Cartoon Commentary & “The White Man's Burden” (1898–1902)

The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus Volume 13 | Issue 27 | Number 1 | Article ID 4339 | Jul 06 2015

1

Civilization amp Barbarism Cartoon Commentary amp ldquoThe WhiteManrsquos Burdenrdquo (1898ndash1902)

Ellen Sebring

Rudyard Kiplingrsquos famous poem ldquoThe WhiteManrsquos Burdenrdquo was published in 1899 during ahigh tide of British and American rhetoricabout bringing the blessings of ldquocivilization andprogressrdquo to barbaric non-Western non-Christian non-white peoples In Kiplingrsquos often-quoted phrase this noble mission requiredwillingness to engage in ldquosavage wars ofpeacerdquo

Three savage turn-of-the-century conflictsdefined the milieu in which such rhetoricflourished the Anglo-Boer War of 1899ndash1902 inSouth Africa the US conquest and occupationof the Philippines initiated in 1899 and theanti-foreign Boxer Uprising in China thatprovoked intervention by eight foreign nationsin 1900

The imperialist rhetoric of ldquocivilizationrdquo versusldquobarbarismrdquo that took root during these yearswas reinforced in both the United States andEngland by a smal l f lood of pol i t icalcartoonsmdashcommonly executed in full color and

with meticulous attention to detail Mostviewers will probably agree that there isnothing really comparable in the contemporaryworld of political cartooning to the draftingskill and flamboyance of these single-panelgraphics which appeared in such popularperiodicals as Puck and Judge

This early outburst of what we refer to today asclash-of-civilizations thinking did not gounchallenged however The turn of the centuryalso witnessed emergence of articulate anti-imperialist voices worldwidemdashand thismovement had its own powerful wing ofincisive graphic artists In often searinggraphics they challenged the complacentpropagandists for Western expansion byaddressing (and illustrating) a devastatingquestion about the savage wars of peace Whothey asked was the real barbarian

INTRODUCTION

The march of ldquocivilizationrdquo against ldquobarbarismrdquois a late-19th-century construct that castimperialist wars as moral crusades Driven bycompetition with each other and economicpressures at home the worldrsquos major powersventured to ever-distant lands to spread theirreligion culture power and sources of profitsThis unit examines cartoons from the turn-of-the-century visual record that referencecivilization and its nemesismdashbarbarism In theUnited States Puck Judge and the first versionof a pictorial magazine titled Life in FranceLrsquoAssiette au Beurre and in Germany theacerbic Simplicissimus published masterfulillustrations that ranged in opinion and stylefrom partisan to thoughtful to gruesome

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

2

In the ldquocivilizationrdquo narrative barbarians werecommonly identified as the non-Western non-white non-Christian natives of the less-developed nations of the world Threeoverlapping turn-of-the-century conflicts inparticular stirred the righteous rhetoric of thewhite imperialists One was the second BoerWar of 1899ndash1902 that pitted British forcesagainst Dutch-speaking settlers in South Africaand their black supporters The second was theUS conquest and occupation of the Philippinesthat began in 1899 And the third was the anti-foreign Boxer Uprising in China in 1899ndash1901which led to military intervention by no lessthan eight foreign nations including not onlyTsarist Russia and the Western powers butalso Japan

Civilization and barbarism were vividlyportrayed in the visual record The wordCivilization (with a capital ldquoCrdquo) alongsideldquoProgressrdquo was counterposed against thewords ldquobarbarismrdquo ldquobarbariansrdquo andldquobarbarityrdquo with accompanying visualstereotypes Colossal goddess figures and othernational symbols were overwritten with themessage on their clothing and the flags theycarried

The archetypal dominance of ldquoCivilizationrdquo overldquoBarbarismrdquo is conveyed in a 1902 Puckgraphic with the sweeping white figure ofBritannia leading British soldiers and colonistsin the Boer War A band of tribal defenderswhose leader rides a white charger and wieldsthe flag of ldquoBarbarismrdquo fades in the face ofCivilizationrsquos advance The caption ldquoFrom theCape to Cairo Though the Process Be CostlyThe Road of Progress Must Be Cutrdquo states thatprogress must be pursued despite suffering onboth sides The message suggests that theindigenous man will be brought out ofignorance through the inescapable march ofprogress in the form of Western civilization

ldquoFrom the Cape to Cairo Tough the Process BeCostly The Road of Progress Must Be Cutrdquo Udo

Keppler Puck December 10 1902Source Library of Congress

In this 1902 cartoon Britainrsquos Boer War andgoals on the African continent are identifiedwith the march of civilization and progressagainst barbarism Brandishing the flag ofldquoCivilizationrdquo Britannia leads white troops andsettlers against native forces under the bannerof ldquoBarbarismrdquo

Other graphic techniques were used bycartoonists to communicate this message Forexample the light of civilization literallyilluminated vicious helpless or cluelessbarbarians In ldquoThe Pigtail Has Got to Gordquo awhite-robed goddess wears a star that radiatesover a Chinese mandarin A more earthlyapproach is taken in the graphic ldquoSome OneMust Back Uprdquo that heads this essay Here theldquoAuto-Truck of Civilization and Traderdquo shines aheadlight upon a raging dragon and sword-wielding Chinese Boxer whose banner readsldquo400 Million Barbariansrdquo In the imagery of thecivilizing mission China is portrayed as bothbackward and savage The aggressive quest fornew marketsmdashChinarsquos millions being the mostcovetedmdashwas justified as part of the benevolentand inevitable spread of progress

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

3

Pro-imperialist cartoons often depicted theWest as literally shining the light of civilization

and progress on barbaric peoples In thesedetails the headlight of a modern vehicle

(Judge 1900) and starlight from a goddess ofldquocivilizationrdquo (Puck 1898) illuminate

demeaning caricatures of China

Long-standing personifications and visualsymbols for countries were used by cartooniststo dramatize events to suit their messageAnthropomorphizing nations and conceptsmeant that in an 1899 cartoon captioned ldquoTheWhite Manrsquos Burdenrdquo the US as Uncle Samcould be shown trudging after Britainrsquos JohnBull his Anglo-Saxon partner carrying non-white nationsmdashdepicted in grotesque racistcaricaturesmdashuphill from the depths ofbarbarism to the heights of civilization

ldquoThe White Manrsquos Burden (Apologies toRudyard Kipling)rdquo Victor Gillam Judge April 1

1899 Source The Ohio State University BillyIreland Cartoon Library amp Museum

Britainrsquos John Bull leads Uncle Sam uphill asthe two imperialists take up the ldquoWhite ManrsquosBurdenrdquo in this detail from an overtly racist1899 cartoon referencing Kiplingrsquos poem

The cartoon takes its title from RudyardKiplingrsquos poem ldquoThe White Manrsquos BurdenrdquoPublished in February 1899 in response to theannexation of the Philippines by the UnitedStates the poem quickly became a famousendorsement of the civilizing missionmdasha battlecry full of heroic stoicism and self-sacrificeof fer ing moral just i f icat ion for USperseverance in i t s f i r s t ma jor andunexpectedly prolonged overseas war

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

4

Original publication of Rudyard Kiplingrsquos poemldquoThe White Manrsquos Burdenrdquo McClurersquos

Magazine February 1899 (Vol XII No 4)

Newly conquered populations described in theopening stanza as ldquoyour new-caught sullenpeoples half-devil and half-childrdquo would needsustained commitments ldquoto serve your captiveslsquoneedsrdquo

Take up the White Mans burdenmdash

Send forth the best ye breedmdash

Go bind your sons to exile

To serve your captives need

To wait in heavy harness

On fluttered folk and wildmdash

Your new-caught sullen peoples

Half-devil and half-child

Expansionism promulgated under the banner ofcivilization could not escape being carried outin global military campaigns referred to as theldquosavage wars of peacerdquo in the third stanza


The savage wars of peacemdash

Fill full the mouth of Famine

And bid the sickness cease

And when your goal is nearest

The end for others sought

Watch sloth and heathen Folly

Bring all your hopes to nought

Such avowed paternalism towards othercultures recast the invasion of their lands as

altruistic service to humankind The aggressorsbrought progress in the form of moderntechnology communications and Westerndress and culture Christian missionaries oftenled the way followed by politicians troopsandmdashbringing up the rearmdashbusinessmenEducation in the ways of the West completedthe political and commercial occupationCartoons endorsing imperialist expansiondepicted a beneficent West as father teachereven Santa Clausmdashbearing the gifts of progressto benefit poor backward and childlike nationsdestined to become profitable new markets

In the United States the Boer War conquest ofthe Philippines and Boxer Uprising promptedlarge detailed sophisticated full-colorcartoons in Puck and Judge Although thesemagazines were affiliated with differentpolitical partiesmdashthe Democratic Party andRepublican Party respectivelymdashboth generallysupported pro-expansionist policies Opposingviewpoints usually found expression in simplerbut no less powerful black-and-white graphicsin other publications Periodicals like Life in theUS (predecessor to the later famous weekly ofthe same title) as well as French and Germanpublications printed both poignant andoutraged visual arguments against theimperialist tide often with acute sensitivity toits racist underpinnings

These more critical graphics did not exist in avacuum On the contrary they reflected intensedebates about ldquocivilizationrdquo ldquoprogressrdquo andldquothe white manrsquos burdenrdquo that took place onboth sides of the Atlantic It was the anti-imperialist cartoonists however who moststarkly posed the question who is the realbarbarian

ldquoTHE WHITE MANrsquoS BURDENrdquo

During the last decade of the 19th century theantagonistic relationship between Great Britainand the United Statesmdashrooted in colonialrebellion and heightened in territorial conflictslike the War of 1812mdashgrew into a sympathetic

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

5

partnership In the US the 1860s Civil Wargenerated suspicion that neutral Britaincovertly supported the Confederacy Postwarindustrialization and the introduction of newcommodities such as steel and electricitygradually transformed the agrarian nation Asthe American West was absorbed and thecontinent consolidated the mandate ofldquoManifest Destinyrdquo shifted from territorial tocommercial expansion beyond contiguousborders

As a long-established world empire GreatBritain held sway over some 12 million squaremiles and a quarter of the worldrsquos populationBacked by the formidable Royal Navy Britaincould maintain a policy of ldquosplendid isolationrdquoindependent of European alliances for much ofthe century But by the 1890s emergingindustrial powerhouses like the US andGermany reduced Britainrsquos industrialdominance As Britain stepped up financialindustries shipping and insurance to make upthe deficit global sea power took on additionalsignificance New commodities also meantadvances in weaponry that might giveneighboring countriesmdashin particularGermanymdashthe potential to strike Britain Tomaintain its position in the internationalbalance of power Britain needed alliesRelatively free from European rivalries and wellsituated to become a transoceanic partner theUS was courted for the role

Beyond commercial and military prowess thetwo nations formed a natural brotherhoodwithin attitudes later labeled as socialDarwinism When applied to people andcultures the ldquosurvival of the fittestrdquo doctrinegave wealthy technologically-advancedcountries not only the right to dominateldquobackwardrdquo nations but an imperative andduty to bring them into the modern world Thebelief in racialcultural superiority that fueledthe British empire embraced the US in Anglo-Saxonism based on common heritage andlanguage In the US despite spirited

resistance from Anglophobic Irish immigrantsand anti-imperialist leagues overseas militarycampaigns gradually gained public support

The burgeoning mass media helped promotejingoistic foreign policies by printingdisparaging depictions of barbarous-lookingnatives from countries ldquobenevolentlyassimilatedrdquo by the US A brash Uncle Samwas shown coming under the wing of the oldermore experienced empire builder John BullUncle Sam was portrayed both with youthfulenergy and as a paternal older figure strainingto follow in John Bullrsquos footsteps as he took upthe ldquoWhite Manrsquos Burdenrdquo

ldquo A f t e r M a n y Y e a r s rdquo T h e G r e a tRapprochement

ldquoThe Great Rapprochementrdquo describes a shiftin the relationship of the US and Great Britainthat in the 1890s moved from animosity andsuspicion to friendship and cooperation

In an 1898 two-page spread in Puck femalesymbols of the two nations Columbia andBritannia meet as mother and daughter tocelebrate their reunion ldquoAfter Many YearsrdquoWearing archaic breastplates and helmets withtrident and sword these outsized archetypalcrusaders helm modern warships Theconspicuously larger size of Britanniarsquos bigguns in Puckrsquos cartoon reflects Englandrsquosleading role in imperial conquest

