ETHICS, PROFESSIONALISM AND ETHICS ...

ETHICS, PROFESSIONALISM ANDETHICS, PROFESSIONALISM AND CRITICISM OF THE SOURCES

MIMA LECTURE

Gordana Dodig-Crnkovic

School of Innovation Design and EngineeringSchool of Innovation, Design and Engineering Mälardalen University

26 August 2011

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LinksLinks

http://www.idt.mdh.se/personal/gdc/p p g

http://www.mdh.se/university/organization/boards/Ethics

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Professional Ethics Course

Information about the course:

http://www.idt.mdh.se/kurser/cd5590htt // idt dh /k / thi /http://www.idt.mdh.se/kurser/ethics/

[Website provides ethics resources including case studies and [ p gcontextualized scenarios in applied/professional ethics, working examples of applied ethical problems used in teaching to highlight relevant ethical principles, materials on informed consent, confidentiality assessment privacy trust and similar ]

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confidentiality, assessment, privacy, trust and similar. ]

CONTENT

– Identifying Ethical IssuesBasic Moral OrientationsE hi l R l i i Ab l i d Pl liEthical Relativism, Absolutism, and PluralismImmanuel Kant The Ethics of Duty (Deontological Ethics)UtilitarianismRightsRightsJusticeThe Ethics of Character: Virtues and VicesEgoismEgoismMoral Reasoning and GenderEnvironmental Ethics

− Professional IssuesProfessional Issues− Plagiarism− Criticism of the Sources

Conclusions4

− Conclusions

Identifying Ethical IssuesIssues

Based on: Lawrence M. Hinman, Ph.D.Based on: Lawrence M. Hinman, Ph.D.Director, The Values Institute

University of San Diego

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Ethics and MoralityEthics and Morality

The terms ethics and morality are often used interchangeably - indeed, they usually can mean the same thing and in casual conversation there isn't asame thing, and in casual conversation there isn t a problem with switching between one and the other. However, there is a distinction between them in philosophy!

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Ethics and MoralityEthics and MoralityEtymology

Morality and ethics have same roots, mores which means manner and customs from the Latin and etos which means custom and habits from the Greeketos which means custom and habits from the Greek.

Robert Louden, Morality and Moral Theory

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Strictly speaking, morality is used to refer to what we would call moral standards and moral conduct while ethics is used to refer to the formal study of thoseethics is used to refer to the formal study of those standards and conduct. For this reason, the study of ethics is also often called "moral philosophy."

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Morality: first-order set of beliefs and practices about how to live a good life.

Ethics: a second-order, conscious reflection on the adequacy of our moral beliefs.adequacy of our moral beliefs.

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ETHICSETHICS

Philosophers commonly distinguish: descriptive ethics, the factual study of the

ethical standards or principles of a group or t dititradition;

normative ethics, the development of theories that systematically denominate right and

tiwrong actions; applied ethics, the use of these theories to form

judgments regarding practical cases; and hi f l l i f h imeta-ethics, careful analysis of the meaning

and justification of ethical claims

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Source: www.ethicsquality.com/philosophy.html

SOCIETY VALUESSOCIETY VALUES

ETHICS

LAW MORAL

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Identifying Moral Issues

Moral concerns are unavoidable in life.

They are not always easy to identify and define.

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Ethics as an Ongoing Conversation

Professional discussions of ethical issues in journals.We come back to ideas again and again, finding new meaning in them.

See http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/ethics.htm

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The Focus of EthicsThe Focus of Ethics

Ethics as the Evaluation of Other People’s Behavior– We are often eager to pass judgment on others

Ethics as the Search for Meaning and Value in Our Own LivesOwn Lives

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Ethics as the Evaluation of OtherEthics as the Evaluation of Other People’s Behavior

Ethics often used as a weaponHypocrisyHypocrisyPossibility of knowing other peopleThe right to judge other peopleg j g p pThe right to interveneJudging and caring

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Ethics as the Search for Meaning and Value in Our Own Lives

Positive focusPositive focusAims at discerning what is goodEmphasizes personal responsibility for one’s own lifeEmphasizes personal responsibility for one s own life

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What to Expect from EthicsWhat to Expect from Ethics

Identificationa and description of an issue ExplanationSupport in deliberation

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The Point of Ethical ReflectionThe Point of Ethical Reflection

Ethics as the evaluation of other people’s behavior

Ethics as the search for the meaning of our own lives

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Basic MoralBasic Moral Orientations

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On what basis do we make moral decisions? (1)

Divine Command Theories -- “Do what the Bible tells you” or the Will of GodUtilitarianism -- “Make the world a better place”Virtue Ethics -- “Be a good person”The Ethics of Duty -- “Do your duty”Immanuel Kant’s Moral Theory Ethi l E i “W t h t f #1”Ethical Egoism -- “Watch out for #1”

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On what basis do we make moral decisions? (2)

The Ethics of Natural and Human Rights -- “...all people are created ...with certain unalienable rights”Social Contract EthicsMoral Reason versus Moral FeelingEvolutionary Ethics

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Divine CommandsDivine Commands

B i d i i l t t d iBeing good is equivalent to doing whatever the Bible--or the Qur’an or some other sacred text or source of

l ti t ll t drevelation--tells you to do.

“What is right” equals “What God tellsWhat is right equals What God tells me to do.”

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Utilitarianism(C ti li )(Consequentialism)

H d i ti tilit i i S k tHedonistic utilitarianism: Seeks to reduce suffering and increase pleasure or happiness

EpicurusEpicurus (341-270 BC) Greek“We count pleasure as the originating principle and the goal for the blessed life”. (Letter to Menoeceus)

Frances Hutcheson (1694-1747) Irish

Epicurus (341-270 BC)

Frances Hutcheson (1694 1747) Irish“The action is best, which procures the greatest happiness for the greatest number; and that worst, which in like manner, occasions misery.” (An Inquiry Concerning Moral Good and Evil, 3.8)

Bentham’s Utilitarian Calculus John Stuart Mill1806 1873Bentham s Utilitarian Calculus

Mill’s Utilitarianism“Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote [general] happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of [general] happiness (Utilitarianism 2)

1806-1873

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happiness. (Utilitarianism, 2)

http://www.utilitarism.net/ (in Swedish)Jeremy Bentham

(1748-1832)

Virtue EthicsVirtue Ethics

One of the oldest moral theories.A i t G k i t d l i ht HAncient Greek epic poets and playwrights Homer and Sophocles describe the morality of their heroes in terms of virtues and vices.

Plato - cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. Even accepted by early Christian theologians.

Plato (427-347 BCE)

Aristotle: The Nichomachean Ethics

Morality is a matter of being a goodMorality is a matter of being a good person, which involves having virtuous character traits.

Aristotle (384-322 BCE.)

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Seeks to develop individual characterAristotle (384 322 BCE.)

The Ethics of Duty(Deontological* Ethics)(Deontological Ethics)

Ethics is about doing your duty.Cicero (stoic): On duties (De Officiis)– Cicero (stoic): On duties (De Officiis)

– http://www.stoics.com/cicero_book.html– Medieval philosophers:

duties to God, self and others– Kant: only moral duties to self and others– Kant: only moral duties to self and others– Samuel von Pufendorf (1632-1694):

moral duties spring from our instinctive drive for survival – we should be sociable in order to survive.

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 - 43) BC

Intuitionism: we don’t logically deduce moral duties, we know them as thy are!

For each duty there is a corresponding virtue.

Immanuel Kant1724-1804

25* ‘deon’ = duty

1724-1804

Immanuel Kant’s Moral TheoryImmanuel Kant s Moral Theory

Human reason makes moral demands on our lives

The categorical imperative: Act so that the maxim [determining

ti f th ill] bmotive of the will] may be capable of becoming a universal law for all rational beings."

