Chinese international students: an Avant-garde of Independent Travellers?

Chinese International Students. An Avant-Garde of Independent Travellers?

BRIAN KING1* and SARAH GARDINER2

1School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong2Department of Tourism, Sports and Hotel Management, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia

ABSTRACT

Though most long-haul Chinese travellers participate in group-based tours, many young Chinese are now travelling overseas to acquireeducational qualifications. These ‘study tourists’ travel independently around their place of study, often accompanied by friends andrelatives whom they are hosting. Understanding the characteristics of such independent behaviours may offer insights into China’s futureoutbound travel market. This study of 1400 Chinese studying in Australia highlights distinctions between independent student travellersand youth travellers more generally such as backpackers. The findings challenge established typologies of independent youth travellersand raise prospective implications for marketers. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Received 08 May 2013; Revised 22 July 2013; Accepted 28 August 2013

key words Chinese tourism; youth tourism; international student; international tourist; backpacker; independent travel

INTRODUCTION

China outbound tourism is an emerging global phenomenonpropelled by the country’s vast population of over 1.3 billionand the current and potential spending capacity of its citizenry(National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011). As has been thecase with outbound growth markets that have preceded it,Chinese tourism has been fuelled by rapid economic develop-ment, rising disposable incomes and urbanisation. However,the combination of unprecedented population size and rapid eco-nomic growth suggest that future tourism practices are likely todiverge from themore establishedmodels that have characterisedearlier evolving outbound markets (Yeoman, 2012). In terms ofits established double digit annual growth, unleashing of pent updemand after a retarded take-off leading and vast potential vol-ume, China’s outbound tourism has no direct international prece-dent. Some of the distinguishing characteristics of Chinaoutbound travel are culture-related, including its Confucian her-itage and post 1949 communist political and economic ideology.These factors form a backdrop to the economic liberalisation andgrowth characteristic of the post-1978 period.

It is apparent that the student and youth travel markets hasbeen shaped similarly to the market more generally.However, the current generation of young adults is a particularmanifestation of the ‘one-child’ policy. This phenomenon hasfreed young Chinese adults from the experience of competitionfrom siblings when accessing resources and has provided themwith unchallenged attention from their parents and grandpar-ents. This has allowed them to benefit from the growingopportunities for international education, which haveaccompanied successive decades of rapid economic growth.The pursuit of education has provided a rationale for travellingoverseas, which is both socially and politically acceptable. Ashas been the case with the so-called overseas ‘net–generation’youth markets (D. Kim and Ammeter, 2008), Chinese youth

have been shaped by technology and by the social attitudes as-sociated with the growing ownership of mobile devices. Tech-nological advances have facilitated international travel andhave accelerated the removal of barriers between previouslyisolated China and other countries. Chinese youths have alsobenefited from economic transformation and the opening upof self-expression through social media. As travel barriers havebeen progressively lowered, it has been easier for young Chi-nese to pursue educational advancement overseas. With theirpurchasing capacity supplemented by parental support, Chi-nese studying abroad constitute a potent economic phenome-non. For these reasons, the researchers contend that youngertravellers have already been exhibiting independent behavioursthat were scarcely imaginable to the generations who experi-enced the restrictions and deprivations of the Cultural Revolu-tion. The Cultural Revolution ideology emphasised rural-based manual labour and industrialisation in agricultural set-tings and was notably antipathetic to education. It was onlywhen the Cultural Revolution concluded that the relationshipbetween tourism and education was transformed.

Despite the increasingly independent characteristics ofChinese youth travellers, China’s outbound tourism has inaggregate remained predominantly group-based (Karwackiet al., 1997). The Government of China’s insistence on group-based arrangements (usually package tours) has epitomised itshighly managed approach to extending outbound travel.Bilateral government-to-government agreements provide theregulatory framework that administers how Chinese visitorsare received into other jurisdictions. The group-based require-ment has provided a ready-made mechanism to minimise theprospect of visitors overstaying their visas and has beenwelcomed by many receiving countries. Despite the entrenchedpredominance of group-based travel, it is evident that Chineseconsumers are increasingly opting to travel independently(Tourism Australia, 2012a). Independent travel is already aprevalent and predominant feature of Chinese domestictourism, with 2.6 billion domestic trips taken annually, albeitwith a strong family reunion component (Xiao, in-press).

*Correspondence to: Brian King, School of Hotel and Tourism Management,The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong.E-mail: [email protected]

Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

International Journal of Tourism Research, Int. J. Tourism Res., 17: 130–139 (2015)Published online 4 October 2013 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/jtr.1971

Chinese residents increasingly possess the means and desire totravel independently, and their aspirations are being fulfilled byincreasingly targeted industry campaigns (du Cros & Liu, 2013).

