canonly be explained by

'

an effect on the nervous system ,

provoked by the aroma of the cocoa and the tonic influenceof the theobromine, whilst the nutritive value of the pre

paration has , in addition also , an accumulative effect , inproportion as it is absorbed .

With regard to cacao butter, Hughes , in the very earlytreatise already mentioned , says Cacao Oi l is internallyadministered , it is good against al l Coughs , shortness of breath ,opening and making the roughness of the arteries smooth ,palliating al l sharp Rheums and contributing very much tothe Radicle Moisture, being very nourishing and excellentagainst Consumption ,

”and, again , that it can be effectually

externally applied against al l Inflammations , i .e. , Phlegmons ,Erisipelas , S . Anthony ’s Fire, Scaldings and Burnings , theplace being annointed therewith .

” Were it not for thequaint wording , these lines might have been taken from the

most recent United States Dispensatory , which recommendsthe use of cacao butter for a number of similar complaints .As to the digestibility of cacao butter , however, there is

Armand Gaut ier , L’

Al imentat ion , etc . , 327 et seq .


The general conclusions , reached by Gardner and Fox,

were somewhat of the same order , though more than one of

the subjects took quantities of cacao fat up to 237 grammes ina five-day test , without any unpleasant symptoms . The some

writers concluded that cacao butter was rather less digestiblethan cow ’s butter, but that the experiments showed satisfactory utilisation , except when excessive quantit ies ofcacao butter, which had a slight laxative efl

'

ect, were consumed . There was no indication that cacao butter was a

slow poison .

”

In the Bri ti sh Food Journal , April , 1916, an interestingarticle appears on Cocoa and Chocolate. Many ins ecurecies have been allowed to stand , such as There is , however,no nitrogen except in the form of theobromine, which is amildstimulant and has also a steadying action on the digestionbut does not supply nitrogen for building up tissue,

”and,

again the only possible use for husks seems to beto burnthem and so economise coal .” On the other hand, thearticle contain s a story relating to the evil effects producedby the inclusion of husk in cocoa preparations , wh ich,presumably , has some foundation in fact . An interest ingcase of the adulteration of cocoa with husks , or, to bemoreaccurate, of adul terating ground husks with cocoa, hasrecently come to light in Germany and incidentally affordsan il lustration of German morality in trade matters . A

large number of severe cases of dysentery and gastritisoccurred among the German troops at certain points on thefront

, and the medical officers there and at the base were atthe first qui te at a loss to explain them . They were Subec

quently found to be confined to soldiers who had eatencertain chocolates sent to them as love-gifts (l iebesgaben)

* bytheir civilian friends . These love-gifts were traced by thepolice to a Hamburg firm whi ch made a special ity of making

Th is word i s correct ly translated as comforts for the troops , and not leve


and advertising war chocolates for presentation to the menin the trenches . Quantities of these chocolates were boughtby the authorities , and the cocoa part of them was found toconsist almost entirely of husk . The next step was naturallyto raid the firm’

s premi ses , where huge quantities of thesechocolates , ready for sale, were seized, together with no lessthan 50 tons of crude husk purchased in Germany and also inHolland . We have not yet heard what happened to thefirm.

”

CHAPTER XXV

A;

SURVEY OF THE COMPONENT PARTS OF ROASTEDCACAO BEANS—HUSK

ROASTED cacao is divided up during the process ofmanufacture of cocoa and chocolate into (1) the husks orShells , which are the by

-product , of little value ; (2) thenibs , which , as has been seen in the foregoing chapters ,Should comprise the base for sweet and fancy chocolates ,and which , when partially deprived of fat for cocoa powders ,constitute the most commercially important fraction ofcacao .

Hu s k .

(8 per cent . to 20 per cent . of the whole bean .)V

Konig has shown the amount of husk, determined byLaube and Aldendorff, to vary considerably with the originof the bean . This is not remarkable when the differentprocesses which the beans undergo in fermenting and curingin various localities , previously described in Chapters VI .and VII are considered . The following table (Table LVI.)shows two sets of resul ts obtained by different authorson various cacaos .

The considerable variations which occur between the

fig ures of different observers are attributable to the varyingproportions of sand and earth adhering to the beans . Suchdifferences frequently occur between the figures of the samevariety of bean sold under the same mark .

24—2


TAB LE LVI.—Percentage ofHusk in Cacao Beans .

*

20 -09

9 7 7—122 4

I. Konig, Diemensch . Nahr . u. Genussm. , i . , 261 .

II. Z ipperer, Untersuchungen fiber Cacao, etc . , 55.

III. Whymper and B radley. Unpubl i shed, 1920.

The chemical composition of husks from cacao of differentvarieties can be seen in Table LVII .

TABLE LVII.—Composi tion ofHusk.1

'

Water 12 -57 5 1 2 99 0 125 1 7 -83

Fat 3 -30 12 -92 3 -6 3 -83 4-23 4-40 6 -38

Ash 7 -35 6-92 5-7 8 -26 10 -20 7 -30 7 -12

Nitrogen 2 -63 2 -05 3 -00 2 -19 2 -50

Proteid 14-69 16 -44 12 -8 18 -8 1 13 -69 14-29

Fi bre 16 -33 13 -17 13 -85 16 -7 1 14-00 14-69

Theobromine, caffeine 0 -79

G. Pari s , Zei tsch . Nahr . Genussm. , 1898, vi . , 389 .

F. T. Schutt , Annual Rep . Exptl . Farms (Canada) , 1898

S . Dekker, Chem. Cen tr . , 1902, i i . , 1217 .

H. Luhrig, Zei tsch . Nahr . Genussm. , 1905, ix. , 263 .

A. Smetham, Jaar . Royal Lanes . Agric. Soc , 1909 .

Z ipperer , Untersuchungen fi ber Kakao, 55.

N. P. Booth , The Analyst, 1909 , xxxiv. , 144.

Konig, D iemensch . Nahr . Genussm. , i . , 261 .

Besides these analyses , there are many other contributions to our existing knowledge of the component parts

Vide a lso Chapters VIII. and IX .

1' Vide also Chapter IX. , Tables XVIII. and XIX .

~ 374 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

Grade A, was 33 . 2d. per pound , and the packets were tobe suitably labelled to Show the grade of cocoa , enclosed .

(2) Grade B cocoa powders were defined as cocoascontaining not more than 5 per cent . of cacao-bean Shell

(and no cocoa powder should bemanufactured that containedmore than this amount) and not less than 22Aper cent . ,and not more than 30 per cent . , of cacao butter . This cocoahad to be invoiced as Grade B cocoa powder, and was tobe packed in barrels or cases , unless , at the buyer

’s request ,the manufacturer packed the cocoa powder in cartons ,

’

which had to bear the words “

Grade B cocoa powder .”

The maximum price, fixed for Grade B cocoa powder ,was 23 . 2d. per pound , or , if sold in cartons , 2s . 6d. per

pound .

(3) Part 3 of the Order provided that no cacao shell , orany mixture (other than chocolate) which contained morethan 5 per cent . of cacao Shell , could be sold by retail , onand after April 8th , at a price exceeding 6d. per pound .

Knapp calculated from the offi cial returns on cacao thatthe world production of cacao Shell was about tons

per annum, of which Europe was responsible for tons .Great Britain , in 1916, provided tons .The average amount of shell in cacao beans is about

12 5 per cent . According to Knapp , and confirmed by theauthor

’

s experience, some 105 per cent . of shell is easilyremoved . Of the smalls , which approximate 4 per cent . ,about 36 per cent . is shell , and, owing to the losses on roasting, separating, etc. , only about 78 5 per cent . of usable nibsare recovered from the original cacao, and of this about2 per cent . is shell , which is only with the greatest difl

‘i culty

removed . The price for cacao shells rose rapidly duringthe war ; thus , in 1912, the price per ton was 65s . ; in1913 , 1914 and 1915, in 1916, in 1917,whi ls t in May, 1918 , 3103 . was quoted .

The variations in price, at any one time, for cacao shells

COMPONENT PARTS OF ROASTED CACAO BEANS—HUSK 375

depend upon the amount of nibs left behind in the so-calledoffal .” Knapp quotes for shell , in 1916, containing less

TABLE LVIII .—Analyses of Cocoa Teas .

(Baker and Hulton .)CocoaC Ca

shrill?

nlc

lilo

B . 0 . Average. Average. Average.

Moi sture 1 1 -0 108

Fat 4-0 4-7

15-0 8 -0 7 -48“ mm

u s see 11 -46 6 -83 9 -67

2 -2 5-78 5-14 1 -21 5-2AS"“ w e “ at“

2 -59 ses 6 -52 7 -86 4-58 2 -57 743

Ash insoluble in hydrochl oric ac id

Soluble ash per cent . on

total ash 14-8 72

Alkal in ity of water -so l -33 3 -85 3 -08 -8 5

luble ash au o . t 3 9 5-58

Water -soluble Kai ) per

cent . on total ash 2 -2 48

2 -03 2 -66N‘m g‘m l 23 9 3 -45 3 -03 3 -13

Crude protein (N x 12 -69 14-87 14 -87 16 -62 15-1 14-37 19°

-1

6 -25)

12 -8 10 -8 13 -8 16 -6 15-42 2 -68cm fibre

15-0 15-65 17 -5 16-8 5-7

Matter soluble in cold 2 1 -7 17 -5 20 -2 22 -0 2 1 -0 1 1 -4 19 -5

water 25 6 25 9 23 -0

Matter soluble in hot

water 27 3 28

Levigat ion sediment

Price per pound (March ,

19 18 ) Is . 18 . 4d. 2d. or3d. 2s . 8d.

“ NOTE—The figures in heavier type are percentages on dry fat-free matter . The

va lues given for average cacao n ib are ch iefly based on Winton , S i lverman , and Ba i ley ,

and Booth , Cr ibb, and R ichards ( loc ci t ) . The a lka l ised cocoa in the last column wasa samp le analysed by ourselves .


than 1 per cent . of nibs , 1203 . Shell wi th 2 8 per cent . nibspresent , 1303 . shell wi th 10 per cent . n ibs present , 1503 .

and Shell with 15 per cent . of n ibs present , 2003 .

The use of cocoa teas in Ireland is well established ,but it was only during the War that such preparations asCelesco,

”and other cacao Shell products , found their way

into the English markets . Baker andHulton have providedanalyses of some cocoa teas of sufli cient interest to beincluded in this place (though we are in clined to differ fromsome of their observations , especially on sample whichare given above.

A. An in spection of the analytical values for thi smaterial indicates clearly that it consists of shell wi thoutany admi xture of nib , the outstanding point of interestbeing the remarkably high ash content , a large proportionof which is insoluble in hydrochloric acid . The sample ofwhich it is composed was earthed ,

’

and it is probable thata considerable amount of finely- divi ded mineral matterwould be present in the emulsion prepared from it , and

would , therefore, be consumed by any one drinking thetea prepared from it .

B . This sample, as we have j ust shown in the workedexample gi ven above (the calculation is considered laterin the present work) , consi sts of a mi xture of about64 per cent . of shell and the balance (36 per cent . ) of ni b .

The analytical values also Show that the beans of which itis composed have been roasted with a soluble alkali ; itcontains the highest proport ion of nib of any of the foursamples analysed .

C. This sample is also a mixture of shell and nib , thepercentage of th e former being about 86 per cent . , thebalance (14 per cent .) being nib . Like B . ,

it has also beentreated with alkali .

D . The values found for fat , crude fibre, and

water- soluble matter, leave litt le room for doubt that


reports of experimental farms in Canada ,and other works

dealing with the valuation of waste cacao products , cattlefoodstuffs

,manures , etc.

Other uses to which cacao husk has been put are forextraction of th e fat

,preparation of a colouring material , the

extraction of theobromine, as soil manure, preparation of aflavour for adding to roasted coffee and its substitutes , orto cheap and inferior cocoa powders and chocolate.

At the present day,with modern efficien t machinery ,

very little cacao -nib dust finds its way into the waste shellreceptacle during the process of nibbing, Winnowing and

grading ; consequently , the percentage of fat which commercial cacao husk contains is due, almost entirely , to thatpresent in the shell alone.

The fatcontent in cacao husk ranges from 3 per cent . to6 per cent . , and practically al l this is capable of extractionby a suitable solvent , such as petroleum ether . The fat soextracted is low in quality , and would be rejected for usein better-class chocolate factories ; it does , ho

'wever , finda market and may,

with advantage, be used in the preparation of cosmetics , etc. , in which flavour is of little importance.

After the fat has been removed , the residue may betreated with sulphuric acid (3 per cent . solution) , boiled ,neutralised with baryta , and extracted with chloroform,

which removes the caffeine and theobromine, of which thehusks contain some 0 6 per cent . Dekker obtained 0-58 per

cent . of mixed alkaloids by treatment of the husks withmagnesia , boiling with water and extracting with chloroform . The separation oi theobromine and caffeine may be

accomplished by a further extraction with carbon tetrachloride, or by cautious treatment with caustic soda . Inthe firs t case, caffeine is soluble in carbon tetrachloride inthe latter, theobromine is removed , without the caffeine,

by the soda .

The husk finds further outlet in chocolate surrogate, or

COMPONENT PARTS OF ROASTED CACAO BEANS—HUSK 379

suppen powder, which consists of a small quantity ofcacao waste, and sugar, meal , spices and colouring matterin varying quantities . This constitutes a cheap chocolatepowder of very inferior quality .

A cacao shell powder of commerce, analysed by the

author, showed 9 8 per cent . moisture, 7-2 per cent . ash ,

10 2 per cent:fat , 156 per cent. albuminoids or proteidmatter . Such a powder shows a good value on analysis ,but the remaining 57 2 parts was of an indigestible fibrousnature which might l easonably set up irritation in a weakstomach .

Cocoa tea of Germany , and miserables of Ireland ,are independent articles of commerce and consist of cacaohusks , in powder or shred , the infusion of which in boilingwater is drunk after the manner of tea by the poorer classesof the two countries . As already mentioned , cocoateas made their appearance in England again during theWar .

An infusion of cacao husk is not unpalatable and, whenconcentrated , is used for improving the flavour of cheapcocoas . The preparation of improvers from cacao huskforms the subject of many English , French , and Germanpatents .The composition of cacao husk from beans of differen t

origin does not show important variations such differencesas do occur are attributable to the varying proportions ofearth , sand , and similar extraneous matter , found adheringto the outer shell , and to the percentage of moisture which ,owing to the different processes of curing and drying undergone, shows considerable variation .

Booth has shown some in teresting figures which are

worthy of reproduction , since they provide information onthe alkalinity and cold-water extract , the results for thelatter being of importance in the estimation of the cacao

N. P . Booth , The Ana lys t, 1909, xxxiv. , 144.


present in a sample of cocoa or chocolate.

* These figuresshould be compared with those given by Arpin , shown inChapter XIV . of the present work .

TAB LE LIX .

—Analyses ofRoasted Cacao Husk.

Ceylon . Afr ican . Para . G.uayaqui l .

Total mineral matterSolubleminera l matterSi l icious matterAlkal ini ty as K

20

Co ld water extractNitrogenFat

Fibre

The average moisture of the shells , shown by Booth , was

per cent ., against 3 °O per cent . for the average of the

corresponding nibs , whilst the cold-water extract was

foun d to be the same, for al l practical purposes , in both nib

and shell .The composition of cacao husk having been now dealt

with in the general way, there remains the important consideration of the individual components , which will be takensertatt

'

m.

MO ISTURE (5 per cent . to 12 per cent . of the raw , 2 per

cent . to 8 per cent . of the roasted husk) .

The amount of moisture, whi ch any given sample ofcacao husk will contain , wil l depend , firstly , upon the degreeto which the particular beans were dried secondly , to thetreatment which they may have suffered during transit orstorage and, thirdly , upon the degree of roasting, and thetime of standing before the sample was taken .

There is little need for further discussion on this point ,as figures , illustrating the percentage content of moisturein beans fresh from the pod , after fermentation , raw com

Vida Chapter xxx.


40 per cent . of stearic acid Fam steiner obtained 597 percent . of saturated acids , 3 12 per cent . of oleic acid , and

6-3 per cent . of other acids . Kl imont ,1' who regards these

acids as existing mainly in the form of mixed esters , hasisolated the following substances by fractional crystallisationof the fat from acetone

(1) A fraction melting at 70°

C. , having an iodinevalue O. This he regarded as a mixture of tripalmitinand tristearin .

(2) A fraction melting at 31° to 32° C. , with a saponi

fication value 196 4, iodine value 28 9 . This fractionhad an empirical formula and was judged to bea mixed triglyceride, oleo-palmito- stearin .

(3) A fraction melting at 26° to 27° C having an

iodine value 317 , a saponification value 210, and an

empirical formula (C51H960 6) . This , Kl imont considered tobe a mixed glyceride, containing the radicles of myristic ,palmitic and oleic acids , and ,possibly ,ofsome st ill lower fattyacids . Triolein was not detected in the fat.

Matthes and Rohdl ichgt in determining whether cacaobutter contained any constituent with a pronounced influenceupon the flavour of cacao , succeeded in isolating from the

unsapon ifiable matter two phytosterols identical, apparently ,with sitosterol and stigmasterol , previouslv isolated by

Windhaus from the fat of the Calabar bean . There was

also present an oil with a pleasant smell , resembling hyacinth .

Fritzweiter § isolated 6 per cent . of oleodistear in from the

fat, which had been removed by Heise’s method .

Other contributors to our existing knowledge of thecomposition of cacao butter , that must be mentioned , are

Fam steiner , Z eitsch . Nahr. Genus sm. , 1899 , i i . , 1 .

1' K l imont , Morta l srh . , 1902 , xxi i i . , 51 1905, 563 ; Ber . Chem. Gea , 1901 ,

xxxiv. , 2636 .

i Matthes and Rohdl ich , Ber . , 1908 , xl i . , 19 .

R . Fritzweiter, Chem. Centr . , 1902 , i . , 1 1 13 .

COMPONENTS OF CACAO HUSK—FAT 383

Lewkow itsch ,

* Strohl ,TDe Negri and Fabri s i Filsinger,§Wright ,”Rakusin ,1l etc. , whose works should be consulted ,if further information is required .

According to Schadler, cacao butter has the followingelementary composition :Carbon , 75-20 per cent hydro

gen , 1 1-90 per cent . oxygen , 12 90 per cent .

Cacao butter is a yellowish solid , turning graduallywhite on keeping. It breaks with a smooth fracture , possesses an odour resembling that of cacao and has a smoothand pleasant taste. The fat softens at 26 6° C. and meltsbetween 311 °

and 33 9°

C.

The British Pharmacopoeia test for its purity is as

follows If 1 grm . be dissolved in 3 cos. of ether, in a testtube at 17

°

C. , and the tube placed in water at 0°

C.,the

liquid should neither become turbid nor deposit a granularmass in less than three minutes ; and , if the mixture,after congealing, be exposed to a temperature of 155 °

C

it should gradually afford a clear solution (absenceof other fats) . This is a modification of Bjorklund

’

s

ether test .“

The physical and chemical constants of cacao butterhave been estimated by a number of investigators and willbe found , classified , in Table LXI. It is , however, desirableto discuss the meaning of these constants , in order to understand their significance.

The Specific Gravi ty.

The specific gravity , or the weight of unit volume, of

Lewkow itsch , Jour . So c . Chem. Ind. , 1898 , xvi i i . , 556, etc .

1 A. Strohl , Z ei tech . anal . Chem. , 1896, xxxv. , 166, etc.

1 De Negri and Fabris , Ann . Lab. Ch im. Centr . del le Gubel h'

, 1891 , xci i . , 258, etc .

Fi l s inger , Z ei tech . ana l . Chem. , 1896, xxxv. , 517 , etc .

Alder Wright , Oi ls , Fats and Waxes , and thei r Manufactured Products , 1903 .

529, etc .

1[M. Rakus in , Chem. Zei t. , 1905, xxix . , 139, etc.

Vide Chapter XXIX .


the fat, compared with that of water at the same temperature, is extremely useful in determi ning the purity ornature of the fat un der consideration . In the case ofcacao butter this is especially so , as its specific gravity, inthe solid state, is higher than the fats with which itis likely to be confoun ded , or adul terated , whilst , in theliquid and molten state, the specific gravity will be foundto be lower than that of its probable adulterants (s ideTableIn taking the specific gravity of the solid fat, it is

necessary to allow the oil to remain solidified for severaldays , in order that it may assume its normal crystallineform .

It has , moreover , been shown by a number of observersthat an expressed fat has a different specific gravity to an

extracted fat it is necessary , therefore, when taking thevalue, to state by which process the fat has been obtainedand to give, also , the age of the sample. ThusHager givesthe normal specific gravity of cacao butter , at 15

°

C. , as 0 95

when fresh , and 0 945 when old . Later values , by the sameinvestigator for fresh butter , are from 0 96 to

'

0 98 at 15°

C.

Cacao butter , extracted by solvents , shows a higher specificgravity than the expressed fat , Rammsberger finding valuesof 0 95 for expressed , and 0 99 for extracted fat .

TheMclung-

point.

The melting-point of cacao butter is usually given as

33°

C., but figures ranging from 28

° to 36° C. are to be found ,recorded by various investigators . The di fferences , found ,may usually be attributed to a different source of origin .

The melting-point of cacao butter , extracted from beans of

various cacaos , has been frequently shown to vary ; thusWhite and Braithwaite and others give the fol lowingresul ts


In determining the halogen absorption value, it is moresimple to make use of the iodine method , and it is intendedhere to consider only this quanti ty , the bromine equivalentbeing easily found in works treating with oils , fats , etc. , orcalculated from the iodine figures .

Stearic acid does not absorb iodine, whilst oleic acid takesup 90 per cent . of its weight of the halogen . We have, then ,a means of partially discriminating between fats containingvarying proportions of olein to stearin . Thus , to take extremecases , the iodinevalue for cacao butter is about 35, whilst thatfor almond oil is about 100, and that of coconut stearinaround 4.

Lewkow itsch has shown that the iodine value of cacaobutter increases slightly with age, though stil l not outsidethe possibilities for normal fat .

The lowest value for iodine absorption by cacao butter ,that can be found , is 32 0 by Dietrich , and the highest417 by Strohl , though , again , neither value is much beyondthe normal figures of Lewkow itsch ,

34 27 to 36 99. Filsingerfound that cacao butter from different varieties of beansshowed varying figures of iodine absorption , ranging from35 1 for Porto Plata to 37-1 for Guayaquil Arriba .

The iodine value indicates the amount of iodine per cent .absorbed by the fat and is , consequently , a rough indicationof the unsaturated fatty acids of the oleic acid type present .The unsaturated fatty acids directly combine with iodineand bromine to form dibromo or diiodo- substitution derivatives . The corresponding glyceride derivatives of the

unsaturated fatty acids behave in like manner, thus03H5<0 18H330 2> 3 312

Olein (glyceride of Iodine Glyceride of diiodooleic acid) stearic acid .

The method of bringing about this reaction i s discussedin a later chapter, and the value is a very useful indicationas to the purity of the fat, under examination .

COMPONENTS OF CACAO HUSK—FAT 387

Shell butter , or Dutch HA cacao butter , has,according to Filsinger, an iodine absorption value of 39to 40, and is , as a rule, higher than that of the fat extractedfrom the nib .

The Saponification or Koettstorfer Value.

The saponification value is derived by a determinationof the number of milligrammes of potassium hydroxiderequired to saponify 1 gramme of the substance. The variousglycerides , of which most of the fats are composed , are constituted so that , on saponification , they break up into

glycerol and the alkaline salt of the fatty acid they contain .

Owing to the different molecular weights of the various fattyacids , the quantity of alkali that will be required to bringabout saponification will vary . The quantity of potassiumhydroxide requisite for complete saponification of a fat orglyceride is , therefore, a measure of the molecular weight ofthe fatty glyceride, or mixture, under consideration , and

represents not only the free but the total fatty acids present .The saponification value of cacao butter ranges from

192 to 202 (Filsinger) , and is usually 194 to 195. Dubois hasforwarded to the author the sapon ification values of elevensamples of cacao butter, which range from 192 4 to 195-2 .

The figures , obtained by various investigators , vary verylittle, even the ageing of the fat causing but small increase,a fact which is easily understood when it is realised that thesaponification value is a measure of the total fatty acidspresent , which would not be increased by the fat becomingrancid .

Acid Value.

The hydrolysis or breaking down of the fats into moresimple substances , of which the fatty acids form the principalpart , occurs , to a small extent , on the extraction of the fat bymeans of solvents or expression and always takes place, to a

25—3


greater or less degree, after the fat- containing seeds havebeen detached from the plant . This is brought about bythe lipolytic enzymes and ferments of the vegetable kingdom,

whose duty it is to break down the fat to form readilyas similable food for the growing plant .The presence of free fatty acids , in any quantity, is most

detrimental to the flavour of a fat, with the exception ofolive oil, the flavour of which is supposed to be improved bya small quantity of fatty acids .In cacao butter, which is less liable to turn rancid , the

presence of fatty acids is most objectionable, and it is veryeasy to recognise a tainted sample .

Lewkow itsch has determined the acid value of a numberof samples of cacao butter, and, whilst the ordinary freshfat shows fromone to two for a measure of free fatty acid, asample kept for ten years in a sealed bottle had risen to4-6. The maximum amount of fatty acids is found in fatsextracted by solvents and from beans which have beenstored for a considerable time, as , in these cases , the fat hasbeen in contact with the active ferments for the greatestperiod .

Bal lantyne,Thowever, was unable to trace any connection between rancidity and liberation of fatty acids , thoughSpaeth i admitted that , in the case of lard , rancidity wasattended by a considerable formation of volatile acids .Rancidity is an oxidation process , brought about by the

action of oxygen , light and ferments , and Spaeth observedthat , as the oxidation increased , the power of absorbingiodine correspondingly decreased . Fats , thus oxidised ,were observed to possess a considerably higher refractiveindex than the normal fats , a fact which has been attributedto the polymerisation of the unsaturated fatty acids . This

J. Lewkowitsch , Joum . Soc. Chem. Ind , 1899, 556 .

f Bal lantyne, Joum . Soc. Chem. Ind. , 1891 , x. , 29.

I Spaeth , Zaitech . anal . Chem., 1896, xxxv., 471.


at 60°

C. These figures represent roughly 46° to 48° on theZeiss butyro- refractometer scale at 40

°

C.

TABLE LXI.

—Chemi cal and Physical Constants ofCacao Butter .

Specific gravity 0 0964—0 974at 15

° C .

26-6°—33° C . 29

°- 35

° C . 32°- 33-6

° C. 30°—34° C . 30

°- 346

° C .

—36 099 320 - 370 334—376 32 -0—87 -7 34-0—37 -5192 -0—1 95-0 191 -8—1 94-5 193 -0- 205-0 195-0 1 920 - 2020

1 1 4 45 1 -0—2 -3 9 -24—17 -90-2 0-38—0-94

Acetyl value 2 71 - 2 86

Th e mel ting-

point of the fatty acids , obtained from cacao butter, has been recorded by various

investigators as from 47°—49° C. The author has examined one samp le wh ich melted at 52

° C.

The iod ine value of the fatty acids has been found to be 390 (De Negri and Fabris ) .I . Al len'

s Commercial Organic Analys is, 1910, vol . i i . 71 .

II . Lewkowitsch , Journ . Soc. Chem. Ind . , 1899 , 556 ; Ch emical Technology and Analysis of

O i ls , Fats , and Waxes, 1909, etc.

III. Whymper, 1910 .

IV. Fi ls inger, Korr. Verband . deutsch . Schokeladefab ., 1889, v. , 65 Z ail ach . anal . Chem., 1896 , xxxv

166, etc.

V. Dieterich , in R . Benedikt’

s Analys is ofFats and Waxes, etc.

VI . Z ipperer, The Manufacture of Ch ocolate,”1 902, 45.

FIBRE (12 per cent . to 15 per cent . of the raw ,

13 per cent . to 17 per cent . of the roasted husk) .

The estimation of fibre in a cocoa powder or chocolate is aguide to the amount of cacao husk , present . Ludwig has

made a series of analyses of known mixtures of husk and

cacao and, by estimating the amount of fibre (by a modified

KOnig’

s method T) in the samples , has given valuableassistance to the analyst desirous of ascertaining the extentof intentional or careless inclusion of cacao husk .

Ludw ig, The Analyst, 1906, 362 .

TVide Chapter XXX.

COMPONENTS OF CHCAO HUSK—FIBRE 391

Six samples of cocoa powder gave 49 8 per cent . to 5-96

per cent . (average 5 60 per cent .) of crude fibre, calculated onfat - freematerial the quantity of fat, present in the samples ,ranged from 25-05 per cent . to 279 2 per cent . , giving an

average of 25 78 per cent . The sample of cacao huskcontained 3 08 per cent . of fat and 14 47 per cent . of crudefibre.

Amixture of equal parts of the six cocoas was then made,to which increasing proportions of husk were added , with th efollowing results

TABLE LXII . —Crude Fibre in known M ixtures OfCocoa andHusk.

Crude fibre in fat-freepowder.

Cocoa

per cent . husk5

10

20

40

60

80

The estimation of pentosans in cacao shells has occupiedthe attention of many observers .

The name of pentose is given to that class of compounds in which the alcoholic is joined to the aldehydicfun c tion , and their general formula is C5HIOO5.

The pentoses , like the hexoses or cane- sugar group,may

be found almost everywhere in nature, the gums , arabicgum

,cherry - tree gum, etc .

, being almost entirely composedof pentosans .

R . Adan ,* who has , carefully estimated the pentosan

R . Adan , Bul l . Soc. Ch im. Belg. , 1907 , xxi . , 21 1 .


content of cacao husk, has shown it to contain 75 7 per cent .to 10 53 per cent . of pentosans , as against 1 -19 per cent . to2 19 per cent . for the nibs . P . Welmans has given 8 5percent . for the husk and 2 per cent . for pure Dutch cocoa as thepentosan-content , whilst Dekker

’

l'

has publi shed figuresranging from 8-18 per cent . to 9-63 per cent . for the husk ,2-17 per cent . to 2 41 per cent . for the nibs , and 2-56 per cent .for pure Dutch cocoa. Adan I gave some results at the

Seventh International Congress of Applied Chemistry heldin London , which showed the variations of pentosan-contentof husk and nib , of s everal varieties of cacao . Hi s resultsare given in Table LXIII.

