Building the Grid: The Electrification of South Africa, 1882-2000
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Transcript of Building the Grid: The Electrification of South Africa, 1882-2000
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How to cite this thesis
Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/vital/access/manager/Index?site_name=Research%20Output (Accessed: Date).
Building the Grid: The Electrification of South Africa, 1882-2000
by
Mark Hackney
920208125
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
Master of Arts
in the
Department of Historical Studies
of the
Faculty of Humanities
at the
University of Johannesburg
supervised by
Dr S. Sparks
January 2018
ABSTRACT
The analysis of South Africa’s state-run enterprises, also known as the parastatals, has typically
focused on the relationship between capital and labour, with especial attention to the ways in which the
country’s racial segregation and capitalism created and entrenched a system of racial capitalism. These
analyses have been influenced by Neo-Marxist trends in South African historiography, which intended to
critique the overarching racial social engineering of apartheid through case studies of the systems and
organisations that were created to foster the growth of industry and a “modern” South African state. Central
to the establishment of secondary industries was the development of a national electrical grid that could
provide the cheap electricity to drive industrial growth. Far from being a simple process of building and
connecting a series of power stations, the Electricity Supply Commission had to engage and compete with
existing suppliers, including municipalities and private companies, in order to construct a nation-wide,
interconnected electrical grid. This research examines the process of building Escom’s National Grid from
a ‘systems building’ perspective, which takes a non-deterministic view of how social factors and technology
influence each other to construct a large, complex technological system. By introducing the systems
building theoretical and methodological framework, this dissertation seeks to determine what factors, aside
from the relationship between capital and labour, shaped the formation of the National Grid.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND FIGURES .........................................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................................................... ii
ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY ......................................................................................................... iii
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................. - 1 -
1. Literature Review ................................................................................................................................................ - 2 -
1.1 Systems, Systems Building, and Socially Constructed Artefacts........................................................... - 6 -
1.2 The Apartheid State, Modernisation, and Technopolitics .................................................................... - 14 -
2. Research Aims and Objectives .......................................................................................................................... - 17 -
3. A Note on Units and Currency .......................................................................................................................... - 18 -
CHAPTER ONE – POWERING THE RAND: THE ELECTRIFICATION OF THE JOHANNESBURG
MUNICIPALITY................................................................................................................................................. - 20 -
1. Gas Power, Failed Stations, and Trams: Early Electrification in Johannesburg ............................................... - 24 -
2. A Colonial Commission and a Colonial Law: Johannesburg, the Power Companies Commission, and the
Transvaal Power Act of 1910 ........................................................................................................................... - 29 -
3. Interwar Changes, Post-War Integrations: From the Electricity Act of 1922 Onwards .................................... - 33 -
CHAPTER TWO – “HARNESSING THE FALLS”: THE VICTORIA FALLS AND TRANSVAAL
POWER COMPANY, 1906 – 1948 .................................................................................................................... - 42 -
1. “A Six Million Scheme”: Starting the Victoria Falls (and Transvaal) Power Company, 1906 – 1922 ............. - 45 -
2. Witbank’s Coal for Johannesburg’s Gold: The VFP after the 1922 Electricity Act, 1922 – 1948 .................... - 49 -
3. After Witbank: The Rand Extension Undertaking, Klip Power Station, and Vaal Power Station .................... - 54 -
4. Integration into the System: Escom’s Purchase of the VFP in 1948 ................................................................. - 56 -
CHAPTER THREE – RAILWAYS, COOKING RANGES, AND RURAL SUPPLIES: ELECTRICITY
OUTSIDE OF MINING AND SECONDARY INDUSTRY ............................................................................ - 62 -
1. The Cape Railways: Electrification in and around Cape Town ......................................................................... - 67 -
2. Railways in Natal: The SAR&H, Escom, and the Colenso Power Station ........................................................ - 68 -
3. The Cape Rural Supply System ......................................................................................................................... - 72 -
4. Requesting Rural Electricity Supply: The Boere-Lig-en-Krag (Ko-Operatief) Beperk and the Electricity Control
Board ................................................................................................................................................................ - 74 -
5. Electricity and the Domestic Sphere: Appliance Hire-Purchase Plans and Advertising ................................... - 77 -
CHAPTER FOUR – “RESOURCE CONSTRAINTS AND THE NATIONAL INTEREST”: NUCLEAR
POWER, BANTUSTANS, TOWNSHIPS, AND LINKING THE NATIONAL GRID, 1960 – 2000........... - 84 -
1. Completing the Interconnections: Connecting the National Grid ..................................................................... - 86 -
2. “Thousands of Experts”: Escom’s Nuclear Power Projects, 1960 – 1990 ........................................................ - 92 -
3. Electrifying Non-White Areas: Electricity in Townships and Bantustans ........................................................ - 99 -
CHAPTER FIVE – THE NATIONAL GRID AS A HUGHESIAN LARGE TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEM . -
102 -
CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................. - 113 -
1. Conclusions on the Research Aims and Objectives ........................................................................................ - 113 -
2. Limitations and Associated Recommendations for Future Research .............................................................. - 114 -
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................................................. - 116 -
i
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND FIGURES
Figure 1 - Map of Escom's Areas of Supply in 1929 ............................................................... - 9 -
Figure 2 - Map of Escom's Areas of Supply in 1944 ............................................................. - 10 -
Figure 3 - Organisational Diagram of the VFP and Related Entities ....................................... - 44 -
Figure 4 - Electricity Sales to Category of Consumer in 1930 .............................................. - 63 -
Figure 5 - Electricity Sales to Category of Consumer in 1940 .............................................. - 64 -
Figure 6 - Electricity Sales to Category of Consumer in 1950 .............................................. - 64 -
Figure 7 - Traction Consumer Sales, 1927-2000 ................................................................... - 65 -
Figure 8 – Domestic and Streetlighting Sales, 1927-2000 ..................................................... - 83 -
Figure 9 - Total Electricity Sales per Annum, 1926-2000 ................................................... - 107 -
Figure 10 - Map of Eskom's Operational Power Stations, 2017 .......................................... - 111 -
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly, to my family. Thanks for the support, love, and willingness to operate an extra
camera during archive visits over the past five years. We’ve laughed, cried, despaired together for
years, but the fact that most of it has been laughter is fantastic. Mom, for the coffee and staying
cool while I was freaking out about finding sources or meeting deadlines. Dad, for feeding the
pigeons so that they would sit next to my window during the day and keep me from having to only
stare at my computer screen. Graeme, for the countless episodes of our favourite animated shows
that we’ve watched while eating or just taking a break – I think we’ve discovered that there really
is a Simpsons quote for every situation!
