Chinese Students Perception of Leadership and Climate

1 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978

Leadership and Climate in Dance: Teacher Behavior and its Effect on Chinese

Students’ Perceived Motivational Climate

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to see if there was a correlation between leadership

behaviors and perceived motivational climate in dance. It was hypothesized that a

teacher who emphasizes technical instruction and positive feedback would encourage a

task-involving motivational climate. Quantitative data about teaching behavior was

collected using the Coaching Behavior Assessment System (CBAS). Data about

students’ perception of the motivational climate was collected using a modified version

of the Perceptions of Motivational Climate in Sport Scale-2. The research revealed that

the teacher in this study mainly used a combination of technical instruction and positive

reinforcement throughout the class and that the students perceived the motivational

climate as being more task-involving. This research has practical implications for

teachers wishing to create task-involving motivational climates in their classes and the

TARGET model was discussed as one strategy for achieving this. There were a number

of limitations noted for this study along with the cultural implications of applying

western models of leadership and concepts of motivational climate to an Asian context.

Introduction

This study set out to investigate the relationship between a dance teacher’s leadership

behavior and the dance students’ perceived motivational climate. In line with previous

studies (Rafferty and Wyon, 2006) it hypothesized that leadership behavior

demonstrating high levels of technical support and positive reinforcement would lead to

a task-involving motivational climate as perceived by the students. The study focuses


on the leadership behavior of one western contemporary dance teacher and the

perceptions of the Chinese students he was teaching.

Literature Review

In sport, the coach is seen as the most influential person in developing motivational

climate (Ntoumanis and Biddle, 1999; Pensgaard and Roberts, 2002), and through their

interactions with athletes foster a motivational climate that can influence the thoughts

and feelings of the athletes during sports. This implies that a coach’s leadership

behavior, style and preferences will have a direct bearing on the type of motivational

climate they nurture and the perceptions of the athletes they are working with. As the

literature directly related to understanding the psychological relationship between

leadership in dance and motivational climates is limited, this paper will take the

position that dance teachers share many of the attributes of teachers and coaches, and

that dance students share many attributes similar to those of athletes, and draw on

related literature from the fields of education and sports psychology.

Leadership

Leaders in sport and physical activity are those who “influence individual and groups

towards set goals. They affect participants by establishing interpersonal relationships,

providing feedback, influencing the decision-making process, and providing

motivation” (Weinberg and Gould, 2011: 221). The cognitive-mediational model of

leadership (Smoll and Smith, 1989) argues “that the effects of coaches’ behaviors are a

function of their personality characteristics, which are mediated not only by situational

factors but also by the meaning that athletes attribute to those coaching behaviors”

(Weinberg and Gould, 2011: 209-210). In other words, cognitive and affective


processes serve as filters between what coaches actually do and how it is perceived by

players. Smoll and Smith (1989) have used their model to analyze coach-athlete

relationships by observing the coach’s behavior to see what the coach actually does and

to compare this to how players perceive and are affected by this behavior (p.1527).

The cognitive-mediational model of leadership suggests that the leadership behavior of

the coach will affect the sporting experience as perceived by the athlete. Research into

leadership and motivational climates in sport and physical activity supports this position

and there is evidence to suggest that the coach or teacher who has assuming a leadership

role is the main architect of the motivational climate (Ames, 1992; Pensgaard and

Roberts, 2000; Allen and Hodge, 2006; Olympiou, Jowett and Duda, 2008, Conde et al.,

2009).

Applying the cognitive-mediational model of leadership to dance, we see the dance

teachers as leader having a significant effect on the learning experience as perceived by

the dancer. It should be noted that studies on leadership in dance and its effect on

climate are typically based on dancer perceptions rather than objective outside

observations (Rafferty and Wyon, 2006; Miulli and Nordin-Bates, 2011), therefore little

is known about how or what leadership behaviors in dance shape motivational climate.

Like Smoll and Smith (1989) this study attempts to analyze dance teacher-student

relationships by observing the teacher’s actual behavior and to compare this to how

dance students perceive the motivational climate in the studio.


Achievement Goal Theory

Whilst leadership models suggest coaching behavior can affect athletes’ perceptions -

and experiences - of sport, achievement goal theory proposes that the meaning

individuals ascribe when engaging in achievement activities influence their motivation-

related patterns (Olympiou, Jowett and Duda, 2008: 425). In other words, achievement

goal theory is related to feelings of competency and success in task based activities.