TAB LE LXIII .—Pentosan -Content ofRoasted Ni b and Hush.

Husk (dry)

Luhrig and Segin § gave 75 9 .per cent . to 1 12 3 per cent .for the pentosans found in husk against 2 51 per cent . to4 58 per cent . found in the corresponding nibs , and manyother observations of this value have been made.

KOnig,”in estimating the amount of cellulose present incacao husk, found that treatment wi th sulphuric acid and

potash in the usual manner brought about an alteration inthe pentosans , so that the results , obtained , did not representthe true amount of cellulose present .

P. Welmans , Zei tsch . Ofle‘

nt. Chem. , 1901 , vu. , 491 .

1" S . Dekker, Chem. Cen tr. , 1902 , i i . , 1217.

I R . Adan , Internat. Cong. App . Chem. , 1909, sect. vi i i , C. 203.

H. Luhr ig and c in , Z ei tsch . Nahr. Gemtssm. , 1906 , xi i . , 161 .

Kon ig, that , 1898, 3 .


possible contamination or adulteration with cacao husk are

considered in Chapter XXXII .

ASH (3 per cent . to 9 per cent . of the raw ,3-5 per

cent . to 10-5 per cent . of the roasted husk) .

The most exhaustive analysis of the ash or mineralmatter , obtained from cacao husk , has been made by Bensemann ,* who gives the preceding table .

The most important variations occur in the amount ofinsoluble mineral matter , fixed at red heat . This wouldconsist chiefly ofsilica or sand , picked up during the processesof preparation of the beans for market .

Considerable controversy has raged round the mineralmatter present in cacao , not so much as to the actual saltspresent in raw cacao , but with regard to the effect of incineration upon the salts naturally present , and subsequentlyadded , in the preparation of soluble cocoa . Baker andHulton , and Arpin , in papers already quoted here, haveconsidered the alkalinity of the ash especially , and manyothers have provided complete analyses .Arpin found the aqueous infusion of shells of cacaos

from Trinidad , Madagascar, Carupano , Ibarro, Chuaoand Puerto Cabello to be al l slightly , or strongly , acid .

Working on the ash of these shells , he compiled the

following table

Al kal in ity of the shel ls .

Moisture.

Per cent . (K aCOai .

Raw cacao beans .

'Per cent . Per cent . Raw . Dried .

R . Bensemann , Rep . ana lyt. Chem. , 1885, v. , 178 .

COMPONENTS OF CACAO HUSK—ASH 395

The value of such figures as these has been discussed morefully in those chapters dealing with the alkal inity of cacaosand the detection of added husk to cocoa powders and othercocoa preparations .Duclaux was the first to find small quantities ofcopper

in the ash of cacao, and Gal ippe,Tconfirming his results later,found that the greater part of the copper existed in the huskand that , in some samples of inferior chocolate examined , thatmetal was present in as large a proportion as 0 12 grammeto a kilo of cacao . Gautier , in 1883 , had published a bookin which he stated that cacao shells contained as much as

0 225 gramme per kilo , but Formen tid; in checking theseresults , obtained 0 014 to 0 040 gramme per kilo in the shellsand 0 020 to 0 034 gramme of copper in the nibs .

THEOBROMINE (0 4 per cent . to 2 0 per cent. of theraw or roasted husk) .

It has already been pointed out that the theobromine,caffeine and other alkaloids are extracted from cacao huskon the commercial scale. Dekker was only able to extract05 per cent . of theobromine from the husk, though Emingerobtained 0 76 per cent . and Wolfram 1] 0 42 per cent . to1 -1 1 per cent. , the latter figures being obtained from the

husk of Caracas beans .To theobromine and its accompanying alkaloids are due

the stimulating properties of cocoa and chocolate, from10 per cent . to 3-0 per cent . being found in the nibs fromwhich the preparations are made. The degree of roastingis an important factor in determining the amount of theobromine to be found in the roasted husks , nibs , and their

Duclaux, Bul l . de la Soc.

-Ch im. , 1872 , 33 .

1' Gal ippe, Jour . Pharm. Chim. , 1883 , vi i . , 506.

I C. Formenti , Z ei tsch . Nahr . Genus sm. , 1913 , xxv. , 149—154 .

J. Dekker, Rec. Trav. Ch im. , 1903 , xx i i . , 143 .

Emi nger, Forsch . Ber . il ber Lebensmittel , etc . , 1896, i i i . , 275.

fll Wol fram, Z ei tsch . ana'

l . Chem. , 1879, xvii i . , 346.


preparations , as the alkaloid is volatile, subliming at 134°

0 .

without melting. Knapp, however, on the contrary , hasstated that he has foun d slightly more theobromine in theroasted than in unroasted cacao shells and has attributedthe fact to the difficulty with which theobromine sublimes .The same writer has stated that a higher temperature, thanthat at which cacao is roasted , is required to bring aboutsublimation , though the accuracy of this statement is Opento question .

Woskresensky was the first to find theobromi ne in theseeds of Theobroma cacao to the extent of 1 -3 per cent . to46 per cent . This early investigator was followed byGlasson , Keller, Rochleder , and Strecker, al l of whomobtained higher values than accredited at the present time.

Kunze f‘

has made a very complete study of the publishedanalyses and methods of separation of theobromine byWeigmann , Mulder, Wolfram,

.

Zipperer and many . others ,

and has found their methods to be imperfect and theirvalues to be inaccurate.

Fischer i; was the first to synthesise theobromine whichhe prepared by heating a lead salt of xanthine (C5H2Pb6N40 2)with methyl iodide ; the synthetic product possesses thesame physiological and toxic actions as the alkaloid extractedfrom cacao and has largely replaced the natural product inpharmacy .

Theobromine (C7H8N4Oz) or dimethylxanth ine occurs as

minute trimetric crystals , slightly soluble in hot water,alcohol and ether, possesses an extremely bitter taste and

sublimes , without melting , at 134°

C. according to Kunzenl‘

at 170°

C. according to B lyth ,§ or 290°

C. from the results ofSchmidt and Pressler .“ Theobromine is slightly soluble in

Woskresensky, Lichty’

s Anna len , xl i . , 125.

1‘ Kunze, Z eitsch . ana l . Chem. , 1894, xxxi i i . l .

I Fi scher, Ber . , 1907 , xv. , 453.

Blyth , Foods , thei r Compos ition and Analys is , 1909.

IISchmidt and Pressler, Lichty’s Anna len, ccxvi i . , 287 .


siderably larger proportions of proteid matter and nitrogenthan the corresponding beans when cured . This is due tothe decomposition of the albuminoids

,such as globul in ,

'

bythe agency of the proteolytic enzymes which take a part inthe fermentation process , already described , and to the lossof theobromine, which seems to take place, also , duringfermentation .

*

Marcker gives from 12 7 per cent . to 14-1 per cent . ofalbumen , and 4 4 per cent . to 7-1 per cent . of diges tiblealbumen , found in the husks of cacao .

STAROH, CACAO -RED ,ETC . (40 per cent . to 55 per cent . of the

raw or roasted husk)

The remaining components of husk, constitu ting some50 per cent . of the whole, are of little interest or importance,and no figures are obtainable which throw any light upontheir actual composition .

This is due to the fact that such analyses of cacao husk ashave been made have been carried out with a view

'

to determining its food value—for cattle feeding, etc. A. Smetham Tfinds 46 01 per cent . of digestible carbohydrates and statesthat this figure includes al l the non -nitrogenous bodies ,present in the husk , w ith the exception of woody fibre and fat .

G. Paris and other investigators into the value of cacao husk ,for purposes of cattle food , have made indefinite analyses ofthis portion of the husk components , but they little morethan show it to be composed of carbohydrates . It is ,however, unnecessary for our purpose to attempt to defineit more closely , as the nature of cacao- red and starch likelyto be found in the husk , and present in the kernel or nibs to agreater degree, are discussed in the next chapter, where moredetailed figures have been collected .

Profes sor Harr i son , in Hart’

s Cacao, 1900, 105.

1' A. Smetham, Jour. Royal Lanes . Agr ic. Soc 1900.

COMPONENTS OF CACAO HUSK—STARCH,ETC.

Revis and Burnett have reported that no true starchwas found in the cacao shell estimated by a modified Davisand Daish method with taka-diastase. The shells were fromGuayaquil , Trinidad and Grenada beans , whilst the starchfound in the nibs of these cacaos amounted to 8-0 per cent14-5per cent . , and 12 3 per cent . , respectively ,when estimatedin the same manner (Winton , Silverman and Bailey T) .

C. Revi s and H. R . Burnett , The Ana lyst, 1915, xl . , 429 .

TWinton , Si lverman and Bai ley, Ann . Rep . Conn . Agric. Exp t. S tn . , 1902 , 270.

CHAPTER XXVI

SURVEY OF THE COMPONENT PARTS OF ROASTEDCACAO BEANS—NIB S

N i b s .

(80 per cent . to 92 per cent . of the whole bean .)

The amount of nibs obtainable from a cacao depends uponthe variety of bean and upon the care with which the huskingand the nibbing process has been performed .

Information with regard to both possible variations hasbeen already given, and the amount of nibs , or cacao availablefor use in the manufacture of cocoa and chocolate, has beenshown to range from 80 per cent . to 92 per cent . of the wholebean .

The composition of the kernel or nibs has been studied bymany investigators , three of the more recent and importantanalyses being shown in the following table

TABLE LXV.—Composi tion ofNib or Kernel

Moi stureFat

Starch

Ash

Cel lulose

Pentosans

FibreNitrogen

Cold water extract

I . N . P . Booth , The Analys t, 1909, xxxiv. , 144.

II . R . Adan , Internat. Cong. App . Chem. , 1909, vi i i . , C. , 203 .

III. F. Bordas , In terna l . Cong. App . Chem. , 1909 , vi i i . , C. , 188 .

Vide also Chapter XL , Tables XXL, XXII. and XXIII.


The following table, to be found in the records of theSociety of Arts , 1874, contains the most important analysesmade up to that time

TABLE LXVIII .

450 0—49-00

Total . 100-00 100 -00

A large number of analyses of the different varieties ofbeans may be found on referring to the papers mentioned inthe footnote, but those given in Table LXVI. may be takenas typical of analyses of commercial value to show the .

slightly varying composition of several important cacaos .

MOISTURE (6 per cent . to 8 per cent . of the raw ,

4 per cent . to 7 °5per cent . of the roasted kernel) .

The variations in water -content of the kernel are due tothe same three causes prevailing to alter the percentage ofmoisture in the husk , already given , namely, degree of dryingbefore shipment , treatment during transit and storage, andtemperature and degree of roasting. A large percentage ofmoisture is , obviously , undesirable in the kernels , as it tendsboth to deteriorate the flavour of the bean by encouragingfungoidal growth and to destroy the keeping property of thecocoa or chocolate, prepared from the damp nibs .

COMPONENTS OF CACAO NIBS—FAT 403

FAT (45per cent . to 53 per cent . of the raw or roasted kernel) .

The percentage of fat in the kernel is a variable quantity ,depending slightly upon the variety of bean and upon thedegree of roasting .

Harrison has pointed out that , if , during fermentation,germinat ion of the seed is allowed to take place, the fat is oneof the first constituents of the kernel to be attacked , after thesugars have been absorbed . This factormay, therefore, playan important part in determining the amount of fat presentin any variety , as , in certain districts , germination is allowedto take place before fermentation to a greater or less degreedepending upon the procedure of fermentation customary inany district . Davies and McLel lan , however, state that thepercentage of fat , found , is independent of the locality inwhich the bean originated .

The following collected figures , obtained from one varietyof beans , show some exceedingly contradictory resul ts , buttend to prove that the processes of fermentation and roastingare somewhat overrated as to their importance on final yieldof fat , when compared with individual results of otherobservers .

Very VeryUni s t Mi ldly fer Ful ly fer Highly fer h igh low

mented . mented . mented . mented. roast . roast .

Fat per cent . 54 0 52 7

It is our experience that , in the case of a very high roast

(above 150° or after a prolonged roasting at a normal

temperature, the percentage of fat will be lowered , whilst theeffect of roasting at a reasonable temperature will alwaysraise the fat - content of the nibs , results Opposed to the figuresgiven above.

*

The distribution of fat in various parts of the cacao podand bean has been the subject of several researches .

Vida Chapter XI.26—2


Harrison has estimated the proportion of the differentconstituents of cacao in the kernels , cuticles and pul p , andexternal pod of the fresh cacao frui t , and he has given thevalues for fat as per cent . , per cent . , and per

cent . , respectively , the proportion of moisture being 36 57

per cent . , 83 03 per cent . , and per cent . , respectively .

Bordas has found the percentage of fat in different partsof roasted cacao to vary as follows

Per cent .

Cacao nibs (eleven varieties)Cacao dust (from nibbing machine) . 20 0

GermHusk

The general characteristics of cacao butter have beenextensively discussed in the foregoing chapter, where, also ,will be found al l the important chemical and physical constents for the fat.

STARCH (4 per cent . to 12 per cent . of the raw or roasted

kernel) AND OTHER CARBOHYDRATES (8 per cent . to

13 per cent . of the raw or roasted kernel) .

The starch , present in cacao , is similar in composition tothat found in other vegetable seeds. It is readily gelatinisedby boiling water, is turned blue by iodine and is converted , bythe action of dilute mineral 'acids and diastase, into glucose.

The granules of cacao starch are very minute, and theconcentric rings , showing their composite structure, can onlybe detected with a high -power microscope.

Bordas has made careful determinations of the quantity ofstarch to be found in different cacaos and has stated that theamount is practically constant for al l commercial varieties .These results are as foll ow

Harrison , in Hart’

s Cacao, 1900, 90.


stated It is evident that cacao shell contains no truestarch , and it is probable that this is the first time that it hasbeen demonstrated analytically .

”In the nibs , the same

experimenters found from 8 per cent . to 145 per cent . ofstarch , calculated on the fat- free cocoa .

Nibs .

Accra (low grade cacao)GuayaquilTrinidadGrenadaSan Thome

FIBRE (2 per cent . to 5per cent . of the raw or roasted kernel) .

The amount of fibre, found in the nibs , is entirely dependent upon the care with which the husk or fibrous matter isseparated from the inner kernel . It has been pointed out byTollens , KOnig and others that the estimation of cellulose i snot a true guide to the quantity of fibre present , as the

existence of pentosans hinders the correct determination .

The fibrous wall of the cacao bean is composed of pentosans , embedded in many other matters , such as cacao -red

,

mineral matter , etc. ,and it is in the estimation ofthe pen

tosans that addition of husk to cocoa preparations is bestdetected . If properly freed from husk , the nibs should notcontain more than per cent . of crude fibre, thoughFilsinger obtained values ranging from 2 8 per cent . to

per cent . for different varieties of beans , by estimating thecrude fibre by a method described by KOn ig. Such a figurefor crude fibre would approximately equal 25 per cent . ofpentosans , constituting a little more than 50 per cent . of thetotal crude fibre found .

Welmans T obtained an average of 13-3 per cent . of huskfrom raw , and 12 4 per cent . from roasted nibs . Hi s figures

Fil s inger , Zei tsch. O'

fi'

ent. Chem. , 1900, 223 .

TP. Welmans, Zeitsch. O’

fl‘

ent. Chem. , 1901 , vn ., 491.

Percentage of starch

in fat-free nibs .

12 8

8 0

COMPONENTS OF CACAO NIBS—FIBRE

are, obviously , too high for a well-husked kernel , and it is to beassumed that they comprise the ash , fat and other com

ponents of the husk , besides crude fibre.

Bordas , in h is commun ication to the In ternationalCongress of Applied Chemi stry , 1909, has shown the amountof cellulose present in various cacaos . He has pointed outthe value of cellulose estimation , on the ground that any

addition of matter containing woody fibre, such as husks ,cacao waste, germs , etc. , will increase the proportion ofcellulose and diminish the starch -content of the kernels or ofthe cacao mass , prepared from them. His resul ts wi ll befound in Chapter XII. , Table XXVI .

ASH (3 per cent . to 4 per cent . of the raw or roasted kernel) .

The percentage of ash in cacao beans has been shown bythe investigations of a number of observers to vary considerably. This is usually the case in the mineral matterobtained from foodstuffs of vegetable origin .

Bensemann has made careful analyses of the ash ,

separated from different varieties of cacao , and his figures for

TABLE LXX .—Analyses OfM ineral Matterfrom Cacao Nibs .

Trinidad .

Potass ium oxide (KzO)Sodium oxide (Na30 )Calcium oxide (CaO)Magnes ium oxide (MgO )Ferric oxide (Fea )Alumini um oxide (Al 20 3 )Si l ic ic oxide (810 2)Phosphor ic anhydride (P,OSul phur ic anhydride (SOs )Chl orine (Cl )Carbon ic anhydr ide (00 2 )Water (11 20 )

I . R . Bensemann , Rep . ana lyt. Chem. , 1885, V. , 178 .

11. Dr . Bordas , Internat. Cong. App . Chem. , 1909, vi i i . C, 188 .

R . Bensemann , Rep . ana lyt. Chem. , 1885, V. , 178 .


the mineral matter from Caracas and Trinidad cacaos areshown above, compared against those obtained by Bordas ,whose work has already been quoted .

Bordas ’ figures for silicic oxide include sand , and those forcarbonic anhydride are estimated by difference.

It will be seen that the most important component ofcacao ash is potassium oxide (KZO) , whi ch amounts to aboutone-third of the total mineral matter. The potassium isprobably present in the original bean as salts of the plantacids and as carbonate.

.The lime, or calcium oxide, is present as oxalate to theextent of 0 2 per cent . of the nib , other alkaline oxalatesbeing found by Girard to amount to per cent . of theroasted kernel or nib of Trinidad cacao .

The amount of potassium salts , present , is of interestwhen the contentions that the addition of alkali , such as

potassium hydrate or carbonate, to cocoa or chocolate isinjurious to health are considered .

Luh rig and his co-workers T have estimated the alkalinityof the aqueous extract of cacao beans and,

from the averageof twenty -eight samples , obtained a value of per cent .of alkali , as KzCO3 , on the fat -free cacao . One sample ofcocoa powder yielded as much as per cent . of alkali ,soluble in water , calculated as K 2CO3 on dry cocoa powder,after 30 per cent . of fat had been extracted . The sameauthor has pointed out that , if the amount of alkali , calculatedas potassium carbonate (KzCOa) , exceeds 3 per cent . , theaddition of alkali is certain . These figures are considerablyin excess of those obtained by Booth I, already given .

Arpin , in a paper already quoted , has given the alkalinityof some raw nibs as varying between and 3 59 per cent . ,calculated as K 2CO3 on the dry fat -free cacao .

C. Gi rard, In ternat. Cong. App . Chem. , 1909 , vi i i . C, 179 .

TLuhrig, etc . , Z ei tsch Nahr . Genussm. , 1905, ix. , 257 .

TN. P. Booth , The Analyst, 1909 , xxxiv. , 143 .


ance, however, and Stutzer’

s figures are also obviously opento criticism, owing to the large error which occurs on multiplying the small quantity of nitrogen , actually found for eachtype, to read as percentage of total nitrogen .

The amount of nitrogen multiplied by gives , approximately , the total albuminoid matter found in cacao .

THEOBROMINE (0 9 per cent . to 3 per cent . of the raw orroasted kernel) and CAFFEINE per cent . to per

cent . of the raw or roasted kernel) .

The general chemical and physical characteristics of thealkaloids , present in cacao , have been given in a previouschapter .The amount of these alkaloids , found in

'

the nibs , variesvery considerably, both with the variety of the bean and withthe care of the observer . Great differences are to be foundbetween the alkaloid estimation of early and recent investigators thus Zipperer finds 03 per cent . to 0 5 per cent . of

TABLE LXXI .—Theobromine in difierent vari eti es Of Cacao.

I. A. Eminger , Apath . Zei t. , 1896 , 716.

II. Wol fram, Zei tsch . ana l . Chem. , xvi i i . , 346 .

III . Z i pperer, Untersuch . i i ber Kakao, etc . , 1886, 56 .

IV. Ridenour, Amer . Journ . Pharm. , 1895, lxvi i . , 202 .

V. V. L. Maupy, Journ . Pharm. China , 1897 V. , 329 .

COMPONENTS OF CACAO NIBS—CACAO-RED 411

total alkaloids in the roasted nibs of cacao , and Eminger1 -0 per cent . to 2 3 per cent . of theobromine and 0 05per cent .to per cent . of caffeine.

Kreutz has pointed out a possible explanation of thesediscrepancies and has stated that theobromine exists in thebean partly as the free alkaloid and partly in the form of aglucoside which can only be separated after treatment withan acid . The same author has found from 15 per cent . to2 4 per cent . of free, and from 16 per cent . to 2 8 per cent .of combined alkaloids in the kernels of cacao .

Table LXXI . shows the results obtained by several otherobservers .

CACAO -RED (2 per cent . to 5 per cent . of the raw orroasted kernel)

The colouring matter of cacao is produced during theoxidation of the beans .When fresh , the Criollo variety of bean is white , or nearly

so , the Calabaci l lo variety being , often , of a deep purplishtint

, whil st the Forastero cacao , occupying the intermediateposition , shows only a faintly coloured kernel .Harrison has shown that there is a loss of cacao- red in al l

three varieties during fermentation , a total loss of per

cent . occurring in a mixture of Calabaci l lo and Forasterobeans .

The formation of cacao- red is of peculiar importance tothe manufacturer, who looks to this agency for the brightchocolate-colour of his goods . The variety of bean , selected ,and careful roasting are the most important factors inobtaining a satisfactory colour for cocoa or chocolate.

Schweitzer T has made some investigations into the formationof cacao - red in the bean and has compared it to theproduction of colouring matter in the oak , kola nut and

A. Kreutz, Z ei tsch . Nahr. Genussm. , 1908, xvi . , 579 .

TC. Schweitzer, Pha rm. Zei t. , 1898, 389.


quinine ,tracing it to the decomposition of a glucosi de,

cacaonin ,

” dur ing fermentati on ,when theobromine ,

cafleine and glucose are al so produced.

Hi lger ,*

also , h as closely foll owed the producti on of

cacao-red, duning the fermentat ion of the bean , and h as

con cluded th at the colouring matter , i solated in the ordin arv

w ay ,i s a mixture of non -n i trogenous cacao- red and some

glucosi de.

True cacao- red can be is olated by treat ing the roastedbeans first w ith petroleum ether to remove the fat and partof the free theobromine then w ith w ater to extract theremainder of the theobromine ,

caffeine , sugars and salts ,

and,finally ,

w i th al cohol , to extract the cacao—red. A

substan ce , h aving a. formul a C17H12 (OH) 1 0 , is obt ained in thi sway , closelv akin to tannin whi ch it resembles in yieldi ng

formi c aci d,acet ic acid and pyrocatechin , on treatment w i th

p otassium or s odi um hydr ate .

B lyth T states that the fat-free cacao is only partiallv

deprived ofits cacao—red by solvents u nless amineral acid h asbeen previ ous ly added . After the addi tion of a few cubiccent imetre s of hvdrochlori c acid , the red colour ing matter is

di ssolved ,w i th ease , bv amvl or ethy l alcohol . Cacao—red , so

produced , is insoluble in ether or petroleum ether , but shgh tlysoluble in carbon bisul phi de . It is a sens itive reagent toacid and al kali , mineral acids causing a red colorati on w i th

violet shimm er , alkalis usually stri king a dirtv green . The

aqueous solution of cacao- red , of thi s form , is bitter an d

as tringent and forms precipitates w ith salts of iron ,cOpper

and s i lver .

A more recent contribution to our know ledge ofcacao—redh as been gi ven by Reutteri who,

fir st ofal l . extracte d fat -free

cacao w ith hot , di lute methvl al cohol . From the vi ole t-red

Hi lger . Ap oth . Z ezi 1 892 . 469 ; a l so Ji eu ts ch . Vicrt. hficnt Ges und 1893 , 3 .

TA . W. B lvth . Foods . t heir ( fompos i t 1on and An a ly s i s ,"

1 909 , 363—375.

IfL . Reutter , Comp t. Read , 1913 , c lvi . , 1842—1 844 .


whereas the fermented and cured beans contained as muchas 0 7 per cent .The amount of free tartaric acid , contained by the fresh

beans per diminished to 0 2 per cent . during theprocess of fermentation and to per cent . during simpledrying.The free acetic acid , which was ni l in the fresh beans ,

increased to per cent . , during fermentation and curing,and was again ni l after the fresh beans had been simplydried .

Thequantities of these two acids in the free state werefound by the same author to vary slightly with the threevarieties of cacao , Criollo , Forastero and Calabaci l lo. The

differences are, however, small and of no commercialimportance.

The acetic acid can be detected in beans that have beenfermented by the vinegary smell which , during the process ofroasting , it is so desirable to remove.

The presence of oxalic acid in the vegetable kingdom hasbeen recognised since the commencement of the ni neteenthcentury—Fourcroy and Vauquelin have stated that thisacid is to be found in almost every plant . The method bywhich their approximate results were obtained was by meansof the microscope. It was as recently as 1900 that the firstreliablemethod for the estimation of oxalic acid in cacao waspublished , the outcome of continuous research on the partsofNeubauer ,TSchultzen , .TSalkowski ,§Albahary IIand others .Themethod was based on the fact that 100 grammes of etherdissolve grammes of oxalic acid , and that the solubilityof the acid could be increased by the addition of alcohol .

Fourcroy andVauquel in , Jour. Phys . , lxvi i i ., 429 .

TNeubauer , Z ei tsch . anal . Chem. , 1868 , i i . , 499, and vi i . , 225.

TSchnl tzen , Reichert und Duboi s Raymond’

s Arch . , 1868 , 718 .

E . Salkowski , Zel tsch . phys . Chem. , x. , 120 .

IIJ. M. Albahary, Comp t. Rend. , cxxxvi . , 1681 , etc .

COMPONENTS OF CACAO NIBS—ACIDS 415

Gautier gives figures , found byEsbach , for the oxal ic acidcontent of several vegetable foodstuffs , thus

Per cent

Cocoa powderChocolateBlack teaInfusion of teaCoffeeRhubarb

Girard has recently made some very careful estimationsof the amow t of oxalic acid present in cacao beans . The

following table shows his results , obtained from Trinidadcacao

TABLE LXXII.

—Oxal ic Acid present in Trinidad Cacao.

Calcium oxalateOxal i c ac id due to

cal cium oxalateOxal ic ac id due to

alkal ine oxalateTotal oxal ic acidWater

Total oxalic an d perdry

cacao

0 195

0 137

0 ° l 72

0 °32 l

Roasted Rawbeans . beans . nibs .

Roasted Rawnibs . husk .

Roasted Rawhusk .

I

0 198

00 85

0 084

0 189

Roasted

germ.

From an examination of the oxalates , found , the sameauthor concludes that

(1) Trinidad cacao contains oxalic acid in the same degreeas sorrel , spinach and rhubarb .

(2) Oxalic acid is to be found in approximately the sameproportion in the beans , nibs , husk and germ .

(3) Roasting has little or no effect on the oxalic acidcontent of the products .

(4) A considerable proportion of the oxalic acid exists inthe state of alkaline oxalates .


ESSENTIAL OIL .

Reference has already been made to the work of Bainbridge andDavies on the development of essential oil , duringthe fermentation of cacaos . These workers took kilosof cacao ni bs which they steam -distilled . From the distillate,24 ccs . of a purified oil were obtained , which consisted of amixture of esters with the true essential oil . The true oilwas found to consist chiefly of d.

- l inalool . Octoic acid and

other fatty acids , probably derived from the decompositionof the cacao butter, were also isolated , as well as a smallproportion of a stable nitrogenous compound which was notidentified .


Cocoa Pow der s .

In Chapter XIV. will be found analyses of many varietiesof commercial cocoa powders . It is unnecessary , therefore,to reproduce them here, though it is desirable that someaverage analyses should be given for easy reference.

In the following table, figures for four typical varieties ofcocoas are shown (1) ordinary cocoa powder from expressedcacao nibs (2) cocoa powder treated with alkali (3) cocoapowder treated with ammonia (4) adulterated cocoapowder (given by Booth) (5) Cocoa teas (selected fromBaker and Hulton ’s results , and approximated) .Where it has been found possible, one author ’s results

have been supplemented with those obtained by anotherobserver, who gives closely agreeing figures for the maincomponents .

TAB LE LXXIII .—Analyses Of Cocoa Powders .

Moi stureTotal ash

Alkal in ity as K ,O

Fat

Extract ive soluble in waterTheobromineStarch

AlbumenFibreForeign starch

Character of starch

Sugar

MOISTURE (2 25 per cent . to 50 per cent . of cocoapowder) .

A good cocoa powder should never contain more than5 per cent . of moisture, as an amount exceeding this limittends to ball”the powder and to render it liable tothe attack of mildew, which would seriously injure theflavour .

COMPONENTS OF COCOA POWDER—ASH 419

ASH (3 per cent . to 5 per cent . of cocoa powder, 5 per cent .

to 1 1 per cent . of soluble”cocoa powder) .

In Chapter XIV . , Table will be foundanalyses of the ash , obtained by incinerating some cocoapowders of commerce, carried out by Girard .

Bensemann and Bordas have also made careful analysesof the ash , obtained from different varieties of cacao beans .The following table shows the collected resul ts of the

different authors

TABLE LXXIV .—Analyses OfAsh ofCacao Mass and

Cocoa Powders .

*

Potass ium oxide (K 20 )Sodium oxide (Na20 )Calcium oxide (CaO)Magnes ium oxide (Mgo)Ferr ic oxide (Fe20 2 )Alumin ium oxide (AI20 2 )Si l i ca (SiO2Phosphoric anhydride (P20 s lSulphuri c anhydride (SOs) .

Chlorine (Cl )Carboni c anhydride (CC2 ) .