To my exceedingly patient supervisor, Stephen Sparks, thank you for the nudges (and
occasional shoves) in the right direction. The periodic emails with recommended articles and
books have been a boon and the pithy replies to my queries and comments have always been
greatly appreciated. I’m sure that “don’t worry, you’ll get there” has become something of a mantra
for you since you first took me on as an MA student.
Likewise, to everyone at the Department of Historical Studies at UJ, your encouragement
and support have been a constant reminder that I have been in the right place since the early days
of my Honours degree.
Thanks to my old friends at Good News Church. Your love and encouragement over the
years have been treasured. Of course, Deo Gratias.
iii
ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY
AC – Alternating Current, see DC AEB – Atomic Energy Board AEG – Allegemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft ANC – African National Congress BLK – The Boere-Lig-en-Krag (Ko-Operatief) Beperk BSAC – British South Africa Company CGU – Central Generating Undertaking DC – Direct Current, see AC Distribution Power System – Any power system that operates at or below 132kV. ECB – Electricity Control Board, also referred to as “the Board” EdF - Électricité de France Escom – The Electricity Supply Commission, also known as the Commission. The abbreviated
form taken from Afrikaans was Evkom (from Elektrisiteitsvoorsieningkommissie). After 1986, the organisation’s name was officially changed to Eskom
IDC – Industrial Development Corporation MK – Umkhonto we Sizwe NP – National Party RCEW – Rand Central Electric Works Limited RMPS – Rand Mines Power Supply Company SAR&H – South African Railways and Harbour Administration SWAWEK – Suid-Wes Afrika Water en Elektrisiteitskorporasie (South-West Africa Water and
Electricity Corporation) Transmission Power System – Any power system that operates above 132kV. Unit – The ECB specified that a unit of consumed electricity would be equivalent to a kilowatt-
hour.1 VFP – Between 1906 and 1909, the Victoria Falls Power Company. After 1909, the Victoria Falls
and Transvaal Power Company. Watt (W) – A unit of power used to measure the quantity of generated electricity used. A watt is
the amount of power that would move an object of one kilogram over a distance of one metre in one second. Increasing quantities are designated by a prefix to denote the size of the increase in increments of one thousand. For instance, a kilowatt (kW) is 1 000 W; a megawatt (MW) is 1 000 000 W; and a gigawatt (GW) is 1 000 000 000 W.2
1 "Fourth Sitting," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), MNW 634, ref. MM 2879/22. 2 U. S. Department of Commerce, The International System of Units (SI), National Bureau of Standards Special
Publication 330 (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977), p. 17; Bureau International du Poids et Mesures, The International System of Units (SI), 8th ed. (Sèvres Cedex: Organisation Intergouvernementale de la Convention du Mètre, 2014), pp. 7, 144, https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/si_brochure_8_en.pdf.
- 1 -
INTRODUCTION
Electricity has long held a special role in human societies around the world – whether it is
in the form of natural phenomena, like the spectacular discharge of lightning in a storm, or in the
concerted efforts to control and direct electricity from storage batteries and power stations.
Especially in the religious sphere, socio-cultural myths endowed heroic figures with the ability to
control phenomena associated with electrical discharges, from Zeus’ thunderbolts to Thor’s
hammer that could destroy mountains with a single blow.1 The importance of electricity, and the
ability to control it, has also transferred across into contemporary popular culture, and these
abilities are typically conferred upon the most powerful of characters.
Villains, such as the evil Emperor in The Return of the Jedi (1983), have the ability to create
and direct bolts of electricity at will; while characters like the titular character in DC Comics’
Static are heroes who use their electric superpowers to fight against their nemeses. It is not only
the use of electricity that has importance, but the lack of electricity has been used as a narrative
device in popular films and video games. In Jurassic Park (1993), Close Encounters of the Third
Kind (1977), Super 8 (2011), and The Division (2016), the lack of electricity signifies a fracture in
the structure of the manmade world in which these stories take place. In the case of Jurassic Park
and The Division, the events that destroyed the local power supplies were as much creations of the
characters in the story as the electrical grids, whereas Close Encounters of the Third Kind and
Super 8 both use disruptions in the electricity networks to show that unusual and potentially
frightening events are about to occur to the story’s characters.