The government of China has also experimented with thefacilitation of independent travel on a pilot basis. Hong KongSpecial Autonomous Region (SAR) was the first destinationto be impacted by such liberalisation. As SAR within greaterChina under the ‘one country two systems’, Hong Kong hasexperienced large-scale visitation by independent Chinesetravellers. This has partly been a consequence of the grantingof visa-free travel to residents of the adjoining city ofShenzhen in Guangdong Province, leading to a substantialcross-border excursion-taking. This characteristic distin-guishes it from the style of independent travel that Australiahas experienced as a medium-long haul island continent. Thecontrast is even more evident in the case of Macao SAR withits tiny landmass, which has also been a recipient of substan-tial independent cross-border travel. Ong and Cros (2012)have provided rich qualitative insights into the behavioursof Chinese backpackers travelling to Macao. The capacityof mainland Chinese to travel independently to Taiwan isalso increasing, though commentary on this new phenome-non has been largely confined to media coverage rather thanscholarly analysis (Reuters, 2007; Asia Times, 2011).

Experience from Asian markets, which emerged beforeChina, suggests that independent travel becomes progres-sively more commonplace. For example, Japanese outboundtravellers have incrementally reduced their dependence ongroup-based arrangements and became increasingly indepen-dent (Andersen et al., 2000). The rapid emergence of moreindividualised forms of China outbound travel is surprisingin view of the strict regulation environment and delayed start.In some respects, the increasing freedoms for Chineseoutbound tourists have been consistent with previousliberalisations. However, it is argued here that some changeshave occurred more slowly than elsewhere (e.g. the persistenceof the group-based requirement because of government),whereas youth study travel has appeared suddenly and hasexpanded rapidly. In the case of Australia-bound travel,growth has been fuelled by reforms to the visa applicationprocess, by the availability of web-based booking optionsand by the expansion of direct flights (Tourism and EventsQueensland, 2012). Such liberalisation practices that progres-sively extend consumer freedoms are now commonplace inother centrally planned economies.

The researchers contend that international students have‘come of age’ as a result of their experiences of differentsocial, economic and political environments and constituteChina’s first wave of independent travellers. Previous re-searchers may have neglected this rather obvious contentionbecause international students are excluded from the UnitedNational World Tourism Organization definition of touristsbecause of their extended average length of stay in thedestination. Researchers have also neglected the tourismopportunities associated with international education. Thecurrent researchers acknowledge an earlier wave of Chinesetravellers - diplomats - who undertook travel when in situwithin their assigned country. However, the size andpotential of this earlier phenomenon are dwarfed by the

burgeoning Chinese international student market. For thesereasons, independent travel by Chinese international studentsis an instructive example for studying the emerging indepen-dent international travel behaviour of Chinese tourists and asa portent of future market developments. Tourism operatorsmay secure a strong positioning and develop culturalunderstandings by developing products, promotions anddistribution channels targeted at the emerging and alreadysubstantial Chinese international student traveller market.

STUDY CONTEXT

Australia was amongst the first Western destinations to targetthe China outbound market and its 15-year experience of themarket makes it a suitable setting for the present study(Sparks and Pan, 2008). The resident Chinese population inAustralia dates back to the 1850s ‘gold rush’, indicative oflongstanding historic connections between the two countries(Inglis, 1972). Today, Australia’s Chinese-speaking residentsare concentrated in the major cities (Australian Bureau ofStatistics, 2012b). Following the Tiananmen Square‘incident’ (1989), the migrant population grew when approx-imately 50 000 Chinese citizens, many of them students,opted for Australian permanent residency (Australian Bureauof Statistics, 2012a). The China-Australia relationship wasbuilt on a foundation of sustained diplomacy starting withthe visit by Australian Prime Minister Whitlam in the early1970s. Diplomacy led progressively to the establishment ofair transport links between the two countries, and theAustralian Government opened a trade office in Shanghaiin 1999 (Austrade, 2013). Along with New Zealand,Australia was the first western country to be grantedApproval Destination Status by the Chinese Government in1999 (Australian Government, 2013).

Australia has a large and growing international studentpopulation and in parallel with early entry into the China tour-ism outboundmarket, many have emanated fromChina. About30% of Australia’s annual population of over 0.5 millioninternational students are Chinese (Australian EducationInternational, 2013). The inbound tourism industry has shownincreasing interest in capitalising on the student travel marketwith a view to extending its youth-based product offeringsbeyond the backpacker sector. Now valued at $16.4 billion -(Australian Education International, 2011) - Australia’s inter-national education ‘industry’ now rivals international tourismas a revenue generator (tourism is valued at $24.0 billion)(Tourism Research Australia, 2011b). An appreciation of themagnitude of this phenomenon has stimulated tourism industryefforts to identify potential synergies, particularly as studentsenrolled in extended programs (e.g. undergraduate degrees ordoctorates) are long term and occasionally permanent residents.