Water (11 20 )

I. Ash from cacao mass , by R . Bensemann , Rep . analyt. Chem. , 1885, v. , 178 .

II. Ash from Men ier cocoa powder , by C. Gi rard, Internat. Cong. App . Chem. ,

1909 , vi i i . C, 186.

III. Ash fromVan Houten ’

s cocoa powder , by C. Gi rard, ibid.

From these figures , it will be seen that themost importantdifferences arise in the values of sodium oxide and carbonicanhydride in Samples I . and III . In the latter case , it iscertain that sodium hydrate or carbonate was us ed forrendering the cacao soluble,

”the ash , in either case, being

capable of estimation as sodium oxide and carbonic enbydride, due to the absorption of the latter from the air by thealkaline hydrate.

Vide also Chapter XII . , Table XXVII.


Bordas ,* elsewhere, has pointed out that the quantity ofadded alkali , presen t in imported cocoas , should be regulated ,Belgium, Italy and Switzerland already prohibiting the saleof cocoa powders containing more than 3 per cent . of addedalkaline carbonate . Reference has already been made to theregulations existing in France in Chapter XIV .

The same author points out that natural cacao masscontains from per cent . to . per; cent . of alkali ,calculated as potassium oxide on the fat- free substance,whilst samples of soluble cocoa , examined , have shownfrom per cent . to per cent . of added alkali , calculatedon the same basis .Stutzer T has estimated the soluble constituents of many

samples of cocoa and has stated that there is nothing to begained by the addition of alkaline carbonates . With thisOpinion we do not agree.

_TMatthes ,§ in conjunction with Rohdl ich ,

has formed theOpinion that the estimation of silica (SiO) 2 previouslysuggested by the former author , is no indication of theamount of husk added to a cocoa powder , as they found , intwenty samples of cocoa examined , figures ranging from

per cent . to per cent . of Silica . Except in extremecases of adulteration with husk , this is true, Bensemann

finding from l °2 per cent . to 8 0 per cent . of silica in the huskand 0 2 per cent . in the nibs , whilst Bordas has given from0 5 per cent . to 73 per cent . of silica and sand in the nibsand per cent . in the husk .

The discussions raging round the ash content and its

alkalinity have been considered elsewhere, but it is desiredto refer the reader again to the results obtained by Arpin .

F. Bordas , Ann . des Fa ls if. , 1910, i i i . , 61 .

TA. Stutzer, Z ei ts ch. angew . Chem. , 1892 . 510 .

I Vide Chapters XIII. , XXIII. and XXIV.

Matthes and Rohdl ich , Z ei tsch . Offen t. Chem. , 1908 , x iv. , 166 .

Arpin , Ann . des Fals if. , January, February, 1917 , xcix . , c .

422 COCOA.

AND CHOCOLATE

which , expressed as K2COs on the dry fat- free cocoa, did notexceed Independent analyses of these cocoas weremade by other experts,and the two results are given below.

Thus,whilst in the table following, A. B . C. represent the

three cocoas , analyses indexed I . are by the Service for theSuppression of Fraud ,

”and those marked II . are by the

outside eXperts

Moi sture, per cent .

Fat , per cent .

Soluble port ion , per cent .

Insoluble port i on , per cent .

Total ash , per cent .

Alkal in ity ofash (as K 200 2 per

cent . ofdry defatted cocoa ) .

Copper has been found in cacao , as in most vegetables .The following extract from a paper by Formenti , in 1913 , in aGerman journal devoted to foodstuffs , sums up our existingknowledge

Very varying figures have been published by previousworkers for the amount of copper to be found in cacao beans ,and the products made from them , and the quantities mostusually quoted in books on foods , etc.

, are the highest whichhave been recorded ; thesewere published by Gautier in 1883,and include figures up to 40 mg . of Cu per kilo for cacao ,225 mg . per kilo for the husks and 125 mg . per ki lo forchocolate. In view of these very high figures and the discre

pancies between the results of different inves tigators , furtherexaminations of cacao beans and of different makes of chocolate were undertaken . Themethod employed was that givenby Gautier for determining the amount of copper in vegetables , with the exception that , in the cases of the Shelledbeans and of chocolate, the material was gently charredbefore adding the sulphuric and nitric acids to avoid the

COMPONENTS OF COCOA POWDERw FAT 423

frothing, which otherwise is troublesome ; the Copper wasfinally separated electrolytically and weighed in the purestate. Three varieties of cacao , Bahia, Caracas and Guayaqui l respectively, were examined the shelled beans werefound to contain from 20 to 34 mg . of Cu per kilo , and thehusks from 14 to 40 mg . per kilo . Thirty- seven differen t

(Continental) makes of chocolate were tested , and the

amounts of Cu found varied from 4 to 25 mg . per kilo , theaverage being 12 mg . It appears , therefore, that the higherfigures given are not representative.

”

FAT (22 per cent . to 35 per cent . of cocoa powder) .

According to the degree of compression to which thecacao nibs have been subjected , the percentage of cacao fator butter, found in a cocoa powder, will vary . Themethodsof expression of cacao butter have already been described inChapter XIII .Clayton has published analyses of a variety of cocoa

powders , ,

which Show percentages of fat ranging from

per cent . to per cent .

There are many other analyses of cocoa powders , madeby different observers , but , in al l cases , except in thosewhere adulteration has been carried to an extreme, the fatcontent of cocoa powders varies between 22 per cent . and

35 per cent .TThe extracted fat should give the chemical and physical

constant s already detailed in Chapter XXV. , if pure cacao

has been used and if no addition of foreign fat has been made.

Beyth ien ,:Twho has also examined a large number ofcommercial cocoa powders , has stated that , out of 58 samples

of powders of German manufacture, 28 contained less than

20 per cent . of fat , and 30 samples less than 25 per cent . of

E. G. Clayton , Chem. News , 1902 , lxxxvi . 51 .

TVida al so Chapter XIV.

TBeyth ien , Z ei tsch . Nahr . Genussm. , 1908 , xvi . , 579 .


the 65 samples of Dutch cocoas , examined , 49 contained lessthan 20 per cent . , 3 less than 25per cent . , and 13 samples over25 per cent . of fat al l the Swiss samples contained over

225 per cent . of fat .

EXTRACTIVE SOLUB LE IN WATER (13-5 per cent . to18 5 per cent . of cocoa powder) .

The cold-water extract of the nib or kernel of cacaoranges from 9-5 per cent . to 125 per cent . , whilst the figurefor fat - free cacao amounts to approximately 24 per cent .Florence Yaple,* however, gives considerably lower figures ,which we are unable to reconcile with those foun d by morerecent observers .The soluble extractive, which will include sugars , gums ,

soluble starch , soluble mineral matter, etc. , is a usefulindication to the possible adulteration of a powder withsugar and alkali , the addition of either tending to increase thefigure for soluble extractive.

The alkalinity of the extractive, soluble in water, will be aguide to the extent of addition of alkali .The estimation of soluble extractive is of greatest import

ance in the analysis of chocolate or chocolate powders , aswell as in cocoa .

THEOBROMINE per cent . to per cent . ofcocoa powder) .

The quan tity of theobromine , found in a cocoa powder ,will depend largely upon the degree of roasting to which thebeans have been subjected (vide Chapters XI . and

Clayton T found from per cent . to per cent . oftheobromine and from per cent . to per cent . ofcaffeine in commercial cocoa powders . Girard gives from

per cent . to per cent . of theobromine .

Florence Yap le, Chem. Z ei t. , 1895, xvi . , 579.

TE . G. Clayton , Chem. News , 1902 , lxxxvi . 51 .


Probably the most complete investigation into the detection of added husk has been made by Adan ,* who not onlyhas estimated the cellulose and pentosan -content ofdifferent varieties of cacao beans , but has carried outanalyses of the cocoa powders , prepared from them . The

direct connection between the estimation of pentosans and

the amount of husk , present in any cacao , has been given inChapter XXV. , and in Table LXXV . will be found Adan ’sresults for the nibs and husk of various cacaos .

TAB LE LXXV. Cel lulose and Pentosan -Content OfCacao Nibs of known Origin .

Pentosans .

Moisture . Cel lulose.

Average

Hebner and Skertch ley T have estimated the pentosanand crude fibre-content of several cocoa powders and cocoashell powders . The following results , obtained by these twoauthors , are of interest

TABLE LXXVI .

—Pentosan and Crude F ibre in Cocoa

Powders and Cocoa Shel l Powders .

Pentosan. Crude fibre.

Van Houten ’

s cocoa

Cadbury ’

s cocoa

Cocoa shel l powder , 1 .

Cocoa shel l powder , 11 .

R . Adan , Interna l . Cong. App . Chem. , 1909 , vi i i . C, 204.

THebner and Skertchley, The Analyst, 1899, x iv. , 178.

COMPONENTS OF COCOA POWDER -ACIDS 427

ALBUMEN (10 per cent . to 17 per cent . of cocoa powder) .The total nitrogen , found in cocoa powders , amounts , as a

rule, to 3 per cent . , or to an equivalent of, approximately ,19 per cent . of proteid matter , if al l the nitrogen present isattributed to this component .In reality , Dekker has shown that about 90 per cent . of

the total ni trogen is due to proteid matter, the remalmng10 per cent . resulting from theobromine.

OXALIC ACID (0 4 per cent . to per cent . of cocoapowder) .

Girard , in h is paper , frequently referred to , delivered atthe Seventh International Congress of Applied Chemistry,

has shown that the oxalic acid is largely present in cacao asalkaline oxalates , and his figures , which are themost reliableup to date, tend to show that the oxalic acid is not destroyedduring roasting, or removed during expression of fat .

SUCROSE , CACAO -RED . ETC .

The remaining components of cocoa powders are of lit tleimportance to the technical chemist . Sucrose is found onlyin minute quantities , and only traces of reducing mattershave been notified by the most reliable observers . Thisis of interest when chocolate and chocolate powders , towhich cane- sugar has been added during preparation , are

examined .

The colour of cocoa depends upon the cacao-red present ,but the quantities , found in cocoa powders , are strictly com-a

parable with the results given in Chapter XXVI . for the nibs ,after allowance has been made for the removal of some 30 percent . of the fat . The presence of cacao -red in nibs hasprovided a recent method for the detection of added husk tococoa powders .T

S . Dekker, Chem. Centr . , 1902, i i . , 12 17 .

TVide Chapter XXXII .


P l a i n C h ocol ate and Ch ocol ate Pow der s .

The only differences that will be observed , on analysis ,between chocolate , or chocolate powders , and cocoa powdersare

(1) A large proportion of sugar , and some additionalcacao butter , in chocolate.

(2) The presence of sugar and, probably , foreign starches ,in chocolate powders .The remaining components of cacao will be found in

correspondingly decreased proportions .

FAT (22 per cent . to 28 per cent . of hard chocolate 28 per

cent . to 38 per cent . of chocolat fondant 18 per

cent . to 26 per cent . of chocolate powders) .

The amount of fat in hard , plain chocolates seldomexceeds 28 per cent . It has previously been pointed outthat the fatty chocolates chocolats fondants are

much in vogue , at the present time, and consist of ordinarycacao mass with sugar and a larger quantity of cacao butterthan is to be found in the hard varieties . Chocolatsfondants are, moreover , refined to a greater degree thanthe older- fashioned hard chocolates .

The chemist Should ascertain the nature of the fat

extracted from the sample of chocolate, as there are manycacao butter substitutes on the market .

*

In Chapter XVIII . , Table XLI. , will be found analysesby Booth of some adulterated chocolates . The sameauthor gives the fol lowing mean analysis (of twenty- foursamples) of pure, plain chocolates

Fat, 27‘

4 per cent . ; sugar , 534 per cent nitrogen ,0 93 per cent . mineral matter, per cent . cold -waterextract , 568 per cent .

Vide Chapter XXIX.


At the present time, a mixture of cocoa with sugar andstarch cannot be sold as pure cocoa

,

”but only as choco

late powder , with a defin ite declaration that the art icle,sold , is a mixture of cocoa and other ingredients .There are several highly nutritious cocoa preparations

on the market , such as Epps’

s cocoa, prepared with selectedarrowroot , sugar and cocoa . There is no objection to suchpreparations as these, provided that the public is fullyaware what it is purchasing.

COLD -WATER EXTRACT .

The cold-water extract , obtained from chocolate or

chocolate powder, depends , almost entirely , upon the amountof sugar present .

This value is remarkably constant in the case of cacaonibs (approximately 24 per cent . of fat- free cacao) , and a

higher figure indi cates the probable addition of sugar .The actual percentage of sugar may be estimated by polarimetric methods , the cold-water extract of pure cacao havinga negligible power of rotating polarised light .

M i l k C h ocol ates .

In Chapter XX . , will be found full analyses of mi lkchocolates by several chemists .The average composition ofmilk chocolate is as follows

TAB LE LXXVII.—Composi tion ofM i lk Chocolates .

Engl ish . Continental .

Total fat

Mi l k fatCacao butterMi lk sugarCane or beet sugarForeign starch

Cacao shel l

Nitrogen

COMPONENTS OF .MILK CHOCOLATE—FAT 431

Laxa gives total proteid (I.) per cent . (IL)per cent . The figures for milk fat and cacao butter are

obtained by calcul ation (vide Chapter XX .)

FAT (total 30 per cent . to 35 per cent . of milk chocolate) .

It will be seen that the fat is capable of l l Sl OIl Into milkfat and cacao butter, the total fat being somewhat in excessof that from ordinary plain , hard eatingchocolates , and

about equal to that obtained by extracting chocolatsfondants .”

The chemical and physical constants of the fat , extractedfrom milk chocolate, will , of course, vary according to theratio of milk fat to cacao fat .

MILK SUGAR (75 per cent . to 8 5 per cent . of goodmilk chocolate) .

It must be understood that the value for milk sugarwill vary in the same way as the mi lk fat- and nitrogencontent of the chocolate, according to the amount of milk ,or milk solids , added .

The copperreducing power of plain chocolate is small,as the sugar , added in the ordinary way, will be cane orbeet- sugar , which , if pure, will have no reducing power,whilst that of cacao nibs does not amount to more than5 parts per 100 of dry and fat- free cacao .

Milk sugar, on the other hand , has a strong copperreducing power, and its presence can be inferred by the

action of the cold-water extract upon a Copper solution .

NITROGEN AND ALBUMINOID S .

The percentage of nitrogen and of albuminoids,or

proteid matter , will be greatly increased by the additionof milk solids to chocolate, the former increasing from 0 9

per cent . to 12 per cent . and the latter from about 55 per

cent . to about 8 5 per cent . in chocolates containing a goodproportion of mi lk solids .


The estimation of nitrogen is , therefore, a useful addedfactor in determining the amount ofmilk solids present ina mi lk chocolate . The possibility of adding proteids from

pea-nuts and soya has already been mentioned (p .

M i l k Pow der s .

Some remarks on milk pow ders are not out of placehere, as the rapid progress , made in the desiccation of milk ,calls for the attention of the chemist and bacteriologistthat would move with the times . The publications of theLocal Government Board (Food Reports , No. 24, 1918, I.

,

II . and III . ) are extremely interesting , and this brief noticeshould be supplemented by these reports ; by those furtherinterested in the subject .The methods of drying milk are confined to the drum

and spray processes , of which there are numberlessmodifications . The most important of these are the processes of Campbell Ekenberg (1902 and

Benenot and De Neven Just -Hatmaker (1903 and

Kun ick (1906 and Trufood (Merrell-Soule,patent Glaxo ,

”and Mignot -Plumey

The product of the drum process is a coarser materialthan that obtained with the Spray ,

”though rancidity

(if a full - cream milk has been prepared) occurs in both onexposure to the air , but faster in powders from the latterthan in those from the former process . It has been statedthat both sugar and cacao butter tend to prevent rancidityof the butter fat , so that rancidity does not develop veryrapidly in milk chocolates in which both these ingredien tsare present .Sir James Dobbie

’s report on the purity of commercialmilk powders is interes ting and states that al l the samples ,examined , contained proteids and lactose proportionatelyto those found in fresh milk . Some of the samples werestated to have been prepared with added lactose, so that

CHAPTER XXVIII

MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF CACAO , COCOA

AND CHOCOLATE

Cacao B ean s

THROUGH the courtesy ofMr . A. S . Bryden , of Barbadoes ,the author has been enabled to examine s eeds of cacao ,fresh from the pod . The samples of cacao pod , which wereundoubtedly of Forastero origin , arrived in an air-tight tinin remarkably good condition . The contents of the pigment - cells , which contained a certain amount of violetcolouring matter on arrival , had probably undergone an

oxidation.

process during transit , as the beans , on

cutting , showed a deeper violet coloration than woul dh ave been expected if out perfectly fresh .

Thin sections of the bean were examined in drops ofvegetable oil , as a distinct cloudiness was noticed on placingthe sections in water, due probably to the fat which thebeans contained .

Starting from the outside covering of the beans whichwere covered with a thick white slime of Simple elongatedcellular structure, the first and outer section of the Shell ofthe bean was reached . The first epidermal layer consistedof a moderately thick skin containing polygonal cells , and ,

lying directly beneath this , were noticed the“

exceedinglydeli cate transversely elongated cells ,

”previously describedby Ewell . The remainder of the shell consisted of closelycompact bundles of spiral fibres and a series of tissues ,bearing thick -walled cells, which seemed to contain a large

MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF CACAO,ETC. 435

proportion of water . Within the shell was an exceedinglyfine and transparent film or membrane, covering the wholeof the kernel and falling into the spaces between the pieces ,or nibs , of which the kernel is constructed .

Upon this transparent film, which is made up of a singlelayer of Simple cells of irregular shape, the Mitscherl ich

Photo, W. P . Paddi son , Brighton .

FIG . 30 . Mitscherl ich Bodies between the Lobes of the Kernel . x 300 diam.

(See p .

bodies grow (Figs . 30 and These bodies are Chrysalisshaped”and were supposed by Hassall to be of fungoidalorigin .

Hassall describes the thin membrane and the appearance of the Mitscherl ich bodies in the following wordsSituated in the interspaces of the lobes is a fourth structure,

attached externally to the second membrane, the cell s28—2


forming which pass down upon it for a short distance ;although clear and transparent it exhibits a fibrous structure ,

and on its surface a considerable number of small crystalsare always to be seen as well as many elongated bodies ,rounded at their extremity and divided into several com

Photo, W. P . Paddi son, B r ighton .

FIG . 3 1 . Mi tscherl i ch Bodies , enlarged . x diam. (See p .

partments or cells , and which do not appear to be attachedto the membrane on which they l ie . From their curiousappearance and the absence of connection with any of theother struct ures of the cocoa seed the observer is led tosuspect that they are extraneous and probably fungoidalgrowths . We have detected them in every sample of cocoaseed submitted to examination .

”


which permeates every cell , from violet to brown . The spiralbundles , previously referred to as appearing in . the shell , arealso to be found in the kernel and are thrown into greaterprominence by the processes of fermenting, curing and

roasting, due to their being rendered opaque by loss of water

(Figs . 32 and

The starch granules , occurring in cacao , are very small and

Photo, W. P . Padd ison , B r ighton .

FIG . 33 .—Crushed Cacao Nibs . x diam. (See p .

are not likely to be confounded with any other variety whichmight be used for adulterating cacao preparations . Theyare estimated byEwell to range from 0 003 mm . to mm .

In preparing microscopic Slides of cacao and its preparations , glycerine jelly will be found to be an excellent medium ,

if the fat is not previously removed , and the cloudiness ,already mentioned as appearing on placing the fat-containing


body in water, has not been noticed . Crystals of theobromine may often be seen by using this medium, thoughnone were observed in sections taken from the fresh bean .

When using Canada balsam as a medium, the benzol , thatit contains , dissolves the fat , which , on slow setting of themedium , crystalli ses out as fine, long needles . The benzoldoes not seemingly affect the theobromine crystals . It willbe found desirable to de-fat the cacao and cocoa preparationsbefore making permanent slides in Canada balsam .

Mitscherl ich has recommended the addition of petroleumether as the means of differentiation between crystals ofcacao fat and theobromine. There can , however, be no realconfusion on this point , as the fat crys tals are almost alwaysthe longer and more slender , and their appearance is notoften observed , except on the thin , transparent membrane,unless solvents are used to induce crystallisationThe value of microscopical examination of cacao and cocoa

preparations lies largely in the detection of adulteration , andthe close study of the structure of the bean , though of greatinterest , is of little or no importance to the analyticalchemist.

Cocoa P r ep ar at ion s

Pure cocoa powder should appear under the microscopeto contain no other ingredients than that of the cacao kernel .That is to say, pure cocoa powder will show cacao starch ,

the polygonal cells of the cacao kernel , traces of the transparent membrane covering the lobes of the kernel , and,possibly , the Mitscherl ich bodies , already described , witha certain quantity of isolated spirals . Pure cocoa powdershould not show foreign starch ,

the characteristics of whichare too wel l known to the microscopist to need description ,the sharp angular crystals of sugar , bundles of spirals , typicalof those appearing in the husk , rounded transparent crystalsof sand , or any of the cellular tissues characteristic of thehusk of cacao .


Foreign starch , sugar, and cacao husk constitute the

principal adulterants of cocoa powders , and their presence

can readily be detected under the mi croscope (Fig . the

quantit ies being determined by chemi cal means .The proportions of added materials can only be approxi

mated by means of the mi croscope.

To chocolate powders and eatingchocolates the sameremarks apply , though , in the former case, the addition of

Photo, R. Whymper,

FIG . 34.—Cocoa, adul terated w ith Arrowroot Starch . x 100 diam. (See p .

foreign starch and sugar is not prohibited , and, in the latter ,sugar , only , should be permissible. Earthy matters can alsobe detected under themicroscope it is , however, improbablethat such adulterants as red ochre, venetian red, etc .

,

mentioned byHassall , will be encountered at the present day .

Further than this , the purity of the added starch , sugar ,or other ingredients can often be determined by examinationunder the microscope, and the fat , extracted from th e

preparation , can be examined independently , if crystallisedfrom ether, many of the fats , with which cocoa and its


usually about 112 mm . , though the dimensions varied

considerably .

The largest cacao grains were as large as 392 mm . , but

most of the cacao did not exceed 340 mm . and varied greatly .

This chocolate tasted of highly roasted cacao and was ofa very fine full flavour .Metti s—Generally very regular, sugar not angular but

small . The largest sugar particles were 332 mm .

The cacao grains showed a maximum of 372 mm . andweregenerally larger than the sugar grains . Fine flavour .Sandow .

—A fine, even chocolate under the microscope .

The sugar seldom exceeded , and was usually about ,“

ale mm .

Possibly prepared from syruped sugar .The cacao was about the same size as the sugar .The chocolate tasted insipid .

Lindt—The micrOSCOpic structure of this chocolate wassomewhat irregular .The largest sugar grains varied from 2

15 mm . to 5

32 mm . ,

but were usually smaller . The grains were seldomangular .The cacao was fairly fine, but many pieces were larger

than the largest sugar grains by three or four times .The sample was characteristic of the Lindt product , but

was not of such full flavour as previous samples .Suchard Nap s .

—The sugar was not very angular, butappeared smooth at the edges . The largest grains were

336 mm . to 3

45 mm .

The cacao grains were generally coarse and were equal insize to,

or occasionally greater than , the largest sugarparticles .Offine flavour .Golf—An exceptionally smooth and even chocolate .

The sugar was composed of minute rounded particles ,which did not exceed mm .


The largest cacao grains measured 232 mm . , but were

usually from filmmm . to 2

12 mm .

This chocolate had a slight Lindt flavour .Velma Special

—An irregular chocolate under the

microscope.

The sugar grains were irregular and angular, measuringat greatest 342 mm .

The largest and usual size of cacao grains was 542 mm . and,

very occasionally , 112 mm .

The particles of both sugar and cacao were generallysmoother and finer than those of Suchard Naps .Of a poor flavour , which had not been improved by

moulding in thin , flat tablets .Cadbury

’

s 1d. bar .

—Both cacao and sugar grains werelarge and uneven .

The sugar grains were angular and, occasionally ,measuredas much as 5

81; mm . Usually , the sugar grains measured

between 346 mm . and 2

12 mm .

The cacao grains were large and uneven and measured ,usual ly , 2

12 mm . to 362 mm .

, and , occasionally , 592 and mm .

Fry’

s 1d. bar .—Abnormally large and uneven both in

sugar and cacao grains .The sugar was angular and often measured as much as

mm . , and seldom was smaller than 112 mm .

The cacao grains were generally smaller than the sugar ,but still large in size .

In carrying out researches on sugar, the degree to whichchocolate is reduced by one, two or more refin ings on steeland granite rollers , the effects of conching,

”etc.

,a vast

number of observations have been made under the microscope, and very many photo -micrographs have been takenby the present writer . Only four of these series are shownhere, two illustrating the difference in appearance betweenground crystal sugar (Fig . 35) and so- called amorphous


sugar , or transformed sugar (Fig . one of a mixture of

cacao mass , cacao butter and sugar, run down in a

Photo, W. P . Paddi son , Brighton .

FIG . 35.-Ground Crystal Sugar . x 70 diam. (See p .

Photo, W. P . Paddi son, B righton .

FIG . 36 .—Transformed Sugar . x 70 diam. (See p .

melangeur (Fig. and one after this mixing has beenrefined once on a steel refiner (Fig .


and cacao butter, run for only twenty minutes in a melan

geur ,”during which the sugar has already been broken down

into much smaller, irregularly shaped , but not sharp -pointed ,particles . The cacao mass is even harder than the sugar,and the particles of the former are generally larger than thoseof the sugar .One refining on the steel refiners reduces the cacao mass

and the transformed sugar to an even size, of such small

Photo, W. P . Paddison ,Brighton .

FIG . 38 .

—Chocolate Mass , as seen in Fig. 37 , once Refined on Steel Refiners .

x 70 diam. (See p .

dimensions that no grittiness Can be felt between the teeth .

One other refining is often necessary because, even on thebest refiners , the rollers wear somewhat in use, and a certainamount of unground chocolate is apt to find its way throughthe worn parts of the cylinders . The result of one refin ingcan be clearly seen in the last photograph (Fig . whichshows the same chocolate, illustrated in Fig . 37 after oncepassing through a 5- roll steel refiner .

Amorphous or shapeless sugar (that is , not apparentlyof definite crystalline formation) can be prepared by the


addition of a small quantity of lactose to the cane sugar inthe process of transformation , outlined in Chapter XVI . , andphoto-micrographs of sugar , prepared in this way, are mostinstructive. Milk chocolate, manufactured by condensingmi lk with cane sugar, subsequently added to the cacao mass ,owes much of i ts smoothness to this cause, and, though milkchocolate may have to be refined more than once, it isseldom due to the sugar particles , if the mi lk and sugar havebeen condensed down together .

CHAPTER XXIX

B .

METHODS OF ANALY SIS FAT DETERMINATION OF

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CONSTANTS OF CACAO BUTTERAND ITS SUB STITUTES

THE analysis of cacao beans consists , essentially , in deter~

mining the amount of fat , moisture , ash ,fibre, ni trogen and

proteid mat ter that the ni bs contain , the amount of huskobtained from the beans , and, if an assay of husk is required ,the amounts of fat, moisture, ash ,

ni trogen and proteidmatter that the sh ell contains .An analysis of cocoa powder will requi re estimation of

fat , moisture, ash , alkali nity of ash , fibre, nitrogen and

proteid matter , cold -water extract and pentosans .

A preliminary mi croscopical examination will revealhusk , if much is present , and added starch and sugar , when ,should either be present , a further estimation of these substances will be required .

A chocolate powder may require to be analysed for bothadded starch and sugar, besides the other componentsgiven under cocoa powders .The analysis of a plain eating- chocolate wi ll necemitate

determination of fat (cacao butter) , moisture , ash , alkalini tv

of ash ,nitrogen and proteid matter, cold -water extrac t,

pentosans and sugar .Fancy chocolates may require further determinations ,

such as lactose or mi lk sugar , mi lk fat and casein in mi lkchocolates , vegetable Oils in nut chocolates , etc.

Al l chocolates may contain added starch and cacaobutter substitutes , so that determination of the nature and

quantity of both adul teran ts may be requi red .


(7 Using invertase for hydrolysis , per cent . ofsucrose has been found in a mixture of pure cacao pastes ,the use of acid for hydrolysis giving falsely high figures of3—4 per cent . for sucrose, owing to the decomposition ofglucosides , starch and inulin .

(8) Starch up to 28 5 parts per 100 parts of insoluble,fat- free matter were found by hydrolysing the materialwith acid or malt extract , after the fat and sugar had beenremoved , and after a treatment with 50 per cent . alcohol .

(9) By treating the residue on the fil ter after the starchestimation , fir st , with warm 0 1 per cent . solution of sodiumhydroxide, then with water and alcohol , drying andweighing,the cellulose residue amounts to 13 8 to 16 6 parts p er 100parts of insoluble , fat-free matter .It is clear that this method of expressing results can

only be a generalisation and that more detailed information is required for a complete analysis .

Fat .

The separation of cacao butter from cacao and cocoapreparations has been the subject of considerable research .

The net result , obtained , is that the quickest and mostcomplete solvent is petroleum ether, which removes thecacao fat without any theobromine . Other solvents ofcacao butter , such as carbon bisulphide, ether and chloroform, remove a portion of the alkaloid also . Low fat

results are invariably obtained if the cacao or cocoa preparation is not reduced to an extremely fine powder, to whichend the sample may be ground with previously extracted ,dry , quartz sand , or the precautions , recommended byWelmans ,

* may be employed . In this method , he suggeststhat , in the cases of chocolate and cacao mass and otherfatty preparations , the sample be rubbed down in a mortarat 50

°

C. , until the coarser particles are no longer visible .

P. Welmans , Z eitsch . b‘

fient. Chem. , vi . , 304.

METHODS OF ANALYSIS—FAT 451

The fluid mass is al lowed to solidify in tin moul ds and

cooled when cold , the mass is rubbed on“

a grater , and thewhole operation repeated . By this method , a fine, homo

geneous sample, is obtained .

Method 1 .