We have moral responsibility to develop our talents Immanuel Kant

1724-1804

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p 1724-1804

Ethical EgoismEthical Egoism

S th l t l k t f i lfSays the only person to look out for is yourselfAyn Rand, The Ethics of SelfishnessWell known for her novel, especially Atlas Shrugged

Ayn Rand sets forth the moral principles of “Objectivism”, the philosophy that holds that man's life--the life proper to a rational being--as the standard of moral values.

It regards altruism as incompatible with ' t ith th i t f hi

shrug - To raise (the shoulders), especially as a gesture of doubt, disdain, or

man's nature, with the requirements of his survival, and with a free society.

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indifference

The Ethics of RightsThe Ethics of Rights

Th t i fl ti l lThe most influential moral notion of the past two centuriesEstablished minimal conditionsEstablished minimal conditions of human decencyHuman rights: rights that all humans

dlsupposedly possess.

natural rights: some rights are grounded in the nature rather than in governments.

moral rights, positive rights, legal rights civil rights

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legal rights, civil rights

The Ethics of RightsThe Ethics of Rights

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) right from nature implies a liberty to protect myself from attack in any way p y y ythat I can.

John Locke (1632-1704)Thomas Hobbes

(1588-1679)John Locke (1632 1704) principal natural rights: life, health, liberty and possessions.

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John Locke (1632-1704)

Evolutionary EthicsEvolutionary Ethics

Human social behavior is an extended development of biological evolution.Evolutionary ethics: moral behavior is that whichEvolutionary ethics: moral behavior is that which tends to aid in human survival.Darwin: Origin of Species focuses on the evolutionary

h i f h i lmechanisms of nonhuman animals.Biologists and philosophers of nineteenth century attempted to frame morality as an extension of the evolutionary biological process.Problem of the theory: what is progress? What is good? Any signs of moral improvement since Plato?

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g y g p

Moral Reason versus Moral FeelingMoral Reason versus Moral Feeling

Morality is strictly a matter of rational judgment: Samuel Clarke (1675-1729)Since time of Plato: moral truths exist in a spiritual realm. Moral truths like mathematical truths

Samuel Clarke (1675-1729)

Moral truths like mathematical truths are eternal.Morality is strictly a matter of feeling (emotion): David Hume (1711-1729)We have a moral sense

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David Hume (1711-1729)

Ethical RelativismEthical Relativism, Absolutism,

and Pluralism

Based on: Lawrence M. Hinman, Ph.D.Based on: Lawrence M. Hinman, Ph.D.Director, The Values Institute

University of San Diego

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Classical Ethical/Cultural RelativismThe Greek Skeptics (1)The Greek Skeptics (1)

Xenophanes (570-475 BCE)p ( )“Ethiopians say that their gods are flat-nosed and dark, Thracians that theirs are blue-eyed and red-haired. If oxen and horses and lions had hands and were able to draw with their hands and do the same things as men, horses would draw the shapes of gods tosame things as men, horses would draw the shapes of gods to look like horses and oxen to look like ox, and each would make the god’s bodies have the same shape as they themselves had.”

The historian Heroditus(484-425 BCE) “Everyone without exception believes his own native customs, and the religion he was brought up in, to be the best.”

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Classical Ethical/Cultural RelativismThe Greek Skeptics (2)The Greek Skeptics (2)

Sextus Empiricus (fl 200 CE)Sextus Empiricus (fl. 200 CE) Gives example after example of moral standards that differ from one society to another, such as attitudes b t h lit i t ib li habout homosexuality, incest, cannibalism, human

sacrifice, the killing of elderly, infanticide, theft, consumption of animal flesh…

Sextus Empiricus concludes that we should doubt the existence of an independent and universal standard of

lit d i t d d l l th ltmorality, and instead regard moral values as the result of cultural preferences.

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Later Ethical Relativism (1)Later Ethical Relativism (1)

French philosopher Michael de Montaigne (1533-1592):Custom has the power to shape every possible kind of cultural practice Although we pretend that morality is acultural practice. Although we pretend that morality is a fixed feature of nature, morality too is formed through custom.

Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1776) “fashion, vogue, custom, and law are the chief , g , ,foundation of all moral determinations”

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Later Ethical Relativism (2)Later Ethical Relativism (2)

The fact of moral diversity

We should not pass judgment on practices in otherWe should not pass judgment on practices in other cultures when we don’t understand them

Sometimes reasonable people may differ on what’s morally acceptable

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Insights of Ethical RelativismInsights of Ethical Relativism

Ethical relativism has several important insights:The fact of moral diversity The need for tolerance and understandingThe need for tolerance and understandingWe should not pass judgment on practices in other cultures when we don’t understand themSometimes reasonable people may differ on what’s morally acceptable

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Ethical Relativism: Limitations

Presupposes an epistemological solipsism*

Is unhelpful in dealing with overlaps of cultures--precisely where we need help.

Commerce and trade– Commerce and trade– Media– World Wide Web

[*Solipsism - belief in self as only reality: the belief[ Solipsism belief in self as only reality: the belief that the only thing somebody can be sure of is that he or she exists, and that true knowledge of anything else is impossible]

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Ethical Relativism:Overlapping Cultures, 1

Ethical relativism suggests that we let each culture live as iteach culture live as it sees fit.This is only feasible ywhen cultures don’t have to interact with one anotherone another.

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The challenge of theThe challenge of the coming century is precisely overlapping

ltcultures:– Multinational corporations– International media--BBC,

MTV, CNN– International sports--

Olympics– World Wide Web

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The actual situation in today’s world is muchtoday s world is much closer to the diagram at the right.

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Ethical Relativism:Our Global Village, 5

Wh t if ld illWhat if our world was a village of 100 people?– 58 would be Asians, 15 Europeans, 13 would come from

the Western Hemisphere 12 o ld be Africansthe Western Hemisphere, 12 would be Africans– 70 would be non-white– 67 would be non-Christian (33 Christians; 18 Moslems; 14

Hindus; 6 Buddhists; 5 atheists; 3 Jews; 24 other )Hindus; 6 Buddhists; 5 atheists; 3 Jews; 24 other.)– 16 would speak Chinese; 8 English; 8 Hindi; 6 Spanish; 6

Russian; and 5 Arabic.– 50 % of the wealth would be held by 6 people– 50 % of the wealth would be held by 6 people.– 70 could not read and – only one would have a university education.

42http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/103/3areaoutline.htm

Ethical Relativism:A Self-Defensive Position

Ethical relativism maintains that we cannot make moral judgments about other culturesTh ll f thi i th t t t d iThe corollary of this is that we are protected in principle against the judgments made by other cultures

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How Much Dressed? Naked?

RembrandtRembrandt Monk Reading, 1661

Taliban law requires women in Afghanistan to wear a chador or

Fencer – protective suitApollo Belvedere 320 BCE

Afghanistan to wear a chador or burqa that covers the face and entire body.

From the solitude of the Holy Cross Abbey in Vi i i k k

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Virginia, a monk works on the Internet, 21th centuryAmazonian

indigenous woman with child Nuns uniforms

A proper dress?

How Much Dressed? Naked?

Leonardo da Vinci Lady with an Ermine 1483-90Dieric Bouts - Madonna and Child Holbein’s Family 1528

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Arguments Against Ethical R l ti iRelativism

There Are Some Universals in Codes of Behavior across Cultures

Three core common values: – caring for children – truth telling (trust) and

prohibitions against murder– prohibitions against murder

The society must guard against killing, abusing the y g g g, gyoung, lying etc. that are at its own peril. Were the society not to establish some rules against such behaviors, the society itself would cease to exist.