The youthful proportion of Australia’s overall visitation isalso substantial. Over 1.6 million international youth travellers,aged between 15 and 29years visitedAustralia in 2012, account-ing for approximately one-third of all visitation (TourismAustralia, 2012b). Historically, most youth travellers intoAustralia originated in western countries such as New Zealand(14% of youth international travellers), the UK (8%), the USA

Chinese Independent Youth Travellers 131

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(6%), France (3%) and Germany (4%). More recently Chinahas emerged as a key market, and now represents about 10%of youth arrivals (Tourism Australia, 2012b). It is argued herethat understanding Australia’s experience of Chinese studentshas the potential to provide insights into the travel behavioursof international students with a view to informing aconceptualisation of youth independent travellers into a perioddescribed by the Government of Australia as the ‘AsianCentury’ (Australian Government, 2012). For these reasons,Australia provides an appropriate setting to study the indepen-dent travel behaviours of Chinese international students.

AIMS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study aims to investigate the travel behaviours ofChinese international students who are currently enrolled inAustralia. The researchers will explore this population forits potential to provide insights into the future behavioursof young Chinese independent travellers. To characterisetheir travel behaviours and achieve this aim, the researchersexamined the international youth traveller literature. In orderto determine the applicability of this typology to the Chineseindependent youth travel market, their characteristics will becompared with independent student travellers generally andwith Chinese international student travellers in particular.The following research questions are proposed:

• Do Chinese student travel behaviours fit the existingtypologies of youth travellers and backpackers?

• Are Chinese student travel behaviours distinct from thoseof other youth travellers?

• Can an understanding of Chinese student travel behaviours in-form the emerging Chinese independent travel phenomenon?

YOUTH TOURISM

Youth tourism represents approximately 20% of all globaltravel and is predicted to increase from 190 million trips in2010 to 300 million trips by 2020 (United Nations WorldTourism Organization, 2012). Growth has been associatedwith the rise in international tertiary education and in labourmobility (King and Richards, 2003). The emergence of thephenomenon has prompted academics and practitioners toinvestigate associated travel behaviours and motivations.However, most youth tourism research has concentrated onthe largest and most readily identifiable segment – internationalbackpackers. Most youth tourists have come from westerncountries, notably Europe and North America, and the bulkof product development and marketing efforts have focusedon the needs of backpackers from these sources. The inexora-ble rise of China outbound travel generally and of the youthsegment in particular has accelerated the need to profile travel-ler needs and to stimulate demand. Drawing upon the relevantliterature, this paper evaluates the existing conceptual modelsof youth, independent and student travel and assesses theirapplicability to the Chinese youth travel market. Theresearchers propose a conceptual model of youth tourism that

distinguishes between backpackers and international studenttravellers. This is proposed as a foundation for future researchinto the burgeoning Chinese independent youth travel market.

Typology of youth independent travelThe existing youth travel literature has concentrated onbackpackers (e.g. (Loker-Murphy and Pearce, 1995; Parisand Teye, 2010; Phillip Pearce and Foster, 2007; Richardsand Wilson, 2004), frequently seeking to distinguish theirunique travel behaviours and motives from those of othertravellers. For many younger residents in the developedcountries, taking an extended overseas trip has become a ‘riteof passage’. Uriely,Yonay and Simchai examined variousdimensions of the backpacker experience in some detailand provided helpful insights into the characteristics of thismarket and of youth travel more generally (2002). Accordingto O’Reilly (2006),‘Backpackers’ often opt for a ‘gap year’between school and university and/or between universityand work prior to assuming adult responsibilities in pursuitof fun and independence. They tend to travel alone or withone other person and are receptive to more adventurous andrisk-taking behaviours, often voyaging ‘off the beaten track’on trails and exploring destinations that are dissociated withmainstream tourist experiences (Richards and Wilson,2004). The backpacking phenomenon has been characterisedas spontaneous and serendipitous travel, which involvesminimal advance planning (O’Reilly, 2006). Backpackersare commonly characterised as independent travellers onflexible itineraries with a preference for organising theirown accommodation, transport and activities, and they tendto avoid packaged and inauthentic experiences. Destinationsand travel providers that cater to their needs generally need toprovide considerable freedom for decision-making choices atthe destination (Hyde and Lawson, 2003). Relative to main-stream leisure travellers, backpackers typically stay longerand spend less on a nightly basis, though more per overalltrip. In Australia, the average international backpacker staysfor 73 nights and spends an average of $5423 per trip.International leisure travellers to Australia have a shorteraverage length of stay (26 nights) and spend less ($2411) pertrip than backpackers (Tourism Research Australia, 2011a).When travelling, many backpackers opt to share hostel-typeaccommodation with other young travellers (AustralianGovernment, 2009), rather than staying in the hotel-style andmotel-style accommodation that is typically frequented bymainstream leisure travellers. Figure 1 proposes a typologyof backpackers as a core sector of the youth travel market.Drawing upon the relevant literature backpacker motivations,length of stay, accommodation and activity preferences andstyles of travel are outlined. This typology proposes a compar-ative model with a view to investigating the travel behavioursof Chinese students.