Five grammes to 10 grammes of the finely dividedsample are placed in a fat- free fil ter cone and extractedwith petroleum ether in a Soxhlet extractor. After theother has passed over from 12 to 15 times, the flask, whichhad previ ously been weighed and which now contains theether and fat , is subjected to gentle heat , and the other i s

dis til led off. The flask, containing the fat, is then placedin the steam oven , until no further loss in weight is observed ,and the percentage of fat calculated.

It should be noted that Kel ler"has found that a sixteenhours

’

treatment in a Soxhlet is sufficient to remove all the

fat from cocoa powders , without the addition of sand whichis often recommended to facili tate extraction . He pointsout , also , that a small , though almost negligible, amountoftheobromme 18 also removed by the ether.

Method II .

P. Welmans recommends the following procedureFive grammes of the finely divided powder are agitated

in a separator with 100 cos. of ether -saturated water , tillcoherent particles are no longer observable ; 100 ccs. of

water, saturated with ether, are then added , and the mixture briskly agitated , till an emul sion is formed .

The mixture is allowed to rest and separate into twolayers . Twenty -five ccs. to 50 ccs. of the clear ethereal

solution on the top are removed by means of a pipette, theether distil led off, and the residue weighed .

ProchnowTadopted a modified Welmans process , but

Kel ler, Apoth . Zei t. , 1916, xxxi . , 330.

1" A. Prochnow, Arch . Pharm. , 1910, ccxlvi i i . , 81 .

452 AND CHOCOLATE

the finely divided powder was extracted with ether in a

Soxhlet apparatus'

for 18 hour s . At the end of that time,the extracted powder was removed from the cartridge,

rubbed down in a mortar and again extracted for threehours .

‘ In several cases , an additional quantity of fat ,amounting , occasional ly , to 1 -5 per cent . , was extracted bythe second treatment . The percentage of fat , found , variedin raw beans from 50 80 to 53 98 per cent . , and in theroasted beans from 50 12 to 53 70. Prochnow, in criticisingthe rapid methods of Tschaplowitz

“and of Kirschner ’

l' for

estimation of fat in cocoa preparations, has stated that suchprocesses are only applicable for approximate analyses .

A. Kreuzj:makes use of chloral alcoholate as a solventin the following methodTwo grammes to 3 grammes of the sample and 3 grammes

of chloral alcoholate are placed in a flask and heated to a

homogeneous mass . To this mixture, 15 ccs. of ether areadded , and the contents of the flask well shaken a further35 ccs. of ether are added , and the whole fil tered into a

weighed flask . The residue in the fil ter is washed twi cewith pure ether . The flask and ethereal solution of fat isdried at 105

° to 110° C. ,at which temperature the chloral

alcoholate is completely expelled .

In a subsequent communi cation , he recommends theremoval of the chloral alcoholate by heating under reducedpressure at a temperature of about 75° C. The residue, soobtained , is treated wi th chloroform to te-dissolve the fat ,the solution filtered , to separate the theobromine and cacaored, the filtrate evaporated , and the fat weighed .

Techaplowitz, Jour. Chem. Soc. , Abstr. , 1900, 404.

1' Kirschner, M , 502.

I A. Krenz, Zeinab. Nahr. Germa n , 1908 , xv. , 680, and xvi . , 584.


Hughes gives results , obtained by his method comparedwith those by Soxhlet extraction , as fol low

From From FromWhole-fat cocoa . Commercial cocoa . Chocolate .

Fat per cent . Fat per cent . Fat per cent .

Centrifugal methodSoxhlet method

A centrifugal method for separat ion of the solvent and

solids, in which ether is used , and in which the collectedsolution is evaporated and dried , is official in Franco) “

Another method , which calls for some attention and

further experiment , is that devised by The

Zeiss Refractometer is used , in this method , on an etherinfusion of thematerial to be examined , extracted by an etherand alcohol trisodium phosphate solution . Equal volumesof alcohol and ether are mi xed together, and the trisodiumphosphate is prepared by adding 65 grammes of the sal t

to a litre of water . Preliminary experiments are necessaryto ascertain how much of the ether -alcohol mixture must beadded to 100 ccs . of the phosphate solution , so that 5 ccs .

of ether will separate after mixing. The proportions of

ether and alcohol in the mixture are so adjusted that 25cos .

of the mixture must be added to yield 5 ccs. of ethereallayer .Ten grammes of the powdered cocoa preparation are

taken and mixed with the found quantity of ether -alcoholmixture ; 100 cc s. of the phosphate solution are thenadded . The whole is shaken for some ten mi nutes and

allowed to set tle. The extracts of chocolates , and ofcoarsely powdered cocoas , should be slightly warmed and,

subsequently , cooled to C. , at which temperature al l

measurements are made. The clear ethereal solution is

Ann . dea Fals e] , 191 1 , iv. , 417.

1' O. Richter, Zei toch. Nahr . Genuaam. , 1912 , xxiv. , 312 .


examined in the refractometer and the percentage of fat (F) ,present , calculated from the formula

100 XY

Z a

where n refractive index of cacao butter 14 653,

n, refractive index of solvent ,71. 3 refractive index observed for the fat solution,X the excess of volume of the ether (5Y S. G. of the fat,Z weight of the substance in grammes (10

grammes) .

TABLE LXXVIII .—Cc-operative Results on Ether-Extract

by the short-method, test effect of Temperature and

Necesstty ofFi ltration ( see p .

By continuousextract ion .

Analyst . Remarks .

tered .

Ether .

H. S . Balley

Knorr apparatus sample not3 ° 8 ° Hi ltner

re-extracted , fat not perfect l y clear.

Johnson extractor fourhours , fat not perfect lyclear .

Leach -Hfltner method .

W. L Dubois23-37 Alundum thlmble ln Knorr

a paratus .p Ditto.


The work of the U . S. Department of Agriculture, (Bur .

of Chem. Bul l,152) in 1911

,provided some interesting

figures in connection with rapid determination of fat incocoa preparations. Two objections had been found to themethod suggested in 1910

(1) Loss by evaporation of the solvent during filtration .

(2) That higher values were obtained on hot days than oncold , owing to the evaporation of the solvent . The objections were considered by a referee, who provided a sampleof cocoa for the estimation of fat by different col laboratorsin different laboratories . TableLXXVIII . shows the results ,obtained .

In the discussion that fellowed , the referee stated thatthis method (see suggested rapid method , 1910)could only be recommended for approximate determinationsand in cases when rapid analyses were desired . The substitution of petroleum ether for sulphuric ether was furtherrecommended in view of the fact that theobromine and

certain quantities of substances , other than cacao butter ,were found '

to be extracted by sulphuric ether and not bypetroleum ether , whilst the fat was equally soluble in bothsolvents . Results on five cocoas were shown , thus

Compari son of Ether-extract Results , us ing Sulphuri c

and Petroleum Ether .

In 1912 , a further report (U. S . Dep t. Agrtc. Bul l , 162 ,

1912) confirmed the desirability of using petroleum ether,and a provisional method was put forward .

458.

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

If a clear solution is obtained , the test - tube is immersedin water at 0

°

C. , and the minutes which elapse, beforeturbidity occurs , noted .

Bjorklund made the following observations

Turbidity at 0°C. Clea

‘

r solution

after minutes . at degrees 0 .

Pure cacao butter 10—15 19 20

Cacao butter 15per cent . beef tallow 8

Cacao but ter 10 per cent . beef tallow 7

It has been observed , also , that the form of the crystalsin the chilled , ethereal solution is a useful indication of theaddition of tallow, pure cacao butter crystal lising in welldefined shapes at the bo ttom and sides of the tube, whilst asmall percentage of tallow renders the solution cloudy and

flocculent .

REFRACTIVE INDEX ON ZErss BUTYRo-B EFRACTOMETER .

The determination of the refractive index of a fat haslong been known as a useful indication of the state ofpurity .

The instrument , usually employed , is the Zeiss butyrorefractometer, which , from its handiness and for generalutility , is most to be recommended .

There are a few oils , however, such as tung oil and theresin oils , which fall without the scale (5

° to 105° on thebutyrometer) , and, for these , the Abbérefractometer, or theoleo- refractometer of Amagat and Jean , may be used .

The Zeiss butyro- refractometer, which consists of an

Abbédouble prism , capable of being heated by a current ofhot water, and a permanently attached telescope, theobjective of which is adjusted by a micrometer screw,

doesnot need further description , the method of working beingone of greatest simpl icity .


Some figures of value for the detection of“

adul teration ofcacao butter , obtained by the author , are given

Readi ngs on Zeiss butyro

refractometer at 40° C.

Cacao butter 46—47Coconut stearin 35—436Beef tallowPalm butter (hard) 470

Palm-kemel oil 38—39Earth -nut oil 55—56Butter fat 42—45

(usuallyHazel -nut oil 542

Almond oil 572

Fat from Cai l ler ’s milk chocolate 460

Fat from Nestle’s milk chocolate 46 0

Fat from Peter’s milk chocolate 46 2

Fat from Nuttis (Peek Frean’

s

chocolate)

It has been thought desirable to include, for consideration ,only those physical and chemical constants of cacao butterwhich are of the greatest importance and value to the analyst ,and which will enable him to detect the presence and extentof adulteration with foreign fats . For this purpose, themethods of estimation of the specific gravity , the meltingpoint , the melting -point of the fatty acids , the saponificationvalue, the Reichert-Meissl value and the iodine value, only ,

will be discussed . If further information , concerning theestimation of other values for cacao butter , is required ,Al len ’s Commercial Organic Analysis,

”vol . ii . , 1910, isto be recommended .

In the works of Alder Wright, Lewkow itsch and otherson oils , fats , waxes , etc.

, will also be found full descriptivedetails for the processes involved in estimating acid value,


Hebner value, acetyl value, bromine value, refractive index ,

etc. , which may be required , from time to time, for specialcases .

SPECIFIC GRAVITY .

Fat possesses a specific gravity largely depending uponits constitution . The determination of this value, therefore,is of some importance in detecting adulteration of cacaobutter with any particular oil or fat .

In the case of an oil , the determination of specific gravitycan be made by means of a hydrometer, specific gravitybottle, or Sprengel tube at any moderate temperature, compared against that of water at C. , which , in England ,is usually taken as the unit of comparison .

In the case of a fat or wax , solid at ordinary temperatures ,such as cacao butter, the fat is melted , and the specificgravity is taken at some higher temperature, preferably theboiling point of water (100

°

The Sprengel tube, which gives more accurate resultsthan the hydrometer or specific gravi ty bottle, is constructedof thin glass tubing, having an internal diameter of about

l - inch . The tube is usually bent into a U- shape, terminatingat both ends in capillary tubing .

The weights of the Sprengel tube and of the volume~

of

water it contains at C. are first ascertained . The clean ,dry tube is then filled with the molten fat , by immersing oneend of one capillary tube in the liquid and applying suction tothe other . The whole is then placed in a beaker of boil ingwater , in such a way that only the extreme tips of the capi l

laries are not covered . As the temperature Of the mol tenfat rises , expansion occurs , and the oil drips from the fine

orifices of the capillary . As soon as expansion has ceased ,and the oil has attained the temperature of the boiling water ,the Sprengel tube is removed , carefully dried , cooled and

weighed . The weight of the contents divided by the weightof water which the tube originally contained at C. wil l


MELTING-POINT .

Method I

The cacao fat is first mel ted , at about 33°

C. , and drawnup into a fine, thin capil lary tube, made by drawing out apiece of ordinary qui ll tubing. The fat is made to solidifyimmediately in the tube, which is then placed away for two orthree hours . The longer the fat is al lowed to remain solidified up to , say, twenty- four hours, the more nearly wil l thetrue melting-point of the fat be obtained . The capillarytube, which is Open at bo th ends , is attached to an accuratethermometer, at its bul b , by a thin piece of rubber band ortubing.

The thermometer and attached tube are then M ersed

in water, which is very gradual ly heated and constantlystirred , until fusion of the fat takes place. The mean of thetemperatures at the. point of fusion of the fat, observed over anumber of experiments , may be taken as the melting-point .The flame is then removed from beneath the receptacle

containing the water, and the temperature at whi ch the fatsolidifies observed , as the water cools.As a rule, the solidifying-point of a fat is a very much

lower temperature than the melting-point—this is the casewith cacao butter:

Method II

The method of determining the melting-point of fats ,adopted by the is somewhat more complicated ,though extremely accurate.

The fat , melted and filtered , is made to fall from a

dropping tube, from a height of 15 to 20 cms. ,on to a smooth

piece of ice floating in distilled water . The discs of solid fat ,so formed (1 to cms . in diameter) ,weigh about 200mgrms . ,

and are removed by pressing the ice under the water, whenthey float to the surface and can be readily removed .

The apparatus , employed , consists of a boiling-tube,

T 465

mm] to 15° or 20° 0 .

are then pouredms

. in diameter .mnptv flask , 150

"m ans of a cork , andl l

_ and graduated '

1 hole in a cork of

l i l e middle of theo f l he thermometer

w entire lengthl

’

l l l h’

.

u to solidify at thet h e thermometerL-O equalise the

m e temperature1 point, when

m two minutes .at short

1u nperature,

fall of the1°

of the

t imes , and

m O°1°

C. ,

hods Of

°

1tus in

c andleothers ,


A second and third repetition of this operation will givevery accurate readings for the melting-point of the fat .

SOLID IFY ING-POINT .

The determination of the sol idifying-point of the fats is ofless importance and may be made after the determinationof the melting-point , described underMethod I . It is desirable, however , to substitute a capillary tube, closed at one

end,for that open at both ends , as used in this method .

The value of estimating themelting and solidifying-pointsof the fatty acids obtained from the fats is considerable, andthe variations , occurring in the figures of the two estimations ,are less than when the natural fats are employed .

Method I .

A modification of Dal ican’

s method , official in the

United States , is extremely accurate and embodies theoriginal method , suggested by Dalican , with the precautionthat constant quantities of chemicals for the preparation ofthe fatty acids , standard dimensions of apparatus , etc . ,

are employed, so that the solidifying-point of the fatty acidscan be determined under strictly comparable conditions .Twenty-five grammes of fat are sapon ified with 60 ccs .

of 30 per cent . sodium hydroxide solution (36°

Be.) and 75cos . of 95 per cent . alcohol , or 120 ccs . of water, in a platinumdish , and the mass evaporated to dryness .The dried soap is dissolved by ccs . of boiling water ,

and the solution boiled , until al l the alcohol has been expelled

(usually about 40 minutes) . The solution is then treatedwith 100 ccs . of 30 per cent . sulphuric acid (25

°Be.) and

heated , until the fatty acids , set free, are quite clear .The fatty acids are then thoroughly washed with fresh

quantities of distilled water, separated in a separatingfunnel , filtered through a dry filter -paper and thoroughlydried for 20 to 30 minutes in a steam-heated oven at 100° C.


can be found described in Allen ’s Commercial Organi cAnalysis , vol . ii . , 56—58 , or in the original papersgiven in the footnotes .

It has been found that the method and duration of

saponification have no material influence on the resul tsobtained by any of the foregoing methods , the most important factors , in obtain ing consistent results , being the

complete expulsion of alcohol after saponification and the

thorough drying of the fatty acids .For the methods of determi ning other physical constants

of cacao butter, such as action on polarised light , electricalconductivity , viscosity , heat of combination , etc. , Allen

’

s

Commercial Organic Analysis , vol . ii . , Lewkowitsch’

s and

Alder Wright ’s books on oils , fats , waxes , etc. , shoul d beconsulted .

SAPONIFICATION VALUE OF. Konr r sronr nn “ VALUE .

The sapon ification value of an oil or fat is expressedas the number of milligrammes of potassium hydroxi derequi red for the complete saponification of 1 gramme of

that oil or fat .

Oils and fats , of the nature which will come under thenotice of the chocolate manufacturer and his chemist , are ,

with the exception of paraffin wax, broken up by the

action of alcoholic alkali into the alkaline salt , or soap , ofthe fatty acids , existing in the fat , and glycerol or glycer in ,

which exi sted originally in the fat as the glyceride ,or glycerol

compound , of the fatty acids .The saponification of fat ty oils is a perfectly defin ite

reaction , and not only can the proportion of fatty acid and

glycerol , produced from any fat or glyceride, be determined ,but the actual amount of alkali involved in the reactioncan be ascertained . Thus , i n the general equation

03H5A s KOH 03H5(OH)3 3 KA,

Koettstorfer , Z el tsch . ana l . Chem. , 1879, xvi i i . , 199.


the fat or glyceride (CaHsA) , containing a fatty acid‘

A. ,

combines with potassium hydroxide (KOH) to give glyceroland the potassium salt , or soap , of the fatty

acid A, (KA) .In the above equation, the number of parts of fat saponi

fied by 1 molecule of potassium hydroxide will be one- thirdof its molecular weight , but , in the case of an ester of amonatomic alcohol , the number will be identical to itsmolecular weight . This figure is , briefly , what is termedthe saponification equivalent and represents the amountof oil or fat , in grammes , which would be saponified by

ccs . of a normal solution (N) of any alkali .In determining the sapon ification value, however, the

amount of fat is the constant , and the amount of alkali isthe variable.

Method I .

From 12 to 2 grammes of the fat are weighed out andtreated with an accurately measured 25 ccs . of approxi

mately semi-normal solution of potassium hydroxide

in alcohol , in a flask bearing a long tube to act as an air

condenser .The alcohol should be previously freed from water by

keeping an excess of dry potassium carbonate in the bottlecontaining it .The flask and its contents are heated on a water-bath

,

until solution of the fat has taken place, and the saponifica

tion is complete. This usually takes from 30 to 45minutes .In order to ensure greater accuracy in the subsequent

titration , a test experiment should be conducted side byside with the fat undergoing sapon ification . The testexperiment consists of measuring out accurately 25 ccs . of

the same approximately 2’potassium hydroxide solution

previously added to the fat, and heating it,in a flask

30—2


similarly constructed to that in which the fat is beingsaponified, for the same length of time.

One cubic centimetre of a 1 per cent . alcoholic solutionof phenolphthalein is then added to each flask , and the

liquids titrated with "

I

; hydrochloric acid .

The difference between the volumes of standard acid ,used in the two cases , will give the number of cubic centimetres corresponding to the alkali neutralised in saponify

ing the oil , each cubic centimetre of “

I

; hydrochloric acid

grammes ofhydrochloric acid in ccs . of solution)representing grammes of potassium hydroxide(KOH) . From these figures , the number of milligrammesof potassium hydroxide, required to saponify 1 gramme ofthe fat, can readily be obtained .

From the saponification value, so found , the sapon ifica

tion equivalent can b e calculated by dividing the formerinto 561 , and multiplying the result by 100.

Method II .

A method of cold saponification may, at times , be founduseful .In this method , 3 to 4 grammes of the fat, dissolved in

25 ccs . of re-distil led petroleum ether , are treated with 25ccs .

of normal (N) alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution , andthe mixture, after thorough shaking, is kept in a flask for

24 hours . The excess of alkali is titrated with standardhydrochloric acid , as previously described . A blank experiment must be conducted side by side with the fat undergoing sapon ification , in order to check the strength of thealcoholic potassium hydroxide employed , which w ill varyfrom day to day.

REICHERr -MEISSL VALUE .

The Reichert -Meissl value, which is of special importance


to the temperature of the room, and a few pieces of pumicestone added . The pumice-stone should be prepared byheating it to a white heat and throwing it into distilledwater, in which it is kept immersed , un til wanted .

The flask is now connected to a glass condenser and

slowly heated over a naked flame, until the contents commence to boil . After th is , the flame is so regul ated that1 10 ccs . of distillate pass over in 30 minutes , the rate ofthe distillation being kept as near as possible to these figures .

The distillate should be received into a flask, accuratelymarked at 110 ccs .Ti tration Of the Volati le Fatty Acids—The 1 10 ccs . of

distillate, after thorough shaking, are filtered through a

dry filter-paper ; 100 ccs . of the clear filtrate are thenmeasured into a flask of about 250 ccs . capacity , and 0 5 cc .of phenolphthalein solution (1 gramme in 100 cos . of alcohol)added .

10barium hydroxide solution is run into the fatty acids ,

until the red coloration, which remains permanently for

2 or 3minutes , is produced . The number of ccs . ofII

I) bariumhydroxide solution , required , should be increased by one

tenth , in order to allow for the 10 ccs . of acid distillate not

used .

Other Methods .

The method , described , is essentially that devised byLeffman and Beam and is based on the Reichert -Meisslmethod .

Other methods , official in various countries , are similarin the main points to Method I

Wol lny,1' in order to obviate errors arising from absorp

tion of carbon dioxide, from variation in the size, shape and

Leffman and Beam, The Analys t, 1891 , xvi . , 153 1896, xxi . , 251 .

TWol lny, The Analyst, 1887 , xi i . , 203 and M ilch Zei t , 1887 , Nos . 32—3 5.

METHODS OF ANALYSIS—FAT 47 1

nature of the appara tus , and from the differing strengths ofsolutions employed , has made certain conditions under whichthe estimation should bemade. This has been adopted , in itsessential features , by the

IODINE VALUE .

The principle underlying the iodine and bromine valuesof fats and oils has already been given in Chapter XXV . , and

the determination of the amount of iodine or bromine, fixedby a given acid or mixture of acids , affords useful information as to the nature of the fatty acids present .

The absorption of free iodine by fats and oils is slowerthan the absorption of bromine, but the following methods ,described , will be found to give accurate and consistentresults in the shortest possible time.

Method I

The first method , which was devised by is as

followsSolutions requi red An alcoholic solution of mercuric

chloride is prepared by dissolving 60 grammes of corrosivesublimate or mercuric chloride in 1 litre of 95 per cent .alcohol . The solution is filtered and placed in a wellstoppered bottle .

(2) An alcoholic solution of iodine is prepared by dissolving 50 grammes of iodine in 1 litre of 95 per cent. alcohol .

(3) A sodium thiosulphate solution (about 24 grammes tothe l itre) is standardised against pure, sublimed iodine orpotassium bichromate.

Before determining the iodine values of fats or oils , equalvolumes of the first two solutions are taken and thoroughlymixed in a wellstoppered bottle, where they should beallowed to remain for at least twenty - four hours , in order thatany iodine-absorbing impurities may be eliminated .

Hubl , D inglers Polyt. , 1884, ccl i i i . , 284.


From 0 8 to 10 gramme of a solid fat , such as cacaobutter, or up to 05 gramme of drying, or non-drying, oils i sweighed out and dissolved in 10 ccs . of pure ch loroform ,

which should not contain any iodine-absorbing impurity .

To the chloroform solution,are added 30 to 40 ccs . of the

mixed iodine and mercuric chloride solution , more beingintroduced , if, on standing for two to three hours, thebrown - coloured mixture lightens in colour to any extent .A large excess of free iodine, about equal to the amount

.absorbed , should remain in the solution undergoing thetreatment after the fat has fixed al l the iodine of which it iscapable.

The mixed solution should be allowed to remain in closes toppered bottles in the dark for several hours , preferablyfrom twelve to twenty- four hours , when the iodine absorption should be complete.

When the process is complete, from 10 to 15 ccs . of a

10 per cent . sol ution of potassium iodide are added withabout 150 cos . of water, and the excess of iodine, present ,titrated with the standardised solution of sodium th iosul

phate, a l ittle starch paste being used as indicator towardsthe end of the titration .

The difference between the iodine found in the blank andin the real determination wi ll give the amount of iodineabsorbed , which , calculated on 100 grammes of fat, will givethe iodine value, required .

As the mi xed solution of iodine and mercuric chloridevaries in strength from day to day and as the chloroform may

contain certain quantities of iodine-absorbing impurities , it i smost necessary to carry out a blank experiment side by sidewith the actual determi nation . The same quantities ofsolution and the same Operations , as were involved in theactual determination , should be employed for the blankexperiment , with the exception that , in the latter case, no fatis added .


footnotes , or in the works on oils, fats and waxes by Lewkowi tsch andWright .

Cacao B utter Subs t i tutes :S peci a l T es ts .

In Table LXXX . will be found physical and chemica lconstants for cacao butter and for those fats and oils withwhich it is likely to be adulterated . There are also included ,in the same table, constants for those fats and oils which maybe found in conjunction with cacao butter in the fat extractedby a solvent from commercial chocolates other than plain ,such as milk , nut and other fancy chocolates .The determination of fat- constants , the values for which

are dependent upon the composition of the fat , affords somein dication of the nature and extent of adulteration . Thus , ahigh iodine value suggests the presence of certain foreignvegetable oils , such as sesame, arachis or almond . A lowsaponification value will suggest beeswax or paraffin wax. A

low iodine value will be found if coconut oil or stearin hasbeen substituted for cacao butter .In general , the vegetable oils increase the iodine absorp

tion value and lower the melting- point of the insoluble fattyacids , obtained from the mixed fats .Cacao butter may show a high acid value, if the fat has

been extracted from shell s (Dutch HA butter) or undulyexposed to the oxidising influence of air and light . Theacidvalue, given by Matthes and Rohdl ich ,* for cacao butter istoThere have been many researches upon the detection of

cacao butter substitutes in chocolate. Coconut fat orstearin , after a great part of the olein has been removed , isespecially sui table as a cacao butter substitute . WautersTsuggests the following method for the detection of coconutfat in cacao butter .

Matthes and Rohdl ich , Ber . , 1908 .

1' Wauters , The Ana lys t, 1901 , xxvi . , 128 and 292.


Five grammes of the extracted fat (if from chocolate) issaponified, and the soap dissolved in 150 ccs . of boilingwater 50 ccs . of5 per cent . sulphuric acid solution are thenadded, and

.

the whole is distilled , so that 100 ccs . pass overin thirty to thirty-five minutes . After the first distillation ,another 100 ccs . of water are added , and the distillationrepeated . The two distillates are separately fil tered , and

50 ccs . of each filtrate titrated against a10

solution of

caustic soda . The filtrates are washed with 50 ccs . of ethylalcohol, and the washings mixed with the 50 ccs . of thefiltrate and again titrated .

By this method , which is really an extention of that forestimation of the Reichert-Meissl value, Wauters obtainedthe fol lowing results , the figures being expressed as cubic

centimetres of caustic soda solution required for neutrali

sation

Soluble volatil e acids . Insoluble volati le acids .

l st . 2nd . Total . l st . 2nd . Total .

0 1

Sachs has examined many exotic vegetable fats , whichhave been used as substitutes for cacao butter . Dika orGaboon fat

, Tankawang fat or Borneo tallow and Illipefathave been examined by this author, who gives also theconstants he obtained for them . The same author hasexamined the stearin obtained from coconut and palm nutfats . He suggests the admixture of 75 per cent . coconutstearin with 25 per cent . Japan wax for a good cacao buttersubstitute . This mixture gives the following constantsMelting-point , 34

° to 355 °

C iodine value, 78 ; saponification value, 237 Reichert-Meissl value, 55 . Other mixtures ,

O. Sachs , The Ana lyst, 1908 , 123.


recommended by Sachs , are two- thirds palm nut stearin w ithone- third coconut stearin , and, again , 40 per cent . Tankawang fat with 60 per cent . coconut stearin .

A new adulterant of cacao butter has been mentioned ,though not identified.

* The fatty acids from the adulteratedsample were brownish yellow and of coarse, granular strueture, whilst the fatty acids from cacao butter are light yellowin colour and solidify in fine crystals . The critical temperature of solution in glacial acetic acid (5 ccs . of molten fat in5 ccs . of acetic acid) of the adulterated sample was 35

°

C. , thatfor pure cacao butter being 76°—80° C. Crystallisation ,

from ether-alcohol solution at 10°

C.,resulted in the produc

tion of an oily substance in half an hour, which , on recrystal l isation from the same solvent , melted at —40° C.

Under similar conditions , pure cacao butter gave directlywhite crystals melting at 46°—52° C., and,after recrystal lisation, 56

°—574 °

C.

Bolton and Revis Thave recently devised a modifiedHalphen test for the detection of so- called green butterswhen used as adulterants of cacao butter . The method isnot intended to supersede any of the existing estimations ofchemical and physical constants , but to supplement them inthose cases where green butters are suspected . The

adulterants under consideration conduct themselves likecacao butter towards BjOrklund

’

s test and other solubilitytests , so readily , that they do not admit of differentiation .

Halphen l; described his test substantially as followsOne gramme of theabsolutely clear, filtered fat is dissolved in2 cos . of carbon tetrachloride:to 2 ccs . of this mi xture, isadded a solution of bromi ne in carbon tetrachloride (made byadding bromine to an equal volume of carbon tetrachloride)drop by drop , until the colour of the bromine is j ust

Ch im:Rev. Fel t. Ind , 1914, xxi . , 47 and 74.

1' E. R . Bolton and C. Revis , The Ana lys t, xxxvi i i . , 201 .

I Halphen , Jour. Pharm. Chim , 1908, xxvi i i . , 345.


readily distinguished by a method that the author provides .

It is suggested that the degrees of turbidity enable the

modified Halphen’

s test to be quantitative .

TABLE LXXX .—Physical and Chemical Constants of Cacao

Fat or oi l .

Butter fat

Butter , etc.

Specific gravity.

At C.

30—34

253- 42at 100

°

at 100°

at 15°

at 100°

09 1 1 at. 50°

at 1 00°

at

at 15°

09 210- 09 245 at 15°

0 8970 at

at 15°

at 100°

at 15°

at

0 9259 at 15°

at 100°

at 100°

08 731 at

08 700 at 100°

08 950 at

08 626 at 98°—100°

08 600 at 98°—100 °

09 37—09 53 at

0

0

225—09340 at

9 9 - 0 0 o

coca- cocol at 1"508 42- 09 40 at

(according to melt ingpoint) .

at

M.P . of

fattyacids .

- 45

—5624—25

21

Saponlflcat ion value.