The underlying concept throughout these stories is that electricity has tremendous power,
and it is only something or someone truly exceptional who has the ability to generate, control,
disrupt, or restore the flow of current. However, the social importance of electricity does not come
1 "Thunderbolts and Lightning," Wellcome Collection, last modified March 29, 2017, accessed October 23,
2017, https://wellcomecollection.org/articles/thunderbolts-and-lightning; Hank Campbell, "Is Thor Mighty or Just Magic?," Science 2.0 (blog), October 14, 2013, http://www.science20.com/science_20/thor_mighty_or_just_magic-104019.
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directly from pop culture and popular narratives. It is instead the oft unspoken importance of and
reverence for electricity that informs the use of electricity in these stories. Likewise, the plots about
the adventures of superheroes and interactions with extra-terrestrials reinforce the cultural and
social importance of electricity.
When this cultural and social importance is considered alongside the advent of electricity
generation and use in industry, business, and domestic contexts, it is easier to understand the role
that electricity (as both a force of nature and as a tool) plays in developed and developing nations.
While this research does not aim to understand or discuss the use of electricity in the global
context, or to discuss the civil rights aspects of twenty-first century electrification, it is important
to remember that South Africa has had, and still has, communities that could be nominally
characterised as either “developed” or “developing” within its borders. It is this heterogeneity that
simultaneously reflects and is reflected by the establishment of the National Grid.
1. Literature Review
Central to this research are the works of Renfrew Christie and Thomas Hughes, two
historians who wrote two foundational texts in the study of electrification, albeit in vastly different
contexts. Christie wrote Electricity, Industry, and Class in South Africa, which studied the
electrification of South Africa from the late 1800s onwards, while Hughes’ Networks of Power
examined the process of electrification in North America and Europe between the 1880s and
1930s.2
The periods covered by the two authors are fairly similar, but their methodological
considerations were vastly different. Christie’s book is a critique of how the electricity grid was
established and maintained by the segregationist and apartheid governments in order to support
2 Renfrew Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class in South Africa (London: The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1984);
Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983).
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state capitalism. As such, it is heavily influenced by Marxist socioeconomic theory, and examines
the role played by Escom in the functioning of South Africa’s racialised capitalist economy.3 The
core argument in Electricity, Industry and Class is that electricity and electrical technologies were
used throughout the eras of segregation and apartheid to aid in the establishment and continuation
of capitalist economic forms that had close ties to racial domination.
For the historians writing during the phase in which South African academic historiography
was shifting from more top-down forms of Marxist analyses to radical revisionism, much of the
discussion focused on the interplay between racial control and capitalism. More specifically,
Renfrew Christie was critical of Escom’s claims that electricity was being used in the “Spirit of
Progress.” This comes through clearly in Christie’s emphasis on the introduction of “labour-
saving” mechanisation in South African mining and industry, particularly in relation to the effect
that mechanisation had on black labour and the relationship between black and white labour in the
country.
The same emphasis on the interaction between capital and the racial hegemony in South
Africa runs through Nancy Clark’s Manufacturing Apartheid, although Clark’s study looks at the
broader history of the country’s parastatals, not just Escom.4 This look at the wider context helps
to place Escom within the larger economic and social strategies behind the formation of the
parastatals. The addition of socioeconomic factors, especially by introducing the analytical
category of socioeconomic class into South African history, helped to highlight the ways in which
racial issues had influenced the formation of the South African capitalist state. Christie’s main
argument is also focused on how cheap labour made cheap electricity easily available, which
facilitated interwar industrialisation.
3 A short, but clear, discussion of the main tenets and criticisms of Marxist theory in South African
historiography is Michael MacDonald and Wilmot James, "The Hand on the Tiller: The Politics of State and Class in South Africa," Journal of Modern African Studies 31, no. 3 (September, 1993): pp. 387-405. For the placement of Marxist and radical histories in the larger context of South African historiographies, see Robert Ross, Anne Kelk Mager and Bill Nasson, "Introduction," in The Cambridge History of South Africa, vol. 2, eds. Robert Ross, Anne Kelk Mager and Bill Nasson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), pp. 1-16.
4 Nancy L. Clark, Manufacturing Apartheid: State Corporations in South Africa (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994).
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In the context of South African historiography during the 1970s and 1980s, it was necessary
to bring race and class to the fore in historical analyses to counterpoint the predominant state-
endorsed narrative. For revisionist historians, it was essential to demonstrate how the statements
of the benefits that a parastatal such as Escom claimed to offer to a wide group of South Africans
were not reflected in reality. For instance, while townships were still denied access to national or
municipal reticulation grids, visitors to the Hall of Achievement at Escom House in Johannesburg
were greeted with a mural which claimed that the exhibits (and by extension, Escom) were
“dedicated to the ideal of cementing together by common endeavour for achievement all the people
of South Africa regardless of race or creed into a brotherhood of mutual trust and goodwill…”5
Neo-Marxist historians made a valuable contribution to the study of South African history
by focusing on the interplay between race and socioeconomic class. However, the use of Marxist
theories of political economy neglects some other important aspects of the development of
technological systems. The idea of racial capitalism, for example, can be used to explain why the
grid stayed outside of the large urban townships for decades and the impact of cheap electricity on
the relations between black and white labour, but does little to help understand the choices that
were made in the process of constructing the Koeberg Nuclear Power Plant in Cape Town. The
intent in shifting analytic focus away from the labour-capital dynamic is to analyse how other
socio-political forces affected these processes.