Contemporary conflicts are spelled out overdark clouds Looming on the left the ldquoEasternQuestionrdquo refers to the long-standing Britishconfrontation with Russia in the Balkans thatwould soon extend to conflict over BritainrsquosldquoCape to Cairordquo strategy in Africa The Battle ofOmdurman in September 1898mdashin whichBritish forces retook the Sudan using Maximmachine guns to inflict disproportionatecasualties on native Mahdi forcesmdashwasfollowed almost immediately by the ldquoFashodaCrisisrdquo with France in which the Britishasserted their control of territory around the

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

6

upper Nile

Written over the battle clouds on the right theldquoSpanish-American Warrdquo would have inspiredthe depiction of Columbia as an emergingmilitary power On May 1 the US Navy scoredits first major victory in foreign watersmdashfarfrom assured given the weakness of theAmerican fleet at the timemdashby defeatingSpanish warships defending their longtimePacific colony in the Battle of Manila Bay

ldquoAfter Many Years BritanniamdashDaughterColumbiamdashMotherrdquo Louis Dalrymple PuckJune 15 1898 Source Library of Congress

In this 1898 cartoon Britannia (Great Britain)welcomes Columbia (the United States) as anestranged daughter and new imperialistpartner The US entered the elite group ofworld powers with victories in the ldquoSpanish-American Warrdquo (written in the clouds over thenaval battle on the right) In the storm cloudson the left the ldquoEastern Questionrdquo looms

A poster headlined ldquoA Union in the Interest ofHumanity ndash Civilization Freedom and Peace forall Timerdquo probably also dating from 1898celebrated the rapprochement between theUnited States and Great Britain withparticularly dense detail In this renderingprogressmdasheconomic technological and

culturalmdashis spread through global militaryaggression The rays of the sun shine overUncle Sam and John Bull who clasp hands in arenewed Anglo-American alliance of ldquoKindredInterestsrdquo rooted in the ldquoEnglish TonguerdquoWarships on the horizon ground their missionin naval power Britain the more powerfulmilitary partner shows celebrated victoriesover the Spanish Armada in 1588 and over theFrench and Spanish navies at Trafalgar in1805 The US is newly victorious in 1898naval victories over the Spanish at Manila andSantiago de Cuba ldquoColonial successrdquo isequated with ldquochivalryrdquo and ldquoinvincibilityrdquo

ldquoA Union in the Interest of Humanity ndashCivilization Freedom and Peace for all Timerdquo

ca 1898 Donaldson Litho Co Source Library ofCongress

This ca 1898 poster promotes the US-Britishrapprochement as ldquoA Union in the Interest of

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

7

Humanity ndash Civilization Freedom and Peace forAll Timerdquo Multiple representations symbolizethe two Anglo nations national symbols (theeagle and lion) flags (the Stars and Stripes andUnion Jack) female personifications (Columbiaand Britannia) male personifications (UncleSam and John Bull) and national coats of arms(eagle and shield for America lion unicorncrown and shield for Great Britain)

ldquoA Rival Who Has Come to Stayrdquo NavalPower

In the final years of the Civil War US navalpower was second only to the great seafaringempire of Great Britain The regular army wasdissolved after the war and the ironcladwarships gradually fell into disrepair Few newvessels were commissioned until the 1880swhen the first battleships were built USSTexas and USS Maine Militarily beneathnotice by the major European powers and ableto resolve conflicts with Britain in the WesternHemisphere diplomatically there was littlepressure for a strong military in the US Withminimal military expenditures the USeconomy grew rapidly

By the 1890s the US began to revitalize bothits commercial and naval fleets Partnershipwith Great Britain brought the advantage ofshared technology to the US but the newAmerican-made ships represented competitionfor the British shipbuilding industry In an 1895Puck cartoon ldquoA Rival Who Has Come to StayrdquoJohn Bull gapes while Uncle Sam proudlydisplays his prowess as ldquoUncle Sam the ShipBuilderrdquo The US Navy moved up from twelfthto fifth place in the world

ldquoA Rival Who Has Come to Stay John Bull ndashGood evins ndash wotever ll become of my ship-

building monopoly if that there Yankee is goingto turn out boats like that right alongrdquo Louis

Dalrymple Puck July 24 1895 Source Libraryof Congress

Left John Bull gapes at a new Americansteamer The sign on the shores of England

reads ldquoJohn Bull ndash The old reliable ship buildersince 1861 Ships for American commerce a

specialityrdquo

Right Uncle Sam proudly displays his newsteamship and a sign that reads ldquoUncle Sam theship builder re-established with great success in1893 American ships for American commercerdquo

The test of US naval power came with theSpanish-American War A pair of 1898 graphicsoffer ldquobefore and afterrdquo snapshots related totwo major events

On February 15 1898 the battleship USSMaine exploded and sank in the harbor atHavana The Maine had been dispatched toCuba to support an indigenous insurrectionagainst Spain The cause of the explosion is stillundetermined In all likelihood it was aninternal malfunction but many Americansblamed the Spanish and rallied behind theslogan ldquoRemember the Maine to Hell withSpainrdquo The United States declared war onSpain on April 20 and the fury kindled by thesinking of the Maine was appeased by a greatUS naval victory on the other side of the world

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

8

two and a half months later On May 1mdashamonth before the celebratory second magazinec o v e r r e p r o d u c e d h e r e w a spublishedmdashCommodore George Deweydestroyed a Spanish fleet in Manila Bay in thePhilippines

Published in April 27 1898 the first cartooncalls the monumental warship ldquoThe Sphinx ofthe Period an unknown quantity in modernwarfarerdquo About a month later a June 1 graphicpicks up on the Sphinx metaphor and declaresldquoThe American Battle-Ship is No Longer anUnknown Quantityrdquo A pugnacious sailor andsweeping US f lag have replaced theinscrutable sphinx guns are smoking theSpanish fleet lies sunken below

ldquoThe Sphinx of the Period An UnknownQuantity in Modern Warfarerdquo UdoK e p p l e r P u c k A p r i l 2 7 1 8 9 8 Source Library of CongressldquoThe Modern Sphinx has Spoken TheAmerican Battle-Ship is No Longer anU n k n o w n Q u a n t i t y rdquo L o u i sDa l r ymple Puck June 1 1898 Source Library of Congress

ldquoUnited We Stand for Civilization andPeacerdquo the Anglo-Saxon Globe

By the end of 1898 a succession of USmilitary successes and territorial acquisitionsreinforced the image of the United Statesstanding side by side with Great Britain inbringing ldquocivilization and peacerdquo to the worldCommodore Deweyrsquos victory in Manila Bay inMay not only paved the way for US conquestof the Philippines but also provided a valuable

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

9

naval base for US fleets in the Pacific (Thiscoincided with the annexation of Hawaii as aUS territory in congressional votes in Juneand July of the same year) Simultaneously thewar against Spain in Cuba and the Caribbeansaw the US seizure of Cubarsquos GuantanamoBay in June giving the US a naval baseretained into the 21st century This wasfollowed by the invasion and takeover of PuertoRico Looming just ahead for the two Anglonations were turbulence and intervention insuch widely dispersed places as Samoa Chinaand Africa

Puckrsquos cover for June 8 1898 celebrated thisnew Anglo-Saxon solidarity and sense ofmission with an illustration of two resolutesoldiers standing with fixed bayonets on aparapet and overlooking the globe Theiruniforms are oddly reminiscent of theRevolutionary War that had seen them as bitteradversaries a little more than a century earlierThe caption at their feet exclaims ldquoUnited WeStand for Civilization and Peacerdquo

ldquoUnited We Stand for Civilization and PeacerdquoLouis Dalrymple Puck June 8 1898

Source Library of Congress

Uncle Sam and John Bull as fellow soldierssurvey the globe from a parapet The captionapplies the motto ldquounited we standrdquo to the

Anglo-Saxon brotherhood spreading Westerncivilization abroad

The weekly magazine Judge a rival to Puckthat was published from 1881 to 1947 opened1899 with a barbed rendering of the Anglonations gorging on the globe ldquoIt ought to be aHappy New Yearrdquo the caption reads ldquoUncleSam and his English cousin have the worldbetween themrdquo Here the United States hasingested Cuba ldquoPortordquo Rico Hawaii and thePhilippines Britain is digesting China EgyptAustralia Africa Canada and India Warshipssteam over the horizon of their chests flyingbanners of great waterways that would ideallyopen the world to commercemdashldquoSuez Canalrdquo(completed in 1869) and ldquoManagua Canalrdquo

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

10

(projected through Nicaragua to link theCaribbean and Pacific oceansmdashan undertakinglater transferred to Panama)

ldquoIt Ought to be a Happy New Year Uncle Sam andhis English cousin have the world between themrdquo

Victor Gillam Judge January 7 1899Source CGACGA The Ohio State University Billy

Ireland Cartoon Library amp Museum

John Bull whose portliness stood for prosperityhas joined with Uncle Sam to swallow the globeThe boats crossing their chests labeled ldquoSuez

Canalrdquo and ldquoManagua Canalrdquo show theimportance of efficient naval and shipping routesthrough their ldquodistendedrdquo realms The countries

have been jumbled to align them with American orBritish imperialistic interests

ldquomdashAnd Peace Shall Rulerdquo Udo Keppler Puck May3 1899 Source Library of Congress

John Bull and Uncle Sam lift the globe turnedtoward Asia and the Pacific to the heavens The

angel of peace and caption suggest that their jointstrength will bring about world peace

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

11

Udo Keppler a Puck cartoonist who was still inhis twenties at the time was more benign in hisrendering of the great rapprochement Acartoon published in May 1899 over thecaption ldquomdashAnd Peace Shall Rulerdquo offered afemale angel of peace flying over a globe(turned to Asia and the Pacific) hoisted by JohnBull and Uncle Sam

From the high to the low by 1901 thecollaboration between the two Anglo nationsheld a different fate for the globe In theFrench cartoon ldquoLeur recircverdquo (Their dream) theglobe is portrayed as a victim carried on astretcher The two allies had been embroiled inlengthy wars with costly and devastatingeffects on the populations in Africa and Asia

ldquoLeur recircverdquo (Their dream) TheacuteophileSteinlen LrsquoAssiette au Beurre June 27 1901

Source Bibliothegraveque nationale de France

This French cartoon eschews the romanticpresentation in the preceding Puckgraphic andcasts a far more cynical eye on Anglo-American

expansion as fundamentally a matter ofconquest

In the centerfold of the August 16 1899 issueof Puck the not-so-cynical Keppler extendedhis feminization of global power politics toother great nations including a new arrival onthe scene Japan Following its victory overChina in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95

Japan had the heady experience of beingwelcomed into the imperialist circle Kepplerrendered this as ldquoJapan Makes her DeacutebutUnder Columbiarsquos Auspicesrdquo with ColumbiaBritannia and a geisha-like Japan at the centerof the scene Seated around them (left to right)are a feminized Russia Turkey Italy AustriaSpain and France A tiny female ldquoChinardquo peersat the scene from behind a wall

In Library of Congress notes on this image theseated figure on the left is identified asMinervamdashthe Roman goddess of wisdom artsand commerce Here perfectly mythologized isyet another graphic rendering of the mystiqueof Western ldquocivilizationrdquo

ldquoJapan Makes her Deacutebut Under ColumbiarsquosAuspicesrdquo Udo Keppler Puck August 16 1899


Japan is introduced in this 1899 cartoon as thelone Asian nation in the imperialist circle of

world powers Having defeated China in1894ndash95 Japan is presented by Columbia (the

US) to her closest ally Britannia (GreatBritain) The feminine representations of

imperial nations pictured here include RussiaTurkey Italy Austria Spain and France China

peeps over the wall On the left Minervagoddess of wisdom and Western civilization

witnesses the debut

ldquoMisery Loves Companyrdquo Parallel ColonialWars (1899-1902)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

12

From 1899 to 1902 the US and Great Britaineach became mired in colonial wars that weremore vicious and long-lasting than expectedHaving purchased the Philippines from Spainper the Treaty of Paris for $20 million theAmericans then had to fight Filipino resisters toldquobenevolent assimilationrdquo The Philippine-American War dragged on with a large numberof Filipino fatalities shocking Americansunused to foreign wars The war was declaredover by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1902but continued in parts of the country until1913