The evolving independent travel marketBeing a backpacker involves demonstrating the exercise ofindependence over an extended period, and somemanifestationsof the phenomenon may be viewed as a form of educationalexperience that supports self-development. Pearce and Foster(2007) have noted that backpackers acquire relevant skills,

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which enhance their future employment prospects. However,as competition within the relevant industry sector has intensi-fied and demand has grown, critics have viewed backpackerexperiences as increasingly commodified. This is particularlyevident in western settings such as Australia, New Zealandand Europe, where there has been a growing prevalence ofsemi-packaged and fully-packaged backpacker travel options.Exemplary products such as OZ Experience, Kiwi Experienceand Busabout Europe provide flexible ‘hop-on-hop-off’ coachpasses, which connect destinations, accommodation andactivities along highly organised tourist trails. Meanwhile,comprehensive online booking websites facilitate reservationsthat increasingly resemble what prevails in other well-developed backpacker hotspots. A profusion of websites nowpervades the backpacker landscape including vipbackpackers.com, hostelworld.com, wickedtravel.com.au and nomadsworld.com. These are complemented by substantial youth-focusedtravel agents, such as Hostel World, Peter Pan, STA Traveland Student Flights. The advancing commercialisation ofbackpacking has prompted reconceptualisation of the fieldincluding the emergent phenomenon of ‘flashpacking’(Swart, 2006; Hostelworld.com, 2013). This expressionchallenges the notion that backpackers have minimal financialresources and roam serendipitously around destinations. Thereconceptualisation is accompanied by the implication thatthey are prosperous and adhere to pre-planned itineraries.

International student travelResearchers have increasingly discussed internationalstudent travel as a form of independent youth travel (Babinand KuemLim, 2001; Brown, 2009; Glover, 2011; D. Kimand Ammeter, 2008; K. Kim et al., 2006; Weaver, 2003;Xu et al., 2009). The relevant literature highlights thepropensity of international students to travel independentlyaround the destination during their period of study, though theyare evidently distinct from backpackers. Unlike backpackerswho are visiting destinations for fun-related experiences,

education is the principal motivation for students who leavetheir home country to study overseas. In such circumstances,travel will generally be a second order consideration (Gardineret al., 2013). The predominant manifestation of internationalstudent travel has been short breaks, typically undertakenwithin friendship groups (Weaver, 2003). It has been notedthat international student travellers have a greater interestin city-based sightseeing and prefer to use mainstreamaccommodation such as hotels, motels and apartments overbackpacker hostels (Gardiner et al., 2013). Pearce and Son(2004) compared the travel behaviours of backpackers andinternational English language students. They found thatEnglish language students travel in groups rather than inde-pendently, stay in hotels or motels rather than hostels andopt for city-based sightseeing activities over nature-basedactivities. The conclusions that have been reached by thevarious studies on international student travellers have beenlargely based on samples of less than 200 and confined tostudents enrolled at a single institution. Such constraintshave limited the capacity to assess the applicability offindings to travellers emanating from different countries,particularly in the case of emerging markets such as China.

Studies focusing on the Chinese international studentmarket include work undertaken at a Japanese Universityby Shi et al. (2010) who compared the travel behaviours ofChinese and non-Chinese students. Meanwhile, Wang andDavidson (2008) investigated the destination perceptions ofChinese students at an Australian university. Ryan andHuimin’s (2007) examination of the travel planningbehaviours of Chinese and New Zealand students adopted aspatial perspective. Finally Xu et al. (2009) compared thetravel behaviours of domestic undergraduates studying inthe US and China. From these various contributions, thetravel behaviours of international students generally, and ofChinese students in particular, are distinct from those of back-packers. It is evident that international student mobilities meritgreater attention, particularly in the case of the increasingly

Figure 1. Chinese international student travellers and backpackers - a comparison.



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significant China market. The prevailing models of youthindependent travel need to be reassessed.

Cohen’s (2003) classification of youth travellers intoexplorers and drifters is helpful to distinguish betweenbehavioural archetypes. Youth travellers often pioneer travelto destinations that are ‘off the beaten track’. Contributingfactors have included their attitudes (an openness to newand unfamiliar places and people), extended length of stay(consistent with the capacity to explore) and disinterest inup-scale accommodation (often unavailable in more remotelocations). Youth travellers may be viewed as forming anavant-garde as they progressively open up new destinations.This process is manifest in the appearance of Lonely Planetand Rough Guides publications focussed on some of theworld’s least likely tourist locations such as Timor Lesteand Antarctica. As tourists have increasing conquered theglobe, there has been a decreasing number of genuinefrontiers that can be conquered. In the case of China, the vastscale of its 2.6 billion domestic annual trips (Xiao, in-press)leaves relatively few ‘unexplored’ places and thereby limitsthe pioneering opportunities for younger Chinese travellers.Although ‘wild China’ holds growing appeal and Chan(2009) has depicted the practice of ‘free walking’ amongstyoung Chinese travellers in Hong Kong, the occurrence ofthe latter in close proximity to a dense global city issymptomatic of the constrained extent of genuine wildness.