An examination of the construction of the Koeberg plant would necessarily refer to the
relationship between Escom, the apartheid government, and the much-studied links between
capital and labour but would also need to rely on discussions about the various reactor designs that
could have been used; the decision to use nuclear power instead of coal; and the wider international
context that affected South Africa’s nuclear ambitions. It is in the hopes of helping to expand the
discussion on the growth of the South African National Grid that this research will include the
theoretical and methodological tools introduced by Science and Technology Studies (STS).
5 Escom, Escom House (Johannesburg: Escom, 1936), p. 11.
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Hughes’ Networks of Power offers an alternative methodological and theoretical stance to
neo-Marxist political economy, one which emphasises the systemic nature of electrical grids. Not
only are electrical grids systems, according to Hughes, but they are socially constructed systems.
Technology is not seen as a monolithic intrusion into society, nor does society dictate to system
designers and builders what forms and uses technology should have. Instead, the flow of influence
between technology and society works in both directions in the same way that classical Newtonian
physics states that “for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction”. The forces that
society and technology exert upon each other may not always be equally balanced, as specific
historical, sociological, political, economic, or material facets of a particular technology or
particular society begin to affect these interactions.
The Marxian trend in South African studies of electricity persisted after the transition from
apartheid to democracy as scholars worked to understand how the parastatal would fit into the
post-apartheid context.6 Largely, these studies have a significant focus on the application of how
changes in the organisation, as well as changes in wider societal contexts, have affected the
parastatal, whether from the perspectives of socio-economic problems, environmental issues, or
service delivery. These researchers have tended to ask why the grid was built, not how it was built.
That does not mean, however, that such research is without value in the context of this dissertation.
These researchers tend to look for underemphasised or ignored aspects of electrification that
systems theory or STS researchers might not have studied, such as gender or environmental
issues.7
Yet, it is the work done by researchers who have combined Marxian concerns about the
nature of the relationships between state enterprise, capital, and labour with a focus on the themes
6 For instance, see David A. McDonald, ed. Electric Capitalism: Recolonising Africa on the Power Grid (Cape
Town: HSRC Press, 2009). 7 For example, Wendy Annecke, "Still in the Shadows: Women and Gender Relations in the Electricity Sector in
South Africa," in Electric Capitalism: Recolonising Africa on the Power Grid, ed. David A. McDonald (Cape Town: HRSC Press, 2009), pp. 288-320; David Fig, "A Price Too High: Nuclear Energy in South Africa," in Electric Capitalism: Recolonising Africa on the Power Grid, ed. David A. McDonald (Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2009), pp. 180-201; Liz McDaid, "Renewable Energy: Harnessing the Power of Africa?," in Electric Capitalism: Recolonising Africa on the Power Grid, ed. David A. McDonald (Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2009), pp. 202-28.
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and methodologies of STS. While the influence of Marxist analysis is visible within these studies,
such work has helped to refocus research on the country’s parastatals from heavily focusing on the
interrelationships between labour and capital towards examining these relationships as one of
many factors that worked in tandem to influence South African industrialisation. In the vein of the
research undertaken by Faeeza Ballim, Stephen Sparks, and Antina von Schitzler on state-owned
enterprise it is the intention of this dissertation to examine the growth of the South African National
Grid through an STS-focused approach.8
1.1 Systems, Systems Building, and Socially Constructed Artefacts
Within the field of STS research, the literature published on the Social Construction of
Technology (SCOT) and the Social History of Technology (SHOT) creates the possibility of filling
in some of the gaps that remain in existing historical literature. The foundational text in this regard
is the book The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology
and History of Technology. 9 Based on the proceedings of a workshop held in the Netherlands at
the University of Twente in 1987, the book brings together research on the history and sociology
of technologies as diverse as Bakelite and Intercontinental Ballistic Missile guidance systems.
What makes this a valuable source in methodological terms is not just its primacy amongst the
works on SCOT/SHOT research, but also that many of the ideas used to study the wide-range of
technologies across a significant span of history are applicable to the study of South African
8 Faeeza Ballim. "The Evolution of Large Technical Systems in the Waterberg Coalfield of South Africa: From
Apartheid to Democracy," (PhD Thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, 2017); Stephen John Sparks. "Apartheid Modern: South Africa's Oil from Coal Project and the History of a South African Company Town," (PhD Thesis, University of Michigan, 2012); Stephen Sparks, "Between 'Artificial Economics' and the 'Discipline of the Market': Sasol from Parastatal to Privatisation," Journal of Southern African Studies 42, no. 4 (2016): pp. 711-24; Antina von Schnitzler, "Citizenship Prepaid: Water, Calculability, and Techno-Politics in South Africa," Journal of Southern African Studies 34, no. 4 (2008): pp. 899-917; Antina von Schnitzler, "Traveling Technologies: Infrastructure, Ethical Regimes, and the Materiality of Politics in South Africa," Cultural Anthropology 28, no. 4 (November, 2013): pp. 670-93; Antina von Schnitzler, Democracy's Infrastructure: Techno-Politics and Protest after Apartheid (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016).
9 Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes and Trevor Pinch, eds., The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012).
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electrification. These chapters are also not only methodological discussions, but also integrate the
discussion of methodology with relevant case studies.