Achievement goal theorists (Ames, 1992: Nicholls, 1984) have indicated there are two

main goal orientations (task and ego). When an individual is said to be focused on a

task goal, their perceptions of competence are self-referenced focusing on self-

improvement and effort. When an individual is said to be focused on ego goals, their

perception of competence are other-referenced, focused on competiveness and social

comparison (Olympiou, Jowett and Duda, 2008: 425). In addition, achievement goal

theory also suggests that situational factors created by significant others, such as

parents, teachers or coaches, will also influence whether someone will be task or ego

focused (Balaguer et al. 2002: 294).

Duda and Balaguer (1999) proposed an integrated model to bring together theories on

sports leadership with achievement goal theory to demonstrate how coach leadership

behaviors have implications for motivational processes. In essence, the integrated

model highlights how a coach’s behavior can have positive or negative effects on

athlete motivational patterns (Olympiou, Jowett and Duda, 2008). This integrated

model has been used to investigate associations between elements of achievement goal

theory and coach leadership models through correlational studies. One example of this

research is a study by Balaguer et al. (2002) where they examined the interrelationship

between task- and ego-involving features of the climate and athletes’ perceptions of


their coach’s leadership behaviors. The research revealed that a climate perceived as

task-involving was positively related to athletes’ perceptions of technical improvement.

Moreover, players felt that when the environment created by the coach was seen as

more task-involving they experienced improved progress in both their own performance

and that of the team (p.305)

Theory relating to motivation and motivational climate have developed out of the

Nicholls (1984) achievement goal theory, which has subsequently been expanded and

developed to include the concepts of autonomy and relatedness (Deci and Ryan, 2000;

Quested and Duda 2010). In particular, self-determination theory and basic needs

theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000) have become a popular models through which to

examine motivation-related engagement in physical activity especially as they relate to

well- and ill-being (Quested and Duda, 2010; Standage, Duda and Ntoumanis, 2005).

Motivational Climate in Dance

Motivational climate in dance is the perceived psychological atmosphere in which

training, rehearsal and performing take place (Miulli and Nordin-Bates 2011). Whilst

everyone within the class, rehearsal and performance contributes to the psychological

atmosphere, it is behavior of the teacher, rehearsal director or choreographer that will

make the main contribution to the health of the motivational climate.

Ames (1992) suggests that the way in which the teacher structures the class setting

establishes a motivational climate that conveys goals to learners. As with achievement

goal theory, research suggests there exists two major competency-based motivational

climates, task- and ego- involving climates. These climates can exist separately or in


combination. Task-involving climates are typified by environments fostering self-

improvement, individual effort, peer cooperation and task mastery. Ego-involving

climates are typified by competition, punishment for mistakes, rivalry, objective

success, social comparison and favoritism (Ames 1992; Miulli and Nordin-Bates 2011).

Perception of task-involving environments have been associated with positive indicators

of well-being, while the opposite is true of ego-involving climates (Krane, Greenleaf

and Snow, 1997; Ntoumanis and Biddle, 1999; Pensgaard and Roberts, 2000; Balaguer

et al. 2002; Reinboth and Duda, 2004). Recent studies exploring motivational climate

in dance has investigated links between motivational climate and well- and ill-being,

feelings of competency (Quested and Duda, 2010), achievement goals, trait anxiety,

perfectionism (Carr and Wyon, 2003) and creativity (Miulli and Nordin-Bates, 2011).

It is interesting to note that there is almost nothing known about the causal effect of

motivational climate and actual learning and performance (Allen and Hodge, 2006:

265). One study that does look at this relationship is that of Theebom, De Knop and

Weiss (1995) who investigated the relationship between motivational climate and skill

development in a three week intervention study. This study found a positive correlation

between skill development and a task-based motivational climate. Although this further

supports the idea that successful coaches/teachers foster task-based motivational

climates, there needs to be more research on the relationship between motivational

climate and skill learning and skill performance.

The interpretation of the environment in which the athletes and dancers operate can

have a marked effect on their feeling of competency, progress and desire to continue


(Roberts, 2001; Maehr, 1984). In order to understand motivational climate and its

influence on dancers, it is important to not only understand the subjective meanings

dancers attach to their teacher’s behavior, but also the actual behavior of the teacher

who shapes the environment in which the students operate. To date, there has not been

any empirical research investigating observed leadership behavior in dance and its

effect on perceived motivational climate.

