UCL CENTRE FOR LANGUAGES

& INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION

Undergraduate Preparatory Certificates (Science & Engineering)

Chemistry Module

Aims and Objectives:

LECTURES

Physical Chemistry

Topic Learning Objectives

1. Atoms, molecules &

stoichiometry

1.1. define and use the terms relative atomic, isotopic, molecular

and formula masses, based on the 12C scale

1.2. define and use the term mole in terms of the Avogadro

constant

1.3. describe how mass spectrometer works

1.4. analyse mass spectra in terms of isotopic abundances using

spectra of Cl2 and Br2 as examples

1.5. calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given the

relative abundances of its isotopes, or its mass spectrum

1.6. define and use the terms empirical and molecular formula

1.7. calculate empirical and molecular formulae, using

combustion data or composition by mass

1.8. write and construct balanced equations

1.9. perform calculations, including use of the mole concept,

involving:

reacting masses (from formulae and equations)

volumes of gases (e.g. in the burning of hydrocarbons)

volumes and concentrations of solutions

advanced volumetric analysis (back & redox titrations)

Topic Learning Objectives

2. Atomic

structure

2.1. identify and describe atomic particles in terms of their relative charges

and relative masses

2.2. describe the distribution of mass and charge within an atom

2.3. deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both

atoms and ions given proton and nucleon numbers (atomic and mass

numbers) and charge

2.4. describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to atomic nuclei in

terms of proton (atomic) number and nucleon (mass) number

2.5. distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different numbers of

neutrons present

2.6. recognise and use the symbolism for isotopes, where x is the

nucleon (mass) number and y is the proton (atomic) number

2.7. describe the number and relative energies of the s, p and d orbitals for

the principal quantum numbers 1, 2 and 3 and also the 4s and 4p

orbitals

2.8. describe and sketch the shapes of s and p orbitals

2.9. state the electronic configuration of atoms and ions given the proton

(atomic) number and charge, using the spectroscopic, noble gas and box

notation

2.10. apply concepts related to ionisation energy, including:

explain and use the term ionisation energy

explain the factors influencing the ionisation energies of elements

explain the trends in ionisation energies across a period and down a

group of the Periodic Table

2.11. deduce the electronic configurations of elements from successive

ionisation energy data

2.12. interpret successive ionisation energy data of an element in terms of

the position of that element within the Periodic Table

2.13. explain and use the term electron affinity

Topic Learning Objectives

3. Chemical bonds

3.1 Intra- and

intermolecular

forces

3.1.2 describe ionic bonding, using the examples of different salts

including the use of ‘dot-and cross’ diagrams

3.1.3 describe, including the use of ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams and

Lewis structures:

covalent bonding, in various molecules

co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding

3.1.4 describe covalent bonding in terms of orbital overlap, giving σ

and π bonds,

3.1.5 explain the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules by using

the qualitative model of valence electron-pair repulsion

(VSEPR) theory,

3.1.6 predict the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules and ions

using VSEPR

3.1.7 understand the concept of electronegativity and apply it to

explain the properties of molecules such as bond polarity and

the dipole moments of molecules

3.1.8 explain the terms bond energy (bond dissociation energy

(BDE) versus average bond energy), bond length and bond

polarity and use them to compare the reactivities of covalent

bonds

3.1.9 describe hydrogen bonding, using ammonia and water as

simple examples of molecules containing N–H and O-H

groups

3.1.10 describe intermolecular forces (van der Waals’ forces), based

on permanent and induced dipoles,

3.1.11 describe metallic bonding in terms of a lattice of positive ions

surrounded by delocalised electrons

3.2 Bonding and

physical

properties

3.2.1 describe, interpret and predict the effect of different types of

bonding (ionic bonding, covalent bonding, hydrogen bonding,

other intermolecular interactions, metallic bonding) on the

physical properties of substances

3.2.2 apply Fajan’s rule to predict whether a chemical bond is

expected to be predominantly ionic or covalent,

3.2.3 deduce the type of bonding present from given information,

such as electronegativity values, for example

3.2.4 show understanding of chemical reactions in terms of energy

transfers associated with the breaking and making of chemical

bonds

Topic Learning Objectives

4. States of matter 4.1. state the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory as applied to an

ideal gas

4.2. explain qualitatively in terms of intermolecular forces and

molecular size:

the conditions necessary for a gas to approach ideal

behaviour

the limitations of ideality at very high pressures and very low

temperatures

4.3. state and use the general gas equation pV = nRT in calculations,

including the determination of Mr

4.4. state and use Avogadro’s law, Boyle’s law (pV = constant), Charles’

law (V/T = constant)