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Ethical ObjectivismEthical Objectivism

The view that moral principles have objective validity whether or not people recognize them as such thatpeople recognize them as such, that is, moral rightness or wrongness does not depend on social approval, but on

Plato (427-347 BCE)

such independent considerations as whether the act or principle promotes human flourishing or ameliorates ghuman suffering.What is moral depends on the fabric f h t

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of human nature. Immanuel Kant1724-1804

Ethical Absolutism/UniversalismEthical Absolutism/Universalism

Ethical Absolutism: Morality is eternal and unchanging and holds for all rational beings at all times and places In otherrational beings at all times and places. In other words, moral right and wrong are fundamentally the same for all people. (Morality is considered different than mere etiquette)than mere etiquette).

There is only one correct answer to every moral problem. A completely absolutist ethic consists of absolute principles that provide an answer for every possible situation in life, regardless of culture.

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Ethical AbsolutismEthical Absolutism

Absolutism comes in many versions--including the divine right of kingsdivine right of kingsAbsolutism is less about what we believe and more about how we believe itCommon elements:– There is a single Truth– There is a single Truth– Their position embodies that

truth

Louis XIV(1638 – 1715)

Louis the Great, The Sun King

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Ethical AbsolutismEthical Absolutism

Ethical absolutism gets some things right– We need to make judgments

C t i thi i t l bl– Certain things are intolerable

But it gets some things wrong including:But it gets some things wrong, including:– Our truth is the truth– We can’t learn from others

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Ethical Pluralism (1)Ethical Pluralism (1)

Combines insights of both relativism and absolutism:

Th t l h ll h t li t th ith– The central challenge: how to live together with differing and conflicting values

– Fallibilism: recognizes that we might be mistaken

S di t ibl t th– Sees disagreement as a possible strength

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Moral pluralists maintain that there are moral truths, but they do not form a body of coherent and consistent truths in the way that one finds in theconsistent truths in the way that one finds in the science or mathematics. Moral truths are real, but partial. Moreover, they are inescapably plural. There are many moral truths, not just one–and they mayare many moral truths, not just one and they may conflict with one another.

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Pluralism is the cultural manifestation of ethical individualism; it is implied by the respect for the human being for what it means to be humanhuman being, for what it means to be human. We have differing moral perspectives, but we must often inhabit a common world.

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Ethical Pluralism (4)Ethical Pluralism (4)Ethical pluralism offers three categories to describe

actions:actions:Prohibited: those actions which are not seen as permissible at all– Absolutism sees the importance of this

Tolerated: those actions and values in which legitimate differences are possiblelegitimate differences are possible– Relativism sees the importance of this

Ideal: a moral vision of what the ideal society wouldIdeal: a moral vision of what the ideal society would be like

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For each action or policy, we can place it in one of three regions:in one of three regions:– Ideal--Center– Permitted--MiddlePermitted Middle

• Respected• Tolerated

P hibit d O t id– Prohibited--Outside

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Five QuestionsFive QuestionsWhat is the present state?pWhat is the ideal state?What is the minimally acceptable state?How do we get from the present to the minimally acceptable state?How do we get from the minimum to the ideal state?How do we get from the minimum to the ideal state?

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Immanuel Kant THE ETHICS OF DUTY(D t l i l* Ethi )(Deontological* Ethics)

57* ‘deon’ = duty

Living by RulesLiving by Rules

Most of us live by rules much of the time. Some of these are what Kant called Categorical Imperatives.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

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Categorical ImperativesCategorical Imperatives

Always act in such a way that the maxim of your action can be willed as a universal law of humanity.

I l K t--Immanuel Kant

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The Ethics of Respect (1)The Ethics of Respect (1)

One of Kant’s most lasting contributions to moral philosophy was his emphasis on the notion of respect (Achtung)(Achtung).

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The Ethics of Respect (2)The Ethics of Respect (2)

Respect has become a fundamental moral concept in contemporary West

Th it l f t i l t ll lt– There are rituals of respect in almost all cultures.Two central questions:– What is respect?– What is respect?– Who or what is the proper object of respect?

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Kant on RespectKant on Respect

“Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as athe person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.”

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Kant on Respecting PersonsKant on Respecting PersonsKant brought the notion of respect (Achtung) to the center of moral philosophy for the first time.To respect people is to treat them as ends in themselves He sees people as autonomous i e asthemselves. He sees people as autonomous, i.e., as giving the moral law to themselves.The opposite of respecting people is treating them as mere means to an end.

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Using People as Mere MeansUsing People as Mere Means

Th T k S hiliThe Tuskegee Syphilis Experiments– More than four hundred African

A i i f t d ithAmerican men infected with syphilis went untreated for four decades in a project the government called the Tuskegee g gStudy of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male.

– Continued until 1972

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Treating People as Ends in g pThemselves

What are the characteristics of treating people as ends in themselves?Gi i th l t d t i f tiGiving them relevant and accurate informationAllowing them freedom of choice

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Additional CasesAdditional CasesPlant ClosinggFiring Long-Time EmployeesMedical Experimentation on PrisonersMedical Donations by PrisonersMedical Consent Forms

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What Is the Proper Object of p jRespect?

For Kant, the proper object of respect is the will. Hence, respecting a person involves issues related to the will knowledge and freedomthe will--knowledge and freedom.Other possible objects of respect:– Feelings and emotionsg– The dead– Animals– The natural world– The natural world

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Self RespectSelf-Respect

Is lack of proper self-respect a moral failing?

The Deferential* Wife– See article by Tom Hill, “Servility and Self-Respect”

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*Deferential = Respectful, considerate

Self RespectSelf-Respect

Aristotle and Self-LoveWhat is the difference between self respect– What is the difference between self-respect and self-love? Clearly, there is at least a difference in the affective element.

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The Kantian HeritageThe Kantian Heritage What Kant Helped Us to See

ClearlyClearlyThe Admirable Side of Acting from Duty– The person of duty remains committed, not matter how

difficult things become.The Evenhandedness of Morality– Kantian morality does not play favorites.

Respecting Other People– The notion of treating people as ends in themselves isThe notion of treating people as ends in themselves is

central to much of modern ethics.

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The Kantian Heritage gCritique of Kant´s Deontology

The Neglect of Moral Integration– The person of duty can have deep and conflicting

i li ti d thi d t d linclinations and this does not decrease moral worth—indeed, it seems to increase it in Kant’s eyes.y

The Role of Emotions– For Kant, the emotions are always suspect

b th h blbecause they are changeable.

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The Kantian Heritage gCritique of Kant´s Deontology

The Place of Consequences in the Moral Life– In order to protect the moral life from the changing

f l l k K t h ld t iti th tof moral luck, Kant held a very strong position that refused to attach moral blame to individuals who were acting with good will, even though some g g gindirect bad consequences could be foreseen.

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The Kantian Heritage gConclusion

Overall, after two hundred years, Kant remains an absolutely central figure in contemporary moral philosophy one from whom we can learn much evenphilosophy, one from whom we can learn much even when we disagree with him.

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UtilitarianismUtilitarianism

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Basic Insights of UtilitarianismBasic Insights of Utilitarianism

Th f lit i t k th ld b ttThe purpose of morality is to make the world a better place.

We should do whatever will bring the most benefit to all of humanity.

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The Purpose of MoralityThe Purpose of Morality

The utilitarian has a simple answer to the question ofThe utilitarian has a simple answer to the question of why morality exists at all:– The purpose of morality is to guide people’s actions p p y g p p

in such a way as to produce a better world.Consequently, the emphasis in utilitarianism is on consequences not intentionsconsequences, not intentions. (At times, the road to hell is pawed with good intentions)

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Fundamental ImperativeFundamental Imperative

The fundamental imperative of utilitarianism is:Always act in the way that will produce the greatest

ll t f d i th ldoverall amount of good in the world.