Participants

A male contemporary dance teacher and 12 contemporary dance students participated in

this study. The teacher was an Australian with more than 20 years of teaching

experience and a full-time member of the dance faculty. The teacher had met with this

group of students for a total of for 25 hours prior to data collection. The students (3

male and 9 female) were all Chinese (3 from Mainland and 9 from Hong Kong) aged 19

(±1.17) years old and in the first year of a four year conservatory dance program.

Students and teacher were briefed and informed consent forms collected for all

participants.

Method

The teacher’s behavior data was collected through observation of one 105 minute class

using the (CBAS) Coaching Behavior Assessment System (Smith, Smoll and Hunt

1977). The CBAS was developed as an empirical tool to objectively assess coaching

behavior in the field and has been used to assess specific coaching behaviors and the

way in which they affect athletes (Weinberg and Gould: 210). The teacher’s behavior

was assessed through observation and each time he interacted with the class, it was

recorded against one of eight categories (specific positive reinforcement, general


positive reinforcement, specific negative reinforcement, general negative reinforcement,

specific technical instruction, general technical instruction, keeping control and

organization).

Percieved motivational climate data was collected with the Perceptions of Motivational

Climate in Sports Scale-2 (Newton, Duda and Yin 2000), modified for dance (Quested

and Duda 2010). The questionnaire was then translated into Chinese to ensure the

students would be able to answer confidently and without conferring with their fellow

students. Students were asked to answer 24 questions on a scale ranging from 1

(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Although the PMCS-2 is generally used to

reflect on motivational climate over a period of time (the previous few weeks); the

students in this study completed the questionnaire at the end of the class with the

impressions of this particular class still fresh in their minds.

Results

As seen in Table 1, the results of the CBAS found that the teacher communicated 52%

technical instruction, 27% organizational instructions, 20% positive reinforcements and

1% negative reinforcements during this class.


Table 1: Showing percentages for each leadership behavior category

To determine the task-involving climate, an average was calculated for the cooperative

learning, important role and effort/improvement subscales. To determine the ego-

involving climate, an average was calculated for the punishment for mistakes and the

unequal recognition subscales. Table 2 displays the averages for each sub-scale of the

PMCS-2 as well as the overall perception of task-involving and ego-involving climate.

An average score of 3-5 suggests that the students perceive the climate as being more

task-involving or ego-involving whereas a score of 3-1 would be less task-involving or

ego-involving. The average score for each subscale found that students perceived the

motivational climate to be more task-involving (3.93) than ego-involving (2.28).

Task-involving Climate

Cooperative Learning 4.02

Important role 3.64

Effort/Improvement 4.12

Overall perception of task-involving climate 3.93

Ego-involving Climate

Punishment for mistakes 1.8

Unequal recognition 2.76

Overall perception of ego-involving climate 2.28

Table 2: Average of the sub-scale for ego-involving and ego-involving motivational climate.

Discussion

This study hypothesized that leadership behavior demonstrating high levels of technical

support and positive reinforcement would lead to a task-involving motivational climate

as perceived by the students. Results from the data collected indicate that student

dancers see the motivational climate in their class as being more task-involving and less

ego-involving. As the teacher is considered to have a significant influence on the


motivational climate in the dance class, this suggests that the teacher’s preferred

leadership behavior encourages a more of a task-involving than an ego involving

motivational climate. If we examine the teacher’s behavior more closely, we note that

he mainly used technical instruction (52%) and positive reinforcement (20%) during the

class and it may be these behaviors that have contributed to dance students’ perception

of a task-involving motivational climate.

Rafferty and Wyon (2006) noted that dance students prefer a teacher who creates an

environment with high levels of positive feedback and training instruction. In this study

technical instruction and positive feedback make up 72% of all observed teacher

behavior. What is unknown is whether the 72% observed in this study constitutes high

levels of positive feedback and training instruction in dance. Other studies using the

CBAS have found that two-thirds of all observed coaching behaviors were found to fall

into the categories of positive reinforcement, general technical instruction and general

encouragement (Weinberg and Gould: 210). This would suggest that the 72% positive

reinforcement and technical instruction found in this study is slightly higher than the

average levels found in other sports and physical activities. Further it should be noted

that 27% of observed leadership behaviors in this study were organizational instruction.

This might have been slightly higher than normal as this was a new class and students

were still becoming familiar with the class structure. If this figure was lower it would

make the relative level of technical and positive reinforcement higher. As a result, the

observed teaching behavior might have reflected an even higher level of technical

instruction and positive reinforcement, thus supporting Rafferty and Wyon’s (2006)

assertion that dance students prefer high levels of technical instruction and positive

feedback.