For his part, Thomas Hughes did not only apply a systems-oriented view from an
engineering perspective to his work on the history of electricity, but also brought some of the
language of sociology into his analysis. This combination of engineering and sociological terms
turns all the parts of a technological system into artefacts, whether they are technological,
organisational, legislative, or infrastructural in nature.10 Using the notion of artefacts in the study
of a technological system emphasises the interaction between technology and society, rather than
viewing systems as a series of impenetrable “black boxes.” Turning towards sociological
understandings of technology helps to counteract the effects of technological determinism – if
systems and their components are socially constructed, then the final form of a system cannot be
said to have been set in place before the system is built.
The idea of “looking inside the black box” is a vital part of the sociological history of
technology. In this metaphor, the “content” of the system’s artefacts contained within an opaque
box. Before the advent of SCOT/SHOT studies, the designs and workings of systems and their
artefacts were either marginalised or entirely ignored. By examining the way in which the artefacts
are designed and constructed to work together in the overall system, it becomes possible to not
only see the system as socially constructed, but to also see how the artefacts within the system are
socially constructed. Ignoring the inner workings of a technological system tends to lead to linear
models of development and construction, which suggests that the system did not also have the
ability to fail.11
10 Thomas P. Hughes, "The Evolution of Large Technological Systems," in The Social Construction of
Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, eds. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), p. 45.
11 Trevor J. Pinch and Wiebe E. Bijker, "The Social Construction of Facts and Artifacts: Or How the Sociology of Science and the Sociology of Technology Might Benefit Each Other," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, eds. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), pp. 15-18.
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The notion that society and technology push and pull against each other can offer insight
into the development of the electrical grid in South Africa. The process of building generating
stations, transmission networks, substations, and distribution grids did not unfold smoothly from
one side of the country to the other. The establishment of these systems and their associated
subsystems did not take place in political, economic, or social vacuums, nor were these aspects of
the South African nation-state left untouched by technological changes. This is best illustrated by
Hughes’ use of the term “reverse salient” to describe the growth of a system.
Adapted from military parlance, a reverse salient is any part of an advancing front that is
still attached to the front, but that has fallen behind the rest of the advancing line. In technological
terms, this occurs when the progress of building a new system is inhibited by social, economic,
political, or technological factors, thereby preventing or restricting the future growth of the system.
An advancing front is an apt metaphor for the extension of large, infrastructure-intensive
technological projects like the electrical grid, especially when looking at the maps that Escom
published that showed the progress of the grid on a national scale. The first of these maps, from
the 1929 Annual Report, simply shows the areas in which each of Escom’s Undertakings had been
licenced to supply power, so each Undertaking is demarcated by a circle centred on the power
station relevant to that Undertaking (Figure 1).
By the next time that such a map was published in 1944, these shapes had started to change
as the areas of supply were being slowly extended (Figure 2). The outline of each area no longer
took the form of a perfectly geometric shape but looked remarkably like the line of an advancing
front on a military map. There are parts of each area that have extended further than others, while
some regions closer to the centre of the Undertaking have yet to receive electricity. In particular,
the area surrounding Cape Town has a series of branches growing out from the centre that showed
how the electrification of the railways was helping to extend the grid.
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Figure 1 - Map of Escom's Areas of Supply in 192912
12 Electricity Supply Commission, 1929 Annual Report, p. 4,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1929%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
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Figure 2 - Map of Escom's Areas of Supply in 194413
13 Electricity Supply Commission, 1944 Annual Report,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1944%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
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Consumers in the system need to be considered in relation to which artefact(s) they are
consuming, and by the socioeconomic variables that affect their choice of artefacts. This helps to
isolate which variables affect their behaviour in relation to the system, which is not particularly
useful for understanding how the artefacts are created, invented, or developed. It is useful,
however, for understanding the diffusion of these technologies throughout the system.14 This is
especially applicable to the study of issues such as the hire-purchase schemes that Escom and the
municipalities established to encourage the use of domestic appliances (see Chapter Three).
The concept of relevant social groups is taken from Trevor Pinch and Wiebe Bijker’s
chapter in The Social Construction of Technological Systems. 15 This idea was put forward as
means of refining the understanding of how artefacts are rejected or adopted as newer
technological forms are introduced to consumers. Pinch and Bijker state that by defining the social
groups who are involved in producing, selling, or consuming the artefact, it can be determined
which factors in the system are causing reverse salients and critical problems that need to be
solved.16
Pinch and Bijker studied the development of the bicycle and examined the multitude of
ways in which the design changed as various social groups found their own reasons for accepting
or rejecting specific design choices. Hughes wrote about the battle between the companies founded
by George Westinghouse and Thomas Edison over whether electric distribution systems would
use Alternating Current (AC) or Direct Current (DC). In the case studies of the bicycle and
electrical grids, there were advantages and disadvantages inherent to the design of components or
14 Ruth Schwartz Cowan, "The Consumption Junction: A Proposal for Research Strategies in the Sociology of
Technology," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, eds. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), pp. 253-6.
15 Pinch and Bijker, "Social Construction of Facts and Artifacts," in Bijker, Hughes, and Pinch, Social Construction of Technological Systems, pp. 11-44.
16 Pinch and Bijker, "Social Construction of Facts and Artifacts," in Bijker, Hughes, and Pinch, Social Construction of Technological Systems, pp. 22-28.
