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Leadership and Climate in Dance: Teacher Behavior and its Effect on Chinese
Students’ Perceived Motivational Climate
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to see if there was a correlation between leadership
behaviors and perceived motivational climate in dance. It was hypothesized that a
teacher who emphasizes technical instruction and positive feedback would encourage a
task-involving motivational climate. Quantitative data about teaching behavior was
collected using the Coaching Behavior Assessment System (CBAS). Data about
students’ perception of the motivational climate was collected using a modified version
of the Perceptions of Motivational Climate in Sport Scale-2. The research revealed that
the teacher in this study mainly used a combination of technical instruction and positive
reinforcement throughout the class and that the students perceived the motivational
climate as being more task-involving. This research has practical implications for
teachers wishing to create task-involving motivational climates in their classes and the
TARGET model was discussed as one strategy for achieving this. There were a number
of limitations noted for this study along with the cultural implications of applying
western models of leadership and concepts of motivational climate to an Asian context.
Introduction
This study set out to investigate the relationship between a dance teacher’s leadership
behavior and the dance students’ perceived motivational climate. In line with previous
studies (Rafferty and Wyon, 2006) it hypothesized that leadership behavior
demonstrating high levels of technical support and positive reinforcement would lead to
a task-involving motivational climate as perceived by the students. The study focuses
2 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978
on the leadership behavior of one western contemporary dance teacher and the
perceptions of the Chinese students he was teaching.
Literature Review
In sport, the coach is seen as the most influential person in developing motivational
climate (Ntoumanis and Biddle, 1999; Pensgaard and Roberts, 2002), and through their
interactions with athletes foster a motivational climate that can influence the thoughts
and feelings of the athletes during sports. This implies that a coach’s leadership
behavior, style and preferences will have a direct bearing on the type of motivational
climate they nurture and the perceptions of the athletes they are working with. As the
literature directly related to understanding the psychological relationship between
leadership in dance and motivational climates is limited, this paper will take the
position that dance teachers share many of the attributes of teachers and coaches, and
that dance students share many attributes similar to those of athletes, and draw on
related literature from the fields of education and sports psychology.
Leadership
Leaders in sport and physical activity are those who “influence individual and groups
towards set goals. They affect participants by establishing interpersonal relationships,
providing feedback, influencing the decision-making process, and providing
motivation” (Weinberg and Gould, 2011: 221). The cognitive-mediational model of
leadership (Smoll and Smith, 1989) argues “that the effects of coaches’ behaviors are a
function of their personality characteristics, which are mediated not only by situational
factors but also by the meaning that athletes attribute to those coaching behaviors”
(Weinberg and Gould, 2011: 209-210). In other words, cognitive and affective
3 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978
processes serve as filters between what coaches actually do and how it is perceived by
players. Smoll and Smith (1989) have used their model to analyze coach-athlete
relationships by observing the coach’s behavior to see what the coach actually does and
to compare this to how players perceive and are affected by this behavior (p.1527).
The cognitive-mediational model of leadership suggests that the leadership behavior of
the coach will affect the sporting experience as perceived by the athlete. Research into
leadership and motivational climates in sport and physical activity supports this position
and there is evidence to suggest that the coach or teacher who has assuming a leadership
role is the main architect of the motivational climate (Ames, 1992; Pensgaard and
Roberts, 2000; Allen and Hodge, 2006; Olympiou, Jowett and Duda, 2008, Conde et al.,
2009).
Applying the cognitive-mediational model of leadership to dance, we see the dance
teachers as leader having a significant effect on the learning experience as perceived by
the dancer. It should be noted that studies on leadership in dance and its effect on
climate are typically based on dancer perceptions rather than objective outside
observations (Rafferty and Wyon, 2006; Miulli and Nordin-Bates, 2011), therefore little
is known about how or what leadership behaviors in dance shape motivational climate.
Like Smoll and Smith (1989) this study attempts to analyze dance teacher-student
relationships by observing the teacher’s actual behavior and to compare this to how
dance students perceive the motivational climate in the studio.
4 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978
Achievement Goal Theory
Whilst leadership models suggest coaching behavior can affect athletes’ perceptions -
and experiences - of sport, achievement goal theory proposes that the meaning
individuals ascribe when engaging in achievement activities influence their motivation-
related patterns (Olympiou, Jowett and Duda, 2008: 425). In other words, achievement
goal theory is related to feelings of competency and success in task based activities.