192—195 02—09

187- 1 94

189—1 91 02—041 79—192246—262

243—255 5

195—203

2 10—334

54—08

—64

1 39- 148

CHAPTER XXX

METHODS OF ANALYSIS : MOISTURE—MINERAL MATTER

(SOLUBLE,INSOLUBLE, ALKAL INITY OF ) —COLD -WATER

EXTRACT—FIB RE (CRUDE FIB RE, CELLULOSE ,PENTO

SANS)—CACAO -RED—XANTHINE BASES (THEOB ROMINE,

CAFFEINE )—ORGANIC ACIDS (TARTARIC , ACETIC , OXALIC)

Moi s tur e

THE estimation of moisture is of only minor importanceto the analyst , though it is desirable for the manufacturer tokeep this value as low as possible, seeing that mouldiness andgeneral deterioration of quality result from excess of moisturein cacao and cocoa preparations .

Method.

From 2 to 5 grammes of the powdered sample are distributed evenly over the bottom of a platinum dish , previouslyheated , cooled and weighed . The dish and its contents areplaced in'

a steam-heated oven and maintained at 100°

C. ,

until , after frequent weighings , no further loss in weightoccurs . The loss in weight may be attributed to water, lostat 100

°

C., the quantity of theobromine and other volatile

matters , which escape at this temperature, being negligible.

It is eminently desirable that standard methods shouldbe adopted for al l estimations . In the case of determinationof moisture, great variations may occur according to themethod adopted .

* Campbel l'

l'

has shown some figures ,confirming this , which are of interes t. (See next page.)

R . Whymper , Condit ions that govern Staleness in Bread, 1919.

TH. H. Campbel l , Jour . Soc. Chem. Ind. , xxxi i . , 69 . See al so Ann . des Fal s if191 1 , iv. , 417 .

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

Percentage OfMoi sture in Sweetened Cocoa .

Differences .

I . & II . I . & 1V.

00 77

Method IV. is that adopted , as ofli cial,

.in France,the

cocoa being heated in an air- oven at 100° to 105° C. for 6

hour s .M i ner al M atter or As h .

Method.

The quantity ofsample, previously employed for moisturedetermination

,is incinerated , firstly , over a naked gas

flame, until the fat and other easily combustible matter isthoroughly charred , and, then , in a muffle furnace, un tilno further loss in weight occur s . The residue representsthe mi neral matter or ash .

If no addition of foreign mineral matter in the form ofhusk

, alkali , etc. , has been made, the amount of ash ,found

,

is a direct indication of the quantity of cacao matter presentin the sample.

(a) SOLUB LE AND INSOLUB LE Asn .

Method.

About 20 to 30 ccs . of distilled water are added to themineral matter in a platinum dish , and the water broughtto the boil . The solution is then fil tered through a cleanfilter-paper, and the residue thoroughly washed with smallquantities of hot water, until the fil trate amoun ts to about80 ccs . The filtrate is evaporated in a clean, weighedplatinum dish and heated in a muffle furnace. The in

crease in weight wi ll be the soluble ash .

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

re residue with hot water, igniting and weighing. The

sidue, obtained in this manner, is almost entirely composedf silica . The estimat ion of the a sh insoluble in mineral.cids may be of great value, as the figure is considerablyl igher in the husk than in the nibs of cacao .

(c) ALKALINITY or THE ASH.

The official method of determining alkalinity of ash ,

adopted by the is as follows

Method.

The entire ash , obtained by incinerating 2 grammes

of the sample, is treated with excess oi—Nhydrochloric acid10

solution (usually from 10 to 15 ccs .) in a platinum dish .

The solution is brought to the boiling- point by heatingthe platinum dish and contents over a Bunsen flame . The

solution is then cooled , and the excess of hvdrochloric acid

titrated with sodium hydroxide solution . The alkalini ty

is expressed as the number of ccs . of1

121

0acid required to

neutralise the ash , obtained from 1 gramme of the sample.

In thi s work , the alkalinity has been usually expressedas potassium oxide (K20 ) , this being the method adoptedby modern observers .

It is evident that the addition of alkalis , such as

hydroxides and carbonates of sodium and potassium, inthe preparation of cocoa or chocolate, will lead to the increased alkalinitv of the ash , found .

Bordas has given figures showing the increase in

potassium , estimated as oxide (K20 ) , found, by the addi tion

U.S . Dep t. ofAgr icul ture, 1907 , Bul l . 107 .

METHODS OF ANALYSIS—ASH 483

of potassium carbonate or hydroxide, in certain commercialcocoas , examined . His results are tabulated below

Salts ofpotassium in 100 partsofdry, defatted cocoa .

Kind ofcocoa . As K 20 . As K ,00 3 .

Ordinary cocoas (mean) 2°54

Cocoa treated with alkali I.

Cocoa treated with alkali II.

Cocoa treated with alkali III.

Cocoa treated with alkali IV.

Cocoa treated with alkal i V.

Bordas has stated that the addition of potassium saltsrenders the cocoas strongly alkal ine, whilst ordinary cocoasare sl ightly acid in reaction .

Farnsteiner has pointed out that , if the ash obtainedfrom 100 grammes of a sample of cocoa requires morethan 15 cos . of N acid for its neutralisation , and, at the

same time, the ash insoluble in water is more than 60 percent. of the total ash , the sample has been treated withmagnesium carbonate. The same author has stated thatthe addition of ammonium carbonate can be detected byheating the cocoa with water and magnesium oxide in a

flask, in the neck of which i s suspended a piece of faintlyred litmus paper . The ammoni a, liberated by this treatment , will turn the red litmus paper blue. The quantityof ammonia ,

present , can be estimated by distilling in to a,

standard10

acid solution and by ti trating the excess of acid

remaining. Of this method we are extremely doubtful,

since a large proportion of the volatile alkali must havebeen driven offby heat during the processes ofmanufacture.

In Baker andHulton ’s paper , to which frequent referencehas been made, will be found a summarised statement bothon the ash soluble in water and the alkalinity of the solubleash . We cannot but agree that It is unfortunate that in

31—2


the figures recorded for the estimation (the latter) therehas been so much ambiguity as to the method employed ,

the expression of alkalini ty of ash being often used without stating either the method of estimating or whether theresult obtained is from the water- soluble ash or the totalash .

” These authors record figures , which we have alreadygiven for the ash soluble in water,

”as varying between

72 and 25 per cent . of the total ash , though a figure of 35

per cent . has been foun d to be normal for both shell andnib of an average cacao . The same authors state that thesoluble ash of an alkalised cocoa is invariably wel l over50 per cent . , being often 60 and 70 per cent . of the totalash .

With regard to the alkalinity of the ash ,Baker and

Hulton admit to the difficul ty of determining whetheralkalisation has taken place by mere estimation of thealkalinity of the water- soluble ash , both owing to the

different methods adopted for estimating alkalinity and

because ,both soluble and insoluble non -volatile alkalis

,

as well as volatile alkalis , dissipated on the application ofheat , may be used . It is for this reason that we havecollected the more comparable results together in earlierpages .

GENERAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING ASH, ETC .

Purvis and Hodgson have given the following methodfor determining ash—its alkalinity and solubility .

Determination Ofthe Ash .

Five grammes of the sample are placed i n a platinumdish and carefully ignited over a Bunsen flame, until a

white residue is obtained the weight of this residue multiplied by 20 gives the percentage of ash .

J. E . Purvi s and T. R . Hodgson , Chemical Examination ofWater, Sewage and

Foods ,”1914.


following is themethod that he suggested shoul d be officialFirst estimate the percentage of water (H) and fatty matter

of the sample, an amount equal to 5grammes of dry , defattedcocoa is used . The sample is incinerated at red heat in a

platinum capsule, and, when free from carbon , the ash is

moistened with a little water° and a trace of pure ammoniumcarbonate and evaporated . The .dish - is again brought to ared heat for a short time, cooled and weighed . The weightof ash , obtained , multiplied by 20 gives total ash per cent .of dry , defatted cocoa.

The soluble ash is estimated by treating the total ashth a little boiling water and by stirring for a few minutes .

The liqui d is decanted through a filter into a 200 ccs . flask,and the ash , in the dish , treated again wi th boiling water 5 or6 times . The filter-paper and contents are washed and

replaced in the capsule, calcined to redness and weighedfor the insoluble ash . The difference, between the totaland insoluble ash , is soluble ash . The flask , containing thefiltrate of the washings , is cooled , a drop of tropeol ine solu

tion added , and the whole titrated with lg.The number oi ccs . of acid , used to neutralise the solution ,mul tiplied by gives the alkal inity per cent . of the dry ,

defatted cocoa, expressed as KzCOs . This alkalinity, inthe presence of trOpeol ine, corresponds to 00 2 3

1; P20 5,

and, in order to estimate the alkalinity corresponding to

sulphuric acid .

00 2 alone, an excess of about 5 ccs . of acid are added to

make a total volume of 10, 15 or 20 ccs . The solution isheated to boiling for 10 minutes , cooled and titrated with

18 caustic soda solution in the presence of phenolphthalein .

2

The acid and alkaline solutions must be very carefully

METHODS OF ANALYSIS WATER-EXTRACT 487

adjusted. Then , if N number of ccs . of 2; sulphuric acid ,added, and n the number of ccs . of?caustic soda, used,the alkalinity as KzCO3 will be (N n) x The

amount of P20 5 is estimated in the same solution by addinga trace of pure ammonium chloride and

,then , in succession ,

20 cos . of ammonium citrate, 50 cos . of ammonia and 10 ccs .of a magnesia solution . The weight of magnesium phosphatemultiplied by 12 8 gives P20 5 per cent . of dry , defattedcocoa .

A series of graphs are shown in Rocques ’ paper, and,whilstthe ratio , insoluble ash :soluble ash , is in the neighbourhoodof 2 for pure cocoa, it . becomes 1 and lower for alkalisedcocoas .In order to determine the proportion of alkali , added to

cocoa, it is necessary to establish the limits within which purecocoas vary , and the author recommended that those towhom pure cocoas are readily available should establishthese points .

Col d Water Extr act :Cacao M atter Solub l e and

In s ol ub l e i n Col d Water .

The amount of matter soluble in cold water is , accordingto Booth , about 24 per cent . of the fat- free nib . BOrdas ,however , gives per cent . for the same estimation .

We have obtained figures ranging from 9 per cent . to12 5 per cent . for the whole nib , results which are in accordance with those obtained by the first author .The addition of sugar, alkaline salts , etc. ,

will considerably affect this value. Thus , in chocolate, the cold-waterextract may rise to 70 per cent .Bordas has made use of the matter insoluble in cold water

for estimating the amount of defatting that a cocoa hasundergone . Booth

,on the other hand , has used the cold


water extract for estimating the amount of cacao matterpresent in a sample, on the assumption

‘

that cocoa nibs contain 12 per cent . of soluble extractive .

Method.

A simple method for the estimation of the cold-waterextract is as followsTwo grammes of the sample are placed in a 100 cc . flask

and Shaken with 50 to 60 cos . of water . The solution is thenmade up to 100 ccs . and left standing overnight . Twentyfive cos . of this solution are filtered off, evaporated , dried andweighed .

More rapid and consistent results will be obtained if thematerial is defatted before extracting .

Purvis and Hodgson ’s method is slightly differentThoroughly mix 5 grammes of the cocoa with water in a

glass mortar :wash the mixture into a 250 cc . flask, and

make up to the mark ; the mixture is allowed to stand fortwenty- four hours with intermittent shaking, and it is thenfiltered 10 ccs . of the filtrate are evaporated to dryness in a

weighed , glass dish on thewater-bath , dried in thewater- ovenand weighed the weight of the residue, obtained , multipliedby 500 gives the percentage of the waterextract . Shouldthis percentage exceed 18, then added sugar is present .Eaamp les .

—The dry residue of a sample of cocoa,obtained as above, was 0 024 gramme then 00 24 X 500

12 per cent . of waterextract . The sample, therefore, doesnot contain added sugar . Another sample of a residue of0 066 gramme then 0 066 X 500 33 per cent . of waterextract the sample contains sugar .

Fi br e .

The determination of fibre, though simple in itself, is notreadily interpreted .

Firstly,the complex nature of fibre makes it difficult to

say what is precisely ob tained by any given treatment , and,


washed successively with hot water, alcohol and ether, andthe residue dried and weighed .

The residue is then incinerated , and the ash weighed .

The difference between the two weighings gives the amoun tof ash - free crude fibre present in the sample.

Method II .

An alternative method for the estimation of crude fibreis as followsTwo grammes of the sample are freed from fat by extrac

tion with ether, and the residue boiled for half-an-hour undera reflux condenser with 200 cos . of water and 2 5 ccs . ofSulphuric acid . The liquid is filtered through linen , and theresidue, after filtration , is thoroughly washed with hot waterand, subsequently , boiled with 200 ccs . of per cent .caustic soda solution . The residue, undissolved , is filteredoff, washed successively with hot water, alcohol and ether ,dried at 100° C. and weighed .

In cocoa free from husk , the value for crude fibre, obtainedin this manner , will amount to 2 per cent . or 3 per cent . , butwill exceed this limit in proportion to the amount of huskpresent .

Method III —Di rect Estimation OfHusk.

As the determination of crude fibre is practically a

measure of the amount of husk present in a cocoa , Goske’

s

method of direct estimation of husk , based upon the difference between the specific gravity of cocoa husk and that ofordinary cocoa powder , should bementioned here.

Dubois and Lott T have recently studied this method and

state it to be of only approximate accuracy .

Goske recommends that 1 gramme of dry fat- free cocoabe mixed with a calcium chloride solution (of specific gravity

A. Goske, Z ei ts ch . Nahr . Genussm. , 1910 , xix. , 154.

TDuboi s and Lott , Jour . Ind . Eng. Chem. , 191 1 , i i i . , 251 .

METHODS OF ANALYSIS—FIBRE 491

at 30°

C. , prepared by dissolving 107 °1 grammes ofcalcium chloride in 100 cos . of water) , in a stoppered tube.

After thorough shaking, the stopper of the tube isremoved , and the whole boiled for two mi nutes . Whilestill hot , the tube is submitted to centrifugal action for Sixminutes . The top liquid portion is poured off, and the

sediment collected on a weighed filter-paper, washed wellwith hot water, until the filtrate is free from ch lorine, driedand weighed .

On the assumption that cacao husk yields 38 7 per cent .of dried sediment , this being the maximum figure found forhusk, and that commercial cocoa powders yield 6 per cent . ,the percentage of added husk in a cocoa powder can be

readily ' calculated . Allowance must be made for the fatremoved .

An example given is that of a sample of cocoa, 1 grammeof which gave gramme of sediment . Using the figure38 7, this amount is equivalent to gramme of husk . The

cocoa powder contained 18 4 per cent . of fat, hence an amoun tequivalent to 13 per cent . of husk was originally present .

Allowing for the 6 per cent . contained by normal cocoapowders , the sample contained 7 per cent . of added husk .

It is a mistaken notion to imagine that any great degreeof accuracy in the estimation of husk present in cocoas canbe obtained by the levigation method , or by thatelaborated , from Fi lsinger

’

s original method , byMacara andothers , so long as the experiments are made on cocoa powdersthat have been reduced to an extremely fine state of division .

Baker and Hulton must h ave realised this ; indeed , theyadmit to the weakness of the method , yet these two authorsseem inclined to put more faith in levigation than inanalytical methods , such as estimation of crude fibre and

pentosans , either of which is a better indication of the amountof, and contamination with , husk , especially when taken in

Fi l s inger , Z ei lsch . Offcut. Chem. , 1899 , 29 .


conjunction with the figures obtained for the ash and the

alkali nity of the ash . It is a pity , therefore, that Baker andHulton , having the excellent opportun ity of impressing uponthe authorities the desirability of a standard method forestimating husk in cocoas , did not take greater advantageof their position and, at any rate, complete the comparisonbetween the amount of husk

,calculated from the crude fibre

estimation and that calculated by the levigation method ,and the estimation of nitrogen . We have occasion to referto these results in a later chapter . The levigationmethod adopted by Baker and Hulton is as follows

Ten grammes of the finely ground material to beanalysed are extracted for twenty hours with ethyl ether in aSoxhlet apparatus . The extracted mass is exposed to theair to remove adhering ether , dried in the water-oven , wellground in a mortar, then stirred into a thin paste with waterand transferred with washing to a 500 cc . cylinder . The

volume in the cylinder is made up to 400 ccs . , the wholeinverted a few t imes to ensure admixture

,and an arrange

ment inserted into the neck for blowing offthe supernatantliquid . The leading tube should be turned up at the lowerend to avoid any disturbance of the sediment . The contentsof the cylinder are allowed to stand for fifteen minutes , andthe liquid blown off. The volume is again made up to 400 ccs .with water, and the procedure above described repeated afterten minutes and again after two periods of five minutes ’

stand . Should the residue in the cylinder Show the presenceof much starch it Should be finely ground in a mortar andagain submitted to levigation . .The residual sediment istransferred to a platinum basin , the water removed by eva

poration , and the residue dried in the water- oven and

weighed . The ash obtained from this residue is thendeducted . We have adopted the figures for the sedimentobtained from nib and shell as found by Bolton and Revis

(loc. ci t.) —namely , 3 per cent . for dry fat- free nib and


Method II .

To obtain true cellulose, the fol lowing process of Koni gis recommendedTo determi ne cellul ose, lignin and cutin in crude fibre ,

Konig digests the fibre in the cold with hydrogen peroxidein presence of ammonium hydroxide, the treatment beingcontinued for a long time with successive additions of

hydrogen peroxide, until the residue is colourless . Thistreatment» oxidis

'

es the lignin and converts it into solubleproduc ts . The residue, consisting of cellulose and cutin, istreatedwith cuprammonium solution, to dissolve the cellulose,the cutin remaining unattacked . The liquid is filtered on a

Gooch asbestos filter, and the cutin residue weighed ; thecellulose is precipitated by alcohol and weighed and the

weight of crude fibre, less the weight of these two, is taken as

(c) PENTOSANS .

As already described in a previous chapter, the fibrousmaterial , comprising the cell-walls of plants, is composedchiefly of anhydrides of pentoses or sugars containing O, .

These anhydrides are called pentosans and yield , onhydrolysis , a pentose sugar xylose, arabinose, etc.

The quantitative determination of xylose and arabinose,respectively , is comparatively simple, but , in the vegetablekingdom , these sugars are in a condensed form and associatedwith hexoses and other sugars which complicate their directdetermination .

It becomes necessary , therefore, to determine the pentosens , present , by the indirect methods of estimating theproducts which are formed from them by chemi cal action ,and which are characteristic of the pentosans and not of theother sugars with which they may be associated .

Tollens and his pupils have been largely instrumental

Konig, Zeltsch . Nahr. Genussm. , 1906, XII. , 385—395.

METHODS OF ANALYSIS—FIBRE 495

in perfecting processes by which the pentosans may be

estimated , and which rest mainly on the quantitativedetermination of furfurol , a decomposition product whichis formed by heating the pentoses with dilute hydrochloric

acid . The chemical explanation , which is really merely

one of abstraction of water, is explained by the equationC5H100 5 3H

20 051

-140 2 .

Method I .

This method , which has been used with success byHehner and Skertch ley,

* Adan ,Tand others , and suggestedby Tol lens in conjunction with Gunther and de Chalmont,has been shown to have an efi ciency of from 99 1 per cent .to per cent . over a range of experiments , carried out

by Adan .

Three to 4grammes of the sample are placed in aWur tzflask, of 250 ccs . capacity , with 100 ccs . of dilute hydrochloric acid of specific gravity (equivalent to 12 percent . HCl) . The contents are then distilled , until 30 ccs .have passed over, when 30 cos . of dilute acid are let in tothe flask, to take the place of that portion which has distilledover . This process is continued , until about 300 ccs . of disti l late have been collected . As the distillation proceeds , thefurfurol can be detected by allowing a drop of the distillateto fall on a filter- paper , which is then tested with a drop ofdilute aniline acetate solution , containing a small proportionof sodium acetate. Wh en a pink coloration is no longerproduced , the distillation is stopped .

The distillate is made up to 400 ccs . with dilute hydrochloric acid (specific gravity This solution is thenslowly neutralised wi th dry and finely powdered sodiumcarbonate and faintly acidified with acetic acid ; 10 cos .

or more, if required , of an acetic acid solution of

O. Hehner and W. P. Skertchley, The Ana lyst, 1899, xxiv. , 178.

TR. Adan , Bul l . Soc. Ch im. Belg 1907 , xxi . , 2 11 .


phenylhydrazine (12 drops of phenylhydrazine to 75 ccs .

of strong acetic acid) are added , and the solution constantlystirred .

The volume is then increased to 500 ccs . with constantstirring for half- an -hour . The precipitate is collected onan asbestos filter , washed thoroughly and quickly withwater and dried in a current of warm air (50

° to 60°

under slightly reduced pressure.

The weight of precipitate multiplied by 0 516 will givethe weight of precipitated or distilled furfurol .An error ofabout per cent . may occur, if the amoun t

of furfurol , remaining in the solution and washings , has notbeen included .

Method II .

This method , sugges ted by Councler , has been used byKonig with success and is similar in operation to Method I

up to the end of the distillation of the furfurol .The 400 ccs . of acid distillate are treated with a solution

of pure phloroglucinol in dilute hydrochloric acid , and themixture allowed to stand overnight . The precipitate isthen collected on an asbestos filter, thoroughly washedand then dried just below 100

°

C. for several hours , till nofurther loss in weight occurs .An efficiency of 99-5 per cent . to 1012 per cent . was

obtained , by this method , by Adan .

From Tollens ’ data, the amount of furfurol can be calculated after the following corrections have been madeOne gramme furfurol produces grammes phloro

glucide for 0 1 gramme precipitated furfurol .One gramme furfurol produces grammes ph loro

glucide for 02 gramme precipitated furfurol .One gramme furfurol produces grammes phloro

glucide for 03—0 5 gramme precipitated furfurol , and, byinterpolation , the intermediate figures can be calculated .


nibs and not in the husk of cacao . This process is discussedin a later chapter . (Chap ter XXXII .)

Method.

From 2 to 3 grammes of fat- free cocoa are made intoa paste wi th hydrochloric acid and exhausted with 100 ccs .of absolute alcohol in a Soxhlet tube. The hydrochloricacid is fixed by placing in the flask, below ,

some silver oxide ,

so that any acid , extracted with the alcohol , is converted intoinsoluble silver chloride.

The alcoholic liquid , after cooling and filtration , istreated with alcoholic lead acetate solution , when a purpleblack precipitate is formed .

The precipitate is collected on a hl ter-paper , washedwell with hot water and transferred to a small flask witha small quantity of 70 per cent . alcohol .The lead salt in suspension is then decomposed by

sulphuretted hydrogen , the solution warmed , to get rid ofthe sulphuretted hydrogen , and then filtered . The leadsulphide will remain as residue, whilst an alcoholic solutionof cacao- red passes through as filtrate. From the alcoholicsolution , the pigment can be obtained as a solid by evaporation and, after drying, weighed .

An alcoholic solution of cacao- red,when viewed through

a spectroscope, gives a diffuse band in the green , allowingthe red, blue, and most of the yellow rays to be transmitted .

*

Xan th i ne B as es (T h eobrom in e and Caffei ne ) .

The determinations of the alkaloids of cacao are ofimportance, principally due to the fact that cocoa preparations owe their stimulating property to their presence.

The methods , recommended for the estimation of thealkaloids , are numerous , but , unfortunately , they do notgive consistent results .

B lyth , Foods , thei r Compos it ion and Analys i s , 1909, 369 .

METHODS OF ANALYSIS—THEOBROMINE, ETC. 499

The majority of the methods , suggested , are un trustworthy , especially those which rely upon the estimation oftheobromine by sublimation . The mos t systematic resultshave been obtained by employing the methods describedby Kunze" and Dekker ,T a modified combination of thetwo methods being made a provisional standard by the

Method I . (Kunze’

s Method)

Ten grammes of the sample are boiled for 20 minuteswith 100 ccs . of 5 per cent . sulphuric acid . The sblutionis fi ltered , and the residue thoroughly washed with boilingwater .The warm filtrate is precipitated with excess of phospho

molybdic acid , and, after 24 hours’ standing

, the precipitateis collected on a filter-paper and washed with about 1 litreof 5 per cent . sulphuric acid .

The filter , containing the moist precipitate, is transferredto a large dish and treated with excess of cold baryta , afterwhich carbon dioxide is passed in , to precipitate the bariumhydroxide. The whole is then dried on a water-bath and

extracted wi th chloroform . The chloroform is distilled off

from the clear filtered extract , when a perfectly whitedeposit of the two alkaloids , theobromine and caffeine, is left .The white residue is weighed , dissolved in ammonia

and heated to boiling-point . Excess of silver nitrate isthen added (1 13 parts of silver to 1 part of theobromine) ,and the boiling continued , until no further ammonia escapesand until the liquid is reduced to a few cubic centimetres .An insoluble substitution product of theobromine

(C7H7AgN40 2) is obtained , while the caffeine remains , uncombined , in solution . This insoluble precipitate is filteredoff, washed and weighed . The silver is estimated in the

W. E. Kunze, Zel tsch . anal . Chem. , 1894, xxxi i i . , 1 .

TJ. Dekker , Rec. Trav. Chim. , 1903 , xxi i . , 143 .

32—4


dried , theobromine- silver compound by ignition, or bydissolving in ni tric acid and precipitating as chloride.

By either of these means, the quantity of theobromine,in combination with the silver, and originally present , canbe readily determined . The difference between the weightof theobromine, found , and the total alkaloids will give theamount of caffeine, present .

Method II . (Dekker’

s Method) .

This process , which has greater brevity in its favour ,is capable of giving very accurate results .Ten grammes of the powdered sample are heated with

5 grammes of magnesium oxide and 300 ccs . of water in a

reflux condenser for 1 hour . After filtering and drainingon a pump , the residue is again boiled with water for 15minutes and drained . The mixed solutions are evaporatedto dryness , and the resulting residue triturated with finesand and boiled with 100 ccs . of chloroform . The clearchloroform solution is now filtered and evaporated todryness , and the white residue, consisting of theobromineand caffeine, weighed .

If it is desired to estimate the two alkaloids separately ,the dried residue is treated with 50 cos . of benzol for 24hours , by which means the caffeine is dissolved . The

solution is evaporated to a volume of 25 cos . and filtered .

The residue, consisting of theobromine, is dried and weighed .

By this process , Dekker obtained results varying from

per cent . to per cent . of mixed alkaloids in cocoa .

Welmans has obtained satisfactory results by a slightmodification of Dekker ’s method , and FrommeThas verifiedthe accuracy of the process . Katz i has also experimentedwith the method and has obtained consistent resul ts .

P. Weimans , Pharm. Z ei t , 1902 , xlvn . , 858 .

TJ. Fromme, Apoth . Z ei t. , 1904, xvi i i . , 68 .

1 Katz, Chem. Z ei t , 1903, xxvi i . , 958.


with 150 ccs . of water and 50 ccs . N sulphuric acid . The

li quid is then diluted to 500 ccs . , heated on a water- bath and

filtered hot . The fil trate is cooled , and 250 ccs . of it neutral ised with magnesium oxide, evaporated to about 80 ccs .and extracted in a special Soxhlet extractor, or by shakingin a separatingfunnel with three times its volume of carbontetrachloride. This solvent removes the caffeine, but a smallquantity of the theobromine will remain in the aqueouslayer . The carbon tetrachloride is evaporated to drynessafter the addition of a li ttle paraffin wax, and the residuewashed repeatedly with small quantities of boiling water,slightly acidified with sulphuric acid . The filtered aqueousextracts are added to the original layer , and the wholemixedwith 5 grammes of magnesium oxide and evaporated to

dryness . The residue is powdered and extracted , four or fivet imes , with successive portions (100 cos .) of boiling chloroform for ten minutes each time. The mixed alkaloids shouldbe perfectly white on evaporation of the chloroform, but ,if further purification is required , an aqueous solution ismade, treated with 1 per cent . solution of cold potassiumpermanganate and again extracted with chloroform .

Another similar method has been described by Savini .*

O rgan i c Aci ds (Acet i c , Tar tar i c , and O xal i c Aci ds ) .

Schweitzer Thas pointed out that the plant acids , mal icand tartaric acids , occurring in cacao , are due to the decomposition of the glucoside cacaon in , which , under the action ofaferment , breaks up into sugar, malic and tartaric acids .On referring to Chapter IX .

, Table XIV . , it will be seenthat a loss of both free and combined tartaric acid occur sand that an increase in free acetic acid is noted during theprocesses of fermentation and curing of the beans .Professor Harrison , who conducted the latter research ,

G. Savin i , Ann . Chim. App l ia , 1916 , vi . , 247 .

TC. Schweitzer , Pharm. Zei t , 1898, 390.

METHODS OF ANALYS IS—ACIDS 503

has systematically studied the chemistry of cacao from the

fresh beans through the various Operations which render themfit for the market, and his results are not only rational butconsistent over a number of experiments . It is tobe doubtedwhether Schweitzer has fully proved the accuracy of his statement , or if the production of tartaric acid , by the hydrolysisof the glucoside, is sufl

‘i ciently large to be taken into account .

The increase in acetic acid during fermentation is incontestable, due to the fact that the alcohol , formed during thefirst period , is converted byMycoderma aceti into acetic acid ,which can be detected in the cured commercial beans by thevinegar- like smell , as wel l as by chemical analysis .The determinations of tartaric and acetic acids are not

of commercial importance, and the total acidity of an

aqueous extract of cacao nibs , estimated in terms of K20 ,

seldom exceeds per cent .

TARTARIC ACID (WEICMANN’

S METHOD ) .

From 5 to 10 grammes of the sample are treated with50 ccs . of water and thoroughly shaken . The aqueousextract is neutralised with ammonia and treated withcalcium chloride solution . The precipitate is fil tered and

dissolved in hydrochloric acid and, then , reprecipitated withcaustic soda solution .

By this method , Leffman and Beam foun d from 43 4 percent . to per cent . of tartaric acid to be present in cacao .

These we consider to be very high figures , for the totaltartaric acid found by us has not exceeded 1 per cent .

OXALIC ACID .

The older experimenters on cacao do not include oxalicacid among the constituents , though the presence of oxalicacid in vegetable matters has been recognised for a considerable time.

Leffman and Beam, Food Analys is ,”1901 , 275—282 .