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subsystems that affected how the technology was perceived and/or utilised by various social
groups.17
Analysing the electrical grid as a system constructed and shaped through the interaction of
society and technology widens the scope of the study to account for aspects external to the system
itself, but that helped or hindered the construction of the system. Hughes states that a combination
of systems analysis and sociological analysis can help identify the “geographical, economic,
organisational, legislative, contingent historical, and entrepreneurial conditions” that shaped the
design and use of cultural artefacts.18
The work done by Charles Perrow on the nature of technological systems and accidents
highlights the way that the interactions between the components in a system can produce
unexpected, and even catastrophic, results. Perrow examined the accidents in specialised, complex
systems in the fields of nuclear power, aeronautics, civil engineering, chemical and petrochemical
manufacturing, and marine shipping to understand how these systems can still fail. According to
Perrow’s book, Normal Accidents: Living With High-Risk Technologies, it is the same complexity
that these systems rely on to function correctly that also result in their failure.
Even components or entire subsystems that are introduced to make the overall system safer
or more efficient add extra layers of complexity that increase the likelihood of something going
wrong, and may be responsible for the accident in the first place.19 This theory about the way in
which components and subsystems interact to produce unintended results can be seen in the later
history of Escom, especially when the various regional undertakings established during Escom’s
first four decades were first starting to show signs of interdependence in the early 1960s.
Related to the systems building perspective introduced by Hughes and the risk-based
systems analysis of Perrow is the work done by David E. Nye on electrification in the United
17 Pinch and Bijker, "Social Construction of Facts and Artifacts," in Bijker, Hughes, and Pinch, Social
Construction of Technological Systems, pp. 21-33; Hughes, Networks of Power, pp. 108-9. 18 Hughes, Networks of Power, p. 405. 19 Charles Perrow, Normal Accidents: Living With High Risk Technologies (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press, 1984).
- 13 -
States. In particular, the influence of Thomas Hughes and the sociological turn in the history of
technology can be seen in Nye’s Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology,
while When the Lights Went Out: A History of Blackouts in America reflects Perrow’s notion of
the fragility of highly complex technological systems.20
Electrifying America concerns the adoption of electrical technologies by Americans during
roughly the same period that Hughes covered in Networks of Power but examines the processes
by which electricity became rapidly integrated into Western lifestyles. Rather than looking how
the electrical grid grew in the United States by looking at the people who built the grid, Nye
examines how the technology was used and shaped by the consumers. These are both important
points about the development of new technologies – Thomas Hughes wrote about how the
electrical grid was created by relatively small groups of people who perceived the need for
engineering, political, and financial expertise in their work, while David Nye wrote about how the
technology was integrated into society to become such a fundamental part of modern lifestyles.
This point about the importance of electricity is continued in When the Lights Went Out.
Nye’s central argument is that electricity has become an intrinsic part of contemporary lifestyles
in the developed world, yet it is simultaneously a part of life that few people give much thought to
while the system is working. Electricity has become so much a part of modern conceptions of time
that a blackout is seen as something exceptional. However, as Nye states, blackouts are typically
viewed only as technical or engineering phenomena, not as something that is also a social
phenomenon.21
In this analysis, electricity and electrical grids become “infrastructure” in the sense of the
term that is used by Paul Edwards. Edwards states that technological infrastructure cannot be
viewed only as the physical aspect of a technological system, infrastructure must be seen as
20 David E. Nye, Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1990); David E. Nye, When the Lights Went Out: A History of Blackouts in America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010).
21 Nye, When the Lights Went Out: A History of Blackouts in America, pp. 1-6.
- 14 -
simultaneously technical and social. There is a distinct separation between notions of infrastructure
in the developed and developing world, since technological implementation into society needs to
be reliable and stable if it is to reach the point where people no longer give it frequent thought.22
1.2 The Apartheid State, Modernisation, and Technopolitics
There seemed to be an inherent contradiction in the apartheid government’s modernising
goals and the concerted efforts to keep the country as racially segregated as possible, but the
formation of a technologically “modern” state formed a large part of government policy.23 This
modernising drive was exemplified in Escom’s frequent statements that electrification was being
done under the “Spirit of Progress,” so much so that the concept makes an anthropomorphised
appearance in the organisation’s official history, A Symphony of Power. 24 While the book serves
as a starting point for finding out the essential basic information about the parastatal, such as
constructing a chronology of important events, it also tries to present the parastatal as a nominally
progressive and positive organisation.
The theme of modernising the public and private spheres of South African lifestyles is tied
to the theme of progress, despite the fact that these processes of modernisation and progress were
unfolding rather unevenly across the country. Problematically, the dual themes of progress and
modernity have often been accompanied by the goals implicit in the drive to “civilise” colonial
and former colonial nations. In portraying Escom, and in later sections Eskom, as the group of
people who brought light and technology to dispel the darkness, the book links back to the idea of
lighting up “darkest Africa,” even if these connotations are subconscious.
22 Paul N. Edwards, "Infrastructure and Modernity: Force, Time, and Social Organization in the History of
Sociotechnical Systems," in Modernity and Technology, eds. Thomas J. Misa, Philip Brey and Andrew Feenberg (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003), pp. 186-225.
23 Deborah Posel, "The Apartheid Project, 1948-1970," in The Cambridge History of South Africa, vol. 2, eds. Robert Ross, Anne Kelk Mager and Bill Nasson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), pp. 319-68.
24 S. R. Conradie and L. J. M. Messerschmidt, A Symphony of Power: The Eskom Story (Johannesburg: Chris van Rensburg Publications, 2000).