Achievement goal theorists (Ames, 1992: Nicholls, 1984) have indicated there are two
main goal orientations (task and ego). When an individual is said to be focused on a
task goal, their perceptions of competence are self-referenced focusing on self-
improvement and effort. When an individual is said to be focused on ego goals, their
perception of competence are other-referenced, focused on competiveness and social
comparison (Olympiou, Jowett and Duda, 2008: 425). In addition, achievement goal
theory also suggests that situational factors created by significant others, such as
parents, teachers or coaches, will also influence whether someone will be task or ego
focused (Balaguer et al. 2002: 294).
Duda and Balaguer (1999) proposed an integrated model to bring together theories on
sports leadership with achievement goal theory to demonstrate how coach leadership
behaviors have implications for motivational processes. In essence, the integrated
model highlights how a coach’s behavior can have positive or negative effects on
athlete motivational patterns (Olympiou, Jowett and Duda, 2008). This integrated
model has been used to investigate associations between elements of achievement goal
theory and coach leadership models through correlational studies. One example of this
research is a study by Balaguer et al. (2002) where they examined the interrelationship
between task- and ego-involving features of the climate and athletes’ perceptions of
5 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978
their coach’s leadership behaviors. The research revealed that a climate perceived as
task-involving was positively related to athletes’ perceptions of technical improvement.
Moreover, players felt that when the environment created by the coach was seen as
more task-involving they experienced improved progress in both their own performance
and that of the team (p.305)
Theory relating to motivation and motivational climate have developed out of the
Nicholls (1984) achievement goal theory, which has subsequently been expanded and
developed to include the concepts of autonomy and relatedness (Deci and Ryan, 2000;
Quested and Duda 2010). In particular, self-determination theory and basic needs
theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000) have become a popular models through which to
examine motivation-related engagement in physical activity especially as they relate to
well- and ill-being (Quested and Duda, 2010; Standage, Duda and Ntoumanis, 2005).
Motivational Climate in Dance
Motivational climate in dance is the perceived psychological atmosphere in which
training, rehearsal and performing take place (Miulli and Nordin-Bates 2011). Whilst
everyone within the class, rehearsal and performance contributes to the psychological
atmosphere, it is behavior of the teacher, rehearsal director or choreographer that will
make the main contribution to the health of the motivational climate.
Ames (1992) suggests that the way in which the teacher structures the class setting
establishes a motivational climate that conveys goals to learners. As with achievement
goal theory, research suggests there exists two major competency-based motivational
climates, task- and ego- involving climates. These climates can exist separately or in
6 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978
combination. Task-involving climates are typified by environments fostering self-
improvement, individual effort, peer cooperation and task mastery. Ego-involving
climates are typified by competition, punishment for mistakes, rivalry, objective
success, social comparison and favoritism (Ames 1992; Miulli and Nordin-Bates 2011).
Perception of task-involving environments have been associated with positive indicators
of well-being, while the opposite is true of ego-involving climates (Krane, Greenleaf
and Snow, 1997; Ntoumanis and Biddle, 1999; Pensgaard and Roberts, 2000; Balaguer
et al. 2002; Reinboth and Duda, 2004). Recent studies exploring motivational climate
in dance has investigated links between motivational climate and well- and ill-being,
feelings of competency (Quested and Duda, 2010), achievement goals, trait anxiety,
perfectionism (Carr and Wyon, 2003) and creativity (Miulli and Nordin-Bates, 2011).
It is interesting to note that there is almost nothing known about the causal effect of
motivational climate and actual learning and performance (Allen and Hodge, 2006:
265). One study that does look at this relationship is that of Theebom, De Knop and
Weiss (1995) who investigated the relationship between motivational climate and skill
development in a three week intervention study. This study found a positive correlation
between skill development and a task-based motivational climate. Although this further
supports the idea that successful coaches/teachers foster task-based motivational
climates, there needs to be more research on the relationship between motivational
climate and skill learning and skill performance.
The interpretation of the environment in which the athletes and dancers operate can
have a marked effect on their feeling of competency, progress and desire to continue
7 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978
(Roberts, 2001; Maehr, 1984). In order to understand motivational climate and its
influence on dancers, it is important to not only understand the subjective meanings
dancers attach to their teacher’s behavior, but also the actual behavior of the teacher
who shapes the environment in which the students operate. To date, there has not been
any empirical research investigating observed leadership behavior in dance and its
effect on perceived motivational climate.