At the same time Britain was fighting theAnglo-Boer War in South Africa The war withthe Boers (who were ethnically Dutch andAfrikaans-speaking) took place in the SouthAfrican Republic (Transvaal) and Orange FreeState When r ich tracts of gold werediscovered an influx of large numbers ofBritish immigrants threatened to overturn Boerrule over these republics Britain stepped in todefend the rights of the immigrants known asuitlanders (foreigners) to the Boers The largerobjective to gain control of the Boerterritories was part of Britainrsquos colonialscheme for ldquoCape to Cairordquo hegemony inAfrica The campaign met with fierce resistanceand saw the introduction of concentrationcamps as an extreme maneuver against theBoer defenders

Despite public neutrality the US and Britaincovertly supported each other While theEuropean powers favored Spain in the Spanish-American War for example neutral Britainbacked the US During the 1898 Battle ofManila Bay British ships quietly reenforced theuntried US navy by blocking a squadron ofeight German ships positioned to takeadvantage of the situation Presence of aGerman fleet lent evidence to one of thejustifications the US gave for war with Spainthat is to protect the Philippines from takeoverby a rival major power The US policy ofldquobenevolent neutralityrdquo supported Britain in the

Boer War with large war loans exports ofmilitary supplies and diplomatic assistance forBritish POWs In addition the US ignoredhuman rights violat ions in the use ofconcentration camps

The human and financial cost of these extendedconflicts was large A 1901 Puck cover ldquoMiseryLoves Companyrdquo depicts John Bull and UncleSam mired in colonial wars at a steep priceldquoBoer War pound16000000 yearlyrdquo and ldquoPhilippineWar $80000000 yearlyrdquo Anti-imperialistmovements targeted the human rightsviolations in both the Philippines and Transvaalin their protests

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

13

ldquoMisery Loves Companymdashbut they hope soon tobe out of itrdquo Louis Dalrymple Puck March 20

1901 Source Theodore Roosevelt Center atDickinson State University

By 1901 John Bull and Uncle Sam were boggeddown in prolonged overseas wars at a cost herethe Philippine War $80000000 yearly and the

Boer War pound16000000 yearly Yet theprotagonists exchange encouraging looksrevealing the covert support behind their

positions of ldquobenevolent neutralityrdquo

ldquoThe Anglo-Saxon Christmas 1899 War on EarthGood Will to Nobodyrdquo Life January 4 1900Source Widener Library Harvard University

Unlike Puck and Judge Life was often highlycritical of US overseas expansion Lifersquos black-and-white January 4 1900 cover welcomed the

new millennium by illustrating ldquoThe Anglo-SaxonChristmas 1899rdquo John Bull and Uncle Sam are

positioned within a holiday wreath machine gunspointing out in both directions The caption is

ominous ldquoWar on Earth Good Will to Nobodyrdquo

The Poet the President amp ldquoThe White

Manrsquos Burdenrdquo

Rudyard Kiplingrsquos poem that begins with theline ldquoTake up the White Manrsquos burdenmdashrdquo waspublished in the United States in the February1899 issue of McClurersquos Magazine as theAmerican war against the First PhilippineRepublic began to escalate The phrase becamea trope in articles and graphics dealing withimperialism and the advancement of Westernldquocivilizationrdquo against barbariansmdashor as thepoem put it ldquoYour new-caught sullen peoplesHalf devil and half childrdquo

The poem acknowledged the thanklessness of atask rewarded with ldquoThe blame of those yebetter The hate of those ye guardmdashrdquo andsentimentalized the ldquosavage wars of peacerdquo asself-sacrificial crusades undertaken for thegreater good Kipling offered moral justificationfor the bloody war the US was fighting tosuppress the independent Philippine regimefollowing Spanish rule ldquoThe White ManrsquosBurdenrdquo was used by both pro- and anti-imperialist factions

At the core of the ldquoWhite Manrsquos Burdenrdquo is areluctant civilizer who takes up arms for ldquothepurpose of relieving grievous wrongsrdquo in thewords of President William McKinley In his1898 notes for the Treaty of Parismdashwhichended the Spanish-American War with Spainsurrendering Cuba and ceding territoriesincluding Puerto Rico Guam and thePhilippinesmdashMcKinley made a prototypicalstatement of the civilizerrsquos responsibilities inthe kind of rhetoric still used today

We took up arms only in obedience to thedictates of humanity and in the fulfillment ofhigh public and moral obligations We had nodesign of aggrandizement and no ambition ofconquest

Regarding the Philippines in particular hecontinues

without any desire or design on our part the

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

14

war has brought us new dut i es andresponsibilities which we must meet anddischarge as becomes a great nation on whosegrowth and career from the beginning the rulerof nations has plainly written the highcommand and pledge of civilization

McKinley also mentions profit free trade andthe open door in Asia

Incidental to our tenure in the Philippines is thecommercial opportunity to which Americanstatesmanship cannot be indifferent It is just touse every legitimate means for the enlargementof American trade but we seek no advantagesin the Orient which are not common to allAsking only the open door for ourselves we areready to accord the open door to others

An exceptionally vivid cartoon version ofKiplingrsquos message titled ldquoThe White ManrsquosBurden (Apologies to Rudyard Kipling)rdquo waspubl ished in Judge on Apri l 1 1899ldquoBarbarismrdquo lies at the base of the mountain tobe climbed by Uncle Sam and John Bullmdashwithldquocivilizationrdquo far off at the hoped-for end of thejourney where a glowing figure proffersldquoeducationrdquo and ldquolibertyrdquo The fifth stanza ofKiplingrsquos poem refers to an ascent toward thelight

The cry of hosts ye humour

(Ah slowly) toward the lightmdash

ldquoWhy brought he us from bondage

Our loved Egyptian nightrdquo

Barbarismrsquos companion attributes ofbackwardness spelled out on the bouldersunderfoot include oppression brutality vicecannibalism slavery and cruelty Britain leadsthe way in this harsh rendering shoulderingthe burden of ldquoChinardquo ldquoIndiardquo ldquoEgyptrdquo andldquoSoudanrdquo The United States staggers behindcarrying grotesque racist caricatures labeledldquoFilipinordquo ldquoPorto Ricordquo ldquoCubardquo ldquoSamoardquo and

ldquoHawaiirdquo

The racism and contempt for non-Westernothers that undergirds Kiplingrsquos famouspoemmdashand the ldquocivil izing missionrdquo ingeneralmdashis unmistakable here At the sametime the distinction the artist draws betweenBritainrsquos burden and Americarsquos is strikingAmericarsquos recent subjugated populations aresavage unruly and rebelliousmdashliterally visuallyldquohalf devil and half childrdquo as Kipling wouldhave it By contrast with the exception ofSudan the burden Britain bears reflectsbackward older cultures that look forward toldquocivilizationrdquo or back condescendingly atthose people cultures and societies deemedeven closer than they to ldquobarbarismrdquo Bothvisually and textually the ldquowhite manrsquosburdenrdquo was steeped in derision of non-whitenon-Western non-Christian others


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15

1899 Source CGACGA The Ohio StateUniversity Billy Ireland Cartoon Library amp

Museum

The US follows Britainrsquos imperial leadcarrying people from ldquoBarbarismrdquo at the baseof the hill to ldquoCivilizationrdquo at its summit In thisblatantly racist rendering Americarsquos newlysubjugated people appear far more primitiveand barbaric than the older empirersquos load

Shortly after Kiplingrsquos poem appeared theconsistently anti-imperialist Life fired back witha decidedly different view of the white manrsquosburden on its March 16 1899 cover a cartoonthat showed the foreign powers riding on thebacks of their colonial subjects The black-and-white drawing by William H Walker capturedthe harsh reality behind the ideal of benevolentassimilation depicting imperialists Uncle SamJohn Bull Kaiser Wilhelm and coming intoview a figure that probably represents Franceas burdens carried by vanquished non-whitepeoples The addition of an exclamation point inthe caption ldquoThe White () Manrsquos Burdenrdquoemphasized its hypocrisy The US appears tobe carried by the Philippines Great Britain byIndia and Germany by Africa AlthoughWilhelm II was famous for introducing theconcept of a ldquoyellow perilrdquo Germanyrsquos majorcolonial possessions were in Africa

ldquoThe White () Manrsquos Burdenrdquo William HWalker cover illustration Life March 16 1899Source William H Walker Cartoon Collection

Princeton University Library

An exclamation point was added to the phraseldquoThe White () Manrsquos Burdenrdquo in the caption tothis Life cover published shortly after Kiplingrsquospoem Imperialists Uncle Sam John Bull KaiserWilhelm and in the distance probably Franceare borne on the backs of subjugated people in

the Philippines India and Africa

PROGRESS amp PROFITS

ldquoAuto-Truck of Civilization and Traderdquo theAsia Market

Civilization and trade went hand in hand inturn-of-the-century imperialism Progress waspromoted as an unassailable value that wouldbring the worldrsquos barbarians into modern timesfor their own good and the good of globalcommerce As the US moved into the PacificldquoChinarsquos millionsrdquo represented an enticing newmarket but the eruption of the anti-Christian

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16

anti-foreign Boxer movement threatened thecivilizing mission there

In a striking Judge graphic an ldquoAuto-Truck ofCivilization and Traderdquo lights a pathwaythrough the darkness leading with a gun andthe message ldquoForce if Necessaryrdquo Overladenwith manufactured goods and moderntechnology the vehicle is driven by a resoluteUncle Sam Blocking its uphill path theChinese dragon crawls downhill bearing aldquoBoxerrdquo waving a bloody sword and bannerreading ldquo400 Million Barbariansrdquo The imageputs progress and primitivism on a collisioncourse at the edge of a cliff Fears that Chinawould descend into chaos and xenophobiajustified intervention to safeguard the spread ofmodernity civilization and trade The imageargues that a crisis point has been reached andthe caption states ldquoSome One Must Back Uprdquo

ldquoSome One Must Back Uprdquo VictorGillam Judge December 8 1900 Source

Widener Library Harvard University

Left ldquoAuto-Truck of Civilization and TraderdquoldquoProgressrdquo ldquoForce if Necessaryrdquo ldquoCottonrdquo ldquoDry

Goodsrdquo ldquoEducationrdquo

Right ldquoBoxerrdquo ldquo400 Million BarbariansrdquoldquoChinardquo

Civilization and barbarism meet as theheadlight of Uncle Samrsquos gun-mounted ldquoAuto-

Truck of Civilization and Traderdquo shines the lightof ldquoProgressrdquo on ldquoChinardquo Published during the

Boxer uprisings against Westerners andChristians the cartoon portrays China as a

frenzied dragon under the control of a ldquoBoxerrdquogripping a bloody sword and banner readingldquo400 Million Barbariansrdquo In the balance of

power between technological ldquoprogressrdquo andprimitive ldquobarbariansrdquo the cartoon makes clear

who ldquomust back uprdquo

The link between US conquest of thePhilippines and the lure of the China marketwas widely acknowledged at the time and noone rendered this more vividly concisely andadmiringly than the cartoonist Emil Flohri Onecannot imagine a blunter caption than the onethat accompanied his 1900 cartoon for JudgeldquoAnd after all the Philippines Are Only theStepping-Stone to Chinardquo In Flohrirsquos imageUncle Sammdashheavily laden with steel railroadsbridges farm equipment and the likemdashgives acursory nod to the spread of civilization bygrasping a book titled Education andReligionrdquo The confident giant is greeted withopen arms by a diminutive yellow-clad Chinesemandarin

Anticipated US exports appear on signs thatadvertise the rich market awaiting Americanmanufacturers Each sign is topped by the wordldquoWantedrdquo and the goods listed include trolleylines electric lights water-works sewerspaving asphalt roads watches clocks wagonscarriages trucks 100000 bridges 500000engines 2 million cars 4 million rails 100000RR stations cotton goods telegraphtelephone stoves lamps petroleum medicineschemicals disinfectants 50 million reapingmachines 100 million plows and 50 millionsewing machines