- 15 -
The overall tone of the book is one of harmonious interaction between the parts of the
system, a tone that sometimes confers a pseudo-religious importance on the organisation’s work.
The opening passage describes the narrative as the story of an organisation “…that says: let there
be light where there was darkness.”25 This heavy-handed allusion to a biblical passage ties back
to the theme of exceptionalism in social understandings of electricity – if electricity is exceptional,
then the use of electrical illumination must also be exceptional. By making the organisation
capable of bringing light to a place where there was only darkness before, Eskom becomes the
organisation that technologically triumphed over the natural order.
The final chapter in the book takes the form of a semi-Dickensian tale about the
conversation between a fictional future manager of “uEskom,” the Spirit of Progress, and the Spirit
of Ubuntu. The two spirits take the new head of uEskom through the organisation’s history to
celebrate the achievements of men such as Hendrik van der Bijl, while ignoring or glossing over
controversial or difficult issues that the parastatal has faced in the past.26
Renfrew Christie’s counter-argument is that the apartheid system used electricity for the
benefit of white South Africans, and that the notion of technological progress was an effective
cover for the state’s broader goal of maintaining the racial status quo. While he admits that there
were some benefits to electrification, Christie’s point is that the new technology was largely used
by the government and industrialists to further marginalise black labour. 27 This is related to the
function of all systems as problem-solving or goal-oriented organisations, especially when they
are regarded as solving problems specifically for the system designers or the consumers. 28 In the
South African context, the electrical grid was designed to offer maximum availability to mining,
secondary industry, and white residential areas.
25 Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, p. 7. 26 Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, pp. 349-65. 27 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, p. 2. 28 Hughes, "Evolution of Large Technical Systems," in Bijker, Hughes, and Pinch, Social Construction of
Technological Systems, p. 47.
- 16 -
The intersection between the post-1948 government’s politics and modernising plans
created a socio-political system of “technopolitics” that proved to be useful for both enforcing
apartheid norms and for generating prestige for the state. The state’s interactions with other nations
on the global stage, as well as the government’s domestic affairs, was based on the formation of
white Afrikaner ethnic identity around a set of values that was traced back to European and African
origins. Gabrielle Hecht and Paul Edwards argue that this brand of South African exceptionalism
was instrumental in the choices and policies made regarding large-scale technological projects.29
This contributes to the “technological style” of the system – the way in which local and regional
socio-political factors influence the shape and growth of the overall system.30
The technopolitics of electricity supply by Eskom have been examined recently by Sylvy
Jaglin and Alain Dubresson in Eskom: Electricity and Technopolitics in South Africa, but this book
has a much more contemporary focus than this dissertation.31 In this book, the discussion of events
before the late-1980s is restricted to fewer than fifteen pages in the first chapter, and the later
chapters are examinations of post-apartheid policies on the supply of electricity after 1994. This is
helpful in understanding the effect of policy changes, such as a shift away from racial capitalism,
have affected the parastatal since the mid-1990s. However, this contemporary focus does little to
help explain how Eskom had become the largest supplier of electricity to South Africans at the
point of the apartheid/democracy changeover.
Deborah Posel warns of the dangers inherent in characterising the apartheid state as
founded solely on the basis of racial segregation, stating that by focusing only the state’s racial
ideology, historians run the risk of creating a superficial and inaccurate picture of the nature of the
state. Racial politics were an exceptionally large part of government policy between 1948 and
29 Paul N. Edwards and Gabrielle Hecht, "History and the Technopolitics of Identity: The Case of Apartheid
South Africa," Journal of Southern African Studies 36, no. 3 (September, 2010): pp. 619-39. 30 Hughes, "Evolution of Large Technical Systems," in Bijker, Hughes, and Pinch, Social Construction of
Technological Systems, pp. 61-64. 31 Sylvy Jaglin and Alain Dubresson, Eskom: Electricity and Technopolitics in South Africa (Cape Town: UCT
Press, 2016), translated from Électricité et pouvoir en Afrique du Sud (Paris: Éditions Karthala, 2015).
- 17 -
1994, but it is also important to remember that the history of racially delineated segregation goes
further back in time than 1948.32 This makes is important to not only concentrate on the racial
aspects of the government’s policy regarding electrification, but to also consider economic and
socio-political factors. There were certainly overlaps between the racial, political, social, and
economic aspects of electrification, but the focus should be split between these facets, rather than
emphasising only a single factor.
In expanding the focus to include a larger range of socio-economic factors, there is a subtle
shift from using the state-owned enterprises as case studies in critiques of larger social issues to
examining these organisations themselves. This allows for such research to show how state-owned
enterprise was also instrumental in other key aspects of South African social and political life. For
instance, Saul Dubow has written about the expansion of the railways in South Africa as both a
unifying force and a forum for promoting the ideals associated with modernity. Such an analysis
helps to portray the parastatals as organisations that not only reflected the existing status quo, but
that were used for political purposes other than entrenching and reinforcing racial segregation.33
2. Research Aims and Objectives
As already stated above, the question of why the South African National Grid was
established as already been fairly well answered. Instead, the aim of this dissertation is to examine
how the grid was established, moving beyond the emphasis on labour in the neo-Marxist revisionist
literature. The answers to these two questions are closely linked – the reasons for electrification
will have an impact on the way in which the electrical grid could (or could not) grow and change
over time. However, the emphasis placed on the final uses of electricity in South Africa during the
32 Posel, "Apartheid Project," in Cambridge History of South Africa, vol. 2, pp. 319-20; Harold Wolpe,
"Capitalism and Cheap Labour-Power in South Africa: From Segregation to Apartheid," Economy and Society 1, no. 4 (1972): pp. 425-6.