Participants
A male contemporary dance teacher and 12 contemporary dance students participated in
this study. The teacher was an Australian with more than 20 years of teaching
experience and a full-time member of the dance faculty. The teacher had met with this
group of students for a total of for 25 hours prior to data collection. The students (3
male and 9 female) were all Chinese (3 from Mainland and 9 from Hong Kong) aged 19
(±1.17) years old and in the first year of a four year conservatory dance program.
Students and teacher were briefed and informed consent forms collected for all
participants.
Method
The teacher’s behavior data was collected through observation of one 105 minute class
using the (CBAS) Coaching Behavior Assessment System (Smith, Smoll and Hunt
1977). The CBAS was developed as an empirical tool to objectively assess coaching
behavior in the field and has been used to assess specific coaching behaviors and the
way in which they affect athletes (Weinberg and Gould: 210). The teacher’s behavior
was assessed through observation and each time he interacted with the class, it was
recorded against one of eight categories (specific positive reinforcement, general
8 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978
positive reinforcement, specific negative reinforcement, general negative reinforcement,
specific technical instruction, general technical instruction, keeping control and
organization).
Percieved motivational climate data was collected with the Perceptions of Motivational
Climate in Sports Scale-2 (Newton, Duda and Yin 2000), modified for dance (Quested
and Duda 2010). The questionnaire was then translated into Chinese to ensure the
students would be able to answer confidently and without conferring with their fellow
students. Students were asked to answer 24 questions on a scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Although the PMCS-2 is generally used to
reflect on motivational climate over a period of time (the previous few weeks); the
students in this study completed the questionnaire at the end of the class with the
impressions of this particular class still fresh in their minds.
Results
As seen in Table 1, the results of the CBAS found that the teacher communicated 52%
technical instruction, 27% organizational instructions, 20% positive reinforcements and
1% negative reinforcements during this class.
9 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978
Table 1: Showing percentages for each leadership behavior category
To determine the task-involving climate, an average was calculated for the cooperative
learning, important role and effort/improvement subscales. To determine the ego-
involving climate, an average was calculated for the punishment for mistakes and the
unequal recognition subscales. Table 2 displays the averages for each sub-scale of the
PMCS-2 as well as the overall perception of task-involving and ego-involving climate.
An average score of 3-5 suggests that the students perceive the climate as being more
task-involving or ego-involving whereas a score of 3-1 would be less task-involving or
ego-involving. The average score for each subscale found that students perceived the
motivational climate to be more task-involving (3.93) than ego-involving (2.28).
Task-involving Climate
Cooperative Learning 4.02
Important role 3.64
Effort/Improvement 4.12
Overall perception of task-involving climate 3.93
Ego-involving Climate
Punishment for mistakes 1.8
Unequal recognition 2.76
Overall perception of ego-involving climate 2.28
Table 2: Average of the sub-scale for ego-involving and ego-involving motivational climate.
Discussion
This study hypothesized that leadership behavior demonstrating high levels of technical
support and positive reinforcement would lead to a task-involving motivational climate
as perceived by the students. Results from the data collected indicate that student
dancers see the motivational climate in their class as being more task-involving and less
ego-involving. As the teacher is considered to have a significant influence on the
10 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978
motivational climate in the dance class, this suggests that the teacher’s preferred
leadership behavior encourages a more of a task-involving than an ego involving
motivational climate. If we examine the teacher’s behavior more closely, we note that
he mainly used technical instruction (52%) and positive reinforcement (20%) during the
class and it may be these behaviors that have contributed to dance students’ perception
of a task-involving motivational climate.
Rafferty and Wyon (2006) noted that dance students prefer a teacher who creates an
environment with high levels of positive feedback and training instruction. In this study
technical instruction and positive feedback make up 72% of all observed teacher
behavior. What is unknown is whether the 72% observed in this study constitutes high
levels of positive feedback and training instruction in dance. Other studies using the
CBAS have found that two-thirds of all observed coaching behaviors were found to fall
into the categories of positive reinforcement, general technical instruction and general
encouragement (Weinberg and Gould: 210). This would suggest that the 72% positive
reinforcement and technical instruction found in this study is slightly higher than the
average levels found in other sports and physical activities. Further it should be noted
that 27% of observed leadership behaviors in this study were organizational instruction.
This might have been slightly higher than normal as this was a new class and students
were still becoming familiar with the class structure. If this figure was lower it would
make the relative level of technical and positive reinforcement higher. As a result, the
observed teaching behavior might have reflected an even higher level of technical
instruction and positive reinforcement, thus supporting Rafferty and Wyon’s (2006)
assertion that dance students prefer high levels of technical instruction and positive
feedback.