Gautier has given values of 03 75 per cent . oxalic acidin black tea, 00 13 per cent. in coffee, and 02 47 per cent .

in stick rhubarb . The same author has found per cent .

of oxalic acid in cocoa powder .A certain amount of interest is attached to the estima

tion of oxalic acid , in that Albahary has found that the acidis present mainly as insoluble calcium oxalate in ordinarycocoa powder, whilst treatment with alkali , in the preparationof soluble cocoa powder, brings about the decompositionof the calcium oxalate with the production of soluble alkalineoxalates .In two samples of cocoa powder , marked N and P , respec

tively, the former treated with alkali and the latter an

ordinary cocoa powder, Albahary obtained 03 459 per cent .

of oxalic acid , combined as soluble oxalate, out of a total of03 647 per cent. in sample N , and only 00 159 per cent . ofsoluble oxalate in sample P , with 03 763 per cent . combinedwith calcium .

The researches of Neubauer ,TSchultzen ,:T:Salkowski §and others on the estimation of oxalic acid in cacao and cocoapreparations have been carefully examined by Albahary, whohas proposed the adoption of the following method .

Method.

About 50 grammes of the sample, dried over sulphuricaciduntil of constant weight , are placed in a beaker with 50 ccs .of a 10 per cent . sodium carbonate solution . The beakerand contents are heated on a water-bath for one hour , thel iquor evaporating being replaced by an equal amount ofwater . To the solution , are then added 50 cos . of a solutioncontaining 10 parts of magnesium chloride and 20 parts

J. M. Albahary, In ternat. Cong. App . Chem. , 1909, vi i i . C, 175.

TNeubauer , Z ei tsch . ana l . Chem. , 1868 , i i . , 499 , and vi i . , 225.

1 Schul tzen , Reichert und Duboi s Reymond’s 1868, 718.

Salkowski , Z ei tsch . phys . Chem. , x . , 120.

CHAPTER XXXI

METHOD S OF ANALYSIS : REDUCING . MATTERS , TOTAL

NITROGEN AND ALBUMINOIDS, STARCH, CANE SUGARAND MILK SUGAR . CACAO MATTER .

IN this chapter , the analyses of the ingredients , added tocacao in the preparation of chocolate and,

sometimes , themselves present in the nibs to a small extent , will be described .

Apart from the possible additions of cacao butter andalkali which have already been dealt

’

w ith , a plain chocolatewill contain added cane sugar, of which cacao contains onlya small amoun t , naturally present . Starch may also befound to be present in cocoa and chocolate powders and

eatingchocolates , though , in al l cases , it should be lookedupon as an adulterant , unless added for a specific purposeand duly notified on the package .

In milk chocolates , the addition of the solids of mi lk willincrease the reducing matters , due to the presence of mi lksugar or lactose, as well as the nitrogenous matters , due tothe casein which milk contains . By the addition of the milksolids of fullcream milk , a new fat , butter fat , is alsointroduced , which further complicates analysis .The direct estimation of cacao matter , present in a

preparation , is not possible by Chemical means , and, as thisvalue is of great importance, owing to the regulations andstandards of purity existing in many countries and to thefact that a rebate may be obtained on the amount of cacaomat ter, exported , which has paid duty on entering thiscountry

,both the manufacturer and chemist should be in a

position to state how much cacao matter any preparationcontains .

METHODS OF ANALYSIS—REDUCING MATTERS 507

To this end, the characteristic qualities of cacao mass andof its components have been observed , so. that an estimationof one, or several , of the components , by direct or indirectmeans , may be converted into terms of cacao matter present .

Reduci ng M atter s .

The reducing-power of a substance is the extent to whichthat substance is capable of reducing a standard solution ofcopper w ith the precipitation of cuprous oxide.

Certain sugars , such as glucose, lactose, etc., possess

reducing-power, and, if the conditions of strength of solutions ,temperature and time are kept constant throughout , a givenweight of the sugar will precipitate a uniform quantity ofcuprous oxide (estimated as cupric oxide) , constant for thatsugar .

The average reducing-power of 100 grammes of dry fatfree cacao is about five parts of cupric Oxide. The addition ,therefore, of even small quantities of soluble reducing matterswill greatly increase the reducing-power of the cold-waterextract of the cocoa preparation .

The reducing matters of pure cacao will include the smallquantities of glucose, etc. , which , as has been shown informer chapters , are present in the original beans .

Method I . (by Fehling’

s Solution) .

The standard solution of Copper is made up as followsgrammes of copper sulphate are dissolved in 450 cos . of

water, and the solution accurately made up to 500 ccs .173 grammes of Rochelle salt (sodium potassium tartrate)

and 63 grammes of anhydrous sodium hydrate are dissolvedin water, and the solution made up to 500 ccs .

The two solutions should be kept separate, but, for use,equal volumes of the two solutions are taken .

A very slight reduction takes place on heating the two

- 508 COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

solutions (about 3 mgrms . of cupric oxide for every 50 cos .

of the mi xed solutions) , and this should be estimated , if greataccuracy is requi red .

The reducing matter, to be measured , should be so

regulated that from 150 to 350 mgrms . of cupric oxide are

precipitated .

Fifty ccs . of the mi xed Fehling’s solution are placed in a

wide-mouthed flask, of 250 ccs . capacity , and immersed inboiling water, un til the temperature of the solution i s

stationary . An accurately weighed or measured solution ofthe reducing matters is then added , and the whole made upto 100 ccs . with boiling, distilled water . The heating iscontinued for exactly twelve minutes , when the solution i sfiltered through a double filter- paper , and the residue ofcuprous oxide thoroughly washed and dried . The cuprousoxide is converted into cupric oxide by slowly charring thefilter-papers and contents and by heating the residue in a

weighed porcelain dish , first to a dull red, then to a bright redheat in a muffle furnace or over a Bunsen flame. The cupricoxide may then be weighed direct , converted into copper byreducing with hydrogen , or, after dissolving the oxide innitric acid , may be deposited electrolytically as copper .

Method 11 . (by Pavy’

s Solution) .

The Copper solution is prepared by dissolvinggrammes of Rochelle salt and grammes of causticpotash in 200 ccs . of water . In another 200 cos . of water,4 158 grammes of copper sulphate are dissolved . The two

solutions are then mi xed , and, when cold , 300 ccs . of strongammonia (S.G. 0 880) are added , and the whole made up to

ccs . with water .The solution is standardised against a known weight of

inverted cane sugar, when it will be found that 10 ccs . ofPavy

’

s solution , prepared as above, diluted to 20 ccs . withwater, equal about 5mgrms . of glucose.


TOTAL NITROGEN (KJELDAHL’

s .METH0 D MODIFIED B Y

GUNNING, ARNOLD , ETC

One gramme of the sample is introduced into a flask of

hard Jena glass and treated with 20 ccs . of strong sulphur icacid , a small globule of mercury being added at the sametime. The flask is loosely closed by a ball stopper and

gradually heated over a naked Bunsen flame. After thefrothing has ceased , the heat is increased till the whole i sbriskly boiling, when 10 grammes of purest potassium bisulphate (absolutely free from any ammonium salts) are added .

The flask and contents are heated , un til the solution is quiteclear and colourless , when they are cooled down , and th elatter washed into a large distil l ing-flask bearing a doublyperforated cork . Through one hole of the cork is passeda thistle funnel , provided with a stopcock, and through theother a tube, connected to a condensing-apparatus .A sufficient quantity of a solution of sodium hydrate

(containing a little sodium sulphide) is passed through thefunnel , just more than is necessary to neutralise the acidsolution in the flask , and some small pieces of zinc foil areadded , to prevent bumping, when the contents of the

‘ flaskare boiled .

The ammonia is distil led offand col lected at the end of

the condenser into a known volume oflfiosul phuric acid ,

the loss of acidity of the s tandard acid being later estimated

by titration with sodium carbonate or hydrate solution .

10

The loss of acidity of the standard acid solution is due tothe absorption of ammonia, distill ed from the alkalinesolution in the flask , and, when this value is known , theequivalent of nitrogen in the ammonia, originally present inthe sample, can be readily calculated .

The total nitrogen multiplied by will give, approximately , the albuminoid matter .

METHODS OF ANALYSIS—STARCH 511

If, however, it is required to estimate the amount ofnitrogen from the vegetable albumen alone, it is necessaryto prepare the sample before submitting it to the Kjeldahlprocess .

ESTIMATION OF NITROGEN FROM ALBUMEN (STUTZER’

s

METHOD ) .

From 1 to 2 grammes of the sample are finely dividedand boiled for a few minutes with 100 ccs . of water :0 4gramme of moist copper hydrate is added , and, aftercooling, the liquid is filtered through a filter-paper, and theresidue thoroughly washed with water . The filter- paper andcontents are then submitted to the Kjeldahl process.

The difference between the total nitrogen and that foundby Stutzer ’s method will give the non- albuminoid nitrogen ,which , in the case of pure cacao , will result , almost entirely ,from theobromine and caffeine.

In al l cases of estimation of nitrogen by Kjeldahl ’smethod , a blank experiment should be conducted side by sidewith the actual determination , in order to elimi nate the errors ,caused by any impure and nitrogen -containing chemicals .

S tar ch .

The amount of starch , present in pure cacao , never exceeds12 per cent . , the usual quantity , found , being 9 per cent . The

addition of foreign starch , which , as a cheap adulterant ,may be found in the commonest chocolate and in cocoapowders and,

also,in the majority of chocolate powders ,

will rapidly increase the starch figure.

Bordas has shown that the percentage of starch , found incommercial cacao , is practically a constant , amounting to9-84 per cent . in cacao mass and 28-5 per cent . calculatedon cacao matter insoluble in water . On this assumption

,

he calculates the approximate amoun t of cacao matterpresent in a preparation and is able to estimate the extent


of adulteration with foreign starch , if such has been detectedunder the microscope. The starch may be estimated byany of the recogn ised methods , by hydrolysis of the starch bydiastase or mineral acids , and estimating the sugars formed .

The results , obtained byWinton and others, show

per cent . of crude starch in cacao nibs , and 12-59 per cent .

in the shell . It has been indicated , however, that thepercentage of starch in the shell is quite small, and, for thisreason , the results of many experimenters are in error .Revis and BurnettT have, more recently , criticised the

various methods , employed , and, from careful comparison ,have arrived at the conclusion that cacao shell contain sno truestarch . Bolton and Revis have found 19 to 23 percent . of starch in the nib , and 9 to 10 per cent . in the shell ,by employing a modified form of Ewer’s method , but theformer workers are certain , as we ourselves are, that thework of Davis and Daish i has provided us with the mostaccurate method of working, and they have, accordingly

,

estimated the starch in nibs and husk by these means .The actual method , employed , was

Method I

Five grammes of fat- free dry cocoa matter are weighedout into a beaker , thoroughly stirred with 50 ccs . of 10

per cent . alcohol (by volume) and filtered under pressurefor preference in a large Buchner funnel , as the process isthereby considerably hastened . The cocoa is then washedwith two further quantities of 50 ccs . of 10 per cent . alcoholand, finally, with 10 ccs . of 95 per cent . alcohol (by volume) ,taking care that , at no stage, the cocoa sucks dry , as it isthen more difficult both to wash and to remove from the

filter . The alcohol washing is very important , as other

Winton , Si lverman and Bai ley, Ann . Rep . Conn . Agric. Exp t. S tu , 1902, 270.

1' C. Revis and H. R . Burnett , The Ana lyst, 1915, III. , 429 .

1 Davi s and Daish ,Jour. Agric. Soc., 1913, V., 437 TheAnalys t, 1913 , xxxvi i i . , 504.


The acid mercuric nitrate solution was made as followsPure mercuric oxide (not mercury, as recommended

by Wiley) was dissolved in twice its weight of nitric acid

(S.G. and the resulting solution di luted to 5 times itsvolume with water.The results obtained by Revis and Burnett on cacao

shell and nibs are shown as follow

Sample of 811011. 0 110 weighed . Ven tzke degrees .

(1 ) Blend grm . 0 04

(2) Guayaquil 0 031 0-01

(3) Trinidad 0 022 0-03

(4) Grenada 0 024 0 05

In these cases , the copper oxide was that obtained from50 ccs. of the final solution, used , and the polarimeter figureswere the actual Ventzke saccharimeter degrees , obtainedon polarising the filtrate after the acid mercuric nitrateand phosphate treatment , and they have not been calculatedto the original shell .

Cacao n ibs .

Accra (low-grade cacao)GuayaquilTrinidadGrenadaSan Thome

Method II . (Duboi s’* Methodfor Cocoa Preparations in

the Absence ofSugar) .

Two grammes of the sample are transferred to a 500 cc.

Erlenmeyer flask, to which are added 20 ccs . Ofwater and12 ccs . of strong sulphuric acid . The latter is cautiouslyadded with a slow rotation of the flask . The mixture isheated over a low flame with constant rotation until the

W. L. Dubois , U.S . Dep t. ofAgric., 1910, Bul l . 132 .

Per cent . of starch

in fat -free n ibs .

12 8

8-0

145

12 3

124

METHODS OF ANALYSIS—STARCH 515

colour changes from brown to reddish black . The timerequired for this change has been found to be approxi

mately one and one- fourth minutes , so that al l samplesshould be treated for this time.

Thirty ccs . of water are then added , themi xture heatedto boiling and boiled for 15 seconds . A little cold wateris poured in , the flask quickly cooled , and the acid nearlyneutralised with a saturated solution of caustic potash .

The solution is then again cooled and transferred to a

250 cc . flask, completing the volume with cold water ;50 cos . of the fil trate are used for the determination of copperreducing substance as dextrose (100 mgrms . dextrose02 588 gramme copper oxide 0 2027 gramme of

Method III . (for Cocoa Preparations containing Sugar

and Soluble Carbohydrates) .

Four grammes of the sample are shaken with petroleumether, un til the whole of the fat has been removed .

After filtration and a further washing with ether , 100ccs . of water are added to the contents of the flask, and theresidue on the filter-paper is washed back into the flask . The

flask is thoroughly shaken , and the contents fil tered througha filter- paper . After three or four washings with water , andafter the whole of the sugar has been removed , the filtrateis made up to 500 ccs . andmay be used for sugar estimation ,whilst the residue is washed in to an Erlenmeyer flask and

treated as described inMethod I for estimation of the starch .

Dubois , by employing these methods , obtained

per cent . to per cent . of starch in cacao nibs ,per cent . to per cent. in bitter chocolate, and 7 °4 per

cent . to 8 5 per cent . in sweet chocolate. In later experiments , the same author obtained 16 3 per cent . to 19 8 percent . of starch in cocoas , and per cent . to per cent .

in bitter chocolates .Brown , Morri s and Mi l lar, Jaur. Chem. Soc. (Trans ) , lxxi . , 281


Welmans has estimated the quantity of commercia ldextrin added to chocolate. The dextrin is detected bytreating the cocoa preparation , after extraction of fat, withwater. The solution is filtered , and, to 10 ccs . of the filtrate ,

40 ccs . of 90 per cent . alcohol added , when , if dextrin i spresent , an immediate turbidity is produced . The dextrinmay be quantitatively precipitated by lead acetate in thepresence of ammonia .

MICROSCOPICAL ESTIMATION OF STARCH.

Revis and Burnett have stated that starch cannot bedetected in cacao shell under the microscope, and we admi tto a difficul ty in identifying i t. In cacao nibs , the starchcan be easily seen after staining with iodine solution . In

cocoa powders , etc. , added starch can , of course, be readilyidentified under the mi croscope by the same means , and,

though, doubtless , with practice, an approximate estimationof the quantity , present , could be made, the mi croscopicalmethod , suggested by Purvis and Hodgson , is not entirelysatisfactory , as we have demonstrated elsewhere, whenworking with starchy products . Nor do we agree entirelywith Purvis and Hodgson in their general statement , whichruns as follows

The presence of added starch in cocoa is easily detectedby a mi croscopical examination but its exact estimationby chemi cal methods is almost impossible, owing to the

presence in cocoa of natural starch in varying quantitiesthe simplest method for determination is a mi croscopicalone, and the results obtained are as near the trueamount as those obtained by the most exact chemi calmethods .

Standard mixtures of cocoa and the starch shown underthe microscope are made (5, 10, 15, 20 per cent . etc. , of

P. Welmans , Zei tach . Ofient. Chem. , 478 .


Method 1 .

Inversion of Cane Sugar , and Estimation by Reduction

of Copper Solutions .

To the clarified aqueous solution , containing the sugarfrom a weighed quantity of chocolate, add a few cubiccentimetres of strong hydrochloric acid , and heat to boilingfor ten minutes . Then place the vessel , containing the solution

, aside for about ten hours , and estimate the invertedsugar by Pavy

’

s or Fehling’s solution (vide Estimation of

Reducing Matters ,”Methods I and

If the copper solutions have been previously standardisedagainst a solution of inverted , pure cane sugar of knownstrength , the value of a given number of cubic centimetres ofcopper solution for complete precipitation or decolorisation ,in terms of cane sugar, will be known .

Method II .

Estimation ofCane Sugar by Polarimetric Methods .

The power of rotating polarised light , possessed by thesugars , provides a r eady method for their estimation .

The apparatus , in which such estimations are made, consists , essentially, of one stationary Nicol prism and a rotatingprism attached to a circular scale. According to the instrument used , the scale is made to give readings as degrees or asdirect percentage of cane sugar (saccharimeter) . The firs tprism polarises the light , whilst the second determines theplane of the polarised light coming from the first .The means of obtaining the readings are too wel l known

to need description here.

*

The estimation of a sugar in solution can be made (if onlyone sugar is present) by observing the angle of rotation ofthat solution in a tube of known length, when , if the specific

For ful l particul ars , see Landolt , Optical Rotat ion of Organi c Substances ,

1902 , 325.

METHODS OF ANALYSIS—SUCARS 519

rotatory power of the particular sugar is known, the following equation will serve for determi ning the weight of sugarin 1 cc . of the solution

aP

[a] l

[a] specific rotatory power of the particul ar sugar,l length of observation- tube in decimetres .

As an example The observed rotation of a cane sugarsolution in a 1 decimetre tube is and, the specific rotatorypower of cane sugar being the percentage content ofsugar in that solution

5 X 100

665 X 1

The specific rotatory powers of individual sugars havebeen carefully estimated by a number of observers thus ,sucrose (cane sugar) maltose (malt sugar)

lactose (mi lk sugar) , anhydrous 554

lactose, crystalline dextroselaevulose invert sugarIn saccharimeters , or polarising apparatus especially

adapted for determining the quantity of cane sugar in solutions , the scale, attached to the analysing prism, is divided soas to read the percentage of cane sugar direct .The official method for determining the percentage of

cane sugar in chocolate, according to the German decree of

May 31st, 1891 , is as follows : grammes of chocolateare damped with alcohol

,then warmed for fifteen minutes

with 30 ccs . of water on a water-bath . Whilst still hot, thesolution is poured on to a wet filter-paper, and the residu

again treated with hot water, until the filtrate nearly equals100 ccs . The filtrate is mixed with 5 cos . of basic leadacetate solution , allowed to s tand for fifteen minutes ,

where a observed rotation of the solution .

The specific rotatory power of a sugar i s the number of degrees of rotat ion

recorded, when 1 gramme of the sugar i s dissolved in 1 cc . offluid and Observed , byyel low l ight , through a tube 1 decimetre long.


clarified with alum to which a l ittle alumina has been added ,

made up to a definite volume (110 ccs .) and polarised .

In plain chocolates and chocolate powders , it i s

improbable that any sugar other than cane sugar wi ll befound , though glucose was used during the war . In specia lpreparations , maltose, lactose, etc. , will occur , due to th eaddition of malt powders , milk solids , etc. ,

and,consequently ,

variations in the methods of estimation will be necessary .

As mi lk chocolates have now become so popular, it i sintended to givemethods by which lactose can be determinedin the presence of cane sugar . The following method , whichhas been devised by Dubois ,* was adopted as a provisionalmethod by the

Method III .

Estimation of Lactose and Sucrose in M i lk Chocolate

Preparations (Duboi s’

Method)

Thirteen grammes of the sample are freed from fat byshaking and centrifuging with two separate quantities of

gasoline (100 The solvent is separated by decantation ,and the residue treated with 100 ccs . of water and shaken forten minutes .Five ccs . of basic lead acetate solution (for preparation ,

see later) are added , the precipitate filtered off, and the excessof lead removed from the filtrate (original fil trate) .Twenty-five ccs . of this solution are allowed to stand over

night , to destroy bi - rotation , and then polarised . Multiplythe readings , so ,

obtained, by two (ResultInvert (for method of inversion , see later) 50 ccs . of the

original filtrate, and nearly neutralise the acid, after cool ing,with sodium hydrate solution . Make up the combinedsolution to 100 ccs . with water, and bring to the temperature

W. L . Duboi s , U.S . Dep t. ofAgric. , 1907, Bul l . 107 .


This correction is necessary from Dubois ’ experiments ,conducted at 20° C. , to the foll owing extent

For 2 grms . ofsugar in4 grms .

6 grms.

8 grms .

10 grms.

15 grms .

20 grms .

Provis'cbnal OW Method of Inversion .

To 5 ccs . of the clarified solution , free from lead , add 5ccs .

of 38 8 per cent . hydrochloric acid solution , and set aside fortwenty- four hours at a temperature not below 20° C. , or, ifthe temperature be above 25° C., for ten hours .

Preparation OfLead Acetate Solution .

Boil 430 grammes of normal lead acetate, 13 grammesof lead oxide (PbO) with ccs . ofwater for half-an-hour .00 01 the mixture, and allow to settle. Decant the clearsolution , and dilute with recently boiled water til l the Specific

gravity

This provisional method has been under survey by a

number ofworkers , and it must be recorded that the resul tsobtained are far from satisfactory . The form in which themethod is now before theAmerican Association for consideration, prior to adop ting it as a standard method , is materiallydifferent from that given in the foregoing pages . The

determination of lactose by polarising at 86°

C. is discontinued, the calculation of this constituent being made entirelyfrom the same polarisations as are used in the sucrosecalculations .

METHODS OF ANALYSIS—SUGARS 523

Method IV.

French Ofiicial Method for estimating Lactose in

presence ofSucrose.

A very close approximation to the correct lactose valuein milk chocolates can be made by estimating, direct , thecopper reducing-power of a standard solution . This , ineffect , is the official French method (Ann . des Falsif. , iv . ,

417) which , in the case of mi lk chocolate, recommends takingthe residue from the fat estimation (3 grammes of originalchocolate) and treating it with 30 ccs . of a 1 per cent . solutionof phosphorus tri- iodide for half-an-hour

, at a temperatureof 60° C. Themixture is agitated , separated in a centrifugal ,and the clear liquor poured off. This treatment is to berepeated three times , and the combined solutions made up to150 ccs . Lactose is estimated , direct , on a portion of thesolution w ith Fehling’s solution . Sucrose is inverted and

simi larly determined . In the absence of invert sugar, orother reducing sugars besides lactose, this method is to berecommended , as we have shown in a number of analysesof milk chocolates of known composition .

The estimation of lactose, in the presence of sucrose and

invert sugar, has been the subject of much study , of whichonly a brief survey can be given here. The necessity for thedetermination has arisen chiefly for the purpose of obtaining complete analyses of sweetened condensed milk, infantfoods,etc.

In 1906, the considered the question of obtaining results by (a) gravimetric and volumetric methods withFehling’s

i

solution , (b) polarimeter method , before and

after inversion with citric acid and yeast , and, in the

case of unsweetened milk, by direct gravimetric and

polarimeter methods . The results , given on p . 524, wereobtained .


Polariscopic method

Lactose. Sucrose.

SAMPLE A Per cent . Per cent . Per cent . Per cent .

Sweetened condensed mi lkFul ton (Mesa )Norton (Arkansas )Bart lett (Maine)Jafia and Stewart (Cal i fornia)Ol son (Wisconsin )

SAMPLE B .

Unsweetened condens edmi lkFul tonNorton

Bart lett

Ol son

Patrick and Boyle (Wash ington)

Other determinations were made on one sample of

sweetened condensed milk and four samples of unsweetenedmilk .

Gravimetr icmethod . Polariscop ic method.

Lactose. Sucrose. Lactose.

Sweetened condensed mi lk Per cent . Per cent . Per cent . Per cent .

Olson (Wi sconsin )

Unsweetened condensed mi lkJafia and Stewart (Cal i forni a)Ol son

Jafia and Stewart

Baker and Hulton ,* in 1910, estimated lactose in thepresence of the commonly occurring sugars , and firstattempted Tollens ’ method by the use of mucic acid . Th ismethod was abandoned as unsatisfactory and as quiteuseless when working with small quantities of lactose in thepresence of other organic matters . Eventually , they evolveda method with use of brewer ’s yeast , experimental data for

J. L. Baker and H. F. Hulton , The Analyst, 1910, x xv. , 512.


résuméof the existing knowledge of lactose determinationis given , and a modified French Official method devised .

Working with milk of known lactose value, various quantitiesof cane sugar were added , and the two sugars were analysedby the method proposed , with the results Shown above.

The author then turned to some commercial brands ofsweetened condensed milk , estimated the sugars by thatmethod , and determined the ash , proteid matter, etc

comparing the added results with the total solids, obtainedby evaporation .

The following table Shows the results

Brands . sol ids bysucrose. evaporation.

1 . Best skimmed condensed mi lk2 . Nest lé

’

s condensed mi lk, Nes t brand3 . Mi lkmaid brand4 . Best skimmed condensedmi lk , Cow and Calf brand .

In 1918, Grossfeld provided empirical formula forcalculating lactose in a mi xture containing both cane sugarand invert sugar, the data, required , being the polarimetervalue and the reducing-power of the mixture after inversion .

The inversion was made under standard conditions , namely ,50 ccs . of the solution mixed with 2 ccs . of hydrochloric acid

(S.G. heated in a boiling water-bath for thirtymi nutes .

The reducing-power is expressed in terms of invert sugar, andthe lactose is then calculated from th e formula .

L

where D3: Specific rotation found in invert sugar,De Specific rotation of lactoseDi Specific rotation of invert sugar

De Di is thus 873°

and t he formula becomesL 0 01375 Z (Da:

J. Grossfeld, Zei tsch. Nahr. Genussm. , 1918, x xv. , 249.

METHODS OF ANALYSIS—CACAO MATTER 527

Sucrose is found from the formulaS 00 1145 Z (70 6

since 100 per cent . of cane sugar gives 100 per cent . of invertsugar, under the conditions given .

Cacao Matter .

The amoun t of cacao matter, present in chocolate, etc. ,

assumes a certain importance, seeing that a rebate is allowedon exported cacao matter which has previously paid duty onentering this country .

The direct estimation of cacao matter is , obviously, animpossibility , as cacao is composed of a number of complexchemi cal constituents , and the amount of cacao matter ,actually present , can only be obtained by indirect means .Undoubtedly , the most satisfactory method is complete

analysis of the preparation , when , after it has been foundthat no foreign starch , mineral matter,husk , etc. , have beenadded , the difference between 100 and the sum of the percentages of sugar (if any) and total fat will give a veryclose value for the amount of fat- free cacao matter present .Booth , however, ob tains the proportion of fat- free cacao

matter on the assumption that the cold-water extract is ,for al l practical purposes , identical in husk and nib . The

cold-water extract is assumed to be 12 per cent . of the totalcacao , and, after the sample under investigation has beencorrected for (a) the sugar, as ascertained by the polarimeter, and for (b) the extract of any cereal that may bepresent (77 per cent . for wheat , 5 1 per cent . for barley ,0 8 per cent . for maize or cornflour , 0 9 per cent . for rice,

per cent . for sago , and 0 4 per cent . for arrowroot) , the100

24will give the ,dry, fat- freeresidual figures mul tiplied by

cacao matter present .If this agrees with that obtained by multiplying the

corrected nitrogen by 20 (the factor for fat- free nib) , then

‘

no Shell is present . If it does not agree, then the following

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

formula is recommended for calcul ating the respectiveproportions

y 40 N as,

where a: the percentage of fat-free cacao matter, foundas above,

y the percentage of fat- free nib ,N total nitrogen due to cacao matter.

In a husk- free cocoa containing 12 per cent . of coldwater extract , 50 per cent . of fat and 2 5per cent . of nitrogen ,the two equations will be found to agree, thus

12 x 10050 (1 )

24

y= 100

Bordas has made use of somewhat Simi lar means for theestimation of the amount of cacao matter in a preparation

Dry, fat—free cacao matter

TABLE LXXXI.—Numeri cal Relations between the

Various Consti tuents ofCacao.

fi

U—_

F'

U—s ‘

U c

Ai r -dried husked beansMaraca iboCaracas 73 o°6 l 25 7

Trinidad o° l 247

Guayaqui l Machala 03 583 0 ° l 297

Porto Plata 0 ° l 48 1

03 946 07 406

Ai r -dried husks

Maracaibo 0 ° l 390 0 °04l 2 0 ° l 341 00 357 3 7564

Caracas

Trinidad 04 515 00 467

Guayaqui l Machala 00 352 34827

Porto Plats 0 ° l 728 00 660 2 6202

Means 00 414 34 920

Chocolate in cakes mixed w ith

03 838 o° l 438 06 253 02 300

0 ° l 3 14 0 °2 l l 2

0 ° l 207 04 899

03 029 0 ° l 141

0 ° l 298 0 -6517

Means o° l 282 0 °63 l 7


satisfactory resul ts obtained both in the determination of

lactose and butter fat in milk chocolates of known compos ition . At the same time, a method for the estimation of

casein was suggested, based upon Baier and Neumann ’

s

method of extracting the casein, from defatted chocolate ,

by sodium oxalate and precipitating with uranium acetatein acetic acid solution . The actual method , employed , withthe results obtained by five chemists , are given below, and

it Should be remarked that themilk chocolates were obtainedfrom a well-known manufacturer who submitted the formulafrom whi ch the chocolates were made.

DETERMINATION OF CASEIN .