Although there is minimal evidence in the literature thatChinese youth travellers have pioneered new tourismregions, they may be prototypical of future independentChinese outbound travellers. Whereas the experiences oftheir middle aged Chinese counterparts have been largelyconfined to group-based travel, Chinese overseas studentshave been relatively free to travel independently. Such travelcannot be described as ‘adventurous’ in the true Cohensense, but it provides a foretaste of the future wave ofindependent China outbound travellers. The topic has potentialinterest for researchers on both cultural and economic grounds.The cultural dimensions include the impetus to travel alone oraccompanied and the connection that is maintained betweentravellers and their friends and family through gift-giving(a strong characteristic of Chinese travellers). The economicdimension includes the purchasing behaviours of travellerson categories such as accommodation and transport andtheir sense of value for money.

The Chinese student independent travel market is alreadysubstantial. It has been estimated that almost 1.5 millionChinese students studied in Australia between 2001–2011,accounting for over half of all education related arrivals(Australian Government, 2012a). If Chinese internationalstudents are truly pioneer independent travellers, theprospects for outbound China independent travel are bright.On this basis it is timely to re-evaluate the typology ofindependent youth travellers and to identify how Chineseindependent student travellers differ from the prevailingbackpacker typology. A reconceptualisation of this typologythat takes particular account of the emerging Chinese marketmay offer insights to inform marketing activities targeted atprospective independent Chinese travellers more generally.The present researchers previously surveyed international

students from different source markets studying in Australia,and this paper focuses specifically on the behaviours, travelactivities and preferred accommodation of Chinese respon-dents. The findings assess the typologies that are applicableto youth travellers and explain the independent travelbehaviours of younger Chinese. The paper concludes withan acknowledgment of limitations and proposes implicationsfor future research.

METHOD

The researchers administered an online survey to studentsfrom various nationalities that were studying at Australianuniversities, with the aim of characterising their travel relatedviews and behaviours. Participants were asked about theirmost recent trip, including their participation in tourism-related activities and their attitudes to accommodation. Thequestionnaire items were consistent with those used inprevious studies on international student travel behaviours(e.g. Field, 1999; Shi et al., 2010; Weaver, 2003; Gardineret al., 2013). The initial phase of this research involved theconvening of a series of focus groups made up of interna-tional students in various locations across Australia. Thefocus groups generated issues for potential investigation thatserved to assess the applicability of the proposed surveyinstrument and questions. The present paper focuses onChinese students and the analysis concentrates on the surveyphase of the research that followed the conduct of the variousfocus groups. A pilot study was conducted as part of thesurvey component with students enrolled at a University in thestate of Queensland. The feedback led to minor modificationsof the wording of various questionnaire items.

The main survey phase began with the distribution of ane-mail to the international offices of all 39Australian universitiesseeking their assistance. Nineteen universities from variousstates and territories agreed to participate, including 10 fromNew South Wales, five from Queensland, two from Victoria,one each from Western Australia and the Northern Territory.Each responding institution was asked to distribute an e-mailinvitation to their enrolled international students and to providean associated web link. An online survey was considered to beappropriate for accessing students, because most use thistechnology as their primary medium of communication withthe university. Online surveys have been employed effectivelyin comparable student travel studies (e.g. Glover, 2011). Thisapproach reduces associated costs and distribution is quickand dispersed. Statistical analysis of the data was undertakenusing the SPSS (SPSS Inc, Chicago, Illinois) software package.

RESULTS

Approximately 1400 of the 5000 international students whocompleted the survey were Chinese, and the insightsprovided by these respondents form the basis of the presentpaper. The profile presented in Table 1 shows that mostChinese respondents were aged under 30 years (97.9%) with59.1% female and 40.9% male. Most respondents were

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enrolled in a university degree, either at post-graduate(39.9%) or under-graduate level (31.0%). Students studyingat universities based in New South Wales (66.3%) andQueensland (24.5%) were most prominent, reflective of thelocations of the participating institutions. Most respondentswere studying their full program in Australia (96.9%), wereon a student visa (97.3%) and anticipated remaining in thecountry for between one and four years (79.1%).