4.5. state and use Dalton’s law of partial pressure (be able to calculate

mole fractions & partial pressures)

4.6. describe, in simple terms, the lattice structure of a crystalline solid

which is:

ionic,

simple molecular,

giant molecular

hydrogen-bonded,

metallic,

4.7. outline the importance of hydrogen bonding to the physical

properties of substances (for example, boiling and melting

points), including ice and water, as well as biological structures

4.8. suggest from quoted physical data the type of structure and

bonding present in a substance

Topic Learning Objectives

5. Chemical

energetics

5.1. Enthalpy

change, ΔH

5.1.1. explain that chemical reactions are accompanied by energy

changes, principally in the form of heat energy; the energy

changes can be exothermic (ΔH is negative) or endothermic

(ΔH is positive)

5.1.2. explain and use the terms:

enthalpy change of reaction and standard conditions, with

particular reference to: formation, combustion, hydration,

solution, neutralisation, atomisation, vaporisation,

condensation

bond enthalpy (ΔH positive, i.e. bond breaking)

lattice enthalpy (ΔH negative, i.e. gaseous ions to solid lattice)

5.1.3. calculate enthalpy changes from appropriate experimental

results, including the use of the relationship q = - mcΔT

5.1.4. explain, in qualitative terms, the effect of ionic charge and of

ionic radius on the numerical magnitude of a lattice energy,

application of the Fajan’s rule

5.2. Hess’ Law,

including Born-

Haber cycles

5.2.1. apply Hess’ Law to construct simple energy cycles, and carry

out calculations involving such cycles and relevant energy

terms, with particular reference to:

determining enthalpy changes that cannot be found by direct

experiment,

average bond energies

the formation of a simple ionic solid and of its aqueous

solution

Born-Haber cycles (including ionisation energy and electron

affinity)

5.2.2 construct and interpret a reaction pathway diagram, in terms

of the enthalpy change of the reaction and of the activation

energy

Topic Learning Objectives

5.3. Entropy change, ΔS

& Gibbs free energy

change, ΔG

5.3.1. explain that entropy is a measure of the ‘disorder’ of a

system, and that a system becomes more stable when its

energy is spread out in a more disordered state

5.3.2. explain the entropy changes that occur:

during a change in state e.g. (s) → (l); (l) → (g); (s) → (aq)

during a temperature change

during a reaction in which there is a change in the

number of gaseous molecules

5.3.3. predict whether the entropy change for a given process

is positive or negative

5.3.4. calculate the entropy change for a reaction, ΔS, given the

standard entropies, S, of the reactants and products

5.3.5. define the standard Gibbs free energy change of reaction

by means of the equation ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

5.3.6. perform calculations using ΔG = ΔH – TΔS

5.3.7. state whether a reaction or process will be

spontaneous/feasible by using the sign of ΔG

predict the effect of temperature change on the

spontaneity/ feasibility of a reaction, given standard

enthalpy and entropy changes

Topic Learning Objectives

6. Electrochemistry 6.1. calculate oxidation numbers of elements in compounds and ions

6.2. describe and explain redox processes in terms of electron transfer

and changes in oxidation number

6.3. use changes in oxidation numbers to help balance chemical

equations in the acidic and basic solutions

6.4. define the terms:

standard electrode (reduction) potential

standard cell potential

6.5. describe the standard hydrogen electrode

6.6. describe methods used to measure the standard electrode

potentials of:

metals or non-metals in contact with their ions in aqueous

solution

ions of the same element in different oxidation states

6.7. calculate a standard cell potential by combining two standard

electrode potentials

6.8. use standard cell potentials to:

explain/deduce the direction of electron flow in a simple cell

predict the spontaneity/feasibility of a reaction

6.9. deduce from E⦵ values the relative reactivity of elements/ions as

oxidising agents

6.10. construct redox equations using the relevant half-equations

6.11. predict qualitatively how the value of an electrode potential

varies with the concentrations of the aqueous ions

Topic Learning Objectives

7. Equilibria

7.1. Chemical equilibria

7.1.1. explain, in terms of rates of the forward and reverse reactions,

what is meant by a reversible reaction and dynamic equilibrium

7.1.2. state Le Chatelier’s principle and apply it to deduce

qualitatively (from appropriate information) the effects of

changes in temperature, concentration or pressure on a system

at equilibrium

7.1.3. state whether changes in temperature, concentration or

pressure or the presence of a catalyst affect the value of the

equilibrium constant for a reaction

7.1.4. deduce expressions for equilibrium constants in terms of

concentrations, Kc , and partial pressures, Kp

7.1.5. calculate the values of equilibrium constants in terms of

concentrations or partial pressures from appropriate data

7.1.6. calculate the quantities present at equilibrium, given

appropriate data

7.1.7. describe and explain the conditions used in the Haber process,

as an example of the importance of an understanding of

chemical equilibrium in the chemical industry

7.2. Acid – base equilibria 7.2.1. show understanding of, and use, the Brønsted-Lowry theory of

acids and bases, including the use of the conjugate acid,

conjugate base concept

7.2.2. explain qualitatively the differences in behaviour between

strong and weak acids and bases and the pH values of their

aqueous solutions in terms of the extent of dissociation

7.2.3. explain the terms pH, pOH, Ka, pKa, Kb, pKb and Kw and use

them in calculations

7.2.4. calculate [H+(aq)] and pH values for strong and weak acids and

strong bases

7.2.5. explain the choice of suitable indicators for acid-base titrations,

given appropriate data

7.2.6. describe the changes in pH during acid-base titrations and

explain these changes in terms of the strengths of the acids

and bases

7.2.7. explain how buffer solutions control pH

7.2.8. describe and explain the uses of buffer solutions, including the

7.2.9. calculate the pH of buffer solutions, given appropriate data

7.2.10. show understanding of, and use, the concept of solubility

product, Ksp

7.2.11. calculate Ksp from concentrations and vice versa

Topic Learning Objectives

8. Kinetics

8.1. Simple rate equations,

orders of reaction and

rate constants

8.1.1. explain and use the term rate of reaction

8.1.2. explain qualitatively, in terms of collisions, the effect of

concentration changes on the rate of a reaction

8.1.3. explain and use the terms rate equation, order of reaction, rate

constant, half-life of a reaction, rate-determining step

8.1.4. construct and use rate equations of the form rate = k [A]m[B]n

(for which m and n are 0, 1 or 2), including:

deducing the order of a reaction, or the rate equation for a

reaction, from concentration-time graphs or from experimental

data relating to the initial rates method and half-life method

interpreting experimental data in graphical form, including

concentration-time and rate-concentration graphs

calculating an initial rate using concentration data

show understanding that the half-life of a first-order reaction is

independent of concentration

use the half-life of a first-order reaction in calculations

8.1.5. calculate the numerical value of a rate constant, for example by

using the initial rates or half-life method

8.1.6. for a multi-step reaction:

suggest a reaction mechanism that is consistent with the rate

equation and the equation for the overall reaction

predict the order that would result from a given reaction

mechanism and vice versa

8.1.7. devise a suitable experimental technique for studying the rate

of a reaction, from given information

Topic Learning Objectives

8.2. Effect of temperature: on

reaction rates and rate

constants and the concept of

activation energy

8.2.1. explain and use the term activation energy,

including reference to the Boltzmann

distribution

8.2.2. explain qualitatively, in terms both of the

Boltzmann distribution and of collision

frequency, the effect of temperature change

on the rate of a reaction

8.2.3. explain qualitatively the effect of temperature

change on the rate constant and hence the

rate of a reaction

8.3. Homogeneous and

heterogeneous catalysts

8.3.1. explain and use the term catalysis

8.3.2. explain that catalysts can be homogeneous or

heterogeneous

8.3.3. explain enzymes as natural catalyst

8.3.4. explain that, in the presence of a catalyst, a

reaction has a different mechanism, i.e. one of

lower activation energy

8.3.5. interpret this catalytic effect in terms of the

Boltzmann distribution

8.3.6. outline the different characteristics and

modes of action of homogeneous, and

heterogeneous catalysts, including:

the Haber process

Fischer esterification

decomposition of H2O2

Inorganic Chemistry

Topic Learning Objectives

9. Periodicity of physical

and chemical properties

of the elements in Period

3

9.1. describe qualitatively (and indicate the periodicity in)

the variations in atomic radius, ionic radius, melting

point and electrical conductivity of the elements using

theoretical and experimental data

9.2. explain qualitatively the variation in atomic radius and

ionic radius of cations and anions

9.3. interpret the variation in melting point and electrical

conductivity in terms of the presence of simple

molecular, giant molecular or metallic bonding in the

elements

9.4. explain the variation in first ionisation energy

9.5. describe the reactions, if any, of the elements with

oxygen (to give Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, P4O10, SO2, SO3),

chlorine (to give NaCl , MgCl2, Al2Cl6, SiCl4, PCl3, PCl5)

and water

9.6. state and explain the variation in oxidation number of

the oxides and chlorides in terms of their outer shell

(valence shell) electrons

9.7. describe the reactions of the oxides with water

9.8. describe and explain the acid/base behaviour of oxides

and hydroxides including, where relevant, amphoteric

behaviour in reactions with acids and bases

9.9. describe and explain the reactions of the chlorides with

water

9.10. interpret the variations and trends in terms of

bonding and electronegativity of elements and their

compounds in Period 3

9.11. suggest the types of chemical bonding present in

chlorides and oxides from observations of their

chemical and physical properties

Topic Learning Objectives

10. Chemical periodicity

of other elements

10.1. predict the characteristic properties of an element

in a given group by using knowledge of chemical

periodicity

10.2. deduce the nature, possible position in the

Periodic Table and identity of unknown elements

from given information about physical and chemical

properties

11. Chemistry of transition

metals

11.1. General physical and

chemical properties of the

first row of transition

elements,

11.1.1. explain what is meant by a transition element, in

terms of d-block elements forming one or more

stable ions with incomplete d orbitals

11.1.2. explain differences between transition elements

and d-block elements using electronic

configuration

11.1.3. state the electronic configuration of each of the

first row transition elements and of their ions

11.1.4. describe the tendency of transition elements to

have variable oxidation states

11.1.5. predict from a given electronic configuration, the

likely oxidation states of a transition element

11.1.6. describe and explain the reactions of transition

elements with ligands to form complexes

11.1.7. describe properties of transition elements’

complexes, including:

define the term ligand including monodentate,

bidentate and polydentate ligands

define the term complex

describe the geometry of simple transition metal

complexes

state what is meant by co-ordination number and

predict the formula and charge of a complex ion,

given the metal ion, its charge, the ligand and its

co-ordination number

11.1.8. explain qualitatively why ligands exchange can

occur

11.1.9. predict, using E⦵ values, the likelihood of redox

reactions

Topic Learning Objectives

11.2. Colour of complexes

11.2.1. describe the splitting of degenerate d orbitals

into two energy levels in octahedral and

tetrahedral complexes

11.2.2. explain the origin of colour in transition element

complexes resulting from the absorption of light

energy as an electron moves between two non-

degenerate d orbitals

11.2.3. describe, in qualitative terms, the effects of

different ligands on absorption, and hence colour

11.2.4. apply the above ideas of ligands and complexes

to other metals, given information

11.3. Stereoisomerism in

transition element

complexes

11.3.1. describe stereoisomerism shown by complexes,

including those associated with bidentate ligands

11.3.2. describe the use of cisplatin as an anticancer

drug and its action by binding to DNA in cancer

cells, preventing cell division

11.4. Stability constants, Kstab

11.4.1. describe and explain ligand exchanges in terms

of competing equilibria

11.4.2. state that the stability constant, Kstab, of a

complex is the equilibrium constant for the

formation of the complex ion in a solvent from

its constituent ions or molecules

11.4.3. deduce and use expressions for the stability

constant of a ligand exchange

11.4.4. explain ligand exchange in terms of Kstab and

understand that a large Kstab is due to the

formation of a stable complex ion

Organic Chemistry

Topic Learning Objectives

12. Formulae, functional

groups and the naming

of organic compounds

12.1. interpret and use the general, structural, displayed

and skeletal formulae of the following classes of

compound:

alkanes, alkenes and arenes

halogenoalkanes and halogenoarenes

alcohols (including primary, secondary and tertiary)

and phenols

aldehydes and ketones

carboxylic acids, esters and acyl chlorides

amines, nitriles, amides and amino acids

12.2. understand and use systematic nomenclature of

simple aliphatic organic molecules with functional groups

12.3. understand and use systematic nomenclature of

simple aromatic molecules with one benzene ring and

one or more simple substituents, for example 3-

nitrobenzoic acid, 2,4,6-tribromophenol

12.4. deduce the possible isomers for an organic molecule

of known molecular formula

12.5. deduce the molecular formula of a compound, given

its structural, displayed or skeletal formula

13. Characteristic

organic reactions

13.1. interpret and use the following terminology

associated with types of organic reactions:

functional group

homolytic and heterolytic fission

free radical, initiation, propagation, termination

nucleophile, electrophile

addition, substitution, elimination, hydrolysis,

condensation

oxidation and reduction

Topic Learning Objectives

14. Isomerism: structural,

and stereoisomerism

14.1. describe structural isomerism and its division into chain,

positional and functional group isomerism

14.2. describe stereoisomerism and its division into

geometrical (cis-trans and E-Z conventions) and optical

isomerism

14.3. describe geometrical isomerism in alkenes, and explain

its origin in terms of restricted rotation due to the presence

of π bonds

14.4. explain what is meant by a chiral centre and that such a

centre normally gives rise to optical isomerism

14.5. identify chiral centres and geometrical (cis-trans)

isomerism in a molecule of given structural formula

15. Alkanes 15.1. understand the general unreactivity of alkanes,

including towards polar reagents

15.2. describe the chemistry of alkanes as exemplified by the

following reactions of ethane:

combustion

substitution by chlorine and by bromine

15.3. describe the mechanism of free-radical substitution at

methyl groups with particular reference to the initiation,

propagation and termination reactions

15.4. provide a curly arrows mechanism for each step of the

free-radical substitution reaction

15.5. explain the use of crude oil as a source of both aliphatic

and aromatic hydrocarbons

15.6. suggest how cracking can be used to obtain more

useful alkanes and alkenes of lower Mr from larger

hydrocarbon molecules

Topic Learning Objectives

16. Alkenes 16.1. describe the chemistry of alkenes as exemplified, where relevant, by the

following reactions of ethene and propene (including the Markovnikov

addition of asymmetric electrophiles to alkenes using propene as an

example):

addition of hydrogen, steam, hydrogen halides and halogens

oxidation by cold, dilute, acidified manganate(VII) ions to form the diol

oxidation by hot, concentrated, acidified manganate(VII) ions leading to

the rupture of the carbon–carbon double bond in order to determine

the position of alkene linkages in larger molecules

polymerisation

16.2. describe and provide the curly arrows mechanism of electrophilic

addition in alkenes

16.3. describe and explain the inductive effects of alkyl groups on the

stability of carbocations formed during electrophilic addition

16.4. describe the characteristics of addition polymerisation as exemplified

by poly(ethene) and PVC

16.5. deduce the repeat unit of an addition polymer obtained from a given

monomer

16.6. identify the monomer(s) present in a given section of an addition

polymer molecule

16.7. recognise the difficulty of the disposal of poly(alkene)s, i.e.

nonbiodegradability and harmful combustion products

Topic Learning Objectives

17. Arenes 17.1. describe the chemistry of arenes as exemplified by the following

reactions of benzene and its derivatives:

substitution reactions with chlorine and with bromine

nitration

Friedel-Crafts alkylation and acylation

complete oxidation of the side-chain to give a benzoic acid

hydrogenation of the benzene ring to form a cyclohexane ring

17.2. explain the properties of aromatic electrophilic substitution, including:

describe the mechanism of electrophilic substitution in arenes, as

exemplified by the formation of nitrobenzene and bromobenzene

draw the curly arrows mechanism of electrophilic substitution reactions,

describe the effect of the delocalisation of electrons in arenes in such

reactions

17.3. interpret the difference in reactivity between chlorobenzene and

chloroalkanes

17.4. predict whether halogenation will occur in the side-chain or in the

aromatic ring in arenes depending on reaction conditions

Topic Learning Objectives

18. Halogenoalkanes 18.1. describe the chemistry of halogenoalkanes as exemplified by:

the following nucleophilic substitution reactions: hydrolysis,

formation of nitriles, formation of amines by reaction with

ammonia and other nitrogen based nucleophiles

the elimination of hydrogen bromide

18.2. describe the SN1 and SN2 mechanisms of nucleophilic substitution

in halogenoalkanes including the inductive effects of alkyl groups

18.3. recall that primary halogenoalkanes tend to react via the SN2

mechanism;mtertiary halogenoalkanes via the SN1 mechanism; and

secondary halogenoalkanes by a mixture of the two, depending on

structure

18.4. interpret the different reactivities of halogenoalkanes (with

particular reference to hydrolysis and to the relative strengths of the C–

Hal bonds)

18.5. explain the uses of fluoroalkanes and fluorohalogenoalkanes in

terms of their relative chemical inertness

18.6. recognise the concern about the effect of chlorofluoroalkanes on

the ozone layer

Topic Learning Objectives

19. Alcohols and

phenol

19.1. recall the chemistry of alcohols, exemplified by ethanol, in the

following reactions:

combustion

substitution to halogenoalkanes

reaction with sodium

oxidation to carbonyl compounds and carboxylic acids

dehydration to alkenes

formation of esters by esterification with carboxylic acids

formation of esters by acylation with acyl chlorides using ethyl

ethanoate and phenyl benzoate as examples

19.2. distinguish different types of alcohols, including:

classify hydroxy compounds into primary, secondary and tertiary

alcohols

suggest characteristic distinguishing reactions, e.g. mild oxidation

19.3. recall the chemistry of phenol, as exemplified by the following

reactions:

with bases

with sodium

nitration of, and bromination of, the aromatic ring

19.4. describe and explain the relative acidities of water, phenol and

ethanol

Topic Learning Objectives

20. Aldehydes

and ketones

20.1. describe:

the formation of aldehydes and ketones from primary and secondary

alcohols respectively using Cr2O72–/H+

the reduction of aldehydes and ketones, e.g. using NaBH4 or LiAlH4

(to be able to recognise the differences in the reducing strengths and

the possible outcome of the reactions)

the reaction of aldehydes and ketones with HCN and NaCN or KCN

(curly arrows mechanism)

20.2. describe the mechanism of the nucleophilic addition reactions of

hydrogen cyanide with aldehydes and ketones

20.3. describe the use of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4-DNPH) to detect

the presence of carbonyl compounds

20.4. deduce the nature (aldehyde or ketone) of an unknown carbonyl

compound from the results of simple tests (Fehling’s and Tollens’

reagents; ease of oxidation)

20.5. describe the reaction of CH3CO– compounds with alkaline aqueous

iodine to give tri-iodomethane

21. Carboxylic

acids

21.1. describe the formation of carboxylic acids from alcohols, aldehydes

and nitriles

21.2. describe the reactions of carboxylic acids in the formation of:

salts, by the use of reactive metals, alkalis or carbonates

alkyl esters

alcohols, by the use of LiAlH4

acyl chlorides

21.2. explain the relative acidities of carboxylic acids, phenols and alcohols

21.3. use the concept of electronegativity to explain the acidities of

halogen-substituted ethanoic acids

Topic Learning Objectives

22. Acyl chlorides

and esters

22.1. describe the hydrolysis of acyl chlorides

22.2. describe the reactions of acyl chlorides with alcohols, phenols,

ammonia and other nitrogen based nucleophiles

22.3. explain the relative ease of hydrolysis of acyl chlorides, alkyl chlorides

and aryl chlorides including the condensation (addition-elimination)

mechanism for the hydrolysis of acyl chlorides

22.4. describe the acid and base hydrolysis of esters

22.5. provide an arrow pushing mechanism for Fischer esterification

reaction (role of sulphuric acid, limitations of this reaction due to its

reversible nature)