11 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978
The limited nature of this study means that any assumptions concerning the relationship
between leadership behavior and motivational climate should be interpreted with
caution. However, this study would suggest that dance teachers can positively
influence the quality of student’s psychological experience by emphasizing a task-
involving climate. Epstein (1989) created the acronym TARGET, which she suggests
can be used by teachers to influence perceptions of motivational climate. TARGET
stands for task, authority, reward, grouping, evaluation, and timing structures, each of
which can be manipulated by teachers to convey a strong task-involving climate (Carr
and Wyon, 2003; Boyce, 2009). Research in physical education has demonstrated that
manipulating the motivational climate in pedagogical contexts is possible and effective
(Weigand and Burton, 2002: Todorovich and Curtner-Smith, 2002; Wallhead and
Ntoumanis, 2004). The TARGET system has successfully been adapted and used in an
educational context in Hong Kong (Lau and Lee, 2006) which suggests that it may be
one strategy to help dance teachers in Hong Kong create a more task-involving
motivational climate in the dance studio.
Limitations and Considerations
It is necessary to consider the limitations of this study. The reliability and validity of
the CBAS has been bought into question by some researchers (Smith, Smoll and Hunt,
1977; Conroy and Coatsworth, 2007) and the psychometric properties need to be
interpreted with caution. In addition, it is important to note that this tool was developed
for assessing the behavior of sports coaches (in training and practice) and as such may
not easily translate to assessing the behavior of dance teachers. For example, many of
the student-centered learning strategies observed by the researcher during the class
12 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978
(including peer feedback and collective decision making) were not recordable on the
CBAS. Although there are examples of researchers adapting the CBAS for specific
study environments (Millard 1996; Smith et al. 1983) this study did not make any dance
class specific adaptations. Future dance related research which utilizes the CBAS might
benefit from making adaptations specific to the dance teaching environment.
Another limitation of this study is the small sample size and the fact that observation
was limited to one class. Future research would benefit from observing more teacher
student groups to see if patterns of behavior were consistent across dance teaching
populations. Future research would also benefit from using a longitudinal approach to
assess whether leadership behavior and perceptions of motivational climate were
consistent and stable over time.
Cultural context also needs to be carefully considered in respect to this study, as this
research was undertaken at an Asian dance conservatoire with a group of local Hong
Kong and Mainland Chinese students. Deci and Ryan (2000) take culture into
consideration in there discussion on self-determination and basic needs theory. They
reference a number of studies (American, Japanese, German, Russian, and Bulgarian)
and consider whether different cultural groups might respond differently to motivation,
autonomy and relatedness. They conclude that although they see basic human needs as
intrinsic to human psychology, they do acknowledge the importance of cultural values
such as individualism verses collectivism (p. 246). For example, they refer to a study
by Zuckerman et al. (1978, in Deci and Ryan, 2000) which examines the effects of
intrinsic motivation for Americans and Asians with regard to making choices
individually; accepting the choices made by trusted in-group members; and having
13 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978
choices imposed by distant or non-trusted others. The results of this study show that
there are differences in how autonomy is expressed between a group of Americans and
a group of Asians (p. 247). Another study by Wang et al. (2010) noted Chinese
students scored lower than western students in psychometric tests for task-oriented and
perceived competence. They conclude this difference may in part be due to the more
emphasis placed on achievement in school, but also note that Chinese culture is one of
collectivism, where fundamental values such as humbleness, modesty and moderation
may cause students to respond in the ‘middle’ and avoid extreme responses when using
a Likert-type scale (pp. 295-296). Both of these examples would seem to suggest that
culture may play a significant role in how Chinese students perceive concepts like
autonomy, motivation and perceived competence.
It must also be noted that in the context of this study, all the theoretical models and
research into leadership and motivational climates have been drawn from western
sources. The above example brings into question their validity and reliability in a non-
western context (Hu, 2000; Wang et al., 2010). Future research which applies western
models and theories to non-western contexts must take this into consideration and these
models and theories need to be thoroughly tested in non-western contexts before
conclusive results can be drawn.