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17

ldquoAnd After All the Philippines are Only theStepping-Stone to Chinardquo Emil Flohri Judge

ca 1900 Source Wikimedia

The Philippines are diminished as ldquoOnly theStepping-Stonerdquo that enables the US to reachthe eagerly anticipated China market Along

with his burden of steel trains sewingmachines and other industrial goods Uncle

Sam carries a book titled ldquoEducation Religionrdquoin a nod to the rhetoric of moral uplift thataccompanied the commercial goals of the

civilizing mission He is greeted with open armsby a mandarin and ldquoWantedhelliprdquo signs

articulating prodigious opportunities forbusiness

Commercial interests not only drove US policyin Asia but also shaped public opinion about itThe artist George Benjamin Luts offered anexceptionally scathing rendering of the linkageof conquest commerce and censorship in an1899 cartoon titled ldquoThe Way We Get the WarNews The Manila Correspondent and theMcKinley Censorshiprdquo Published in a short-lived radical periodical The Verdict thecartoon shows a war correspondent in chainswriting his story under the direction of militarybrass Business and government colluded withthe military in silencing press coverage of thepoor conditions suffered by American soldiersincluding scandals around tainted supplies andthe grim realities of the Philippine-AmericanWar itselfmdashcensorship that foreshadowed the

broader excising of the unpleasant war fromnational memory Robert L Gambone in his2009 book Life on the Press The Popular Artand Illustrations of George Benjamin Luksdescribes the cartoon as follows

hellipThe Way We Get Our War News (The VerdictAugust 21 1899 front cover) excoriatesmilitary press censorship a supremely ironicdevelopment given the appeals to freedom usedto justify the war Within a barred room itswalls painted blood-red a cohort of five armyofficers headed by a sword-wielding MajorGeneral Elwell Stephen Otis (1838-1909)military governor of the Philippines forces amanacled war correspondent to write onlyapproved dispatches A mound of scribbledpapers from an overflowing wastebaskettestifies to the coercion exerted upon him toinduce cooperation [p 199]

ldquoThe Way We Get the War News The ManilaCorrespondent and the McKinley CensorshiprdquoGeorge Benjamin Luts The Verdict August 21

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18

1899 Source Houghton Library HarvardUniversity

A chained ldquoWar Correspondentrdquo is forced torewrite his reports under the direction of MajorGeneral Elwell Otis during the Philippine-American War As the military governor untilMay 1900 Otis inflated Filipino atrocities andprevented journalists Red Cross officials andsoldiers from reporting American atrocitiesthough ghastly accounts slipped through Thecartoonist targets capitalists as the true powerbehind the policies and practices in the Pacificwith a portrait of businessman MarcusHannamdasha dollar sign elongating his earmdashthatdwarfs a portrait of President WilliamMcKinley

In the background the artist placed a largeportrait of a large man Marcus Hanna next toa miniature of President William McKinley toshow their relative influence on policy Hannawas a wealthy businessman with investments incoal and iron who financed McKinleyrsquos 1896election campaign with record-breakingfundraising that led to the defeat of opponentWilliam Jennings Bryan (In the 1900 electionsBryan ran on an anti-imperialist platform andwas again defeated by McKinley) Gambonedescribed the portraits as ldquoa testament to theweakness of McKinley the overarching powerof Hanna and the Trust interests thatsupported expansion of American business intothe Pacificrdquo

The foothold in the Philippines brought Chinawithin reach As the golden goose Chinarsquosperceived mass market was to be protected forfree trade against takeover by increasinglyassertive foreign powers Boxer attacks onWestern infrastructure and the siege of foreigndiplomats in Beijing gave the internationalpowers a pretext for entering China withmilitary force Though ldquocarving the Chinesemelonrdquo was a popular metaphor none of theinvaders seriously considered partitioning thelarge country under foreign rule (The

exception would be Manchuria alternatingbetween Russian and Japanese control in thecoming years) But rivalries for commercialprivileges never abated even when an eight-nation Allied military force was forged betweenthe world powers in the summer of 1900

In the West China was often characterized asbefuddled and archaic under the rule of aninscrutable crone the Empress Dowager InPuckrsquos October 19 1898 cover ldquoCivilizationrdquoholds ldquoChinardquo by his queue labeled ldquoWorn OutTraditionsrdquo ready to cut it off with the shearsof ldquo19th Century Progressrdquo The helplessmandarin tries to run away It was feared thatthe mystical rituals and xenophobic violence ofthe Yi He Tuan (Boxer) secret society wouldoverwhelm Chinarsquos ineffectual rulers cast thecountry into chaos and hinder the trade andprofits anticipated by the great powers

ldquoThe Pigtail Has Got to Gordquo LouisDalrymple Puck October 19 1898 SourceBeinecke Rare Books amp Manuscripts Yale

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University

A white feminine personif icat ion ofldquoCivilizationrdquo (written on her cloak) radiateslight over the aged figure of ldquoChinardquo (writtenon his hem) running away and shielding himselfwith a parasol Civilization and progress areinseparable a train and telegraph drawn in herr o b e s C h i n a rsquo s ldquo W o r n O u tTraditionsrdquomdashrepresented by the queuehairstyle required during the Qing dynastymdashareabout to be cut with the shears of ldquo19thCentury Progressrdquo

Nearly two years later in the midst of theBoxer Uprising Puck was still resorting to thesame sort of stereotyped juxtaposition On themagazinersquos cover for August 8 1900 thefamiliar feminized and godlike personificationof the West points at a slavering dragonlabeled ldquoBoxerrdquo crawling over the wall of thecapital city Now clad in armor and carrying aspear she threatens to intervene to stop theanti-foreign anti-Christian acts of ldquoanarchyldquomurderrdquo and ldquoriotrdquo that have spread toBeijing Chinarsquos hapless young Manchuemperor traditionally and exotically robed sitspassively in the foreground The caption titledldquoThe First Dutyrdquo carries this subtitleldquoCivilization (to China)mdashThat dragon must bekilled before our troubles can be adjusted Ifyou donrsquot do it I shall have tordquo

ldquoThe First Duty Civilization (to China) mdash Thatdragon must be killed before our troubles canbe adjusted If you donrsquot do it I shall have tordquo

Udo Keppler Puck August 8 1900Source Library of Congress

ldquoCivilizationrdquo warns Chinarsquos passive emperor tostop the ldquoAnarchyrdquo ldquoMurderrdquo and ldquoRiotrdquospread by Boxer insurgentsmdashvisualized as adragon crawling over the city wallmdashattackingmissionaries Chinese Christians andWesterners When this cartoon was publishedthe foreign Legation Quarter in Beijing wasbesieged by Boxers and Qing troops Lastingfrom June 20 to August 14 1900 the siege wasthe catalyst for a rescue mission by the Alliedforces of eight major world powers

ldquoSchool Beginsrdquo Unfit for Self-Rule

Invading foreign lands was a relatively newexperience for the US Given the rhetoric ofcivilizing uplift used to justify expansion

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20

tra ining was expected as part of theincorporation of new territories into the USUneasiness over the idea of using force togovern a country was overcome by tracing theissue of consent back through recent historyAn elaborate Puck graphic from early in 1899called ldquoSchool Beginsrdquo incorporates all theplayers in a classroom scene to illustrate thelegitimacy of governing without consent In thecaption Uncle Sam lectures ldquo(to his new classin Civilization) Now children youve got tolearn these lessons whether you want to or notBut just take a look at the class ahead of youand remember that in a little while you willfeel as glad to be here as they arerdquo

The blackboard contains the lessons learnedfrom Great Britain on how to govern a colonyand bring them into the civilized world statingldquo By not waiting for their consent she hasgreatly advanced the worlds civilization mdash TheUS must govern its new territories with orwithout their consent until they can governthemselvesrdquo Veneration of Britainrsquos treatmentof colonies as a positive model attests to thesignificant shift in the American world viewgiven US origins in relation to the mothercountry Even the Civil War is referenced in awall plaque ldquoThe Confederate States refusedtheir consent to be governed but the Unionwas preserved without their consentrdquo Refutingthe right of indigenous rule was based ondemonstrating a populationrsquos lack ofpreparation for self-governance

The image exhibits a racist hierarchy thatplaces a dominant white American male in thecenter and on the fringes an African-Americanwashing the windows and Native-Americanreading a primer upside down China showngripping a schoolbook in the doorway has notyet entered the scene Girls are part of theobedient older class studying books labeledldquoCalifornia Texas New Mexico and ArizonardquoThe only non-white student in the older groupholds the book titled ldquoAlaskardquo and is neatlycoifed in contrast to the unruly new class made

up of the ldquoPhilippines Hawaii Porto Rico andCubardquo All are depicted as dark-skinned andchildish

ldquoSchool Beginsrdquo Uncle Sam (to his new class inCivilization) Now children youve got to learnthese lessons whether you want to or not Butjust take a look at the class ahead of you and

remember that in a little while you will feel asglad to be here as they arerdquo Louis

Dalrymple Puck January 25 1899 SourceBeinecke Rare Books amp Manuscripts Yale

University

Louis Dalrymplersquos exceptionally detailed 1899Puck graphic includes racist and denigratingdepictions within a schoolhouse metaphor todemonstrate the right to govern newly acquiredterritories without their consent The argumentfollows Englandrsquos example as spelled out onthe blackboard that ldquoBy not waiting for theirconsent she has greatly advanced the worldrsquoscivilizationrdquo ldquoAn African-American washeswindowsrdquo The book on the desk reads ldquoUSFirst Lessons in Self Governmentrdquo The paperon desk reads ldquoThe New Class PhilippinesHawaii Cuba Porto Ricordquo A Native Americanreads a book upside down and a prospectiveChinese pupil stands in the doorway

The wal l s ign overhead reads ldquoTheConfederate States refused their consent to begoverned but the Union was preserved withouttheir consentrdquo The class holds schoolbooks

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21

labeled ldquoAlaska Texas Arizona CaliforniaNew Mexicordquo Blackboard text ldquoThe consent ofthe governed is a good thing in theory but veryrare in fact England has governed her colonieswhether they consented or not By not waitingfor their consent she has greatly advanced theworlds civilization mdash The US must govern itsnew territories with or without their consentuntil they can govern themselvesrdquo

Harperrsquos Weekly later echoed the classroomscene with a cover captioned ldquoUncle SamrsquosNew Class in the Art of Self-Governmentrdquo Theclass is disrupted by revolutionaries from thenew US territories of the Philippines andCuba whose vicious fight brands them asbarbarously unfit for self-rule Model studentsHawaii and ldquoPortordquo Rico appear as docile girlslearning their lessons The backdrop to thescene a large ldquoMap of the United States andNeighboring Countriesrdquo attests to the newposition the US has taken in the world withits overseas territories marked by US flags

ldquoUncle Samrsquos New Class in the Art of Self-Governmentrdquo W A Rogers Harperrsquos Weekly A

Journal of Civilization August 27 1898Source The Ohio State University Cartoon

Research Library

Uncle Sam breaks up a fight between studentsidentified as ldquoCuban Ex-Patriotrdquo and ldquoGuerillardquoin h is ldquoNew Class in the Art o f Se l f -Governmentrdquo The famous white-hairedgeneral Maacuteximo Goacutemez a master ofinsurgency tactics in the Cuban IndependenceWar (1895ndash1898) reads a book with his nameon it The president of the First PhilippineRepublic Emilio Aguinaldo is portrayed as abarefoot savage wild hair escaping from adunce cap ldquoHawaiirdquo and ldquoPorto Ricordquo aremodel female students The large ldquoMap of theUnited States and Neighboring Countriesrdquo isdotted with US flags marking newly-acquiredterritories

In its final issue for 1899mdasha time when the US

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22

suppression of Filipino resistance was at itspeakmdashPuck turned to a feel-good holidaygraphic to reaffirm this theme of the bountypromised to newly invaded countries andpeoples Columbia and Uncle Sam pluck giftsfrom ldquoOur Christmas Treerdquo including law andorder technology and education for overseasterritories ldquoHawaii Puerto Rico Cuba and thePhilippinesrdquo condescendingly drawn asgrateful children

ldquoOur Christmas Treerdquo Udo Keppler PuckDecember 27 1899 Source Library of Congress