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The Emphasis on the Overall pGood

Utilitarianism is a demanding moral position that often asks us to put aside self-interest for the sake of the

h lwhole.– It always asks us to do the most, to maximize

utility, not to do the minimum.utility, not to do the minimum.– It asks us to set aside personal interest.

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The Dream of Utilitarianism:Bringing Scientific Certainty toBringing Scientific Certainty to

EthicsUtilitarianism offers a powerful vision of the moral life, one that promises to reduce or eliminate moral disagreement.– If we can agree that the purpose of morality is to

make the world a better place; and– If we can scientifically assess various possible y p

courses of action to determine which will have the greatest positive effect on the world; then

– We can provide a scientific answer to the question f h t ht t dof what we ought to do.

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Standards of Utility: Standards of Utility: I t i i V lIntrinsic Value

Many things have instrumental value, that is, they y g yhave value as means to an end. However, there must be some things which are not merely instrumental, but have value in themselves. Thi i h t ll i t i i lThis is what we call intrinsic value.What has intrinsic value? Four principal candidates:– Pleasure - Jeremy Benthamy– Happiness - John Stuart Mill– Ideals - George Edward Moore– Preferences - Kenneth Arrow– Preferences - Kenneth Arrow

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Jeremy Benthamy1748-1832

Bentham believed that we should try to increase theshould try to increase the overall amount of pleasure in the world.

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PleasurePleasure

Definition: The enjoyable feeling we experience when a state of

Criticisms– Came to be known

“th i ’when a state of deprivation is replaced by fulfillment.Advantages

as “the pig’s philosophy”

– Ignores spiritualAdvantages– Easy to quantify– Short duration

Ignores spiritual values

– Could justify living on l hi– Bodily a pleasure machine

or “happy pill”

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John Stuart Mill1806-1873

Bentham’s godsonBelieved that happiness, not pleasure, should be the standard of utility.standard of utility.

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HappinessHappiness

Advantages– A higher standard,

ifi t

Disadvantages– More difficult to

more specific to humans

– About realization of

measure– Competing

conceptions ofAbout realization of goals

conceptions of happiness

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Ideal ValuesIdeal ValuesG. E. Moore suggested that we sho ld stri e to ma imi e idealshould strive to maximize ideal values such as freedom, knowledge, justice, and beauty.The world may not be a better place with more pleasure in it, but it certainly will be a better place with more freedom, more knowledge, more justice, and more beauty.Moore’s candidates for intrinsic goodMoore s candidates for intrinsic good remain difficult to quantify. G. E. Moore

1873-1958

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PreferencesPreferencesKenneth Arrow, a Nobel Prize winning Stanford economist,winning Stanford economist, argued that what has intrinsic value is preference satisfaction.

The advantage of Arrow’s approach is that in effect it letsapproach is that, in effect, it lets people choose for themselves what has intrinsic value. It simply defines intrinsic value as

KENNETH J. ARROWStanford UniversityProfessor of Economics (Emeritus)It simply defines intrinsic value as

whatever satisfies an agent’s preferences. It is elegant and

Professor of Economics (Emeritus)

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pluralistic.

May this help? Lets make everyone y p yhappy!

87Happy pill as a universal solution?

The Utilitarian CalculusThe Utilitarian CalculusMath and ethics finally merged: allMath and ethics finally merged: all consequences must be measured and weighed!U it f tUnits of measurement:– Hedons: positive

Dolors: negative– Dolors: negative

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What do we calculate?What do we calculate?

Hedons/dolors defined in terms ofHedons/dolors defined in terms of – Pleasure– Happinesspp– Ideals– Preferences

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What do we calculate?What do we calculate?

For any given action we must calculate:For any given action, we must calculate:

– How many people will be affected, negatively (dolors) as well as positively (hedons)

– How intensely they will be affected– Similar calculations for all available alternatives– Similar calculations for all available alternatives– Choose the action that produces the greatest

overall amount of utility (hedons minus dolors)

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How much can we quantify?

Pleasure and preference satisfaction are easier to quantify than happiness or idealsTwo distinct issues:

Can everything be quantified?– Can everything be quantified?The danger: if it can’t be counted, it doesn’t count.

– Are quantified goods necessarily commensurable?Are quantified goods necessarily commensurable?Are a fine dinner and a good night’s sleep

commensurable?

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“…the problems of three little people don’t amount to a hill of beans in this crazy

world.”

Utilitarianism doesn’t always h ld d l l tihave a cold and calculating face—we perform utilitarian calculations in everyday life.y y

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Criticisms of UtilitarianismCriticisms of Utilitarianism1. Responsibility

Utilitarianism suggests that we are responsible for all the consequences of our choices.The problem is that sometimes we can not foreseeThe problem is that sometimes we can not foresee consequences of other people’s actions that are taken in response to our own acts. Are we

ibl f th ti th h d ’tresponsible for those actions, even though we don’t choose them or approve of them?

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Criticisms of UtilitarianismCriticisms of Utilitarianism2. Integrity

Utilitarianism often demands that we put aside self-interest. Sometimes this may mean putting aside our own moral convictionsown moral convictions.Integrity may involve certain identity-conferring commitments, such that the violation of those commitments entails a violation of who we are at our core.

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Criticisms of UtilitarianismCriticisms of Utilitarianism3. Intentions

Utilitarianism is concerned almost exclusively about consequences, not intentions.– There is a version of utilitarianism called “motive

utilitarianism,” developed by Robert Adams, that attempts to correct thisattempts to correct this.

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Criticisms of UtilitarianismCriticisms of Utilitarianism4. Moral Luck

By concentrating exclusively on consequences, utilitarianism makes the moral worth of our actions a matter of luck. We must await the final

b f fi d t if ticonsequences before we find out if our action was good or bad.

Thi k h l lif fThis seems to make the moral life a matter of chance, which runs counter to our basic moral intuitions.

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Criticisms of UtilitarianismCriticisms of Utilitarianism5. Who does the calculating?

Historically this was an issue for the British in IndiaHistorically, this was an issue for the British in India. The British felt they wanted to do what was best for India, but that they were the ones to judge what that was.– See Ragavan Iyer, Utilitarianism and All That

Typically the count differs depending on who doesTypically, the count differs depending on who does the counting

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Criticisms of UtilitarianismCriticisms of Utilitarianism6 Wh i i l d d?6. Who is included?

When we consider the issue of consequences, we must ask who is included within that circlemust ask who is included within that circle.

Classical utilitarianism has often claimed that weClassical utilitarianism has often claimed that we should acknowledge the pain and suffering of animals and not restrict the calculus just to human beingsbeings.

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Concluding AssessmentConcluding Assessment

Utilitarianism is most appropriate for policy decisions, as long as a strong notion of fundamental human rights guarantees that it will not violate rights ofrights guarantees that it will not violate rights of minorities, otherwise it is possible to use to justify outvoting minorities.

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Rights

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Rights:gChanging Western History

Many of the great documents of the last two centuries have centered around the notion of rights.

Th Bill f Ri ht– The Bill of Rights– The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen– The United Nation Declaration of Human Rights– The United Nation Declaration of Human Rights

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Human RightsHuman Rights

After the King John of England violated a number of ancient laws and customs by which England had been governed his subjects forced him tohad been governed, his subjects forced him to sign the Magna Carta, or Great Charter, which enumerates what later came to be thought of

h i htas human rights.