22.6. state the major commercial uses of esters, e.g. solvents, perfumes,

flavourings

23. Organic

amines

23.1. describe the formation of alkyl amines (by the reaction of ammonia

and other nitrogen based nucleophiles with halogenoalkanes; the

reduction of amides with LiAlH4; the reduction of nitriles with LiAlH4 or

H2/Ni) and of phenylamine (by the reduction of nitrobenzene with

tin/concentrated HCl)

23.2. describe and explain the basicity versus nucleophilicity of amines

23.3. explain the relative basicities of ammonia, primary, secondary, tertiary

and phenylamine in terms of their structures

23.4. describe the reaction of phenylamine with:

aqueous bromine

nitrous acid to give the diazonium salt and phenol

24. Amides 24.1 describe the formation of amides from the reaction between NH3 or

RNH2 and R’COCl

24.2 recognise that amides are neutral

24.3 provide characteristic reactions of amides, including:

describe amide hydrolysis on treatment with aqueous alkali or acid

describe the reduction of amides with LiAlH4

25. Aminoacids 25.1. describe the acid / base properties of amino acids and the formation

of zwitterions

25.2. describe the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids to give

di- and tripeptides

25.3. describe simply the process of electrophoresis and the effect of pH,

using peptides and amino acids as examples

Topic Learning Objectives

26. Polymers

26.1. describe the formation of polyesters and polyamides

26.2. describe the characteristics of condensation polymers:

in polyesters

in polyamides as exemplified by polypeptides, proteins, nylon 6,

nylon 6,6 and Kevlar

26.3. deduce the repeat unit of a condensation polymer obtained from a

given monomer or pair of monomers

26.4. identify the monomer(s) present in a given section of a

condensation polymer molecule

26.5. predict the type of polymerisation reaction for a given monomer or

pair of monomers

26.6. deduce the type of polymerisation reaction which produces a given

section of a polymer molecule

26.7. discuss the properties and structure of polymers based on their

methods of formation (addition or condensation)

26.8. discuss how the presence of side-chains and intermolecular forces

affect the properties of polymeric materials (e.g. poly(alkenes), PTFE

(Teflon), Kevlar)

26.9. explain the significance of hydrogen bonding in the pairing of bases

in DNA in relation to the replication of genetic information

26.10. describe application of the most common polymers

26.11. recognise that poly(alkenes) are chemically inert and can therefore

be difficult to biodegrade

26.12. recognise that some polymers can be degraded by the action of

light

26.13. recognise that polyesters and polyamides are biodegradable by

hydrolysis

Analytical Techniques

Topic Learning Objectives

27. Chromatography

27.1. describe stationary and mobile phase in thin-

layer chromatography (TLC)

27.2. calculate and use the terms Rf value in TLC

27.3. interpret TLC chromatograms in terms of the

percentage composition of a mixture

28. Infra-red spectroscopy (IR) 28.1. analyse an infra-red spectrum of a simple

molecule to identify functional groups

28.2. use the data in conjunction with other spectra

and data to solve a structure of organic

compounds

29. Mass spectrometry (MS) 29.1. deduce the molecular mass of an organic

molecule from the molecular ion peak in a mass

spectrum

29.2. deduce the presence of bromine and chlorine

atoms in a compound

29.3. suggest the identity of molecules formed by

simple fragmentation in a given mass spectrum

30. Proton (1H) and Carbon (13C)

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

(NMR) spectroscopy

30.1. analyse and interpret a proton (1H) NMR

spectrum of a simple molecule to deduce:

the different types of proton present using

chemical shift values

the relative numbers of each type of proton

present from relative peak areas

the number of equivalent protons on the

carbon atom adjacent to the one to which the

given proton is attached from the splitting

pattern, using the n + 1 rule

the possible structures for the molecule

30.2. predict the chemical shifts and splitting

patterns of the protons in a given molecule

30.3 describe the use of tetramethylsilane, TMS, as

the standard for chemical shift measurements

30.4 state the need for deuterated solvents, e.g.

CDCl3, when obtaining NMR spectra

30.5 analyse a 13C NMR spectrum of a simple

molecule to deduce:

the different environments of the carbon

atoms present

the possible structures for the molecule

predict the number of peaks in a 13C NMR

spectrum for a given molecule