The laudatory rhetoric and imagery of a ldquowhitemanrsquos burdenrdquo and ldquocivilizing missionrdquo receiveda sharp rejoinder in a cartoon published by Lifein April 1901 under the title ldquoMarch of theStrenuous Civilizationrdquo In this sardonic

rendering of the realities of imperialistexpansion a missionary leads the chargeholding a ldquoMissionary Ledgerrdquo Immediatelybehind him march a sword-brandishing sailorcarrying ldquolootrdquo and a rifle-bearing soldiercarrying ldquobootyrdquo ldquoSciencerdquo comes nextclutching ldquolydditerdquo a high explosive first usedby the British in the Boer War ldquoLiteraturerdquofollows holding the text of Kiplingrsquos poemldquoThe White Manrsquos Burdenrdquo Music plays anorgan labeled ldquoTwo Step SymphonymdashlsquoDollarMark Forever rsquordquo Behind Music comesldquoSculpturerdquo holding up a monument to a warhero ldquoPaintingrdquo carried a portfolio inscribedldquolsquoLight Death to all Schools but Oursrdquo The lastmarcher holds up ldquoDrummerrsquos Samplesrdquoreferring to the traveling salesmen of businessand commerce

Skulls dot the landscape ahead in Lifersquos grimrendering Vultures hover above theprocession and the artifacts of past civilizationare trampled underfoot at the rear Lifersquos satireof the ldquowhite manrsquos burdenrdquo mystique offers aprocession of the supporters of the newimperialism beginning with missionaries andending with the traveling salesman

ldquoThe March of the Strenuous Civilizationrdquo C STaylor Life April 11 1901 Source Widener

Library Harvard University

Lifersquos satire of the ldquowhite manrsquos burdenrdquomystique offers a procession of the supporters

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23

of the new imperialism beginning withmissionaries and ending with the travelingsalesman

Even the language of Lifersquos caption issubversive for it picks up a famous pro-imperialist speech by Theodore Roosevelt titledldquoThe Strenuous Liferdquo Delivered on April 101899 two years before Roosevelt becamepresident the most famous lines of the speechwere these

I wish to preach not the doctrine of ignobleease but the doctrine of the strenuous life thelife of toil and effort of labor and strife topreach that highest form of success whichcomes not to the man who desires mere easypeace but to the man who does not shrink fromdanger hellip

hellip So i f we do our duty ar ight in thePhilippines we will add to that national renownwhich is the highest and finest part of nationallife will greatly benefit the people of thePhilippine Islands and above all we will playour part well in the great work of upliftingmankind

BIBLES amp GUNS

ldquoAdvance Agent of Modern CivilizationrdquoReligion amp Empire

Rel ig ion p layed a ma jor ro le in thecharacterization of others as heathens in needof salvation through education conversion andcivilizing in the ways of Christian culture Theviolence applied to these aims both in bodilyharm and cultural ruin was only part of thehypocrisy A number of critical cartoons of thetime addressed the unsavory behavior of theldquocivilizersrdquo themselves and the disparitybetween doctrine and actions

The synergy of piousness and power is thesubject of a Keppler cartoon ldquoThe AdvanceAgent of Modern Civilizationrdquo in the January12 1898 issue of Puck The divine right of

kingsmdashhere Wilhelm II Emperor of Germanyas a pompous war lord mounted on a colossalcannonmdashis intermingled with the divinemission of clergy often the first Westernersallowed into foreign lands The penetration ofmissionaries into the interior of China forexample destabilized rural economies andincited anti-foreign sentiments The cartoonlinks might with right as the cannon is pushedand dragged forward by clergy identified bytheir headgear skullcap biretta clerical hattop hat and distinctive English-style shovel hatMissionary zeal extends to a threat unfurled ina banner carried by the choir of women ldquoComeand be saved if you donrsquot helliprdquo

ldquoThe Advance Agent of Modern CivilizationrdquoUdo Keppler Puck January 12 1898


Germanyrsquos Kaiser Wilhelm II appears as ananointed leader his angel wings made ofswords astride a cannon dragged by clericsand missionaries toward foreign lands Wilhelmpoints ahead where the inhabitants flee

In a post-Bismarck era Germany was a late-comer to the colonial land grab in Africa andthe Pacific Its colonies were acquired throughpurchase agreements with other world powersand economic domination However brutallyrepressive policies followed that includedaccusations of genocide Cartoonists portrayed

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24

Wilhelm II with increasing venom as aperpetrator of violence through World War IHe was just one of the imperial rulers andnational figures to be demonized As thesecartoons reflect the US itself a new colonialpower was particularly threatened by the riseof Germany as a rival in the Pacific Puckrsquoscaricature of Germanyrsquos Bible-quoting KaiserWilhelm II ready to machine gun foreign non-believers captures the role of Christianity inturn-of-the-century Western imperialism

ldquoThe Gospel According to St Williamrdquo UdoKeppler Puck September 26 1900Source Library of CongressldquoLe moderne Attila part en guerre au nomde la civilisationrdquo (The modern Attila goesto war on behalf of civilization) Fischiettoca 1900

An Italian cartoonist who drew William II as amodern ldquoAttilardquo beheading Chinese foes waslikely inspired by his ldquoHunrdquo speech to Germansoldiers shipping out to fight in the BoxerUprising in China delivered on July 27 1900in which he called for total war

Should you encounter the enemy he will bedefeated No quarter will be given Prisonerswill not be taken Whoever falls into your handsis forfeited Just as a thousand years ago theHuns under their King Attila made a name for

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25

themselves one that even today makes themseem mighty in history and legend may thename German be affirmed by you in such a wayin China that no Chinese will ever again dare tolook cross-eyed at a German

ldquoAs the Heathen See Usrdquo Reversing theGaze

Although usually associated with the pro-expansionist proponents of ldquocivilizationrdquo andldquoprogressrdquo Puck on occasion turned adiscerning eye on the double standards ofAmericarsquos so-called noble mission in thePhilippines and China Vignette-style graphicsplaced an array of smaller scenes around thecentral image Several of these graphics fromPuck commented on Americarsquos problems athome while accusing ldquoothersrdquo of beingbarbarians

ldquoOur lsquoCivilizedrsquo Heathenrdquo asks what is civilizedand who are the heathen Ugly and shockingscenes of violence in 19th-century Americanlife are ironically captioned as ldquorefined andelegantrdquo to challenge the self-image of a nationcontributing cash ldquoto save the heathen offoreign landsrdquo while ignoring its own barbarity

ldquoOur lsquoCivilizedrsquo Heathen And yet Uncle Sam isalways giving money to lsquosave the Heathenrsquordquo

Samuel D Ehrhart Puck September 8 1897Source Library of Congress

Raising money to ldquoSave the Foreign Devilsrdquorecurs in the visual record Cartoonist VictorGillam turns the tables on American missionaryzeal and moral imperative to ldquosave theheathenrdquo by showing how the Chinese mightview the ldquoforeign devilsrdquo in vignettes ofignorance racism and extreme violence in theUnited States

ldquoAs the Heathen See Us mdash A Meeting of theChinese Foreign Missions Societyrdquo John S

Pughe Puck November 21 1900 Source Libraryof Congress

Left ldquoKentucky feudsrdquo ldquoNew York CityGovernmentrdquo

Center ldquoBurning Negros at the Stakerdquo

Right ldquoLabor riotsrdquo ldquoAnti-Chinese Riotsrdquo

Violence in the Name of Peace andCivilization

The eight-nation military intervention duringthe Boxer Uprising in China in 1900 amountedto a global case study of how nations withsuperior technology wreaked violence abroadin the name of bringing about peace andcivilization In a run of 13 lithographs publishedin the July 4 1900 issue of the Frenchperiodical LrsquoAssiette au Beurre the cartoonistReneacute Georges Hermann-Paul was especiallyincisive in calling attention to this grim reality

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26

ldquomdash Dites donc Si le Christ voyait tout ccedila ilferait une tecircte helliprdquo Irsquod say If Christ saw allthis he would lose his mind hellipldquohellip Le jour de glorie est arriveacuterdquo The day ofglory has comeldquomdash Personne ne comprend ce qursquoil dit moncommandant mdash Parfait fusillez-lerdquo ldquoNoone understands what he says mycommanderrdquo ldquoFine shoot himrdquoReneacute Georges Hermann-Paul LrsquoAssiette auB u e r r e N o 1 4 J u l y 4 1 9 0 1 Source Bibliothegraveque nationale de France

In this French cartoon from a special issuetitled ldquoLa Guerrerdquo (War) a missionary and aRed Cross representative lament the violentand un-Christian behavior of Westernersoverseas Additional images from the issuedepict barbaric behavior by the multinationalforce that intervened in China during the BoxerUprising The graphics include pillage rapeand wanton executions

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27

The anti-imperialist Life magazine was similarlyattuned to the hypocrisy of cloaking militaryviolence in pious rhetoric In May 1900 forexample artist William Bengough scathinglyd e b u n k e d a s p e e c h b y P r e s i d e n tMcKinleymdashonce again justifying the USactions in taking of the Philippines by forcemdashbydepicting him as a parson standing on the faceof a dead Filipino The small print under thisgraphic quoted these lines from McKinleyrsquosspeech ldquoTeaching them the truth of thecommon fa therhood o f God and thebrotherhood of man and showing that if we arenot our brothersrsquo keepers we can be ourbrothersrsquo helpersrdquo

ldquoWilliam William The Presidentrsquos SpeechrdquoWilliam Bengough Life May 24 1900 Source


US President William McKinley is depicted asa preacher standing on a dead Filipinogrinding his heel into the manrsquos face Thecaption quotes one of the presidentrsquos speechesldquoTeaching them the truth of the commonfatherhood of God and the brotherhood of manand showing that if we are not our brothersrsquokeepers we can be our brothersrsquo helpers mdashPresident McKinley at the Conference ofForeign Missionsrdquo The fallen man clasps theflag of the Philippine independence movementinscribed with the words ldquoGive Us Libertyrdquo Hishat quotes the most famous phrase in the USDeclaration of IndependenceldquoLife liberty andthe pursuit of happinessrdquo

The following year Life cartoonist William HWalker evoked the horror of the Alliedintervention in China in a graphic captionedldquoAlmost thou persuadest me to be aChristianmdashActs xxvi 28rdquo A Chinese man fallsoff his chair the Bible at his feet laughing atUncle Samrsquos duplicity in preaching Christianitywhile showing a bloody panorama of Alliedsoldiers executing and marauding on a screen

The screen in the cartoon may refer to the earlyfilms that fed public fascination with China andthe Boxer crisis including Edisonrsquos recreationof the ldquoBombardment of Taku Forts by theAllied Fleetsrdquo (1900 view in the Library ofCongress) and a four-minute British productionthat staged the murder of a missionary byBoxers called ldquoAttack on a China Missionrdquo(1900) The Life cartoon takes a different viewof the barbarism in these events focussing onAllied brutality against the Chinese Thecaption refers to a Bible passage in whichbelief is nearly but not completely reached

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28

ldquoAlmost thou persuadest me to be aChristianmdashActs xxvi 28rdquo William H

Walker Life April 25 1901 Source WidenerLibrary Harvard University

In this mocking Life cartoon a Chinese manwith an overturned Bible at his feet laughsironically at how both the Bible and Uncle Samrelish scenes of slaughter The 1901 dateindicates that the specific reference is to Alliedreprisals against Chinese civilians following theBoxer Uprising

ldquoAre our teachings then in vain is thecaption of a cartoon by Puckrsquos Udo Keppler inwhich Confucius and Jesus Christ look down onthe warring Boxers and missionaries Boxerspracticed spirit-possession rituals oftenmeeting in Buddhist temples and attackedChristian missionaries and Chinese convertsMissionaries preaching the Gospel in ruralChina violated local religious practices Theenlarged detail below reveals that the flags ofthe opponents say the same thing in differentwords each justifying their wars to uphold theprinciple of the ldquoGolden Rulerdquo

ldquoAre our teachings then in vainrdquo UdoKeppler Puck October 3 1900 Source Library

of Congress

This rueful cartoon places Confucius and Jesusside-by-side and laments the failure of allparties to practice what they preach The

banners of both side pronounce fidelity to theldquogolden rulerdquo

Boxer banner (Chinese forces flags) ldquoDo not dounto others what you would not that others

should do unto you Confuciusrdquo

Missionary banner (Allied forces flags)ldquoWhatsoever ye would that men should do to

you do ye even so to them Jesusrdquo

WHO IS THE BARBARIAN

In an 1899 cartoon Reneacute Georges Hermann-Paul attacked the hypocrisy of spreadingcivilization by force by juxtaposing the words