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Human RightsHuman Rights

Among rights of Magna Carta were the right of theAmong rights of Magna Carta were the right of the church to be free from governmental interference, the rights of all free citizens to own and inherit property and be free from excessive taxes. It established the right of widows who owned property to choose not to remarry, and established principles of due processremarry, and established principles of due process and equality before the law. It also contained provisions forbidding bribery and official misconduct.

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Rights:gA Base for Moral Change

Many of the great movements of this century have centered around the notion of rightsaround the notion of rights.– The Civil Rights Movement– Equal rights for womenq g– Movements for the rights of

indigenous peoplesChild ’ i h– Children’s rights

– Gay rights

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Justifications for RightsJustifications for Rights

Self-evidenceDivine FoundationN t l LNatural LawHuman Nature

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Self evidenceSelf-evidence

“We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights that amongCreator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.”

Declaration of IndependenceJuly 4, 1776

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Divine FoundationDivine Foundation“We have granted to God, and byWe have granted to God, and by this our present Charter have confirmed, for us and our Heirs for ever That the Church of Englandever, That the Church of England shall be free, and shall have her whole rights and liberties inviolable. We have granted also, and given to all the freemen of our realm, for us and our Heirs for ever, these libertiesand our Heirs for ever, these liberties underwritten, to have and to hold to them and their Heirs, of us and our Heirs for ever ”

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Heirs for ever.The Magna Carta, 1297

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Article 1.All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights They are endowed with reason andand rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html

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Rights related QuestionsRights-related Questions

Freedom of Speech Death Penalty The Disappeared Economic & Social Rights T i & A ti T iTerrorism & Anti-Terrorism Corruption

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Natural LawNatural Law

According to natural law ethical theory, the moral standards that govern human behavior are, in some sense objectively derived from the naturesome sense, objectively derived from the nature of human beings.

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Natural Law Human Nature

Arguments for natural rights that appeal to humannature involve the following steps:

– Establish that some characteristic of humannature, such as the ability to make free choices,yis essential to human life.

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Natural Law Human Nature

– Establish that certain empirical conditions,such as the absence of physical constraints,are necessary for the existence or the exerciseare necessary for the existence or the exerciseof that characteristic;

– Conclude that people have a right to thoseempirical conditions.

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Two Concepts of RightsTwo Concepts of RightsThe distinction depends on the obligation that isThe distinction depends on the obligation that is placed on those who must respect your rights.Negative Rights– Obliges others not to interfere with your exercise

of the right.Positive RightsPositive Rights– Obligates others to provide you with positive

assistance in the exercise of that right.

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Negative RightsNegative Rights

Negative rights simply impose on others the duty not to interfere with your rights.

Th i ht t lif t d ti i ht– The right to life, construed as a negative right, obliges others not to kill you.

– The right to free speech, construed as a negativeThe right to free speech, construed as a negative right, obliges others not to interfere with your free speech

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Positive RightsPositive rights impose on others a specific obligation to do something to assist you in the exercise of your right– The right to life, construed as a positive right,

obliges others to provide you with the basicsobliges others to provide you with the basics necessary to sustain life if you are unable to provide these for yourself

– The right to free speech, construed as a positive right, obligates others to provide you with the necessary conditions for your free speech--e gnecessary conditions for your free speech e.g., air time, newspaper space, etc.

– Welfare rights are typically construed as positive

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rights.

Positive Rights:gCritique

Who is obligated to provide positive assistance?– People in general– Each of us individually– The state (government)

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The Limitations of Rights ConceptThe Limitations of Rights Concept

Rights, Community, and Individualism

Rights and Close Relationships

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The Limitations of Rights ConceptContradicting rights Athos andContradicting rights: Athos and

WomenGreek public community is indignant at the decision recently taken by the Dutch court and at the resolution of European parliamentresolution of European parliament. In January, a Greek law that allows monks from the Athos Monastery not to let women to the Holy Mount y ywas officially declared in court as contradicting human rights.

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The Limitations of Rights ConceptContradicting rights: Athos andContradicting rights: Athos and

Women

An official response to the declaration was immediate:An official response to the declaration was immediate: governmental spokesman told European human rights activists that the right of the Athos monastery republic not to let women to the Holy Mount wasrepublic not to let women to the Holy Mount was confirmed in the treaty of Greece-s incorporation into the European Union.

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Concluding EvaluationConcluding Evaluation

Rights do not tell the whole story of ethics, especially in the area of personal relationships.

Rights are always defined for groups of people (humanity, women, indigenous people, workers etc).(humanity, women, indigenous people, workers etc).

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Personal Integrity vs Public SafetyPersonal Integrity vs Public Safety

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Justice

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IntroductionAll of us have been the recipients of demands of justice.j– My 6 year old daughter protesting, “Daddy, it’s not

fair for you to get a cookie at night and I don’t.”All of us have also been in the position of demanding justice.– I told the builder of my house that since heI told the builder of my house that, since he

replaced defective windows for a neighbor, he should replace my defective windows.

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Conceptions of JusticeConceptions of Justice

Distributive Justice– Benefits and burdens

Compensatory/Recompensatory Justice– Criminal justice

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Distributive JusticeDistributive Justice

The central question of distributive justice is the question of how the benefits and burdens of our lives are to be distributedare to be distributed.– Justice involves giving each person his or her due.– Equals are to be treated equally.Equals are to be treated equally.

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Goods Subject to DistributionGoods Subject to Distribution

What is to be distributed?– Income– Wealth– Opportunities

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Subjects of DistributionSubjects of Distribution

To whom are good to be distributed?– Individual persons– Groups of persons– Classes

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Basis for DistributionBasis for Distribution

On what basis should goods be distributed?– Equality– Individual needs or desires– Free market transactions

Abilit t k b t f th d– Ability to make best use of the goods

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Strict EgalitarianismStrict Egalitarianism

Basic principle: every person should have the same level of material goods and servicesC iti iCriticisms– Unduly restricts individual freedom– May conflict with what people deserve– May conflict with what people deserve

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The Difference PrincipleThe Difference Principle

More wealth may be produced in a system where those who are more productive earn greater incomes.St i t lit i i di i lStrict egalitarianism may discourage maximal production of wealth.

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Welfare Based ApproachesWelfare-Based Approaches

Seek to maximize well-being of society as a whole

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Desert* Based ApproachesDesert*-Based Approaches

Distributive systems are just insofar as theyDistributive systems are just insofar as they distribute incomes according to the different levels earned or deserved by the individuals in the

i t f th i d ti l b ff tsociety for their productive labors, efforts or contributions. (Feinberg)

132*desert - förtjänst; förtjänt lön, vedergällningaccording to one's deserts efter förtjänst

Desert* Based ApproachesDesert*-Based Approaches

Distribution is based on:Distribution is based on:– Actual contribution to the social product– Effort one expend in work activity– Compensation to the costs

Seeks to raise the overall standard of living by rewarding effort and achievementrewarding effort and achievementMay be applied only to working adults

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Try to run “Wealth Distribution”, a model that simulates the distribution of wealth

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the distribution of wealth. http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/models/WealthDistrib

ution

The Ethics of Character:Virtues and VicesVirtues and Vices

135

IntroductionIntroduction

Concern for character has flourished in the West since the time of Plato, whose early dialogues explored such virtues asexplored such virtues as courage and piety*.

Plato (by Michaelangelo)

136* fromhet

Two Moral QuestionsTwo Moral Questions

The Question of Action:– How ought I to act?

The Question of Character– What kind of person ought I to be?