Chinese student perceptions of accommodationWhen travelling within Australia, most respondents (n= 1413)preferred to stay in hotels or motels (48.4%) and in holidayapartments (28.0%), with only a small proportion opting forbackpacker hostels (16.9%) or camping grounds (3.7%).Cross tabulation comparisons reveal that relative to theirChinese counterparts, non-Chinese respondents (n = 3623)have a significantly greater preference for backpackeraccommodation (24.8%) and a lesser preference forhotels and motels (41.9%) and holiday apartments(21.5%), x2(7, N = 5036) = 86.7, p< 0.001.

A paired t-test was conducted to compare the views ofChinese respondents towards backpacker hostels and othertypes of accommodation (e.g., hotels, motels, holiday apart-ments) based on six key attributes. The attributes includedthe following: safety, cleanliness, ease of booking, valuefor money, convenience and understands the needs ofinternational students. Respondents were asked to rate thestandard of these two accommodation types on a 5-pointscale ranging from very poor (1) to very good (5). Table 2presents a comparison of the ratings for hostels and othertypes of accommodation. The results indicate a significant

difference between how respondents view hostels comparedwith other forms of accommodation from the perspectivesof safety, cleanliness, ease of booking and convenience(in all cases hostels are perceived less favourably). However,respondents regarded hostels as offering better value formoney than other accommodation types. Across the fiveattributes, the lowest mean was reported for understandingthe needs of international students. In this case, no significantdifference was evident for either backpacker hostels or othertypes of accommodation.

T-tests were conducted to compare the perceptions ofChinese and non-Chinese respondents towards hostel andother accommodation and to determine whether the twogroups differ in their views of accommodation as an indicatorof style of travel. No significant differences were apparentbetween Chinese and non-Chinese respondents on the basisof cleanliness, ease of booking and convenience of hostelsor other accommodation. However, non-Chinese respon-dents (M= 3.19, SD= 0.90) were more likely than theirChinese counterparts to think that hostels understood theneeds of international students (M = 3.13, SD = 0.86),F= 9.03, df = 1,5745, p = 0.003. In the case of other accom-modation providers, both groups felt similarly that they meetthe needs of international students, with no significant differ-ences evident for this item. Non-Chinese respondents thoughtthat other accommodation types were safer (MNon-Chinese =3.93,SDNon-Chinese = 0.71; MChinese = 3.82, SDNon-Chinese = 0.74)and better value for money (VOM) (MNon-Chinese = 3.13,SDNon-Chinese = 0.92; MChinese = 3.08, SDChinese = 0.84) thanChinese respondents, FSafer = 15.78, df Safer = 1,5799,pSafer< 0.001; FVOM=34.61, df VOM=1,5760, pVOM0.001. There were no significant differences in the views ofthese groups towards hostels on the grounds of safety or valuefor money.

Respondent activities and travel behavioursWith a modest population of 23 million, Australia occupies awhole continent and is a large and highly urbanisedcountry. This means that there are substantial travel dis-tances between populated areas. All Chinese respondents

Table 1. Profile of Chinese survey respondents

Age (n= 1407)

18-21 years 32.1%22-25 years 54.7%26-29 years 11.1%Over 30 years 2.1%

Gender (n= 1414)Male 40.9%Female 59.1%

Study location by state in Australia (n= 1414)New South Wales 66.3%Queensland 24.5%Victoria 7.1%Other states 2.1%

Anticipated length of study in Australia (n= 1414)Less 1 year 7.5%1–2 years 47.0%3–4 years 32.1%More than 4 years 13.4%

Program of study (n= 1414)English language 14.3%Diploma/certificate/associate degree 11.1%Undergraduate 31.0%Postgraduate 39.9%Higher degree by research 3.6%Other 0.2%

Table 2. Chinese respondent perceptions of hostel and otheraccommodation

Item n Mean SD

Safety Hostel accommodation 1410 3.32* 0.909Other accommodation 1410 3.82* 0.739

Cleanliness Hostel accommodation 1403 3.37* 0.915Other accommodation 1403 3.92* 0.700

Easy to book Hostel accommodation 1397 3.55* 0.793Other accommodation 1397 3.68* 0.777

Value for money Hostel accommodation 1399 3.30* 0.917Other accommodation 1399 3.07* 0.842

Convenience Hostel accommodation 1390 3.48* 0.843Other accommodation 1390 3.66* 0.750

Understandsinternationalstudent needs

Hostel accommodation 1388 3.14** 0.856Other accommodation 1388 3.18** 0.844

*Significant difference p< 0.001.**No significant difference p> 0.05.