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29

ldquoBarbarierdquo and ldquoCivilisationrdquo beneath Chineseand French combatants who alternate as victorand victim When the Chinese man raises hissword it is labeled ldquobarbarismrdquo but when theFrench soldier does precisely the same thing itis ldquoa necessary blow for civilizationrdquo

ldquoBarbarie mdash Civilisationrdquo Full caption ldquoIts all amatter of perspective When a Chinese coolie

strikes a French soldier the result is a public cryof lsquoBarbarityrsquo But when a French soldier strikesa coolie its a necessary blow for civilizationrdquoReneacute Georges Hermann-Paul Le Cri de Paris

July 10 1899

What did the public back home know about thefighting of these far-off wars Each of the threemajor turn-of-the-century wars left a trail ofcontention in the visual record In the US pro-imperialist graphics created the image ofrobotic unstoppable American soldiersstomping on foreign lands and towering overbarefoot savages Anti-imperialist protesterswere often feminized as weak ldquonervous Nelliesrdquoand in a play on words as ldquoauntiesrdquo Antiwargraphics on the other hand informed thepublic about the darker side of imperialcampaigns

ldquoLucky Filipinosrdquo the Philippine-AmericanWar

Life published many graphics that showed thehumanitarian costs inflicted by war andpolitical aggressionmdashdespoliation lootingconcentra t ion camps tor ture andgenocidemdashoften awkwardly interspersedamongst humorous sketches and domesticscenes The graphics protesting US actions inthe Philippines were particularly biting as seenin a page satirically titled ldquoLucky FilipinosrdquoRising from the flames of a burning home askeletal apparition represents the hundreds ofthousands of Filipinos killed in the UScampaign Under the American flag patrioticwords end with a question mark

lsquoTis the Star-Spangled Banner Oh Long May ItWave

Orsquoer The Land of the Free and the Home of theBrave

ldquoLucky Filipinosrdquo Life May 3 1900 SourceWidener Library Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30

The long text accompanying this grimillustration reads as follows

Lucky Filipinos

It appears that the Filipinos have lostconfidence in Americans

Do those benighted wretches fail to realizewhat we have accomplished in their islands

We may have burnt certain villagesdestroyed considerable property andincidentally slaughtered a few thousand of theirsons and brothers husbands and fathers etcbut what did they expect Were we to transportan army more than half way around the earthmerely to listen to peace propositions

Not much

And look at Manila

Two years ago the main street of Maniladid not possess a single saloon Now there arethirteen on this one street

And they complain that drunken Americansoldiers insult the native women

What do they expect from a drunkensoldier anyway

Progress is now in those islands

She may be red-handed and at timesdrunk but she is there for business

ldquoScorched earthrdquo tactics destroyed scores ofvillages How such uncivilized behavior fit therhetoric of the civilizing mission is the subjectof the Life cartoon ldquoA Red-Letter Dayrdquo Againsta backdrop of distant flames a Filipinomanmdashsympathetically drawn as tall handsomeand heroic in contrast to the usual caricature ofa tiny expressionless savage in a grass skirtmdashisquestioned by a clergyman The caption readsldquoThe Stranger How long have you beencivilized The Native Ever since my home was

burned to the ground and my wife and childrenshotrdquo

ldquoA Red-Letter Day The Stranger How long haveyou been civilized The Native Ever since my

home was burned to the ground and my wife andchildren shotrdquo Frederick Thompson

Richards Life October 18 1900

The dignity of the bereaved Filipino in thiscartoon is a stark contrast to the usualdemeaning stereotypes of ldquohalf devil and halfchildrdquo that Kipling endorsed and manycartoonists reinforced In this rendering it isthe Bible-toting white invader (ldquoThe Strangerrdquo)who is ridiculed

ldquoLe Silencerdquo the Second Anglo-Boer War

The French leftwing magazine LrsquoAssiette auBeurre (The Butter Plate) had a substantive runfrom April 1901 to October 1912 Dominatedby full-page graphics many issues werethematic visual essays developed by a single

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31

artist In the September 28 1901 issue artistJean Veber excoriated the shameful subject ofthe concentration camps British forces used toweaken Boer resistance in the Anglo-Boer Warof 1899ndash1902 The strategy was among severalemerging in these ldquosmall warsrdquo of the turn ofthe century

Initially the camps were conceived as sheltersfor women and children war refugees Britisharmies had difficulty stopping mounted Boercommandos spread out over large areas ofopen terrain The campaign was stepped up totarget the civilian population that providedcrucial support for guerrilla fighters in both theTransvaal and Orange Free State republicsFamilies were burned out of their homes andimprisoned in concentration camps

Though black Africans did not fight in the warover 100000 were rounded up and confined incamps separate from the white internees All ofthe hastily organized camps for whites andblacks alike had inadequate accommodationswretched sanitation and unreliable foodsupplies leading to tens of thousands of deathsfrom disease and starvation A post-conflictreport calculated that close to 28000 whiteBoers perished (the vast majority of themchildren under sixteen) while fatalities amongincarcerated native Africans numbered over14000 at the very least

The British people had a long history ofsupporting imperial wars and as the conflictescalated criticism in cartoon form declinedand was supplanted by patriotic messagesFrench artists on the other hand leveledcharges of barbarism against Great Britain andother imperial powers including their owncountry in vivid graphics Veberrsquos series ldquoLesCamps de Reconcentration au Transvaalrdquobegins with the cover image ldquoLe Silencerdquo inwhich a veiled woman holds her finger to herlips standing over the remnants of whatappears to be an electric fence and a plow thatsuggests the earth has been tilled to bury

evidence

ldquoLes Camps de Reconcentration au TransvaalLe Silencerdquo (Concentration Camps in the

Transvaal Silence) Jean VeberLrsquoAssiette auBeurre September 28 1901


This special issue of LrsquoAssiette au Beurre drewparticular attention to the brutal tacticsadopted by the British in the Boer Warincluding herding the families of the Boeropponent into concentration camps Starkimages such as these helped make public asubject that was generally suppressed

In Veberrsquos rendering of ldquoLes Progregraves de laSciencerdquo (The Advancement of Science) Boerprisoners of war are being shocked by anelectric fence to the amusement of Britishtroops on the other side The image is ironicallypaired with a quote attributed to an ldquoOfficialReport to the War Officerdquo that says rdquoiron railingthrough which an electric current runs makes

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32

the healthiest and safest fencesrdquo

ldquoLes Progregraves de la Sciencerdquo (The Advances ofScience) Jean Veber LrsquoAssiette au BeurreSeptember 28 1901 Source Bibliothegraveque

nationale de France

British soldiers laugh at the spectacle of Boerprisoners of war being shocked by an electric

fence The title of the cartoon calls attention tothe barbarous uses of much modern technology

and so-called ldquoprogressrdquo

helliples prisonniers boeumlrs ont eacuteteacute reacuteunis en degrands enclos ougrave depuis 18 mois ils trouvent lerepos et le calme Un treillage de fer traverseacute

par un courant eacutelectrique est la plus saine et laplus sucircre des clocirctures Elle permet aux

prisonniers de jouir de la vue du dehors etdrsquoavoir ainsi lrsquoillusion de la liberteacutehellip (Rapport

officiel au War Office)

hellip the Boer prisoners were gathered in largeenclosures where for the last 18 months theyfound rest and quiet An iron railing through

which an electric current runs is the healthiestand safest of fences It allows prisoners to enjoythe view from the outside and have the illusion

of freedom (Official Report to the WarOffice)

In an image t i t led ldquoVers le Camp deReconcentrationrdquo (To the Concentration Camp)women and children are dragged off by Britishsoldiers The caption again ironically quotes an

ldquoOfficial Report to the War Officerdquo that praisesthe British soldiersrsquo bravery in the face of afierce enemy in this case women and childrenldquoThe humanity of our soldiers is admirable anddoes not tire despite the ferocity of Boersrdquo

ldquoVers le Camp de Reconcentrationrdquo (To theConcentration Camp) Jean Veber LrsquoAssiette au

Beurre September 28 1901Source Bibliothegraveque nationale de France

Women and children were included among theBoer prisoners of the British The French

caption mocks British hypocrisy in officiallypraising the humanitarian behavior of their

armed forces

hier encore nous avons pris un importantcommando Je lai fait releacuteguer sous bonne

escorte Lhumaniteacute de nos soldats estadmirable et ne se lasse pas malgreacute la feacuterociteacutedes Boeumlrs hellip (Rapport officiel au War Office)

hellip yesterday we took important commandos Irelegated an escort The humanity of our

soldiers is admirable and does not tire despitethe ferocity of the Boers (Official Report to

the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33

ldquoLes Camps de Reconcentration auTransvaalrdquo Jean Veber LrsquoAssiette auB e u r r e S e p t e m b e r 2 8 1 9 0 1 Source Bibliothegraveque nationale de France

ldquoIs This Imperialismrdquo the Boxer Uprising

In the eyes of the West China was dangerouslyclose to chaos as the new century began Worldpowers competing for spheres of influencewithin her borders had grown ever bolder intheir demands as the Qing rulers appearedincreasingly weak Western missionaries hadpenetrated the interior and the missions theyestablished disrupted village traditions Theinflux of cheap Western goods erodedgenerations-long trading patterns whiletelegraph and railroad lines were constructedin violation of superstitions eliciting deepresentment among Chinese Some of thepoorest provinces in the north were furtherstressed by a destructive combination offlooding and prolonged drought There

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34

membership in militant secret societiesswelled most prominently in the Yi He Quan(Society of the Righteous Fist) a sect known toWesterners as the Boxers

Christian missionaries their Chinese convertsand eventually all foreigners were blamed forthe troubles and attacked by Boxer bands ofdisenfranchised young men By the spring of1900 Boxer attacks were spreading toward thecapital city of Beijing Foreign buildings andchurches were torched and the Beijing-Tianjinrailway and telegraph lines were dismantledcutting communication with the capital Arescue expedition made up of troops from eightnations under the command of the British Vice-Admiral Edward Seymour left Tianjin forBeijing The expedition met with unexpectedlyfierce opposition from Boxers and Qing dynastytroops and was forced to retreat On June 17while the fate of Seymour and his menremained unknown to the outside world Alliednavies attacked and captured the forts at TakuIn one of the most lasting images of thec o n f l i c t t h e l e g a t i o n q u a r t e r i nBeijingmdashoverflowing with some 900 foreigndiplomats their families and soldiers alongwith some 2800 Chinese Christiansmdashwas putto siege On June 21 the Empress Dowager Cixideclared war on the Allied nations

The Boxer Uprising was a godsend for therighteous exponents of a world divided

between the civilized West and barbaricOthers As the disturbance escalated so didnews coverage around the world Reports ofthe Boxer a t tacks seeped out o f thebeleaguered area and misinformation spreadlike this headline in the New York Times on July30 ldquoWave of Massacre Spreads over China AllMissionaries and Converts Being ExterminatedPriests Horribly Tortured Wrapped inKerosene-Soaked Cotton and Roasted toDeathrdquo

In this same horrified mode the July 28 coverof Harperrsquos Weeklymdasha publication that carried

t h e s u b t i t l e ldquo A J o u r n a l o fCivilizationrdquomdashdepicted demonic Boxersbrandishing primitive weapons carryingsevered heads on pikes and trampling a childwrapped in the American flag Uncle Sam andPresident McKinley countered the assaultunder another American flag on which wasinscribed ldquoLife liberty and the pursuit ofhappiness under treaty rightsrdquo The cartooncaption reflected Americarsquos self-image as areluctant civilizer ldquoIs This Imperialism Noblow has been struck except for liberty andhumanity and none will berdquo

ldquoIs this Imperialism lsquoNo blow has been struckexcept for liberty and humanity and none will

bersquomdashWilliam McKinleyrdquo W A Rogers HarperrsquosWeekly July 28 1900 Source Widener Library

Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35

As the caption indicates this cover illustrationdismisses charges of imperialism that criticsdirected against American expansion at theturn of the centuryHarperrsquos Weekly took pridein billing itself as ldquoA Journal of CivilizationrdquoThe barbarians depicted here are ChineseBoxers who committed atrocities againstChristian missionaries

After Allied forces were dispatched to relievethe sieges in Tianjin and Beijing however itdid not take long before news reports andcomplementary visual commentary began totake note of barbaric conduct on both sides ofthe conflict US regiments were transportedfrom the Philippines to join the Allied force Inan unprecedented alliance the secondexpeditionary force was comprised of (fromlargest troop size to smallest) Japan RussiaGreat Britain France US Germany Austria-Hungary and Italy On Chinarsquos side the Boxerswere absorbed into the Qing government forcesto fight the invaders Allied troops departedTianjin for Beijing on August 4