Bub 10 grammes in a mortar, with the gradual additionof 1 per cent . of sodium oxalate solution , avoiding the formation of lumps , and pour into a 250 cc . flask, un til 200 cos .

of the sodium oxalate solution have been used . Place theflask on an asbestos board , and heat slowly un til the con

tents come to a boil , occupying at least 30 minutes in bringing it to this temperature. During the heating, have a

funnel , the stem of which is closed by melting, rest in th eneck of the flask . Fill to the mark with hot sodium oxalatesolution, allow to stand

,with frequent Shaking, until the

next day ; fil l to the mark with sodium oxalate solution at

20°

C. , mix, and filter through a folded filter . To 100 cos .

of the filtrate, add 5 ccs . of a 5 per cent . solution of uraniumacetate, and then , drop by drop , with continuous stirring,add 35 drops (or approximately ccs .) of 30 per cent .acetic acid . Separate the precipitate from the liquid bymeans of a centrifuge ; wash three times with a solution containing 5 grammes of uranium acetate and 3 ccs . of 30 percent . acetic acid In 100 ccs . This wash ing l s qui ckly accom

pl ished by shaking the precipitate in the centrifuge bottlewith about 75 ccs . of the wash- solution and throwing out

the solid material by centrifuge. Finally, wash the precipi

METHODS OF ANALYSIS—MILK SOLIDS 53 1

tate on to a nitrogen-free fil ter with the washing solution ,

and determine the nitrogen in the precipitate, multiplyingthis result by to obtain the casein .

Five chemi sts , including the referee, tested the methodas submi tted , and in the table below, the resul ts obtainedare indicated . It will be noted that , in the chocolate containing most casein, the results are more accurate than inthat sample containing less casein . The figures, however,are within a few tenths of a per cent . of the amount actual lypresent in both cases , and it woul d seem that the methodpromises to be sufi ciently accurate to be used in the judging of the quality of the class of products to which it is tobe applied .

Casein in Mi lk Chocolate.

Casein.

In fat-free Calculated to

No. 2 . No. 1 . No. 2 . No. 1 . No 2 . No. 1 . No. 2 .

W. L . Duboi s , Buffalo,N Y .

E. Bloomberg, Galveston , Tex.

H. E. Woodward

L . B . Burnett ,Washi ngton , D .C.

W. C. Taber , Washington , D .C.

Low result probably due to solut ion boi l ing over.

DETERMINATION OF MILK FAT (BY REIOEERT-MEIS SL

VALUE) .

The associate referee of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, in considering this question after a very great

number of experiments, suggested the use Of the following34—2


formula for calculating the percentage of butter or mi lk fat

present in the chocolateLet A grammes of butter fat,

B grammes of cocoa fat (cacao butter) ,C Reichert-Meissl number of extracted fat,

Reichert-Meissl number of cocoa fat (cacaobutter) ,

24 Reichert-Meissl factor for butter fat .

24A 0°5BC

5 5

A B 5

B 5 A.

Working out the formula, we get this valueC

from which the following i s deducedPer cent . butter fat in chocolate per cent. total fat

xC

23 5

TOTAL MILK SOLID S .

By applying the above methods and the polarimetricestimation of lactose, milk sol ids were determined in fourchocolates by the chemists of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The chocolates were of known composition , and

the results ofthe analyses are Shown in the table below. It

should be observed that no allowance was made by thesechemi sts for the ash in the milk solids , the total figures forwhich could, therefore, be increased by about 1 per cent .

M i lk Solids in M i lk Chocolate.

Found by analysis .

Sample.Casein. Lactose. Butter fat. Total . present .

Per cent . Per cent . Per cent . Per cent . Per cent . Per cent .


in respect of the first summons , and 2s . and costs in th esecond , after much talk between the solicitors as to whethe ra confection containing a percentage of cacao matter (huskor no husk) amoun ting to 10 or 1 1 was sufficient to justifythe appellation of chocolateAnother case occurred in 1910, when a grocer was sum

moned for sel l ing a cocoa powder containing 60 per cent .

of powdered cocoa Shells .” The magistrate admitted thathe had to decide What is Cocoa and adjourned thecase, in order to have another portion of the powder analysedby the Government analyst and to enable himself to lookup the authorities on the matter.Apart from the difficulties that must confront the magis

trate, the difficulties encountered by the analyst are equallytroublesome. It is quite an easy matter to determine 60

per cent . of cacao Shell in a cocoa powder, but i t is less easyto estimate small quantities , unless a definite method of

analysis be fixed . The author well remembers approachingthe cus toms analysts with regard to this question , with theidea that a satisfactory method might be established . The

degree of suspicion with which the author was regarded andthe secrecy maintained by these scientific authoritiesnecessitated approach by another road .

Most chemi sts , dealing with foodstuffs, have been confronted with the problem at some time or other, and one

must sympathise with such workers as Booth , Baker,Hulton and others , whose published efforts have alwaysbrought to light one fact , namely , that the results , obtained ,depend upon the method of analysis , employed . For thisreason , we are aware that the figures , given vaguely as fibre ,

crude fibre, woody fibre, cellulose, etc . , in tables of analysesin foregoing chapters of this work, are of little, if any, use to

the casual reader, unless the method of analysis be given ,but we are also aware that , with

”

a little intelligence, thesefigures are valuable when compared one against the other ,

ESTIMATION OF CACAO HUSE IN COCOA PRODUCTS 535

provided that they have been obtained by the same experi

menter .Further, so far as the chemist , dealing with cocoa and

chocolate in a factory, is concerned , we know that rel iablefigures can be obtained by almost any of the recognisedmethods. Continuous practice in handl ing his raw materialsand in analysing the finished products enables him tocompare his results against standards which , of course, hemust have set up . For the public analyst , the problem is

less easy—the personal element is lacking and h is knowledgeof factory practice is insufficient—with the resul t that ,unless a standard method is established , the estimation ofhusk in cocoa preparations becomes of little value.

In the excellent work of Baker and Hulton , to which weshal l have occasion to refer more fully later, the authorsstate It is obviously necessary to use very careful judgment in the interpretation of the results by any one or al l ofthe methods described . In some cases the agreement isgood

,in others the differences , as calculated from the

levigation and nitrogen figures , are large. In estimatingconsiderable proportions of shell , the analyst is on fairlysafe ground , but when it comes to such small differences asseparate Grades A. and B the available methods are quiteinadequate.

” We agree with this statement to a very largeextent , but We would point out that no worker has, so far,taken the trouble to report analyses , if done at al l , of selectedmixtures from straight shell to straight cocoa powder, and tocorrelate the results . This is , of course, done in

'

every cocoaand chocolate laboratory , using one method most reliable inthe Opinion of the analyst concerned .

In Chapter XXX, we have already referred to a numberof methods recommended for the estimation Ofadded husk tococoa powders , which can be employed with success whenintelligently used in the manner indicated above, but wepropose to Offer a few other methods , for examination by


those interes ted in the subject , and to test those, with whichwe are less familiar, ourselves , when time allows .

Ph ys i ca l Meth ods

The camps are divided into adherents of physical and of

chemical methods , of the first of which the most importan tis the levigation method . We have already given themethodfor estimating fibre by the levigation process , as described byBaker and Hulton , based on a method of Macara , adaptedfromFilsinger . In 1910, Filsinger and BOtticher examineda method of flotation in a solution of calcium chloride of

known strength , that had originally been suggested by Goske.

Tests weremade with commercial cocoa powders and roastedArriba nibs , carefully picked free from Shell , and on knownmixtures of this with cacao shell . The results showed thatseparation was by no means complete, e.g. , an equal mixtureof Shell and nib yielded only per cent . of Shell by theGoske method and 53 per cent . by Fi lsinger

’

s originalelutriation method . The correction of subtracting 6 percent . , as the mean unavoidable shellcontent , led, in the

Opinion of these experimenters , to quite impossible resul ts ,especially when dealing with very pure cocOa powders .Ulrichfr in 1911 , examined the then-existing processes of

determination of Shell in cocoa preparations . With regardto microscopical examination , this author remarks that theintroduction of modern machinery , which is capable ofreducing the cocoa to a very fine powder, has rendered thismethod very uncertain , and no accurate estimation of theproportion , present , is possible. Filsinger and Drawe

’

s ielutriation method was then passed under examination and

recorded as fairly accurate when the nib and shell had beenground together, as the resulting particles of shell were

F. Fi ls inger and W. Bott icher , Z eit. Offcut. Chem. , 1910 , xvi . , 31 1 .

T C. Ul rich , Arch . Pharm ., 191 1 , ccxl ix . , 524.

1 F . Fi l s inger and Draws , Zei t. b’

fient. Chem. , 1903; ix. , 161 .


the following treatment From 1 to grammes of the cocoaare ground with 20 ccs . of hot water, boiled and centrifuged

(about 500 The liquid portion is decanted , thesediment mixed with 25 cos . of hot water and again centrifuged. The sediment , now obtained , is found to be dividedinto two portions by a white layer, the upper portion beingcacao mass , the lower and dark brown portion the cacaoshell . The upper layers are removed , the lower layer twicecentrifuged in a small tube, transferred to a basin , dried andweighed . The sediment should be ground and centrifugedagain , if large pieces of cacao mass are found in the shelllayer. The amount of shell , so obtained , is multiplied bythree, to obtain the actual quantity present , as , by thistreatment , cacao Shell loses two - thirds of its weight . By thismethod , a cocoa powder, yielding a sediment correspondingto 6 per cent . of cacao shell , mixed with 33 3 per cent . of itsweight of cacao Shell , showed , on analysis , per cent . ofadded shell . Doubtless , by systematic standardisation , thismethod could be modified to yield fairly accurate results , andit will be observed that it is very simi lar to that adopted byBaker andHulton .

Kalusky found that the cell- tissue of the nibs , obtainedby treating the fat- free substance with diastase and, subse

quently, with hydrochloric acid , varied in specific gravityfrom to (usually whilst that of the husklay between and (usually Separationwas possible in a mixture of chloral hydrate, glycerol andwater (S.G. at 17

°

C. and amixture was eventuallyselected having a specific gravity ofThe method adopted by Kalusky is as follows z—One

gramme of the dry , fat- free powder (completely extractedwith ether) is boiled for five minutes with 500 ccs . of water,then cooled to 65° C. and maintained at this temperature forone hour , after the addition of a small quantity of diastase.

L. Ka lusky, Zei tsch. Nahr. Germa n , 1912.

'

m m. , 654.

ESTIMATION OF CACAO HUSK IN COCOA PRODUCTS 539

Twenty-five ccs . of 25per cent . hydrochloric acid are added ,and the mixture boiled for thirty minutes . The insolublematter or tissue is fil tered through a weighed filter-paper,washed with hot water, dried for two hours at 100

°

C. and

weighed . The dry tissue of fibre is detached from the fil ter,ground finely in a mortar and again dried . A weighedportion is then mixed , in a suitable tube, with 20 cos . ofthe medium (prepared as described below) and centrifugedfor fiveminutes .

The medium is prepared by mixing 210 grammes ofchloral hydrate, 50 grammes of glycerol and 35 grammes ofwater, and should have a specific gravity of at 17 C.

More chloral hydrate or water, as the case may be, is addedto secure the desired specific gravity .

The portion of tissue, settled to the bottomof the tube, 18separated , mi xed with 100 ccs . of water, collected on a filter,washed with hot water, dried and weighed . The weight ofheavy tissue, thus obtained , is calculated as a percentage of

the original cocoa, and the result is mul tipl ied by three, togive the percentage of husk present . This factor (3) wasobtained after many estimations of heavy tissue in cacaohusks . When husk is absent , the whole of the tissue is foundfloating on the surface of the medium , after the mixture hasbeen centrifuged .

Finally , there is a method described by Wasicky and

Wimmer for accurately estimating shell in ground cocoa,

when less than 10 per cent . is present , by the use of ultraviolet l ight and a special form of microscope, made

'

byReichert of Vienna . The method is based on the fact that

,

when examined in ultra-violet light , powdered cacao beanappears violet -blue, whilst powdered Shells have a brownishappearance.

gramme of cocoa is treated with 5ccs . ofmixed alcoholand glycerol for one hour, the mixture centrifuged , and the

R. Was icky and C. Wimmer, Zei tsch. Nahr . Genassm., 1915, mm. , 25.


l iquid replaced by 1 cc . of a solution of borax and glycerol .

The mixture is well stirred , and one drop is examined underthe mi croscope, on a glass Sli de protected by a cover-Sl ip .

Cacao nibs and its paste give fine violet- blue colouration , theshell appearing brownish . The shell also Shows a mucila

ginous tissue of a colour varying between dull white and

yellow- green .

By comparing the sample against standard slides , 1 percent . of shell can ,

it is claimed, be readily detected .

C h em i ca l Meth ods .

It is impossible, in this place, to consider al l the chemicalmethods suggested for estimating husk in cocoa. There has ,however, been much recent work on the subject which cannotbe discussed without a certain amount of retrospection .

Ulrich ,* in 1911 , surveyed the then-existing methods fordetermination of fibre, with the following conclusions

(1 ) Microscopical method . Uncertain , owing to the finecomminution of modern cocoa powders .

(2) Elutriation method of Filsinger and Drawe (Z ei t.ofi

'

ent. Chem. , 1899 , V. , 27 , and 1903 , ix . , Fairlyaccurate only when the nib and shell have been groundtogether, the resulting particles of the latter being considerably larger than those Of the former . Ulrich ’s conclusionshave been considered earlier in this chapter .

(3) Flotation method in a solution of calcium chloride

(Goske’

s method) . Valueless .

(4) Chemical methods : (a) Proportion of shell and nibsoluble in silicic acid (Z ei tsch . Nahr . Cenussm.

, 1906, xii . ,95, and Z ei t. ofient. Chem. , 1908 , xiv . , 166) (b) Alkalinityof ash and content of total albumin (Jour . Soc. Chem. Ind .

,

1905, 341) (c) Iodine value of the fat (Z ei t. afient. Chem. ,

1901 , vii . , 500) (d) Content of crude fibre or cellulose (Jour .

Soc. Chem. Ind., 1890, 421 , 978 ; 1892 , 944 ; 1906, 1069 ;

o. Ul rich , Arch. Pharm , 191 1 , c

i

cxl ix. , 524—597 .


left for at least six hours, when the precipitate is collectedon a weighed filter, washed with hot water, til l free fromiron, dr ied for six hour s at 105

°

C. and weighed , theweigh t being calculated as a percentage Of the dry , fat- freesubstance.

Ulrich found that , with the exception of Guayaquil cacaonibs which gave high resul ts, and of Bahia cacao nibs which

gave low figures , considerable uniformi ty existed in the

amount of precipitate, obtained . This is Shown in the

above table of resul ts.

Ulrich, however, relied upon greater uniformi ty in cocoa

powders,whi ch are seldommade from one qual ity of nibs only .

In 1912, Greifenhagen discussed the filtration of the hotsolution , in KOnig

’

s method of crude fibre estimation ,

through a special asbestos filter by the aid of suction .

Grossfeld,1' in 1914

, however , preferred fil tration of the

glycerol-sulphur ic acid mixture through asbestos in a Goochcrucible without suction , as the fine particles tended to

penetrate the layer ofasbestos .

In the following offi cial German methods were

publi shed for the detection ofexcess of cacao shell in cocoapowdersMoi sturc.

—Five grammes of the cocoa powder are mixedin a flat basin with 20 grammes of i gnited sand and dried at105

°

C. to constant weight , or nearly so, but the dryingshould not be prolonged more than four hours .Fat—Five grammes ofthe cocoa are placed in an asbestos

fil ter-tube, 4 cms. in diameter (the asbestos is supported on asmall hlter-

plate having holes about 1mm. in diameter) thelower end of the tube is inserted in to a hole in the rubberstopper closing a filter-flask, and the filter tube is fil ledwith ether. As soon as the ether begins to drop into

W. Greifenhagen , Zei tsch. Nahr. Genusam. , 1912, xxi i i . , 101 .

1“ J. Grossfeld, Z ei tsch . Nahr . Genmsm , 1914, xxvii ., 333.

3 Chem. Zei t., 1916, 969, extracted byJaw . Soc. Chem. Ind , 1916, xx v. , 1260 .


the flask, suction is applied , a further quantity of etheris added , and so on

,using about 10 ccs . of ether each

time, until 100 cos. of ethereal extract have been collected .

This ethereal solution is evaporated , and the residue of fatweighed .

Crude Fibre—The residue remaini ng in the filter- tube isfreed from ether, and, together with the asbestos, is transferred to a flask and boiled for one hour under a refluxcondenser with 200 ccs . of per cent . sulphur ic acid . The

mass is then collected on an asbestos filter , washed with hotwater, again transferred , with the asbestos , to the flask,boiled for one hour with 200 cos. of per cent . potassiumhydroxide solution , then col lected on an asbestos filter andwashed . This treatment with acid and alkali is repeated .

The mass of crude fibre, obtained finally, is washed withalcohol and ether, transferred to a platinum basin , dried at

105°

C. and weighed . The contents of the basin are thenignited , and the residue again weighed ; the differencebetween the weights gives the crude fibre. The asbestos ,used for the filters , should be treated previously with boilingdilute sulphuric acid and, later

’

, with dilute potassiumhydroxide solution, washed , dried and igni ted . If the

amount of crude fibre, found , exceeds 6 per cent . , calculatedon the dry, fat-free cocoa powder, the sample containsa quantity of shell in excess of that which should bepresent .Phosphates .

—Twenty grammes of cocoa are incineratedat a low temperature, the carboni sed mass is collected on a

filter, and its contents are ignited to a whi te ash , to which thefiltrate is added and evaporated to dryness . After gentleignition , the residue is treated with a few drops of hydrogenperoxide and 10 ccs . of 25 per cent . hydrochloric acid ; themixture is evaporated to dryness , the residue treated withhydrochloric acid and hot water, and the solution filtered .

The filtrate is nearly neutralised with sodium hydroxide


solution, using methyl orange as indicator, then heated on

a water-bath for 5minutes , a further smal l quantity of alkalibeing added , but so that the solution still remains slightlyacid , and the precipitated iron and aluminium phosphatesare collected on a filter the filtrate and the washings are

diluted to 100 ccs . To determine the soluble phosphates ,10 ccs . of this solution are mixed with 30 cos . of neutral40 per cent . calcium chloride solution , a few drops of phenolphthalein solution

‘

are added , and the mixture is titrated

with sodium hvdroxide solution , until a distinct red

colouration is obtained the mixture is now maintained at15

°

C. for two hours , and the Slight excess of alkali is titrated .

Under these conditions , 1 cc . of alkali solution is equiva

lent to mgrms . of P0 4.

The insoluble phosphates are determined as followsThirty ccs . of trisodium citrate solution (200 grms. of the saltdissolved in 300 ccs . of water) are placed in a flask , cooledin ice-water and, then , exactly neutralised , using phenolphthalein as indicator . The filter, containing the precipitateof iron and aluminium phosphates , is introduced into theflask, the mixture is heated on a water-bath for 20 minutes ,

then cooled in ice-water and titrated with10sodium

hydroxide solution ; in this case, 1 cc . of the alkali solutionis equivalent to mgrms. of PO,. The results of bothdeterminations are calculated into percentages of the cocoapowder . With a cocoa powder free from excess of shel l ,the quantity of insoluble PO4 wil l not exceed 4 per cent .of the total P04.

In 1917, Keller surveyed the various methods of estimating shel l in cocoa powders , Since he found that al l

cocoas , examined by him during the last Six months,

0 . Kel ler, Arch . Pharm , 1917 , cclv.. 405—4 16.

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

alkal i , and made use Ofthe following formul a for calculatingthe percentage of shell in the sample

X 100

00 (F W)where S percentage of shell on sample.

K percentage of fibre on sample.

F percentage of fat on sample.

W percentage of water on sample.

5 7 percentage of fibre in dry , fat- free nib .

16 8 percentage of fibre in dry , fat- free shell.

Es t im at i on of N i trogen .

The nitrogen figure was estimated by the KjeldahlGunning method on 1 gramme Of the sample, the followingformula being used

1OONS = 2 °17 0

E 26”where S percentage of shell on sample.

N percentage of nitrogen on sample.

F and W as before.

4 9 Nitrogen in dry , fat- free nib .

2 64 Nitrogen in dry , fat- free Shell .The conclusions reached by Baker and Hulton were in

favour of the levigation method , showing once more thediversity of Opinion among the analysts .Fallenberg,* in 1918 , did not further our knowledge to

any great extent . This experimenter estimated the crudecellulose, free from lignin , and found in cacao nibs of differentorigin from per cent . to per cent . , with an averageof per cent . Cacao husk yielded per cent . to 22 4

per cent . , with an average of 18 3 per cent . , and it wasconsidered by Fallenberg that cocoas yielding more than5 5 per cent . , calculated on dry , fat- free material should be

i J.

‘

Fal lenberg, M i tt. Schwei z. Osmond , 1918 , 277 .


considered to be adulterated . The method he employedwas to take 1 gramme of cocoa or 2 grammes of chocolate,extract with ether and dry in the water- oven . The powderwasmixed with 30 ccs . of nitric acid and added to 120 ccs .

of boil ing nitric acid , and the whole boiled for ten mi nutes ,with constant stirring. The mixture was filtered througha Gooch crucible lined with asbestos , and the residue washed,successively , with hot water, 1 per cent . solution of sodiumhydrate, hot water, hot nitric acid , water and ammoniasolution . Finally , the residue was washed with hot water ,twice with alcohol and with ether , dried for an hour in thewater- oven and weighed . The weight of the ash in theresidue was deducted from the total , and the result wasconsidered to be cellulose, free from lignin .

Still more recently ,Hoepner* has considered the question,

and we are of the opinion that his conclusions are morenearly in the direction of solution of the problem thanthose who rely upon mechanical separation . The broadgeneralisation of his conclusions , however, rather mar hisresults .Hoepner has stated that , if the crude fibre exceeds

6 per cent . , the iron oxide 0 1 per cent . , and the dry acidinsoluble ash per cent . , al l calculated on the dry, fatsugar- free materi al , the cacao product contains an excessof shell . The example given is of a sample containing10 1 per cent . of crude fibre. The difference between 6

per cent . and this figure multiplied by 10, gives theactual excess of shell present , i .e. ,

41 per cent .It will be Seen that such a method depends upon a

standard method for estimation of crude fibre, and, untilthis has been done, we cannot see much hope of obtainingconsistent results . We agree entirely with Cribb ’s remarks,to be found at the conclusion of Baker and Hulton ’s paperI am still of the opinion that the most satisfactory method

K. Hoepner, Zel tsch . Nahr . Genussm. , 1919, xxxvu . , 18 -3 l .

85—3


of ascertaining the proportion of shell in cocoa or vice oersd,is by taking into consideration as many estimations of theconstituents bearing on the problem as possible. No singleestimation affords sufficiently reliable information . Thoughthe levigation process may, with further experience, proveto be of the greatest value, it has become, in my opinion ,

less accurate sin ce the present custom of grinding cocoas sofinely came into vogue.

”


To contain not more than 5 per cent . of ash or mineralmatter (to show an alkalinitynot exceeding 3 per cent . as

K20 on the dry , fat- free cacaomatter) .

per cent . pentosans .

16 per cent . starch (which must beascertained to be due to thecacao only, by means of themicroscope) .

To be free from added or included husk, alkali , starch ,sugar, etc.

(3)“ SOLUBLE COCOA POWDER .

To consist of pure cocoa powder (as above) treatedwi th alkali .To conform with the standards of pure cocoa powder

,

with the exception that the ash - limit may be increased to7 per cent . , though the alkalinity may not exceed 5 per cent .estimated as K20 on the dry , fat-free cacao matter .

(4) PURE CACAO OR COCOA BUTTER .

To consist of the expressed fat of pure cacao mass only,

or,if extracted from the husk , to be so declared .

To conform with the British Pharmacopoeia standard ofpurity

, and to give chemical and physical constants fallingWithin the following l imi ts

Zeiss butyro-refractometer value at 40° C 46°—47°

Saponification value 192°—195°

Iodine value 34°

42°

Reichert-Meissl value

To be freefrom al l animal and foreign vegetable oils andfats .

APPENDIX 551 .

(5) CHOCOLATE POWDERS .

The word pure to be applied only to those chocolatepowders which contain pure cacao mass and fine crystal lisedsugar without further additions .A removal of a portion of the fat from the cacao mass

Should not be allowed .

Pure Chocolate Powders .

To contain not more than 70 per cent . of sugar.less than 30 per cent . pure cacao mass

(estimated to contain 50 per

cent . cacao butter) .The proportions of moisture, ash , starch ,

will be in accordance with the amount of cacao matter used .

If starch is added , the powder must not be label ledpure,”and the nature and quantity of the starch , added ,

should be clearly stated on the label , wrapper, etc. The

extent of defatting of the cacao mass (if such has been made)should also be stated .

(6) SWEETENED CHOCOLATE .

The term chocolate (with or Without the wordsweetened to be applied only to those preparationswhich consist of pure cacao mass , fine crystallised sugar , andadditional cacao butter (if desired) only .

To contain not more than 65 per cent . of sugar .less than 32 per cent . of pure cacao mass

(estimated to contain 50 per cent .cacao butter) .

The proportions of moisture, ash , starch , pentosans , etc. ,

will be in accordance with the amount of cacao matter used .

(7 MILK CHOCOLATE .

To consist of pure cacao mass,finely divided sugar and

the solids of milk only .


The solids of the milk should be obtained from full-creammilk , and Should be free from antiseptics .To contain not less than 15 per cent . of milk solids .

per cent. oi mi lk fat .

per cent . of milk sugar .5 per cent . of proteids (overand above that due to thecacao matter present) .

If no other fats than cacao butter andmilk fat are present ,the fat , extracted from a milk chocolate containing 25 percent . milk solids , 10 per cent . cacao mass (containing 50 percent . cacao butter) , 15 per cent . added cacao butter, 50 percent . cane sugar, will Show the following chemical andphysical constants

Zeiss butyro-refractometer value at 40°

C.

Sapon ification valueIodine valueReichert-Meissl value

(8) COVERING-CHOCOLATE .

To consist of variable quantities of pure cacao mass ,finely crystallised sugar and additional cacao butter only .

(9) NUT , MALT ,AND OTHER FANCY CHOCOLATES .

To consist of variable quantities of pure cacao mass ,sugar, nuts , malt , etc. , and to bear a label indicating thenature of such additions .

(10) CHOCOLATE BONBON S .

To consist of fondants ,”“ fruit jellies , etc. , covered

with pure covering- chocolate.


Tea and Coffee Trade Journa l , Grocer and Oil Trade Review, The Publ ic Ledger ,

Bul letin of the Imperi al Insti tute, etc.

CHEMISTRY.

ALLEN. Commercial Organi c Analysi s ,”1910, vol . i i .

BELL. The Chemi stry ofFoods ,”1887 . (Reprint . )BLYTH. FoOds , thei r Composition and Analys is ,”1909 .

GENIN. Encyc . Ch imique,”x. , 4, 504.

HASSALL Food , i ts Adul teration , etc 1876.

LANDOLT. Optical Rotation of Organic Substances , 1902.

LEFFMAN and BEAM. Food Analys is ,”1901 .

LEWKOWITSOH. Chemical Technology and Ana lys is ofOi ls, Fats , Waxes , 1909 .

WILEY. Tests ofFoods and Beverages ,”1914.

WRIGHT. Oi ls , Fats , Waxes , etc 1903 .

ZIPPERER. Untersuchungen ii ber Kakao und dessen Praparaten

Manufacture ofChocolate,”1902 ; Die Schokoladen -Fabrikat ion, 1913 .

STANDARDISATION.

Comp t. Rend. des Trav. 2m Cong. Internat. Rep ress . des Fraudes , 1909.

Rep . Cong. Cocoa and Chocola teMakers , Berne, 191 1 .

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF COCOA PREPARATIONS .

ALBAHARY.—Ann . des Fa ls if. , 1910, i i i . , 159—163 .

FORSTER.—Hyg. Band 1900, 305.

A. GAUTIER. L’

Al imentation, etc . , 327 .

GERARD . Herbal ,”1636.

W. HUGHEs . The Ameri can Physitian , etc . , 1672 .

LANCET.

”—January, 1905.

NEUMANN. Die Bew . Kakaos al s Nahr-und Genussm, 1906 .

J. F. RAUCH. Di sputatio Medico, 1624.

H. STUBBE and THOMAS LORD WmDSOR. The Indi an Nectar, etc. , 1662 .

C. WILKINSON. Natural History ofChocolate,”1682.

AND THE FOLLOWING COMMUNICATIONSAmer. Journ. Pharm. , 1885, xv. , 764 ; 1895, lxvi i . , 202 , etc.

TheAnalys t, 1887, xi i . , 203 1891 , xvi . , 153, and xxi . , 251 1895, x . , 280 1896 ,

xxi . , 321 1899, xxiv. , 178 190 1 , xxvi . , 128 ; 1908 , 123 ; 1909, xxxiv. , 137 ; 1910 ,

xxv. , 512 ; 1913, xxxvi i i . , 504 ; 1914, xxxix . , 476 ; 1915, xl . , 429 ; 1917 , xxxvi i i . ,201 1918 , xl i i i . , 507 , 189—197 .

Ann . Ch im. App l ia , 1916, vi . , 247 .

Ann . des Fa ls if. , 1910 , i i i . , 61—70 1911 , iv. , 418 ; 1917 , xcix. , c 10.

Ann . Lab. Ch im. Cen tr . del le Cabel l i , 1891 , xci i . , 258 ; 1912 , vi . , 61 1 .

Ann . Rep . Conn . Agric. Exp t. S tn . , 1902 , 270 .

Ann . Rep . Exp t. Farms , Canada , 1898 , 151 1899 , 851 .

Arch . Hygiene, lvi i . , 1 .

Arch . Pharm. xxi . , 19 xxvi . , 830 1909 , ccxlvu . , 698 ; 1910, ccxlvi i i ., 81

191 1 , ccxl ix . , 524.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Apoth . Zeit. , 1892 , 469 ; 1896, 7 16 ; 1904, xvi i i . , 68 ; 1916 , xxxi . , 330 .

Ber. , 1906, xxxix. , 3576 ; 1907 , xv. , 453 and 4195 ; 1908, x l i . , 19 .