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had travelled outside of their host city while staying inAustralia (the vast majority study in urban environments), withthe most popular destinations being the relevant capital city(75.1%) and tourist destinations located within their state ofstudy (70.9%). Approximately half of the respondents hadtravelled interstate to a capital city (51.5%) or to a touristdestination (49.2%). Most respondents indicated that theymay (52.2%) or will definitely (35.9%) return to destinationsthat they have previously visited. The main activities under-taken within the town or cities of their student enrolment wereshopping (91.6%), visiting natural attractions such as beachesand national parks (81.3%) and sightseeing (79.4%). Whentravelling away from that city, respondents largely wentsightseeing (74.3%) and visited natural attractions (75.1%).Though approximately half of the respondents (51.5%)engaged in shopping when travelling away from their host city,less than one-third (29.5%) attended events and festivals whenundertaking such trips. On this basis, lower participation ratesamongst these activities were prevalent when travelling awaythan when recreating in their town or city of study. In contrast,participation in entertainment activities, such as visiting atheme park, casino or bar/nightclub, was more widespreadwithin the host city (62.9%) than when travelling away(42.8%). These results are indicative of the strong urbanorientation of certain types of entertainment and providehelpful insights into travel behaviours both within the placeof study and when travelling further afield.

A day excursion was the most recent reported tripduration and accounted for approximately one-third ofrespondents (34.4%). This is indicative that Chinese studentsare active day excursionists. Where trips extended overnight,they tend to be for less than a week, with 36.9% staying awayfor one to three nights and 20.3% for four to six nights. Whenundertaking their most recent trip, only 8.4% travelled formore than a week. Compared with their Chinese counter-parts, non-Chinese respondents reported longer average tripdurations, with 39.0% travelling away for one to three nightsand 22.4% travelling away for four to six nights. Fewer thana quarter (24.0%) reported taking a day excursion. It isperhaps unsurprising that 68.6% of Chinese respondentsspent less than $500 in view of the relative brevity of theirtrips. However, most non-Chinese respondents also reportedlow total estimated trip expenditures - 61.3% spent less than$500. Most Chinese respondents used a car (26.7%) or airtransport (23.6%) on their recent trip and travelled with friends(75.3%). In the case of non-Chinese students, 26.5% travelledby car, 23.6% by plane and 58.5% travelled with friends.

Because the present survey was distributed a few weeksprior to the end-of-year (Summer) vacation, the researchersasked respondents about their travel plans for the forthcomingperiod. Chinese respondents expressed a strong intention totravel in Australia (56.6%) and to undertake paid work(47.2%). Almost half (46.2%) planned to return home. A smallproportion intended to travel to other countries (16.1%) or toengage in unpaid, volunteer work (6.4%). The substantial shareplanning to earn money is indicative that students are person-ally motivated to save for travel purposes, complementing theparental support that dominates the funding of course fees.The results are summarised in Table 3.

DISCUSSION

This study has provided insights into the emerging Chinaoutbound travel market, which is having a growing impacton global tourism. As has been noted, most previous Chineseoutbound travellers have participated in organised tour groups.Independent travel is, however, becoming increasinglyprevalent amongst university-educated Chinese youths thatspeak some English and have previously travelled outside Asia(Tourism and Events Queensland, 2012). Those who aretravelling overseas with education as their primary motiveare a growing component of China’s independent outboundtravel market. This paper has argued that the group is China’sfirst substantial independent travel market and that exploringits travel characteristics and dimensions provides opportunitiesfor a better understanding of Chinese outbound travel.

Having acknowledged the size and growth of the travelactivities of Chinese international students, this paper soughtto explore whether the established typology of independentyouth travellers provides a valid characterisation of Chinese

Table 3. Respondent activities and travel behaviours

ItemPercentage of Chinese

sample

Travelled away from their place of studyIntra-state capital city 75.1%Intra-state tourist destinations 70.9%Interstate capital city 51.5%Interstate tourist destination 49.2%

Activitiesa

Within their place of study:Shopping 91.6%Visiting natural attractions 81.3%Sightseeing 79.4%

When travelling away:Sightseeing 74.3%Visited natural attractions 75.1%Shopping 51.5%

Duration (most recent trip)Day excursion 34.4%One to three nights 36.9%Four to six nights 20.3%More than one week 8.4%

Trip related spendingLess than $500 68.6%More than $500 31.4%

Mode of transportCar 26.7%Plane 23.6%Train 16.9%Bus 14.4%Other 18.4%

Upcoming vacation intentionsa

Travel in Australia 56.6%Work for pay 47.2%Return home 46.2%Travel to other countries 16.1%Engage in unpaid, volunteer work 6.4%

aRespondents could select one or more options.

136 B. King


DOI: 10.1002/jtr

international student travellers. The survey findings haveindicated that Chinese international students are distinguish-able from backpackers who have been a target for much ofthe marketing that has been directed at international youthtourists. Consistent with the literature, it has been found thatthese differences relate to trip motivations. Whereasbackpackers typically seek a rite of passage offering fun andadventure, it has been shown that Chinese student travellersare primarily motivated by education and that travel plays asecondary role within the context of a study program. Thetwo groups also exhibit different travel styles. Backpackertravel is generally characterised as being individualistic,unplanned and serendipitous and as involving adventures to‘off the beaten track’ locations. The present study has reacheddifferent conclusions about Chinese students’ travel patternsby revealing that most is undertaken with friends and conformsto mainstream travel patterns, namely sightseeing, visiting nat-ural attractions and shopping. The characteristic trip durationsand distances are also distinct. Whereas backpackers typicallyopt for extended trips to multiple destinations (often lastingseveral weeks or months), Chinese student travellers take dayexcursions and short breaks to destinations located close totheir place of study.