O h i ith th ti f h tOur concern here is with the question of character

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An Analogy from the Criminal gyJustice System

• As a country, we place our trust for just decisions in the legal arena in two places:

L hi h id th l– Laws, which provide the necessary rules– People, who (as judge and jury) apply rules judiciously

• Similarly ethics places its trust in:• Similarly, ethics places its trust in:– Theories, which provide rules for conduct– Virtue, which provides the wisdom necessary for , p y

applying rules in particular instances

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VirtueVirtueStrength of character (habit)Involving both feeling, knowing and actionknowing and actionSeeks the mean between excess and deficiency relative to usDynamic balanceS d i blSecure desirable behavior Aristotle (by Michaelangelo)

139

The Seven Essential VirtuesDefining “Moral IQ”Defining “Moral IQ”

EmpathyConscienceS lf C t l

Wisdom*Courage*T *Self-Control

RespectTolerance

Temperance*Justice*IntegrityTolerance

FairnessKindness

IntegrityResponsibilityHonestyy

140*Aristotles cardinal virtues

Virtues (1)Virtues (1)Sphere of Existence Deficiency Mean Excess

Arrogance

Attitude toward self

Servility Self-deprecation

Proper Self-LoveProper Pride Self-Respect

ArroganceConceit Egoism Narcissism Vanity

Attitude towardoffenses of others

Ignoring them Being a Doormat

AngerForgiveness Understanding

RevengeGrudge Resentment

Attitude toward good Suspicion

E Gratitude Overgooddeeds of others

EnvyIgnoring them

GratitudeAdmiration

Over indebtedness

Attitude toward our

Indifference Remorselessness

Regret, Remorse M ki A d

Toxic Guilt Scrupulosityour

own offenses Remorselessness Downplaying Making Amends

Self-Forgiveness

ScrupulosityShame

Attitude towardour friends Indifference Loyalty Obsequiousness

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Virtues (2)Virtues (2)Sphere of Existence Deficiency Mean Excess

Attitude toward our own good deeds

Belittling Disappointment

Sense of Accomplishment Humility

Self-righteousness

Attitude toward th

Pitythe suffering of others

Callousness Compassion y

“Bleeding Heart”

Attitude toward the

Self-satisfaction Admiration Ethe

achievements of others

satisfactionComplacency Competition

AdmirationEmulation Envy

Attitude toward death Cowardice Courage Foolhardiness and dangerAttitude toward our own desires

Anhedonia Temperance Moderation

Lust Gluttony

Attitude toward

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Attitude towardother people Exploitation Respect Deferentiality

Two Concepts of Morality

In a simplified scheme, we can contrast two approaches to the moralityto the morality.– Restrictive concept:

• Child vs. adult• Comes from outside (usually parents).• “Don’t touch that stove burner!”• Rules and habit formation are centralRules and habit formation are central.

– Affirmative concept:• Adult vs. adult• Comes from within (self-directed).• “This is the kind of person I want to be”• Virtue-centered, often modeled on ideals.

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,

Rightly-ordered Desires and the g yGoals of Moral Education

Moral education may initially seek to control unruly desires through rules, the formation of habits, etc.Ulti t l l d ti i t f i dUltimately, moral education aims at forming and cultivating virtuous conduct.

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Virtue As the Golden MeanVirtue As the Golden Mean

Strength of character (virtue), Aristotle suggests, involves finding the proper balance between two extremesextremes.– Excess: having too much of something.– Deficiency: having too little of something.Deficiency: having too little of something.

Not mediocrity, but harmony and balance.

145

Virtue and HabitVirtue and Habit

For Aristotle, virtue is something that is practiced and thereby learned—it is habit (hexis).Thi h l i li ti f l d ti fThis has clear implications for moral education, for Aristotle obviously thinks that you can teach people to be virtuous.

146

EgoismEgoismgg

147

Two Types of EgoismTwo Types of Egoism

Two types of egoism:– Psychological egoism

• Asserts that as a matter of fact we do always act selfishly

• Purely descriptive• Purely descriptive– Ethical egoism

• Maintains that we should always act selfishlyy y

148

What does it mean to be selfish?What does it mean to be selfish?

If we are selfish, do we only do things that are in our genuine self-interest?– What about the chain smoker? Is

this person acting out of genuine self-interest?

– In fact the smoker may be actingIn fact, the smoker may be acting selfishly (doing what he wants without regard to others) but not self-interestedly (doing what will ultimately benefit him).ultimately benefit him).

149

What does it mean to be selfish?What does it mean to be selfish?

If we are selfish, do we only do things we believe are in our self-interest?– What about those who believe

that sometimes they act altruistically?

– Does anyone truly believeDoes anyone truly believe Mother Theresa was completely selfish?

Think of the actions of t D ’t t

Mother Theresa (1910-1997)

parents. Don’t parents sometimes act for the sake of their children, even when it is against their narrow self-

150

against their narrow self-interest to do so?

Re-conceptualizing Psychological EgoismEgoism

In addition to having two independent axes, we must distinguish between the intentions of actions and their consequences. Thus we get two graphs:we get two graphs:

St l i t d d t h l th

Intentions ConsequencesHigh beneficial To othersStrongly intended to help others

N t Highly harmful to self

Not intended to benefit

self

Highly beneficial

to self

Strongly intended to benefit

self

Highly harmful to othersStrongly intended to harm others

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Strongly intended to harm others

Ethical Egoism

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Ethical EgoismEthical Egoism

Selfishness is praised as a virtue– Ayn Rand, The Virtue of Selfishness

May appeal to psychological egoismMay appeal to psychological egoism as a foundationOften very compelling for high school students

Ayn Rand (1905-1982). y a d ( 905 98 )(born Alice Rosenbaum)

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Versions of Ethical EgoismVersions of Ethical EgoismPersonal Ethical Egoismg– “I am going to act only in my own interest, and

everyone else can do whatever they want.”Individual Ethical Egoism– “Everyone should act in my own interest.”

Universal Ethical EgoismUniversal Ethical Egoism– “Each individual should act in his or her own self

interest.”

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AltruismAltruism

Unselfish concern for the welfare of others; selflessness, charity, generosity.Z l I ti ti ti b h i th t iZoology. Instinctive cooperative behavior that is detrimental (harmful) to the individual but contributes to the survival of the species. p

155

Universalizing Ethical Egoismg gCan the ethical egoist consistently will that everyone else follow the tenets of ethical egoism?– It seems to be in one’s self-interest to be selfish

oneself and yet get everyone else to act altruistically (especially if they act for your benefit). y ( p y y y )This leads to individual ethical egoism.

Some philosophers such as Jesse Kalin have argued that in sports we consistently universalize ethicalthat in sports we consistently universalize ethical egoism: we intend to win, but we want our opponents to try as hard as they can!

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Egoism, Altruism, and Aristotle

Tocqueville’s

g , ,the Ideal World

Ideally we seek a society in q“Self-interest rightly understood”

Ideally, we seek a society in which self-interest and regard for others converge—the greenzone.

HighAltruism

Kant

Egoism at the expense of others and altruism at the expense of self-interest both create worlds in which goodness and self regard Low High

Self-sacrificingaltruism

Self-interestand regardfor othersconverge

which goodness and self-regard are mutually exclusive—the yellow zone.No one want the red zone, which

Low Egoism

HighEgoism

Self-interestat the expense

of others

Not beneficialeither to self

or others,is against both self-interest and regard for others. Low

Altruism

of othersor others

Hobbes’sState of Nature

Drug addictionAl h li

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State of Nature,Nietzsche?

Alcoholism, etc.