B iochem. Joan , 1919, xi i . , 368—377 .

Bri t. and Col . Druggis t, 1897 , xxi .

Bul l . Soc. Chim. Belg , 1907 , xxi . , 21 1 .

Chem. Centr. , 1902 , i . , 1 1 13 and i i . , 1217 .

Chem. Zei t. , 1889, 32 ; 1895, Rep . 21 , 240, and xvi . , 1896, xx. , 132 1901 ,

xxv. , 1 1 1 1 1903 , xxvi i . , 958 ; 1905, xxix. , 139 ; 1916, xi . , 832 .

Chem. News , 1902 , lxxxvi . , 51 1919, cxix . , 104.

Ch im. Rev. Fel t. Ind. , 1914, xxi . , 47 and 74.

Comp t. Rend. , cxxxvi . , 168 1 1913 , clvi . , 1842—1843 .

Dinglers Polyt. , 1879, ccxxxi i i . , 229 1884, ccl i i i . , 284.

Gordian , 1909, NO . 339.

Internat. Cong. App . Chem. , 1909, vi i i . , C. 185—203 .

Jour . Agric. Soc. , 1913, v. , 437 .

Jour. Amer . Chem. Soc. , 1907 , xxix. , 556.

Jour . Chem. Soc. , Trans , 1878, xxxi i i . , 38 ; Trans , lxxi . , 281 Abs . , 1906, II. , 404

II. , 502 .

Jour . Ind. Eng. Chem. , 191 1 , i i i . , 251 1914, vi . , 307 .

Jour . Pharm. Chim. , 1883, v11 . , 506 ; 1897, V. , 329 ; 1908, xxvi i i . , 345.

Jour . Phys . , lxvi i i . , 429 .

Jour . Roya l Lanes . Agric. Soc. , 1909 .

Jour . Soc. Chem. Ind. , 189 1 , x. , 29 ; 1899 , xvi i i . , 556 ; 1899, 556 ; 1900, xix. , 694 ;

1904, 480 ; 1918 , (T) xxxvi i . , 240—242 .

Liebig’

s Anna len , xl i . , 125 ; ccxvi i . , 287 .

Loc. Govt. Food Rep . , 1918, 24, i . , II. , i i i .

M i tch. Zei t. , Nos . 32—35, 1887 .

Pharm. Joan , xv. , 764.

Pharm. Zei t. , 1898 , 389 ; 1902 , xlvi i . , 858.

Rec. Trav. Chim. , 1903 , xxi i . , 143.

Rep . analyt. Chem. , 1885, v. , 178 .

Therap . Monatsch . , 1890 , iv. , 470 .

Trop ica l L ife.

U.S . Dep t. of Agr ic. , Bul l . No. 13 ; 1907 , Bul l . No. 107 ; 1910, B ul l . No. 132 ;

191 1 , Bul l . No. 152 ; 19 14, B ul l . NO . 162 .

Verband. deutsch . 1891 , 1896.

Z ei tsch . angew . Chem. , 189 1 1892 , 510 ; 1895, 254 ; 1896, 7 12 , 749 ; 1898 , 291 .

Zei tsch . ana l . Chem. , 1868 , i i . , 499 , and vi i . , 225 ; 1879, xvi i i . , 69, 199 and 346 ;

1894, xxxi i i . , l 1896, xxxv. , 166 , 47 1 and 517 1906, xlv. , 231 .

Zei tsch . kl in . Med. , 1907 , lxi i i . , 450 .

Z ei tsch . Nahr . Cenus sm. , 1898 , vi . , 389 ; 1899 , i i . , 1 ; 1904, VII . , 47 1 ; 1905, ix. ,

257 ; 1906, xi . , 450 , and xi i . , 159 ; 1907 , xi i i . , 265 ; 1908 , xv. , 680, and xvi . , 579 ;

1910 , xix . , 154 ; 19 12 , xxiv. , 3 12 ; 1913 , xxv. , 249 .

Z ei tsch . p hys . Chem. , 207 x . , 120.

Z ei tsch . p hys iol . Chem. , 1895, xxi .

558 INDEX

Analyses Of Surinam n ibs , 1 12 , 137Trin idad n ibs , 12 1 , 136, 137

shel ls , 124

Analys is , methods Of, ofalbuminoids , 509ash or mineral matter , 480

(soluble) , 480(insoluble) , 48 1

cacao matter , 527

cacao-red , 497

eafieine, 498

cane sugar , 517

cel lulose , 493

crude fibre, 489fat , 448—478fibre, 488lactose, 520

mi lk sugar, 520moi sture, 479

n itrogen , 509

organ ic acids , 502

oxal ic ac id , 503pentosans , 494

reducing matters , 507starch , 51 1

tartaric acid , 503theobromine, 498water extract , 487xanth ine bases , 498

Ants , parasol , 54

Aph ides , 55Aroma , methods ofobtain ing, 341—353

of di fferent cacaos , 92—108Arriba , Guayaqui l cacao, characteri st ics

of, 92

Ash from cacao, compos it ion of, 148 , 393,

394, 407 , 408

from cocoa powders , compos it ion of,

185, 190 , 192 , 419—423As iat ic cacao, characterist ics of, 107 , 108

output of, 2 1 , 107 , 108

Automat ic chocolate weighi ng mach ine .

238, 251- 257

Average dimens ions of cacao beans , 1 16weights of cacao beans , 1 10, 1 1 1

BACTERIA,in fermentat ion ofcacao, 70, 88

Bah ia cacao, character ist ics of, 97 , 1 1 1 ,

1 13 , 1 14

output of, 97

Bananas , as catch crop , 51

Bark , precaut ions concerning, 51—57

Bass ia tal low , phys ical and chemica l

constants of, 478

Bastard van i l la , 348

Battery ofcocoa butter presses , 170- 172

of refiners , 207 , 2 10

of tapping tables , 246Bausman D i sc Reducer , 228

Refiner , 229

Beans , analyses Of cacao. See Analyses .

B eef fat , phys ical and chemical constants

of, 478

Beeswax, phys ical and chemical con

stants of, 478

Beet les , cacao, 54

Belgian Congo cacao, output of, 21 , 107

Bensdorp cocoa , ana lys is of, 188 , 192

Benzoin gum, as varn i sh for chocolate, 353

Berbice cacao, characterist ics of, 96

B ibl iography, 553—555B i scui t cover ing, 324

—340Bitter chocolate , 167

BjOrklund’

s ether test , 457

B lack rot , 51B looker

’

s cocoa , analys is of, 187 , 188 , 190

Bloom on chocolate,260

Bois immortel , 49

Books referred to, 553Borneo tal low , phys ical and chemical

constants of, 478

Botan ical descript ion , 33

Bramigk bal l machine, 23 1Braz i l cacao, characteri st ics of, 96

output of, 2 1 , 96

B reaking pods ofcacao, 64

Butter , cacao . See Cacao butter.

press , 170

Butter fat , phys ical and chemical con

stants of, 478

CACAO , Accra , characteri st ics of, 106, 1 1 1

Afr ican , characteri st ics of, 104- 107 ,

1 1 1

agr icul ture of, 38—57American , 92

—99American imports and exports of, 22as money, 3

INDEX 559

Cacao , Bahia, characteri st ics of, 97 , 1 1 1 ,

1 14

output of, 97

bark , care of, 51—57beans , chemical const ituents of, 1 19

125, 37 1—416bean sortei

'

, 132

beetles , 540

Berbice, characterist ics of, 96blends of, 276 , 28 1 , 282

botany of, 31—37B razi l , characteri st ics Of, 96

output of, 2 1 , 96

breaking, 64butter , adul terat ions of, 474

chemical const ituents of, 38 1

defin it ions of, 550digest ibi l ity of, 364

est imat ion of, 448—478express ion of, 169

fil trat ion Of, 172in chocolate, 265, 266 , 268 , 27 1 ,

291—296, 328

in cocoa powders , 184—195, 423in husks , 381 - 390

in n ibs , 403- 406

iodine value of, 385

melt ing point of, 384, 462

method of determin ing melt ing

point of, 461

phys ical and chemi cal

constants of, 457—478phys ical and chemical constants

of, 381—390 , 478

press , 170

Reichert -Mei ss l value of, 389, 478

sapon ificat ion value of, 387

spec ific gravity Of, 383 , 460subs t itutes , 474tests for adul terat ion of, 457- 478

Cameroon , characteri st ics of, 104

output of, 2 1 , 104

Caracas , characteri s t ics of, 93

Ceylon , characterist ics of, 107


clean ing and sort ing mach ine, 132

colouring matter from , 65, 398 ,41 1

consumpt ion of, 18—20 , 29

Cuba ,character i st ics of. 97

Cacao, Cuba , output of, 21 , 97

cul t ivat ion of, 38—57descript ion of commercial , 90—1 17d iseases of, 51—55drying, 78Engli sh imports and exports of, 24—27Esmeraldas , characteri stics of, 92Essequibo, characterist ics of, 96

extract of, as improver , 378fermentat ion of, 58—76fin ish ing, 80

—85first French crop of, 10

flowers of, 34

food -value of, 354—367frui t of, 34germ, analyses of, 125, 148 , 42 1

germ-extracting mach ine, 154glucos ide of, 412

Grenada , characteristics of, 101


Guayaqui l Arriba , characterist ics of, 92

Machala , character ist ics of, 92

h i story of, 3—17husk as fodder, 377

as manure, 378

husking and Winnow ing mach ine, 150

husks , analyses of, 124, 125, 139 , 380

Jamaica , characteri st ics of, 102


Java , character i st ics of, 108


kernel s , analyses of, 1 19—125, 136—139 ,400, 401

manures and manur ing, 41- 46

Maracaibo, characteri st ics of, 94Maranhao, character ist ics of, 96

markets for , 2 1—29mass (see al so Analyses of roa sted

kernels ) , 162—169matter, estimat ion of, 292 , 527

microscopy of, 434—443mi l ls , 163

mythology of, 4

p icking, 56plantat ions , 39 , 48

p lant ing, 48

plant ing Of, anc ient ceremony, 6

pol i sh ing, 84

powder . See Cocoa powder.

INDEX

Cacao, prun ing trees of, 55

red , 65, 398 , 41 1

est imat ion of, 497

roaster , 142

San Domingo, characteri st ics of, 100


San Thomé, characterist ics of, 104


Soconusco , characteri st ics of, 99

shade trees , 49shel l ing, 64

soi l s , 40

stat i st ics , 18—30Surinam, characterist ics of, 95

output of, 95

theobromine from, 395. 410

tree , 3 1 , 34

Tr inidad , characteri st ics of, 101output of, 2 1 , 101

variet ies of, 35

Venezuela , characteri st ics of, 93

output of, 2 1 , 93

wash ing, 77

West In dian , characteri st ics of, 99

output of, 2 1 , 99

Cacaon in , 413

Cadbury’

s cocoa , analys is of, 186 ,187 ,

192 , 359—362digest ibi l ity of, 359—362

Caffeine in cacao beans , 395, 41 1est imat ion of, 498

Calabaci l lo cacao, 35—37 , 65, 87 , 120

Cameroon bean s , character i st ics of, 104fermentat ion , data of, 68


Cancerous paras ites , 55

Cane sugar as adul terant in cocoa

powders , 188 . 197 , 198

in chocolate , 265—273 , 276—283 , 420est imat ion of, in chocolate, 517

Canker , 51 f

Caracas beans , analyses of, 12 1 , 122 , 124character i st ics of, 93

Caramel i s ing mach ine, 346

Carupano cacao, character i st ics of, 94

Casein , est imat ion of, 530

Cassava, as catch crop , 51

Cast i l loa elast ica,as catch crop , 50

Catch crops (for cacao plantat ions ) , 49—51

Cel lulose in cacao beans (see al so underAna lyses ) , 12 1 , 406

in cocoa powder (see a lso under

Ana lyses ) , 426

in husk , 393est imation of, 493

Ceylon cacao, characteri st ics Of, 107fermentat ion , data of, 67 , 68


Chambers , cool ing, for chocolate, 248

heat ing, for chocolate, 2 15

Character i st ics of cacao variet ies , 90—1 18Ch i l l ies

,as catch crop , 51

Ch inese ta l low , phys ical and chemical

constants of, 478

Chocolate ai r -extract ing machi ne, 238as inflamer of pass ions , Introduction ,

7 , 357

automat ic weigh ing mach ine for , 251

256

conche mach ine, 322

cool ing mach ines , 248

covering, analyses of, 327 , 328

rec ipes for making, 327croquettes , 247

defin it ions of, 549der ivat ion ofword, 3 1

drop press , 247early monopoly of, 10

firs t appearance in Europe of, 7

fondant ,”284, 307- 323

food -value of, In troduction ,

°

355—367forcing and weigh ing mach ine , 251

256

Improvers , 352 , 379

melangeur ,”204

methods of analys ing, 448—532mi lk , analyses of, 290—301

rec ipes for making, 290—30 1mixing and kneading mach ines , 204 ,

330

moulds , 244

mould -fil l ing machines , 251—257

neapol itans , 247

nut , rec ipes of, 303

nutrit ive value of, Introduction , 354

367

p la in , analyses of, 261—273

rec ipes for making, 276—287

562 INDEX

Drying of cacao beans , 78Dryness , to maintain , in factory, 241—244 ,

250

Dus t -removing mach ine , 132

Dutch cocoa , preparat ion of, 175 - 182

Guiana cacao , output of, 96

imports and exports , 20 , 29

EARLY monopoly of chocolate, 10

Earth -nut O i l , phys ica l and chemica l

constants of, 478

Eat ing-chocolate, analyses of, 261—273 ,

290—301rec ipes of, 276—286 , 290—304, 320 ,

327

Ecuador cacao, character ist ics of, 92

output of, 2 1 , 92

Egg chocolate , 305

Enrober ,”336Enphol da , 340

Eppe’

s cocoa , analyses of, 186, 192 , 197

Esmeraldas cacao, character i st ics of, 92

Essent ia l oi l ofcacao , 79 , 416

Essequibo cacao, character ist ics of, 96

Essences for flavouring chocolate, 347

Ethereal Oi l s as flavour ings , 347

Examinat ion , m icroscop ical . of cacao ,

etc 434—447Exports ofcacao , 20 - 29

Express ion offat , 169

Extract ion offat , 448—457Erythr ina ,

as shade for cacao, 49

FAT . See Cacao butter .

Fat iguing chocolate , 2 12

Fermentat ion , bacter ia taking part in , 70

chemica l changes dur ing, 65, 1 1

loss during, 73temperature of, 68

Fernando PO cacao , character ist ics of, 106

Fibre in cacao husk , 390n ibs , 406est imat ion of, 486—497

Fi j i cacao, output of, 107

Fi l l ing chocolate moulds , 237—257Fin ish ing cacao beans , 80F lavour ing mater ials for chocolate, 347

Flowers ofcacao t ree, 34

Fondant chocolate, method of pre

parat ion , 307 , 320—323analyses of, 267 268 , 27 1

rec i pes for making, 320Forastero cacao, 35, 62

French chocolate, ana lyses of, 266

rec ipes for , 277 , 281

Fruit of cacao tree, 34

Fry’

s cocoa , ana lys i s of, 186 , 187 . 192

Fungi on cacao fruit , 52Fungicides for spraying, 53

Firrfurol , est imat ion of, for pentosans .

495

GALAM butter, phys ical and chemica l

constants of, 478

Gathering cacao , 56

Germ , cacao , analys i s of, 125, 148 , 42 1

extractor , 154German chocolate, analyses of, 266

rec ipes for , 28 1

Germinat ion ofcacao, 48

Globul in in cacao, 397

Gloor patent , 231

Goa butter , phys ica l and chemical con

stents of, 478

Gold Coast cacao, fermentat ion data of, 68output of, 2 1 , 105

Graft ing cacao, 47

Gran ite for cacao mach inery, 207 , 224 - 226

Gravity, spec ific , 383 , 460

ofcacao butter , etc . , 384 , 46 1 , 478

methods of determ in ing, 460Grenada cacao , character ist ics of, 101


Gr inding cocoa powder , 173mi l l for beans , 163

Ground -nuts , as catch crop , 51

Ground -nut O i l , as adulterant of cacao

butter , 478Growth ofcacao, rate of, 34 , 56

industry,rate of, 4 - 17

Guadeloupe cacao, character i st ics of, 10"


Guatemala cacao, characteri st ics of, 99

Guayaqui l cacao , characterist ics of, 92

output of, 92

INDEX

Guayra cacao, 95

Guiana , B rit i sh , cacao, characterist ics of,

96

output of, 2 1 , 96

Cum benzoin,as varn i sh for chocolate , 353

HAITI cacao, character i st ics of, 99

output of, 2 1 , 99

Hand -covering, methods of, 33 1

Hart'

s class ificat ion ofcacao . 35

Harvest ing cacao , 56

Hazel -nut oi l , phys ical and chemica l con

stants of, 478

Hevea bras i l iens is,as shade trees , 50

Hi story ofcacao, 4—17Hot chambers , 2 15Houten , Van , cocoa , analys i s , 186

- 188 ,

190 , 192 , 359—362

Ruhl’

s method of determin ing iodinevalue , 47 1

Husks , analyses ofraw , 124 , 125, 372 , 375

roasted , 139 , 375as fodder , 377character i st ic appearance of, of different cacaos , 92—109 , 1 14, 1 17

chemical compos it ion of, 124, 125, 139 ,

372 , 375

detect ion of, in cocoa , chocolate, etc . ,

425, 480—497 , 533- 548

extract ion of fat from, 381 , 448—457percentage of, in beans , 1 12 , 1 13 , 1 15,372

remova l of, 150

uses of, 377 , 378

Husking mach ine , 150

Hydraul ic press for cacao butter , 170

IMPORTS ofcacao , etc . , 20—29Improvers , chocolate , 352 , 379

Ingredients used for cocoa preparat ions .

See Recip es .

Insect pests , 51 , 13 1

Insoluble ash , method ofdetermin ing, 48 1Inter or catch -crops for cacao , 50 , 51

Invest igat ion , chemical , of cacao , etc . ,

58—76 , 1 19—125, 372—433 , 448—548microscop ica l , 434

—447

563

Iodine values of cacao butter and i ts

adulterants , 385, 47 1 , 478

methods ofdetermin ing,

JAM AICA cacao, character i st ics of, 102


Java cacao, characterist ics of, 108


Journal s referred to , 553—555Judging cacao , 109

LACTOSE in mi lk chocolate, est imat ion

of, 517—527Land for successful cul ture of cacao,

38—46Lard , phys ical and chemica l constants

of, 478

Lemon grass ,as catc h crop , 51

Levigat ion ofchocolate, 206—2 15, 224—227Lime,

necessary for success ful cul ture

ofcacao, 40

L indt flavour , 286

KARITE fat , phys ical and chemical con

stants of, 478

Kernel s , analyses ofraw , 1 19—125of roasted , 136 - 139 , 149, 400 , 401

changes in , dur ing fermentat ion , 65,

72

character i st ics ofdifferent var iet ies of,90—1 18

chemical compos it ion of, 1 19—125,136—139 , 400 , 401methods ofanalys i s of, 448—517proport ion of, in beans , 1 12 , 1 13 ,- 1 15,

Kneadingmach ine for chocolate, 237 , 330Koettstorfer value of fats , 387 , 478

methods ofdetermin ing, 466Kokum butter , phys ical and chemical

constants of, 478

Kreuz method ofest imat ing cacao butter ,452

Kunze’

s method of est imat ing theo

bromine, 499

564 INDEX

Losses in prel iminary preparat ion of

beans , 1 15, 155—157on wash ing cacao, 77

MACHALA, Guayaqui l , cacao, character

i st ics of, 92

Mach ine, air oextract ing, 238

automat ic tempering, 239

caramel i s ing, 346

Champ ion dipp ing, 333

chocolate cool ing, 248 , 251—255

clean ing and sort ing, 132

conche,”322

cont inuous mould-fil l ing and tapp ing,

251—255covering, methods of, 331—340drop press , 247Enrober ,”336Enpholda , 340

forcing and weighing, 251- 256

germ extract ing, 154mi l l ing, 163

mixing, 204, 330mixing and kneadi ng, 330

mould-fil l ing, 251- 257n ibbing, husking and Winnow ing, 150

Madre de Cacao, as shade tmes , 49

Mafura tal low , phys ical and chemical

constants of, 478

Magnes ium carbonatefor soluble cocoa ,

179

Malaba tal low , phys ical and chemical

constants of, 478

Man ihot , as shade tree , 50

Manufacture of chocolate , 1 12—169 , 201236 , 307—323cocoa powders , 169

- 183

condensed mil k , 31 1—314mi lk powder , 315—319soluble cocoa powders , 175—183

Manures for cacao plantat ions , 41—46

effect of, on yield, 45, 46

Maracaibo cacao , characteri st ics of, 94

Maranhao cacao, character i st ics of, 96

Markets for cacao , 22 , 23

Mart in ique, first crop ofcacao from, 10, 16

cacao, character i st ics of, 102

Mater ial s , flavouring, for chocolate, 347

Matter, cacao, est imation of, 527

reducing, est imat ion of, 507

Mauri tius cacao , output of, 2 1 , 107

Meiss l -Reichert value of fats , 389, 478-1 method of determin ing, 468

Melangeur,”204

use of, for chocolate mak ing, 204

206

Mel t i s chocolate, analys is of, 267

Men ier cocoa , analys i s of, 188 , 190

Melt ing points of cacao butter subst i’

tutes and adul terants , 478

of fatty acids , 464

methods of determin ing, of cacao

butter , etc . , 462

Mexican cacao, character i st ics of, 99

Microscopical examination of cacao, 434

439

oi chocolate, 439—447Mi lk chocolate, analyses of, 290- 301

components of, 430

defin it ions of, 551

methods of ana lys ing (see al so

P la in chocolates ) , 520—532mi lk sol ids in , est imat ion of, 529

rec ipes , 290—301

fat , phys ica l and chemical constants

of, 478

powder , for mi lk chocolate, 318 , 3 19preparat ion of, 3 15—3 19report ofL .G.B . on , 432

sugar , est imat ion of, 520—527Mi l l s for gr inding cacao beans , 163Minera l matter , est imat ion of, 480

in husks , 394

in kernel s , 407Mi serables ,”compos it ion of, 375

Mitscherl ich bodies , 435Mixture. See Recipes .

Moisture in cocoa preparat ions , 418

methods ofest imat ing, 479

Moreui l cocoa , analys is of, 188 , 190

Morr is’

class ificat ion ofcacao, 35

Moths , cacao , in store rooms , etc . , 13 1

Mould-fil l ingmachine, 251—255Moulding chocolate, 237- 257

temperature for , 241

Mouldy cacao, treatment of, 130

Mythology relat ing to cacao, 4

566

Proport ion of n ibs and husks in cacao

beans , 1 12 , 1 13 , 155, 158 , 37 1—380 ,400—402

Proteid matter in cacao n ibs , 409husk , 397


Provis ional defin i t ions and standards , 549Prun ing cacao trees , 55

Puerto Cabel lo cacao, character ist ics of,

95

Pulveri ser , cocoa powder , 173

QUANTITY and qual ity of beans fromnatural causes , 86—89

from fermentat ion and

curing, 58—76

RADICLES , remova l of, 154

Raw cacao husks , analyses of, 124, 125,

372

kernel s , analyses of, 1 19—125Rec ipes , chocolate fondant ,”320

powders , 287 , 289 , 30 1 , 303cover ing-chocolate, 327 , 328

mi lk chocolate, 290—301p la in eat ing

-chocolate, 276—287van i l la sugar and essence, 348—350van i l l in sugar and es sence, 349

Red , cacao in n ibs , 41 1est imat ion of, 497

Reduc ing matters in cacao, 507


Refiners , 206

steel r ersus gran ite , 224—226Refin ing chocolate , 206—2 15Refractometer va lues of cacao butter

subst itutes and adul terants , 389 , 478methods of determin ing, 458

Refr igerat ion methods , 248—250Reichert -Mei ss l va lue of cacao butter

and subst i tutes , 389 , 478methods of determin ing, 468

Re’

sume'

ofChapters IV.—VII. , 86—89

R ipeness of cacao fru it , determin ing, 57Roas ted cacao husks , analyses of, 124,

125, 372

Roasted cacao kernel s ,136—139 , 400 , 40 1

ana lyses of,

INDEX

n ibs , 407S ite for cacao p lantat ion , 39

Soconusco , Royal , cacao , characteri st ics

of, 99

Soi ls for successful cul t ivat ion of cacao ,

40

Roasters for open fire , 142

external ly heated , 145Roast ing cacao , 135—145

,

Rowntree’

s cocoa , analyses of; 186,

192

Roya l S oconusco cacao , character i st ics

of, 99

Rubber,as shade trees , 50

SAC‘CHARIMETRY , 517—522Sacchar in ,

for diabet ic cocoa , 199

St . Lucia cacao , character ist ics of, 103


St . Vincent cacao, character i st ics of, 103

Samana cacao, character i st ics of, 100

Samoa cacao, characteri st ics of, 107

Sampl ing, dur ing roast ing of cacao , 142

San Domingo cacao, character i st ics of,

100


San Thome cacao, character i st ics of, 104


Sapon ificat ion value of cacao buttersubst itutes and adul terants , 387 , 478methods ofdetermin ing, 466

Seed , analyses of. See Ana lyses .

p lant ing, 48

select ion , 46

Seychel les cacao, character ist ics of, 107

Shade plants for cacao trees , 49Shaking table, 245Shea butter , phys ical and chemical con

stants of, 478

Shel l butter , 378 , 38 1Shel l ing cacao pods , 64Shel l s . See Husks .

Short -cuts to chocolate manufacture,

2 17—236Si ft ing cocoa powder , 173Si lent tapp ing table, 245

S i l ic ic anhydr ide in ash of cacao husk ,393 , 394

INDEX

Soi ls , analyses of. 40

Soluble ash , est imat ion of, 480

Soluble cocoa powder, chemical compos it ion of, 185, 188 , 192 , 359- 362 ,

418—427preparat ion of, 175- 183

properties of, 175, 358 , 360

Sort ing cacao beans , 132mach ines , 132

Span i sh chocolate, analyses of, 266recipes for making, 282

Specific gravi ty of cacao butter subst i

tutes and adulterants , 383 , 461 ,

478

methods of determin ing, 460Spices , used as fiavour ing mater ials , 347

Spi ral bodies in cacao , 434

Standards of cacao, etc ., provis ional ,

549

Starch in cacao, etc . , 398 , 404, 429

est imat ion of, 51 1

microscopical appearance of, 404

Stat i st ics of cacao, 18—30Stear ic ac id in cacao butter , 381Steel rol l refiners , 206 - 215, 224—226Steirastoma h i strion ics , 54

depres sum , 54

Storing cacao beans , 130- 132

Subst i tutes for cacao butter , 474detect ion of cacao butter, 474phys ica l and chemical constants of

cacao butter , 478Sugar consumpt ion , stat i st ics of,

°

2 l 7

est imat ion of, 517- 527

in cacao n ibs (see a lso Ana lyses ) , 427

in chocolate (see a l so Analyses ) , 429

Sun l ight , protect ion of cacao trees from,

49

Surinam cacao , characterist ics of, 95

fermentat ion , data of, 68

output of, 95

Surrogate powder , 378Survey of components of cacao husks ,

37 1—399n ibs , 400—416

cocoa preparat ions , 417—433

Sweat ings ofcacao , ana lyses of, 66

Sweetened chocolate. defini t ions of

567

UGANDA cacao, output of, 2 1 , 106

Unfermented beans , ana lyses of, 62 , 65commerc ial value of, 64

Upright refiner , 207—215

TAPPING table, 245Tartar ic acid in cacao, 413


Temperature. extreme, for successfulculture ofcacao, 39

for ferment ing cacao, 67—69Temperature for moulding chocolate, 241

Theobroma angusti fol ia , 3 1

bicolor , 3 1 , 33cacao, 3 1- 37

ovat i fol ia, 3 1pentagona , 3 1 , 32

sylvestris , 31

Tibbles ’ cocoa,analysi s of, 186Treatment ofdefect ive cacao beans , 130

132

Trin idad cacao, characteri st ics of, 101

fermentat ion of, data of, 68


Tri ple mi l l for cacao, 163

VACUUM process for condens ing mi lk ,3 1 1—3 14for mi lk powder , 315—3 18

Van Houten ’

s cocoa , analyses of, 186—188 ,

190. 192 , 359- 362

Van i l la as fiavouring for chocolate, 348

characteri st ics of, 348

sugar and essence, preparat ion of, 348

Van i l l in as fiavour ing for chocolate, 349

characteri st ics of, 349

sugar and essence, preparat ion of. 349

prices of, compared w ith van i l la,349

Var iet ies of cacao tree, characteris tics of,3 1—33

Vegetable fats , as subst itutes for cacao

butter, 474—478phys ical and chemical constants of,

478

Venezuela cacao, character ist ics of, 93

output of, 21 , 93

Volat i le alkal i s for render ing cocoa

soluble,”178, 184 , 185

568

WALKER machine 230

Walnut oi l , phys ical and chemical con

stents of, 478

Warming cupboard, 215Wash ing cacao, advantages , etc . ,

77- 8 1 , 130

losses on , 77

Waste products in manufacture , 1 15,

155—157Water chocolate, 278

Wax, bees , chemical and phys ical con

stents of, 478

paraffin , chemical and phys ical con

stents of, 478

Weigh ing, automat ic mach ine for choco

late, 251- 256

INDEX

XANTHDIE bases , est imat ion of, in cacao ,

etc . , 498

YIELD of n ibs in manufacture, 1 15, 139 ,155- 157

THE WHITEFRIARS PRESS , 1 0 NDON AND TO NBR ID GI .

West African cacao , charac teris tics of,

104- 107 , 1 1 1

output of, 104- 107

West Indian cacao . character ist ics of,

99- 103, 1 1 2 , 1 13

outp ut of, 2 1 , 99—103

Wind shelters for cacao, 49

Worms in cacao beans , curing, 131

Cocoa and Chocolate - Forgotten Books

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