Finally, the preferred types of accommodation aredifferent across the two groups - backpackers opt for hostelsand Chinese student travellers stay in hotels and motels orapartments, often within friendship groups. The study hasalso shown that Chinese student travellers have a strongerpreference for hotels and motels or apartments than theirnon-Chinese counterparts. This tendency amongst Chinesestudent travellers reflects a prevailing perception thatmainstream accommodation is safer, cleaner, easier to bookand more convenient. Relative to their non-Chinese counter-parts, they are also less likely to feel that hostels understandtheir needs and have a stronger perception that hotels are saferand offer better value for money. In light of these findings, it issuggested that the backpacker hostel industry should urgentlyaddress these perceptions if it is to fulfil its potential to extendits customer base to Chinese student travellers. On the basis ofthe proposed typology in Figure 1, which characterizes interna-tional backpackers and Chinese international student travellers,it is evident that the two groups are distinct. This suggests theneed for a new conceptualisation of youth independent travel-lers consistent with the emergence of this new consumergroup. Such a reappraisal is timely in light of the shift of globaltourism towards Asia and the prospect of a more Asia-focussedtourism paradigm.

The present study concludes that Chinese youth indepen-dent travel behaviours are consistent with the style of travelthat has traditionally been practiced by tourists, namelyfollowing a circuit tour, sightseeing and staying in mainstreamaccommodation. Based on observations of the Chinese, theproposed reconceptualization of independent youth travelcould prompt a potential shift in how tourism businesses anddestinations market to international student travellers anddevelop applicable experiences. This combination of theoryand industry responses to an emerging market offers improvedinsights into Chinese consumers. The previous workundertaken by the researchers has also started to impact on

industry practice within Australia. The local governmentand destination marketing organisation on the Gold Coastin Queensland, Australia was awarded a grant from theAustralian Government to advance research, which caninform the creation of experiences, which will attractinternational students who are studying in Australia to visitthe Gold Coast. The focus on Chinese students has providedtourism operators with new insights into the Chineseindependent travel market.

CONCLUSIONS

This research has presented a preliminary conceptual frame-work to explain youth tourism in light of the emergingChinese outbound student travel market. By showing howthe behaviours of this group diverge from the prevailingyouth traveller typology that has been shaped by observa-tions of Western backpacker, the study advances understand-ing of the Chinese youth independent travel market. Theresearch has achieved its aims of characterising Chinesestudent travellers, distinguishing them from independentbackpacker travellers in general and providing initial insightsabout how the travel behaviours of Chinese students caninform conceptualisations of Chinese independent travelmore generally.

The forecast of continuing growth in the China outboundtravel and its evolution towardsmore individualised behaviours,supplemented by the expansion worldwide of youth travel andinternational education is indicative of future research gaps andopportunities. Noting that the present study was undertakenwithin a single jurisdiction (Australia), the phenomenon wouldmerit investigation in other settings and regions. In the caseof the present study, the various focus groups containedstudents from different nationalities. The use of more in-depthqualitative methods could provide additional insights into theconsumer psychology of Chinese independent student travel-lers and what distinguishes them from backpackers. Futurestudies about domestic Chinese independent travel behavioursmay also provide potential market insights and a betterunderstanding of the relationship between this market andindependent international travel.

Given the expectation that China’s outbound tourism willcontinue to grow, further research on this topic is warranted.Such investigations could provide destination marketers andplanners with a more appropriate typology of Chineseindependent youth travellers and how they can beserviced better. The providers of products and destina-tions that are seeking to retain competitiveness in theinternational youth tourism market face the challenges ofhow to diversify travel experiences and to introduce moretailored bespoken experiences. There are already numerousexamples of experiences catering to Western backpackers.However, tourism operators and managers will be increasinglyconfronted by the challenge of altering infrastructuralprovision and business practices to address the needs ofChinese independent youth travellers that have been identifiedin this paper.



DOI: 10.1002/jtr

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre(STCRC), established and supported under the AustralianGovernment’s Cooperative Research Centre program,funded the project which generated the data forming a basisfor this article. The authors acknowledge the involvement ofProfessors Michael Davidson, Perry Hobson, Hugh Wilkinsand Associate Professor Stephen Craig-Smith in the datacollection and report writing for the original project.

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Chinese international students: an Avant-garde of Independent Travellers?

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