The limited nature of this study means that any assumptions concerning the relationship

between leadership behavior and motivational climate should be interpreted with

caution. However, this study would suggest that dance teachers can positively

influence the quality of student’s psychological experience by emphasizing a task-

involving climate. Epstein (1989) created the acronym TARGET, which she suggests

can be used by teachers to influence perceptions of motivational climate. TARGET

stands for task, authority, reward, grouping, evaluation, and timing structures, each of

which can be manipulated by teachers to convey a strong task-involving climate (Carr

and Wyon, 2003; Boyce, 2009). Research in physical education has demonstrated that

manipulating the motivational climate in pedagogical contexts is possible and effective

(Weigand and Burton, 2002: Todorovich and Curtner-Smith, 2002; Wallhead and

Ntoumanis, 2004). The TARGET system has successfully been adapted and used in an

educational context in Hong Kong (Lau and Lee, 2006) which suggests that it may be

one strategy to help dance teachers in Hong Kong create a more task-involving

motivational climate in the dance studio.

Limitations and Considerations

It is necessary to consider the limitations of this study. The reliability and validity of

the CBAS has been bought into question by some researchers (Smith, Smoll and Hunt,

1977; Conroy and Coatsworth, 2007) and the psychometric properties need to be

interpreted with caution. In addition, it is important to note that this tool was developed

for assessing the behavior of sports coaches (in training and practice) and as such may

not easily translate to assessing the behavior of dance teachers. For example, many of

the student-centered learning strategies observed by the researcher during the class


(including peer feedback and collective decision making) were not recordable on the

CBAS. Although there are examples of researchers adapting the CBAS for specific

study environments (Millard 1996; Smith et al. 1983) this study did not make any dance

class specific adaptations. Future dance related research which utilizes the CBAS might

benefit from making adaptations specific to the dance teaching environment.

Another limitation of this study is the small sample size and the fact that observation

was limited to one class. Future research would benefit from observing more teacher

student groups to see if patterns of behavior were consistent across dance teaching

populations. Future research would also benefit from using a longitudinal approach to

assess whether leadership behavior and perceptions of motivational climate were

consistent and stable over time.

Cultural context also needs to be carefully considered in respect to this study, as this

research was undertaken at an Asian dance conservatoire with a group of local Hong

Kong and Mainland Chinese students. Deci and Ryan (2000) take culture into

consideration in there discussion on self-determination and basic needs theory. They

reference a number of studies (American, Japanese, German, Russian, and Bulgarian)

and consider whether different cultural groups might respond differently to motivation,

autonomy and relatedness. They conclude that although they see basic human needs as

intrinsic to human psychology, they do acknowledge the importance of cultural values

such as individualism verses collectivism (p. 246). For example, they refer to a study

by Zuckerman et al. (1978, in Deci and Ryan, 2000) which examines the effects of

intrinsic motivation for Americans and Asians with regard to making choices

individually; accepting the choices made by trusted in-group members; and having


choices imposed by distant or non-trusted others. The results of this study show that

there are differences in how autonomy is expressed between a group of Americans and

a group of Asians (p. 247). Another study by Wang et al. (2010) noted Chinese

students scored lower than western students in psychometric tests for task-oriented and

perceived competence. They conclude this difference may in part be due to the more

emphasis placed on achievement in school, but also note that Chinese culture is one of

collectivism, where fundamental values such as humbleness, modesty and moderation

may cause students to respond in the ‘middle’ and avoid extreme responses when using

a Likert-type scale (pp. 295-296). Both of these examples would seem to suggest that

culture may play a significant role in how Chinese students perceive concepts like

autonomy, motivation and perceived competence.

It must also be noted that in the context of this study, all the theoretical models and

research into leadership and motivational climates have been drawn from western

sources. The above example brings into question their validity and reliability in a non-

western context (Hu, 2000; Wang et al., 2010). Future research which applies western

models and theories to non-western contexts must take this into consideration and these

models and theories need to be thoroughly tested in non-western contexts before

conclusive results can be drawn.

Conclusion

This study hypothesized that leadership behavior demonstrating high levels of technical

support and positive reinforcement would lead to a task-involving motivational climate

as perceived by the students. This hypothesis was supported by the results of the study

which showed that the teacher used mostly technical instruction and positive


reinforcement and the students perceived the emotional climate of the class as mostly

task-involving. This has implications for dance leaders who want to create task-

involving emotional climates for their students and the TARGET model was cited as

one strategy dance teachers could use to help them achieve this. A number of

methodological limitations were noted for this study, including the need to consider

cultural context in future when using western models and theories on non-western

subjects.