Sinking Titanic: Egoism vs. Altruism(Even risks in technical systems)(Even risks in technical systems)

158

Moral Reasoning and GenderGender

The Kohlberg-Gilligan Debate and Beyondy

159

Le Deuxième Sexe - The Second SexSimone de Beauvoir 1949Simone de Beauvoir 1949

Woman as the Other “For a long time I have hesitated to

it b k Thwrite a book on woman. The subject is irritating, especially to women; and it is not new. Enough ink has been spilled in quarrellingink has been spilled in quarrelling …”

Simone de Beauvoir

160http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/beav.htm

Lawrence KohlbergLawrence Kohlberg

American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (Harvard) studied under Swiss psychologist and philosopher Jean Piaget (1965), who had developmental approach to learning. Kohlberg extended the approach to stages of moral reasoning. Using surveys, Kohlberg presented his subjects with moral dilemmas and asked them to evaluate the moral conflict. He was able to prove that youth at various ages, as youth proceed to adulthood, they are able to progress up the moral development stages presented

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 - 1987)

161

presented,

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral DevelopmentKohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

LEVEL STAGE SOCIAL ORIENTATION

1 Obedience and Punishment1 Obedience and PunishmentPre-conventional

2 Individualism, Instrumentalism, and Exchange

3 "Good boy/girl" Conventional

4 Law and Order

5 Social Contract Post-conventional

6 Principled Conscience

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Gender and Kohlberg’s scaleGender and Kohlberg s scale

Women are more likely to base their explanations for moral dilemmas on concepts such as caring and personal relationships These concepts are likely topersonal relationships. These concepts are likely to be scored at the stage three level. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to base their decisions for moral dilemmas on social contract or justice and equity. Those concepts are likely to be scored at stage fiveor six.

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Carol GilliganCarol Gilligan

University Professor of Gender Studies, Harvard University (1997Harvard University (1997-present)In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development, book 1982book 1982.

Carol Gilligan, 1936 - present

164

How do we understand Gilligan’s l i ?claims?

Plato: MenoSOCRATES: (…) By the gods, Meno, be generous, and

tell me what you say that virtue is; (…)MENO: (…) Let us take first the virtue of a man--he ( )

should know how to administer the state, and in the administration of it to benefit his friends and harm his enemies; and he must also be careful not to suffer h hi lf A ' i t if i h t kharm himself. A woman's virtue, if you wish to know about that, may also be easily described: her duty is to order her house, and keep what is indoors, and obey her husband Every age every condition of lifeobey her husband. Every age, every condition of life, young or old, male or female, bond or free, has a different virtue (…)

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How do we understand Gilligan’s gclaims?

With the advent of industrial revolution, and welfare state where all children are given education, and physical strength has no dominant role women havephysical strength has no dominant role, women have entered the public sphere traditionally dominated by males.Female professionals have encountered a culture that was historically male territory. It caused cultural shockshock.

166

How do we interpret Gilligan’s p gclaims?

Four possible positions about female vs. male moral voices:S t b t lSeparate but equalSuperiority thesisIntegrationist thesisIntegrationist thesisDiversity thesis

167

The Diversity ThesisThe Diversity Thesis– Suggests that there are different moral voicesgg– Sees this as a source of richness and growth in the

moral lifeExternal diversity– External diversity

• Different individuals have different, sex-based moral voices

• Males with female voices and females with male voices• Males with female voices and females with male voices are admitted

– Internal diversityE h f h b th li d f i i l• Each of us have both masculine and feminine moral voices within us

• Minimizes gender stereotyping

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Conclusion “The Show must go on” (Freddy Mercury)

Kohlberg – Gilligan controversy is but a beginning of a long process of re-thinking position of women in a post modern societypost-modern society. The end of industrialist era and the emergency of new information technology results in conditions that gyeven more favor female professionals.

169

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

170

The EarthThe Earth

"We have not inherited the Earth from our fathers. We are borrowing it from our children."

Native American saying

171

Environmental Ethics and PhilosophyEnvironmental Ethics and PhilosophyAre There Universal Ethical Principles?

Universalists: Plato, Kant believe that fundamental principles of ethics are universal, unchanging and eternalRelativists: Sophists- everything contextual. Believe that moral principles are always relative to a particular personNihilists: Schopenhauer- arbitrary survival. Claim that the world makes no sense at all and that everything is completely arbitraryUtilit i B th t t d f t tUtilitarians: Bentham - greatest good for greatest number of people

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Values Rights and ObligationsValues, Rights, and Obligations

Moral agents. Some philosophers believe that only humans are moral agents M l bj t Child id d lMoral subjects. Children are considered moral subjects not moral agentsInherent, instrumental valueInherent, instrumental valueNon-living things, do they have value?

173

Worldviews and Ethical PerspectivesWorldviews and Ethical Perspectives

Individual beliefs towards ecology depend on ethical perspectivesM t l h t f l b li fMost people have set of core values or beliefsEnvironmental concerns are a source for comparisons among different values and perceptionscomparisons among different values and perceptions

174


Domination

Interpretation of some religious values has lead in past to anthropocentric (human-centered) ecological principles which believe that humans are the focus ofprinciples which believe that humans are the focus of creationCurrent movement in religious organizations to fight for ecological concerns

175


Stewardship

Responsibility to manage our ecosystem. To work together with human and non-human forces to sustain lifesustain life

176

Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives

Biocentrism (life-centered), Animal Rights, and Ecocentrism (ecologically-centered)( g y )

Biocentrism: biodiversity is the highest ethical value in natureAnimal rights supporters focus on the individual Ecocentrism: whole is more important than individual animalanimal

Ecofeminism

Warren, Shiva, Merchant, Ruether, and King A network of personal relationships

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Worldviews and ethical perspectivesp pA comparison

Philosophy Intrinsic Value Instrumental Value Role of humans

Anthropocentric Humans Nature Masters

Stewardship Humans & Nature Tools Caretakers

Biocentric Species Abiotic nature One of many

Animal rights Individuals Processes Equals

Ecocentric Processes Individuals Destroyers

E f i i R l i hi R l C iEcofeminist Relationships Roles Caregivers

178

Environmental JusticeEnvironmental Justice

Combination of civil rights and environmental protection that demands a safe, healthy life-giving environment for everyoneenvironment for everyone Most people of low socio-economic position are exposed to high pollution levels p g p

179

Environmental Racism

Unequal distribution of hazardous waste based onUnequal distribution of hazardous waste based on raceBlack children 2-3 times more likely to have lead poisoningpoisoning

Dumping Across Borders

Toxic colonialism: targeting third/fourth world countries for waste disposalPolluting industries move to poor countriesEnvironmental Justice Act (1992)

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Science as a Way of Knowingy gA Faustian Bargain?

Technology can create power to save and destroy lifeD F t ld hi l t th d il i h fDr. Faustus sold his soul to the devil in exchange for power and wealth (youth)

182

Management Theory and the g yEnvironment

Anthropocentric Theories– Ethics– EconomicEconomic– Corporate Social

Responsibility• Stakeholder• Normative• Social Contract

Green Management Theories– Ecocentricism– Adjusted Stakeholder– Sustainablity– Resource Based Theory

183

– Resource Based Theory

Global Environmental EthicsGlobal Environmental EthicsGlobal Environmental EthicsGlobal Environmental Ethics

184

Environmental Ethics and BusinessEnvironmental Ethics and Business

Western Society - Objectifies Naturey j– Locke - “Something in a state of nature has no

economic value and is of no utility to the human race”race

Ethics - a concern with actions and practices directed to improving the welfare of people.

185

Economic Fundamentalism and Ethics

The corporate social responsibility of a business is to increase profit. - M. Friedman

Those things that cannot be traded on the market have no value.Where does the environment fit in these definitions for environmental ethics?Will people and corporations do environmentally p p p yresponsible things on their own? What happens if they do?

