Chapter Two Normative Theories of Ethics

Chapter Two

Normative Theories of Ethics

1

Resolving Ethical Dilemma—an Introduction

The Furillo/ Davenport example of ethical dilemma

What are the conflicts in the case?Why is Furillo in dilema?

2

Normative perspectives—what does it mean?

Moral judgement must be supportable by a sound moral principle

Thus moral principles thus provide the confirmatory standard for moral judgement

The use of these principles is not a mechanical process

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Ethical Theories

Consequentialist Theories-the moral rightness of an action is determined

solely by its results

Nonconsequentialist Theories-right and wrong are determined by more than

the likely consequences of an action

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Ethical Theories

Consequentialist Theories—

• EgoismThis view equates morality with self-interest Even painful experience meshes with egoism if it is

necessary for long-term interestsEgoists may hold any theory of what is goodEgoism sometimes requires us to advance the interests

of othersAdam Smith: egoism is the principle of economic activity

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Ethical Theories


• EgoismPsychological egoism is not a sound theory-self-interest

is not the only thing that motivates anyoneEthical egoism is not really a moral theory at all-morality

serves to restrain our purely self-interested desires so we all live together

Ethical egoism ignores blatant wrongs such as theft, sexual discrimination etc.

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Ethical Theories


• UtilitarianismWe should always act to produce the greatest possible

balance of good over bad for everyone affected by our actions

Bentham, concerned with quantity, and Mill, considering the relative quality of pleasure, both equate pleasure and happiness and consider pleasure the ultimate value

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Ethical Theories

• Utilitarianism in Business Context

clear basis for formulating policies

an objective way of resolving conflicts of self-interestsA flexible approach to moral decision making

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Ethical Theories

• Critiques of Utilitarianism

Is utilitarianism really workable?Are some actions wrong, even if they produce good?Is utilitarianism unjust?

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Ethical TheoriesAct Utilitarianism

We must ask ourselves what the consequences of a particular act in a particular situation

Results justify the action like the Furillo’s case

Rule UtilitarianismUtilitarian standard should be applied not to

individual actions but to moral codes as a wholeIt is about what rules can reasonably be taught and

obeyed

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Ethical Theories(continued)

Non-consequentialist Theory

• Immanuel Kantcategorical imperative

• W. D. Rossprima facie obligations

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Non-consequentialist Theorycriticises that egoism and utilitarianism reduce all morality to

a concern with consequencesargues that the results of actions do not determine whether

they are right or wrong

• Immanuel KantMoral reasoning is not based on factual knowledge,

but it is a priori, reason by itself can reveal the basic principles of morality

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One command that is necessarily binding on all rational agents, regardless of any other considerations

Moral reasoning is not based on factual knowledge, but it is a priori, reason by itself can reveal the basic principles of morality

What determines whether an act is right is that an act is morally right if and only if we can will it to become a universal law of conduct

Good will is the only thing that is good in itself13



Tells that our action should achieve universal acceptability, in order to be ethical

An action is right only if the agent would be willing to be so treated were the positions of the parties reversed

One must always act so as to treat other people as ends in themselves

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• Immanuel Kantcategorical imperative in business

Provides firm rules to follow

Introduces an important humanistic dimension into business decision

Stresses the importance of motivation and principle

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• Immanuel KantCritique of categorical imperative

Blur between duty and sympathy

Misunderstanding between making oneself an exception and a rule with an exception

-ex. abortion

Blur between ends and means-ex. Prostitution vs. employ

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• W. D. RossWe have various moral duties that cannot be reduced to

one single obligation to maximize happinessSometimes these obligations can conflict

prima facie obligationsAn obligation which can be overridden by a more

important obligation

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prima facie obligationsEx. Dilemma between tell a truth and friendship

Pluralistic approach rejects utilitarianism as well as Kant’s categorical imperative

Refrain is more critical than active promotionThere is distinction between morally obligatory actions

and supererogatory ones

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Moral Theories--Organizational Context

Applications and critique• Non-consequentialism

understanding moral rights• Consequentialism

finding the optimal code— Act & Rule utilitarianism

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Applications and critique• Non-consequentialism

understanding moral rightsLegal rights derive from legal systemSome moral rights from relationships and rolesOther moral rights, which are not from legal systems or relationships, are called human rights

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Negative human rights reflect the vital interests of human beings free from outside interference

Ex. Freedom of speechPositive human rights reflect the vital interests of human

beings for certain benefitsEx. Rights to education

Moral rights are grounds for making moral judgments different from utilitarianism’s grounds

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1)Moral decision making involves the weighing of different moral factors and considerations

2)Organization has its own legitimated goals to pursue, indicating the limitation of morality

3)Human rights are a crucial factor in most moral deliberations

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Critiques of nonconsequentialism

1)What seems prima facie may turn out to be not only not self-evident but actually falseex. The earth is flat

2)We cannot handle conflicting rights and principlesex. Rights of free speech vs. obligation of political neutrality

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• Consequentialismfinding the optimal code— Act & Rule utilitarianism

Act utilitarianism emphasizes only one moral obligationRule utilitarianism is relevant to the discussion of the

moral concerns characteristic of nonconsequentialism, asking what moral code a society should adopt to maximize happiness

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• Consequentialismthe optimal code

Rule utilitarian believe that more happiness will come from instilling in people a pluralistic moral code

The optimal code would presumably be prima facie An action is not necessarily wrong if it fails to maximize

happiness; it is wrong only if it conflicts with the ideal moral code

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Synthesis In Moral Decision-making

V.R. Ruggiero

• Obligations , Ideals, Effects

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Basic principlesParticipants agree about the relevant facts-we often differ about what the facts of the situation are

We should try to spell out the moral principles to which different people are appealing

-a reluctance to defend our moral decisions in public is almost always a warning sigh

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V.R. RuggieroObligations , Ideals, Effects

1)obligations arise in the context of human relationship2)Ideal is some morally important goal, virtue, or

notion of excellence worth striving for3)Effects of actions should be considered, when

reflecting on a possible course of action

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Chapter Two Normative Theories of Ethics

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