Despite several victories in the battle forTianjin chaotic Chinese forces melted awaybefore the All ied advance With l itt leopposition Allied troops foraged for food andwater in deserted villages where the few whoremainedmdashoften servants left to protectpropertymdashusually met with violenceAccusations of atrocities against civilians onthe ten-day march to Beijing were made in first-hand accounts of the mission Althoughprotested by some commanders no singleapproach prevailed among these competitivearmies thrown together in a loose coalitionNewspapers carried pictures of corpses andstories of rape and plunder notably in thewealthy merchant city of Tongzhou just beforetroops reached Beijing

In 1901 occupation forces roamed thecountryside to pillage loot and hunt forBoxers Many peasants vaguely suspected ofbeing Boxers were executed The conduct of

foreign troops in China was targeted in asearing cartoon by the French artist TheacuteophileSteinlen A laughing missionary in the leadblood-soaked soldiers of the Allied forces treadon the bodies of women and children whilecarrying severed heads on a pike The imageappeared in the June 27 1901 issue ofLrsquoAssiette au Beurre by Steinlen titled ldquoAVision de Hugo 1802ndash1902rdquo The full muraldecries the bloodshed of colonial warfare inTurkey China and Africa

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36

ldquoA Vision de Hugo 1802ndash1902rdquo TheacuteophileSteinlen LAssiette au Beurre February26 1902 (No 47) Source Bibliothegravequenationale de France

This special issue illustrated by TheacuteophileSteinlen comprises a particularly gruesomemural depicting the bloodshed of contemporarycolonial wars in Turkey China and Africa Thescene above turns the tables on the HarperrsquosWeekly cover (above) and accuses foreigntroops and missionaries of atrocities during theBoxer Uprising in China

Eighteen months before Steinlenrsquos disturbingldquomuralrdquo another German artist ThomasTheodor Heine published a similarly blood-soaked rendering of the barbar i t iesperpetuated abroad by Western military forcesHeine used the pages of Simplicissimusto

denounce the atrocious conduct of Prussiantroops during the Allied intervention in Chinawhere the German forces obviously took toheart Wilhelm IIrsquos exhortation to show nomercy Heine provided Simplicissimus withwhat has become a justly famous image anarmed knight representing the West pours atorrent of blood over Asia while his sworddrips blood on Africa Titled ldquoDream of theEmpress of Chinardquo the dream is an obviousnightmare as the sardonic sub-caption makesclear ldquoEuropeansrdquo this reads ldquoPour theBlessings of Their Culture over the Globerdquo

ldquoDer Europaumler giesst die Segnungen seinerKultur uumlber den Erdball ausrdquo (The Europeans

pour the blessings of its culture over the globe)Thomas Theodor Heine ldquoDer Traum der

Kaiserin von Chinardquo (The Dream of the Empressof China) Simplicissimus July 3 1900

Source The Weimar Classics Foundation

The satirical weekly Simplicissimus flourished

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37

from 1896 to 1967 with a hiatus from 1944 to1954

ldquoThink It Over All this for politicsmdashiscivilization advancingrdquo

In the United States the most famous counter-voice to Kipling and his ldquowhite manrsquos burdenrdquorhetoric was the writer Mark Twain The USconquest of the Philippines coupled with themulti-nation ldquoBoxer interventionrdquo in Chinaprompted Twain to become an outspoken criticof America plunging into what he denounced asthe ldquoEuropean Gamerdquo of overseas expansion

Twainrsquos most celebrated anti-imperialist essayldquoTo the Person Sitting in Darknessrdquo waspublished in the February 1901 issue of theNorth American Review His biblical titlewhich came from Matthew 416 (ldquoThe peoplewho sat in darkness have seen a great lightrdquo)picked up on many pro-imperialist themes ofthe times The language obviously resonatedwith the Kipling-esque imagery of white menbringing enlightenment to ldquonew-caught sullenpeoples half-devil and half-childrdquo People ofdarkness was moreover a perception thatmissionaries (whom Twain excoriated)routinely applied to the ldquoheathenrdquo natives ofnon-Christian lands As the cartoon record ofthese turn-of-the-century years repeatedlydemonstrates moreover it was taken forgranted by the imperialists that the people onwhom they were bestowing the light ofcivi l ization were l iterallymdashand oftengrotesquelymdashof various shades of darkercomplexion

ldquoTo the Person Sitting in Darknessrdquo addressedGreat Britainrsquos Boer War as well as thePhilippine conquest and Boxer intervention AsTwain saw it the US war against the nascentPhilippine Republic amounted to little morethan mimicry of Britainrsquos bloody war ofconquest in South Africa Turning to China hisstinging indictment extended beyond the twoAnglo powers to target the Kaiserrsquos Germany

plus Tsarist Russia and France

Beyond flat-out aggression and repression thecommon thread that linked the imperialistpowers in Twainrsquos critique was the hypocrisyof expansionist rhetoric about ldquoCivilization andProgressrdquo (He itemized the virtues thatsupposedly animated this white manrsquos burdenas ldquoLove Justice Gentleness ChristianityProtection of the Weak Temperance Law andOrder Liberty Equality Honorable DealingMercy and Educationrdquo) The February 1901essay opens with the satirical observation that

Extending the Blessings of Civilization to ourBrother who Sits in Darkness has been a goodtrade and has paid well on the whole andthere is money in i t yet i f carefu l lyworkedmdashbut not enough in my judgement tomake any considerable risk advisable

The noble rhetoric that buttressed overseasexpansion as Twain presented it was largelyfor ldquoHome Consumptionrdquo and stood in sharpcontrast to ldquothe Actual Thing that the CustomerSitting in Darkness buys with his blood andtears and land and libertyrdquo Where ldquothePhilippine temptationrdquo in particular wasconcerned he cited press reports of atrocitiesby American troops There should be noproblem designing a flag for the conqueredPhilippines he opined in drawing his bitingessay to a close ldquowe can have just our usualflag with the white stripes painted black andthe stars replaced by the skull and cross-bonesrdquo

Around 1904 or 1905mdashin another impassionedresponse to the American war in thePhilippines (which officially ended in 1902 butin practice dragged on for many yearsthereafter)mdashTwain penned a short essay titledldquoThe War Prayerrdquo The essay is now regardedas an exemplary indictment of blind patriotismcoupled with religious fanaticism At the timehowever Twainrsquos family acquaintances andpublisher feared the piece would be denouncedas both unpatriotic and sacrilegious and urged

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38

him not to publish it Twain went along partlyout of concern for his family and ldquoThe WarPrayerrdquo was not published until 1916 six yearsafter his death

ldquoThe War Prayerrdquo begins with a preacherpraising the nationrsquos just and holy war andleading his congregation in praying for victoryIt ends with a stranger entering the church anddelivering a devastating description of thecarnage experienced by invaded countriesGiven the fact that Twain was famous andwidely admired for his outspokenness it isespecially disconcerting to learn that he and hisclose supporters concluded that challengingthe mystique of ldquocivilization and progressrdquo insuch stark terms was not feasible given thepolitical and religious fervor of the times

At the same time however the suppression ofldquoThe War Prayerrdquo helps highlight the courageand critical edge that many political cartoonistsbrought to the very same subject of spreadingdeath and destruction in the name ofcivilization and progress Indeed the visualrecord was in i ts unique way morepowerfulmdashmore literally graphicmdashthan wordsalone could ever be

As early as mid 1899 for example Life calledattention to the staggering death count amongFilipinos with a cartoon titled ldquoThe Harvest inthe Philippinesrdquo It is now estimated that alltold between 12000 and 20000 Filipinomilitary perished in this conflict as opposed to4165 killed on the US side Estimates ofcivilian fatalities on the other hand range from200000 to possibly well over a million In ldquoTheHarvest in the Philippinesrdquo Uncle Sam standsarmed to the hilt gazing at the viewer with afield of Filipino corpses lined up in rows behindhim and stretching back as far as the eye cansee The caption reference to ldquoharvestrdquo surelycarried multiple meaning to many ofLifersquosAmerican readers It evoked both the fact thatthe bulk of the US force was made up of unitsfrom the Midwestern states And more subtly

yet it reflected the shift from the nationrsquosagrarian roots toward global engagement

ldquoThe Harvest in the Philippinesrdquo FrederickThompson Richards Life July 6 1899

In mid 1899 Life published this chilling view ofthe war in the Philippines that was to drag onfor several more years Uncle Sam armed anddangerous cocks an eyebrow as he displays hishandiwork countless dead Filipino soldiers laidout in rows

A year later Judge magazine published a two-page cartoon by Victor Gillam that sets thecontemporary ldquocivilization versus barbarismrdquodebate against a grand panorama of historicalcarnage The caption reads ldquoThink It Overrdquomdashaphrase that also appeared later in MarkTwainrsquos ldquoTo the Person Sitting in Darknessrdquoessay Gillamrsquos sub-caption is ldquoAll this forpoliticsmdashis civilization advancingrdquo

Contemporary wars in the Philippines andTransvaal (the Boer War) comprise theforeground of the ldquoThink It Overrdquo battlefieldClose behind them lie corpses from theldquoFranco-Prussian Warrdquo ldquoRussia and TurkeyrdquoldquoNapoleon and Austriardquo Far off in the distancewith labels reading ldquoRoman Warsrdquo andldquoAlexandriardquo the artists carries his viewersback to ancient times when the civilization

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39

myth first emerged to mask the brutal realitiesof politically-motivated conflicts

ldquoThink It Over All this for politicsmdashiscivilization advancingrdquo Victor Gillam JudgeFebruary 3 1900 Source Widener Library

Harvard University

The barbarity of imperial war is displayed on abattlefield littered with dead soldiers of manynationalities that stretches from contemporarywarsmdashhere the ldquoPhilippinesrdquo and ldquoTransvaalrdquo(Boer War)mdashback through time to ldquoRomanWarsrdquo The sub-caption of this 1900 Judgecartoon once again asks the disturbingquestion ldquois civilization advancingrdquo

In September 1901 the French artist JeanVeber used the pages of LrsquoAssiette au Beurre tocall attention to one of the often-forgottenironies of the mystique of ldquothe white manrsquosburdenrdquo His cartoon depicting a vast field offlat stone grave markers carried the simplecaption ldquoUnited Kingdomrdquo (Le Royaume-Uni)

A scrawny female figure in the backgroundappears to be a skull-faced depiction ofBritannia grown thin and solitary throughendless pursuit of war The full sardonic ironyof the rendering however resides in the deadoccupants of the graves All are erstwhileBritish soldiers Their diverse identitieshowever reflect the global reach and ethnic

diversity of the British empiremdashand the extentto which England relied on colonial subjects tofight its imperialist wars Thus under theldquoHere liesrdquo (Hic jacet) on each gravestone wesee generic names coupled with places oforigin extending from England to ScotlandIreland New Zealand Canada AustraliaGibraltar India Ceylon and Egypt

ldquoLe Royaume-Unirdquo (United Kingdom) JeanVeber LrsquoAssiette au Beurre September 28

1901 Source Bibliothegraveque nationale de France

In this cartoon from the French special issue onconcentration camps in the Boer War a gauntBritannia is the only living creature in a vastgraveyard for dead British soldiers Genericnames on the gravestones are coupled withplaces of origin including England ScotlandIreland New Zealand Canada AustraliaGibraltar India Ceylon and Egypt indicatingthe diversity of those recruited to fight and diefor the British Empire This military dimensionof the multi-ethnic ldquoUnited Kingdomrdquo is oftenforgotten (The artist signed his name on thegrave on the lower right)

The wars undertaken in the name ofldquoCivilization and Progressrdquo were more savagetortuous and contradictory than is oftenrecognized And the political cartoons of the

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40

timemdashsubjective emotional ideological highlypoliticized and at the same time politicallydiversifiedmdashconvey this complexity withunparalleled sophistication and intensity

It is all too easy to assume that AmericansEnglish and others on the home front could notsee what their nations were doing overseasThe turn-of-the-century visual record tells usotherwise

Ellen Sebring is an artist filmmaker and for adecade was the Creative director of theVisualizing Cultures project at MIT Sheresearches visual narrative and digitalhistoriography using the visual historicalrecordThis article was adapted fromVisualizing Cultures