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Appendix 1. Read each of the following questions carefully and respond to each in terms of how you see the atmosphere in your dance training over the past few weeks.

請細心閱讀以下每一條問題，然後根據你對過去數周舞蹈訓練的氣氛之看法，逐一回答。

In this dance training … 在這次舞蹈訓練中……

Stro

ngl

y

dis

agre

e 非常不同

意

Dis

agre

e 不同意

Ne

utr

al

中立

Agr

ee

同意

Stro

ngl

y ag

ree

非常同意

1 The teachers want us to try new skills/movements/ expressions. 老師希望我們嘗試一些新技巧／動作／表現形式。

1 2 3 4 5

2 The teachers get mad when a dancer makes a mistake. 當舞者犯錯時，老師會生氣。

1 2 3 4 5

3 The teachers give most of their attention to the “stars”. 老師會把大部份的注意力放在「優異生」上。

1 2 3 4 5

4 Each dancer contributes in some important way. 每個舞者也在某些地方有重大貢獻。

1 2 3 4 5

5 The teachers believe that all of us are crucial (really important) to the success of a performance, sharing, or similar 老師相信我們所有人對於演出、分享或類似的活動的成功都是重要（十分重要）。

1 2 3 4 5

6 Dancers at all skill levels have an important role in performances, sharings, and similar. 不同技巧水平的舞者在演出、分享或類似活動都扮演著重要的角色。

1 2 3 4 5

7 Dancers help each other learn. 舞者互相幫助彼此學習。

1 2 3 4 5

8 The teachers have their own favourites. 老師有自己的偏好。

1 2 3 4 5

9 The teachers make sure dancers improve on skills or movements they’re not good at. 老師確保舞者在他們不擅長的技巧或動作上有所進步。

1 2 3 4 5

10 The teachers yell at dancers for messing up. 老師會呼喝犯錯的舞者。

1 2 3 4 5

11 Dancers feel successful when they improve. 舞者進步時會有成功感。

1 2 3 4 5

12 Only the best dancers get praise. 只有最好的舞者才會被稱讚。

1 2 3 4 5

13 Dancers are punished when they make a mistake. 舞者犯錯時會被罰。

1 2 3 4 5

14 Each dancer has an important role. 每個舞者也有一個重要的角色。

1 2 3 4 5

15 The teachers encourage dancers to help each other. 老師會鼓勵舞者互相幫助。

1 2 3 4 5

16 The teachers make it clear who they think are the best dancers. 老師會清楚表現出他們覺得誰是最佳舞者。

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17 The teachers emphasise always trying your best. 老師強調經常盡力而為。

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18 Only the top dancers “get noticed” by the teachers. 只有好舞者才會受到老師「注意」。

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19 Dancers are afraid to make mistakes. 舞者害怕犯錯。

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20 Dancers are encouraged to work on their weaknesses. 舞者被鼓勵去改善自己的弱點。

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21 The teachers favour some dancers more than others. 老師對某些舞者有所偏好。

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22 The focus is to improve each class. 訓練的重點是去改善每一課。

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23 The dancers really “work together” as a team when it comes to performances, sharings, and similar. 當有演出、分享或類似活動時，舞者真的會作為一個團隊去「共同努力」。

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In this dance training … 在這次舞蹈訓練中……

Stro

ngl

y

dis

agre

e 非常不同

意

Dis

agre

e 不同意

Ne

utr

al

中立

Agr

ee

同意

Stro

ngl

y ag

ree

非常同意

24 The dancers help each other to get better and excel (do well). 舞者會互相幫助，好讓彼此進步及變得優秀（做得好）。

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Appendix 2.

Data Sheet

(Remember to include this sheet as an appendix)

Observer: Brenton Surgenor Date of Observation:11.11.2012

Time began: 9.10am Time ended: 10.45am

Activity observed: Contemporary dance level 3

Behavioral category Mark each occurrence Total Percentage

1. Specific positive

reinforcement I 6 5

2. General positive

reinforcement IIII 19 15

3. Specific negative

reinforcement 0 0

4. General negative

reinforcement I 1 1

5. Specific technical

instruction 15 12

6. General technical

instruction 50 40

7. Keeping control 0 0

8. Organization III 33 27

Total 124 100

Chinese Students Perception of Leadership and Climate

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