186

Corporate Social ResponsibilityCorporate Social Responsibility

By doing socially responsible things, businesses better human life.H f ll d thi i d b iHopefully ..good ethics is good business.

Is this true?Is this true?Is enlightened self interest a good way?

187

Incorporating Environment into p gManagement

Environmental Ethics is a starting point– Expanding ethics to include nature.– What is the difficulty in doing this?– What does the Biocentric ethic say (Goodpaster?)

Bi t iBiocentrism– Natural objects have intrinsic value and morally

considerable in their own right.g– Deep Ecology nature has an ethical status at least

equal to humans.

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Green ManagementGreen Management

Ecocentrism views industrial relationships in a cycle, and a whole set of philosophies. How radical is this?How radical is this?

Sustaincentrism - going beyond sustainability of d l t th t t th d f th tdevelopment that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.– Human and economic relationships inextricably

linked with natural systems.

189

Resource Extraction and UseResource Extraction and Use

Burning of fossil fuelsDestruction of tropical rainforests and other biologically richbiologically rich landscapesProduction of toxic wastes

190

Environmental ScienceEnvironmental Science

Environment - the circumstances and conditions that surround an organism or a group of organisms

Environmental science -the systematic study of our environment and our place in it

191

What ought I to do?What ought I to do?

IntentionIntention ActionAction ConsequenceConsequence

DutyDutyDeontological EthicsDeontological EthicsDeontological EthicsDeontological Ethics

192

What ought I to do?What ought I to do?

IntentionIntention ActionAction ConsequenceConsequence

Consequentialist EthicsConsequentialist Ethics

193

http://www envirolink org/http://www.envirolink.org/- Agriculture- Air QualityAir Quality- Climate Change- Ecosystems- Energy- Environmental Disasters- Environmental Economics

Environmental Education- Environmental Education- Environmental Ethics- Environmental Legislation and Policy- Ground Pollution- Habitat Conservation- Human Health

N t l Hi t- Natural History- Oceans- Outdoor Recreation- Population- Sustainable Business- Sustainable Developmentp- Sustainable Living- Transportation- Urban Issues- Vegetarianism- Waste Management- Water Quality

194

Water Quality- Wildlife

Ethics Contexts

Industry(Other firms)

ClientsConsumers

(Other firms)Profession(Societies)

Engineering firm

Family(Private Sphere)

Engineer Colleagues( p )

Global environmentManagers

195

Society/Nature

Research Ethics Committee University of Mälardalen

Ethics committee decision making

Research ethical issues of MDH advisory committee:Research ethical issues of MDH, advisory committee:

http://www.mdh.se/university/organization/boards/Ethicshttp://www.mdh.se/university/organization/boards/Ethics

Decision-making (policy-making) body in Uppsalahttp://www.epn.se/

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What is Professional Ethics?What is Professional Ethics?

There are many ways to introduce applied/professional ethics with different focus:

PragmaticEmbeddedEmbeddedTheoreticalEmerging Issuesg g

197

Approach 1ppPragmatic

Ethical issues are introduced via a consideration of their practical consequences. Consequences are defined i l ti tin relation to:

• The framework of rules and procedures defined by regulatory bodies charged with the task of raising orregulatory bodies charged with the task of raising or maintaining professional standards.

• Research Ethics Committees and the factors that influence their deliberations

198

Approach 2ppEmbedded

Ethical concerns are presented holistically, as an integral part of some broader area of concern such as:

• Fitness for Practice.P f i li• Professionalism.

The embedded approach places an emphasis on the sense of professional identitysense of professional identity.

199

Approach 3ppTheoretical

This approach focuses on the understanding of ethics theory.

The ethics of life-like situations are presented in terms of the application of different ethical theories.

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Emerging Professional IssuesEmerging Professional Issues

Professional ethics introduces new issues and concernsProfessional ethics introduces new issues and concerns by seeking to guide and shape graduate behaviour as a way of meeting public expectations with regard to professional conduct and accountabilityto professional conduct and accountability.

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Professional Ethics Primary ObjectivesProfessional Ethics Primary Objectives

T h l f i l k h i th t th li1. To help professionals make choices that they can live with, and by reducing the emotional and psychological stress caused by moral indecision and confusion.

2. To ensure that the professional acts in a way that serves the best interests of society in general and their y gservice-users in particular.

3 To ensure that the professionals acts in a way that3. To ensure that the professionals acts in a way that serves the best interests of their chosen profession.

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CRITICISM OF THECRITICISM OF THE SOURCES

A d i HAcademic Honesty

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What is cheating?What is cheating?

Plagiarizing - copying, paraphrasing and self-plagiarizing U th i d tiUnauthorized co-operation Joyriding or taking advantage FabricationFabrication Un-authorized aids

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ConsequencesConsequences

All suspected cases will be reported to the disciplinary committeeTh t h i t ll d t h l i h!The teacher is not allowed to haggle or punish!Warning or suspension from classesIDE practice is a zero tolerance against academicIDE practice is a zero tolerance against academic dishonesty

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RulesRules

”Individually” means by one single personBe prepared to describe carefully how you solved the assignmentgThe names on the cover are the names of those who made the assignmentUse references to everything that is not your ownUse references to everything that is not your own present work!When in doubt – ask teacherRead http://www mdh se/ide/utbildning/cheatingRead http://www.mdh.se/ide/utbildning/cheating

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Concluding CommentsComments

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Conclusion “The Show must go on” (Freddy Mercury)

Complexity of the real world problems – number of processes go on concurrentlyA bi it f th ti l t ti dAmbiguity of theoretical representations and interpretationsNo absolute truth, but the commitment to theNo absolute truth, but the commitment to the commonly accepted ”good enough” ”reasonably good” solutions

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World seen in different lightWorld seen in different light

What if we could see in any wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum, from gamma-rays to radio waves? How would the world appear to us?

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radio waves? How would the world appear to us?

Images of the sun

RADIO ULTRAVIOLET VISIBLE

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INFRARED X-RAY

Images of the moon


211INFRARED X-RAY

Images of galaxy M81


INFRARED X RAY

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INFRARED X-RAY

http://hea-www.harvard.edu/CHAMP/EDUCATION/PUBLIC/multiwavelengthphotos_pics.html

World as seen in the light of different gmodels

An example: one country has started war on the other. What are the possible “optics” we can use to analyze the problem from the ethical point of view?analyze the problem from the ethical point of view?

Virtue EthicsVirtue Ethics– The leader of one country was very bad character. Leader of

the other was very good. Which one is which depends usually on the side in the war.usually on the side in the war.

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Utilitarian Ethics– The country have to be helped, pacified, civilized.

The total benefit from the point of view of the one– The total benefit from the point of view of the one who sets the rules and counts benefits is obvious.

Rights– As a rule in a war human rights are violated. If you

focus on that aspect of the problem you may get the different picture.

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Duty– In a war, defending your country/fighting for your

country is seen as a highest duty.

Egoism– In egoist perspective war can be used to gain g p p g

huge benefits.

F i i t thiFeminist ethics– Feminist claim wars are male business.

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Justice– The distribution of wealth/natural resources can be

a central issue in a war and so also in ethical analysis of it.y

Divine Command– Very often a war can be seen as a clash between

different religions. Each side fights with the divine support. (So it was even in ancient Greece)pp ( )

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ReferencesReferences

Basic material:– http://ethics.acusd.edu/presentations/Hinman/theor

/ l ti i /y/relativism/– http://ethics.acusd.edu/socialethics/– Moral Philosophy Through The Ages James– Moral Philosophy Through The Ages, James

Fieser, Mayfield Publishing Company, 2001Additional resources:– http://www.prs.heacademy.ac.uk/projects/ethics/– http://ethics.acusd.edu/relativism.html

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