Recommended citation Ellen SebringCivilization amp Barbarism Cartoon Commentaryamp ldquoThe White Manrsquos Burdenrdquo (1898ndash1902)Volume 13 Issue 27 No 1 July 6 2015

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Appelbaum Stanley French Satirical Drawingsfrom ldquoLʼAssiette au Beurrerdquo (New York DoverPublications 1978)

Bickers Robert A and R G Tiedemann TheBoxers China and the World (LanhamRowman amp Littlefield 2007)

Brown Arthur Judson New Forces in OldChina An Inevitable Awakening (New YorkFH Revell 1904)

Brown Frederick From Tientsin to Peking withthe Allied Forces American Imperialism (NewYork Arno Press 1970)

Cohen Paul A History in Three Keys TheBoxers as Event Experience and Myth(New

York Columbia University Press 1997)

Daggett Aaron Simon America in the ChinaRelief Expedition (Kansas City Hudson-Kimberly publishing company 1903)

Elliott Jane E Some Did It for CivilisationSome Did It for Their Country A RevisedViewof the Boxer War (Hong Kong The ChineseUniversity Press 2002)

Esherick Joseph The Origins of the BoxerUprising (Berkeley University of CaliforniaPress 1987)

Gambone Robert L Life on the Press TheP o p u l a r A r t a n d I l l u s t r a t i o n s o fGeorgeBenjamin Luks (Jackson UniversityPress of Mississippi 2009)

Hevia James Louis English Lessons ThePedagogy of Imperialism in Nineteenth-CenturyChina (Durham Duke University Press 2003)

Abe Ignacio Enrique de la Cruz JorgeEmmanuel Helen Toribo The Forbidden BookThe Philippine-American War in PoliticalCartoons (San Francisco TBoli Pub andDistributor 2004) [View Extract]

Mott Frank Luther A History of AmericanMagazines 5 vols (Cambridge HarvardUniversity Press 1938)

Smith Arthur Henderson China in Convulsion2 vols (Shannon Irish University Press1972)(New York Barnes amp Noble Books 1972)

Tan Chester C The Boxer CatastropheColumbia Studies in the Social Sciences (NewYork Columbia University Press 1955)

Xiang Lanxin The Origins of the Boxer War AMultinational Study (London New YorkRoutledgeCurzon 2003)

Articles

Bello Walden ldquoUS Imperialism in the Asia-

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41

Pacificrdquo published originally in PeaceReview 103 pp 367-373 (1998) [Read Online]

Brewer Susan ldquoSelling Empire AmericanP r o p a g a n d a a n d W a r i n t h ePhilippinesrdquoThe Asia-Pacific Journal Vol 11Issue 40 No 1 (October 7 2013)

Cullinane M Patrick ldquoTransatlanticdimensions of the American Anti-ImperialistMovement 1899 -1909 rdquo Journa l o fTransatlantic Studies Vol 8 Issue 4 pp301-314 (2010)

Feng Yongping ldquoThe Peaceful Transition ofPower from the UK to the USrdquo ChineseJournalof International Politics 1 (1) pp 83-108 (2006)(doi101093cjippol005)

Faunce Rev W H P ldquoSigns of Promiserdquo TheAdvocate of Peace pp 167-165 The AmericanPeace Soc ie ty Boston (December 1989) [Read Online]

Jones Toby Craig ldquoThe Laureate ofEmpirerdquo Raritan A Quarterly Review Vol 32No 2 Rutgers The State University of NewJersey (2014)

Klein Thoralf ldquoCase Study The BoxerW a r ndash T h e B o x e r U p r i s i n g rdquo O n l i n eEncyclopediaof Mass Violence (July 23 2008)(ISSN 1961-9898)

Leonhard Robert R The China ReliefExpedition Joint Coalition Warfare inChinaSummer 1900 (Laurel MD AppliedPhysics Laboratory Johns Hopkins University)

Matthews Roy T ldquoBritannia and John BullFrom Birth to Maturityrdquo The Historian Vol 62Issue 4 pp 799ndash820 (June 2000)

Miller Bonnie M ldquoThe Image-Makers Arsenalin an Age of War and Empire 1898ndash 1899 ACartoon Essay Featuring the Work of CharlesBartholomew (of theMinneapolis Journal) andAlbert Wilbur Steele (of the Denver Post)rdquo

Journal of American Studies 45 pp 53-75( C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ) (doi101017S0021875810000046)

Murphy Erin L Womens Anti-ImperialismThe White Mans Burden and the Philippine-American War The Asia-Pacific Journal Vol27-1-09 (July 6 2009)

Phillips Richard and Jones Rhys ldquoImperial andAnti-Imperial Constructions of CivilisationE n g a g e m e n t s w i t h P r e - M o d e r nPastsrdquo Geopolitics Vol 13 No 4 pp 730-735(2008) (doi10108014650040802275644)

Ricard Serge ldquoAn Atlantic Triangle in the1900s Theodore Rooseveltʼs ʻspecialrelationshipsʼ with France and Britainrdquo Journalof Transatlantic Studies Vol 8 No 3 pp202-212 (September 2010)

Spencer David R No Laughing Matter 19thCentury Editorial Cartoons and the Business ofRace International Journal of Comic Art 111(2009) pp 203ndash228

Thompson Roger R ldquoReporting the TaiyuanMassacrerdquo from The Boxers China andtheWorld Bickers Robert A and R G Tiedemanneditors (Lanham Rowman amp Littlefield 2007)

Tuffnell Stephen ldquoʻUncle Sam is to beSacrificedʼ Anglophobia in Late Nineteenth-Century Politics and Culturerdquo AmericanNineteenth Century History Vol 12 Issue 1p p 7 7 - 9 9(2011) (DOI101080146646582011559749)

Twain Mark To the Person Sitting inDarkness The North American Review Vol172 (February 1901) [Read Online]

Vaughan Chr is topher ldquoEmbrac ingTechnologies of Domination The Rise ofPopular Imperialism in the US 1898-1904rdquoPaper presented at the annual meeting of theInternational Communication AssociationDresden International Congress Centre

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42

Dresden Germany Jun 16 2006 [Read Online]

Wasserstrom Jeffrey ʻCivilizationʼ and itsDiscontents The Boxers and Luddites asH e r o e s a n d V i l l a i n s T h e o r y a n d

Society 16(5)675 (1987)

W e b e r M a r k ldquo T h e B o e r W a rRememberedrdquo The Journal of HistoricalReview Vol 18 No 3 pp 14-27 (May-June1999)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

2

In the ldquocivilizationrdquo narrative barbarians werecommonly identified as the non-Western non-white non-Christian natives of the less-developed nations of the world Threeoverlapping turn-of-the-century conflicts inparticular stirred the righteous rhetoric of thewhite imperialists One was the second BoerWar of 1899ndash1902 that pitted British forcesagainst Dutch-speaking settlers in South Africaand their black supporters The second was theUS conquest and occupation of the Philippinesthat began in 1899 And the third was the anti-foreign Boxer Uprising in China in 1899ndash1901which led to military intervention by no lessthan eight foreign nations including not onlyTsarist Russia and the Western powers butalso Japan

Civilization and barbarism were vividlyportrayed in the visual record The wordCivilization (with a capital ldquoCrdquo) alongsideldquoProgressrdquo was counterposed against thewords ldquobarbarismrdquo ldquobarbariansrdquo andldquobarbarityrdquo with accompanying visualstereotypes Colossal goddess figures and othernational symbols were overwritten with themessage on their clothing and the flags theycarried

The archetypal dominance of ldquoCivilizationrdquo overldquoBarbarismrdquo is conveyed in a 1902 Puckgraphic with the sweeping white figure ofBritannia leading British soldiers and colonistsin the Boer War A band of tribal defenderswhose leader rides a white charger and wieldsthe flag of ldquoBarbarismrdquo fades in the face ofCivilizationrsquos advance The caption ldquoFrom theCape to Cairo Though the Process Be CostlyThe Road of Progress Must Be Cutrdquo states thatprogress must be pursued despite suffering onboth sides The message suggests that theindigenous man will be brought out ofignorance through the inescapable march ofprogress in the form of Western civilization

ldquoFrom the Cape to Cairo Tough the Process BeCostly The Road of Progress Must Be Cutrdquo Udo

Keppler Puck December 10 1902Source Library of Congress

In this 1902 cartoon Britainrsquos Boer War andgoals on the African continent are identifiedwith the march of civilization and progressagainst barbarism Brandishing the flag ofldquoCivilizationrdquo Britannia leads white troops andsettlers against native forces under the bannerof ldquoBarbarismrdquo

Other graphic techniques were used bycartoonists to communicate this message Forexample the light of civilization literallyilluminated vicious helpless or cluelessbarbarians In ldquoThe Pigtail Has Got to Gordquo awhite-robed goddess wears a star that radiatesover a Chinese mandarin A more earthlyapproach is taken in the graphic ldquoSome OneMust Back Uprdquo that heads this essay Here theldquoAuto-Truck of Civilization and Traderdquo shines aheadlight upon a raging dragon and sword-wielding Chinese Boxer whose banner readsldquo400 Million Barbariansrdquo In the imagery of thecivilizing mission China is portrayed as bothbackward and savage The aggressive quest fornew marketsmdashChinarsquos millions being the mostcovetedmdashwas justified as part of the benevolentand inevitable spread of progress

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

3










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

4



























APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

5










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

6

upper Nile









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

7










specialityrdquo




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

8






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

9








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

10











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

11

















witnesses the debut


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

12






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

13



















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

14










ldquoHawaiirdquo



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15


Museum










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

3










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

4



























APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

5










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

6

upper Nile









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

7










specialityrdquo




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

8






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

9








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

10











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

11

















witnesses the debut


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

12






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

13



















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

14










ldquoHawaiirdquo



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15


Museum










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

4



























APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

5










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

6

upper Nile









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

7










specialityrdquo




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

8






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

9








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

10











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

11

















witnesses the debut


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

12






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

13



















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

14










ldquoHawaiirdquo



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15


Museum










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

5










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

6

upper Nile









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

7










specialityrdquo




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

8






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

9








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

10











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

11

















witnesses the debut


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

12






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

13



















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

14










ldquoHawaiirdquo



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15


Museum










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

6

upper Nile









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

7










specialityrdquo




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

8






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

9








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

10











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

11

















witnesses the debut


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

12






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

13



















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

14










ldquoHawaiirdquo



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15


Museum










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

7










specialityrdquo




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

8






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

9








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

10











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

11

















witnesses the debut


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

12






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

13



















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

14










ldquoHawaiirdquo



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15


Museum










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

8






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

9








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

10











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

11

















witnesses the debut


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

12






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

13



















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

14










ldquoHawaiirdquo



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15


Museum










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

9








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

10











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

11

















witnesses the debut


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

12






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

13



















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

14










ldquoHawaiirdquo



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15


Museum










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

10











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

11

















witnesses the debut


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

12






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

13



















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

14










ldquoHawaiirdquo



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15


Museum










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

11

















witnesses the debut


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

12






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

13



















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

14










ldquoHawaiirdquo



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15


Museum










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

12






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

13



















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

14










ldquoHawaiirdquo



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15


Museum










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

13



















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

14










ldquoHawaiirdquo



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15


Museum










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

14










ldquoHawaiirdquo



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15


Museum










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

15


Museum










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

16
















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

17












APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

18








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

19

University








APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

20








University



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

21





Research Library



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

22









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

23





BIBLES amp GUNS









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

24





APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

25















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

26



APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

27







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

28






of Congress









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

29




July 10 1899







APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

30


Lucky Filipinos




Not much

And look at Manila














APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

31





evidence






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

32



nationale de France

















armed forces





the War Office)

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

33




APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

41




















APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

42



Society 16(5)675 (1987)


APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

34









Harvard University

APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

35






APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

36










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

37











APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

38










APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

39



Harvard University









APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

40





BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

















Articles


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Society 16(5)675 (1987)


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APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

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Society 16(5)675 (1987)


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Harvard University









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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Articles


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APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

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Society 16(5)675 (1987)


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Articles


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APJ | JF 13 | 27 | 1

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Society 16(5)675 (1987)


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Society 16(5)675 (1987)


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Society 16(5)675 (1987)


Cartoon Commentary & “The White Man's Burden” (1898–1902)

Documents

Transcript of Cartoon Commentary & “The White Man's Burden” (1898–1902)