Conclusion
This study hypothesized that leadership behavior demonstrating high levels of technical
support and positive reinforcement would lead to a task-involving motivational climate
as perceived by the students. This hypothesis was supported by the results of the study
which showed that the teacher used mostly technical instruction and positive
14 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978
reinforcement and the students perceived the emotional climate of the class as mostly
task-involving. This has implications for dance leaders who want to create task-
involving emotional climates for their students and the TARGET model was cited as
one strategy dance teachers could use to help them achieve this. A number of
methodological limitations were noted for this study, including the need to consider
cultural context in future when using western models and theories on non-western
subjects.
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Appendix 1. Read each of the following questions carefully and respond to each in terms of how you see the atmosphere in your dance training over the past few weeks.
請細心閱讀以下每一條問題,然後根據你對過去數周舞蹈訓練的氣氛之看法,逐一回答。
In this dance training … 在這次舞蹈訓練中……
Stro
ngl
y
dis
agre
e 非常不同
意
Dis
agre
e 不同意
Ne
utr
al
中立
Agr
ee
同意
Stro
ngl
y ag
ree
非常同意
1 The teachers want us to try new skills/movements/ expressions. 老師希望我們嘗試一些新技巧/動作/表現形式。
1 2 3 4 5
2 The teachers get mad when a dancer makes a mistake. 當舞者犯錯時,老師會生氣。
1 2 3 4 5
3 The teachers give most of their attention to the “stars”. 老師會把大部份的注意力放在「優異生」上。
1 2 3 4 5
4 Each dancer contributes in some important way. 每個舞者也在某些地方有重大貢獻。
1 2 3 4 5
5 The teachers believe that all of us are crucial (really important) to the success of a performance, sharing, or similar 老師相信我們所有人對於演出、分享或類似的活動的成功都是重要(十分重要)。
1 2 3 4 5
6 Dancers at all skill levels have an important role in performances, sharings, and similar. 不同技巧水平的舞者在演出、分享或類似活動都扮演著重要的角色。
1 2 3 4 5
7 Dancers help each other learn. 舞者互相幫助彼此學習。
1 2 3 4 5
8 The teachers have their own favourites. 老師有自己的偏好。
1 2 3 4 5
9 The teachers make sure dancers improve on skills or movements they’re not good at. 老師確保舞者在他們不擅長的技巧或動作上有所進步。
1 2 3 4 5
10 The teachers yell at dancers for messing up. 老師會呼喝犯錯的舞者。
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11 Dancers feel successful when they improve. 舞者進步時會有成功感。
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12 Only the best dancers get praise. 只有最好的舞者才會被稱讚。
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13 Dancers are punished when they make a mistake. 舞者犯錯時會被罰。
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14 Each dancer has an important role. 每個舞者也有一個重要的角色。
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15 The teachers encourage dancers to help each other. 老師會鼓勵舞者互相幫助。
1 2 3 4 5
16 The teachers make it clear who they think are the best dancers. 老師會清楚表現出他們覺得誰是最佳舞者。
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17 The teachers emphasise always trying your best. 老師強調經常盡力而為。
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18 Only the top dancers “get noticed” by the teachers. 只有好舞者才會受到老師「注意」。
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19 Dancers are afraid to make mistakes. 舞者害怕犯錯。
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20 Dancers are encouraged to work on their weaknesses. 舞者被鼓勵去改善自己的弱點。
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21 The teachers favour some dancers more than others. 老師對某些舞者有所偏好。
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22 The focus is to improve each class. 訓練的重點是去改善每一課。
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23 The dancers really “work together” as a team when it comes to performances, sharings, and similar. 當有演出、分享或類似活動時,舞者真的會作為一個團隊去「共同努力」。
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20 Brenton Surgenor # 1133978
In this dance training … 在這次舞蹈訓練中……
Stro
ngl
y
dis
agre
e 非常不同
意
Dis
agre
e 不同意
Ne
utr
al
中立
Agr
ee
同意
Stro
ngl
y ag
ree
非常同意
24 The dancers help each other to get better and excel (do well). 舞者會互相幫助,好讓彼此進步及變得優秀(做得好)。
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Appendix 2.
Data Sheet
(Remember to include this sheet as an appendix)
Observer: Brenton Surgenor Date of Observation:11.11.2012
Time began: 9.10am Time ended: 10.45am
Activity observed: Contemporary dance level 3
Behavioral category Mark each occurrence Total Percentage
1. Specific positive
reinforcement I 6 5
2. General positive
reinforcement IIII 19 15
3. Specific negative
reinforcement 0 0
4. General negative
reinforcement I 1 1
5. Specific technical
instruction 15 12
6. General technical
instruction 50 40
7. Keeping control 0 0
8. Organization III 33 27
Total 124 100