33 Saul Dubow, A Commonwealth of Knowledge: Science, Sensibility, and White South Africa 1820-2000 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), pp 180-82.
- 18 -
twentieth century has restricted much of the discussion to the ways in which technological change
was driven and used by the government to enforce the continuation of racial segregation.
It is true that the eras of segregation and apartheid both relied on the use of race as a key
descriptor for the formation of policy. However, South Africa should not be viewed in isolation
throughout the period under discussion. The country was part of a larger global network of trade,
politics, and ideas that had an effect on the course of events. There were times in which
international politics and alliances played a role in the process of electrification, just as there were
times when local politics and alliances played their role.
Keeping the existing literature on the electrification of South Africa in mind, supplemented
by the scholarship on the social construction of technology and technopolitics discussed above,
the following themes are points of interest:
• The development of the South African National Grid was neither teleological nor entirely
uninterrupted by other economic and social factors. What were these “reverse salients”
that affected electrification?
• How were the reverse salients corrected, whether by consumers, municipalities, private
companies, or national government intervention?
• Since much of the focus in the past has been on urban electrification, how did rural
electrification proceed?
3. A Note on Units and Currency
In the primary and secondary sources on electricity, a variety of units of measurement and
currencies have been used, which are usually specific to a period in time. The standard unit of
measurement for generated and sold electricity throughout South Africa has always been derived
from the watt, which is the amount of energy required to move a one-kilogram mass over a distance
- 19 -
of one metre in one second.34 All larger measurements are denoted by an added prefix that shows
whether thousands or millions of watts are being measured. One thousand watts is a kilowatt (kW),
while a million watts is a megawatt (MW).
In cases where physical quantities are being measured, such as the amount of coal
consumed by a power station, the units used in the original source have been used throughout,
rather than converting such measurements. Where the original sources have used imperial values
for physical measurements, the conversion into metric units is specified in parentheses after the
original quantity. Conversions have used the conversion factors specified by the National Institute
of Standards and Technology at the U.S. Department of Commerce.35
Similarly, monetary quantities are also given in the original denomination, but are not
converted into contemporary values. Unlike the units used for physical quantities and
measurements, currency values change constantly, and are capable of changing rapidly. This
makes any currency conversions outdated within days, or even hours, of the conversion being
made. This issue could be worked around by stating the date on which the conversion was valid,
thereby allowing for future conversions to be made based on records of currency changes.
However, this does introduce a second problem with converting currencies, namely the issue of
adjusting values to compensate for fluctuations due to inflation and the buying power of the
currency. For these reasons, all monetary amounts are given in the original denomination and are
left unconverted.
In all cases where numerical amounts have decimals, as would be the case for most
currencies and where units have been converted, a decimal point has been used instead of the usual
South African practice of using decimal commas.
34 U. S. Department of Commerce, The International System of Units (SI), p. 17; Bureau International du Poids et
Mesures, The International System of Units (SI), p. 144. 35 Ambler Thompson and Barry N. Taylor, Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI), NIST
Special Publication 811 (Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2008), pp. 40-69, http://ws680.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=200349.
- 20 -
CHAPTER ONE – POWERING THE RAND: THE ELECTRIFICATION OF THE
JOHANNESBURG MUNICIPALITY
The Electricity Act of 1922 brought much-needed standardisation and centralised control
to the electricity industry across South Africa, but the legislation arrived at an awkward time in
the country’s electrification process. Electrification had started in the 1880s, but the growth of
local grids had been sporadic and uneven. Industrial concerns, mines, and municipalities operated
highly localised and low capacity systems. As the needs of secondary industry and mining groups
increased, electricity was becoming more widespread, but the lack of central control meant that
design decisions were left up to each company or organisation, which resulted in an overall
inability to interconnect these localised networks.
The Electricity Control Board’s enforcement of standards was vital for the growth of the
National Grid – standardisation ensures that any generating station can provide power to any
portion of the grid without the added engineering challenges of changing voltages or converting
between frequencies. The head-start that the municipal councils around the country had in
generating and supplying electricity means that the story of South Africa’s municipal suppliers is
closely linked to the 1922 Electricity Act and the ensuing development of a national electricity
network.
Before the Electricity Bill was enacted by the Union’s Parliament in late 1922, most of the
country’s electricity was generated by municipalities and private companies.36 With these
disjointed grids spread in clusters across urban areas, factors such as the frequency and voltage of
the electricity supply were determined by the equipment used in the generating facilities – if one
area of supply suffered an outage, it was extremely complicated to obtain temporary supply from
other areas until local faults were identified and fixed. In emergencies, such as when the
Johannesburg Municipality’s power station was struck by lightning in February 1922, residents
36 Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, p. 13.
- 21 -
were asked to reduce the demand on the station for “two or three days” while maintenance
engineers performed emergency repairs to the station.37
Although this chapter does not deal directly with the process of standardisation across the
National Grid, the establishment of such a country-wide system requires centralised control over
laws, generating capability, and infrastructure. The fragmented systems of municipal suppliers
were not conducive to standardisation, interconnection, or improved service delivery. As
electricity consumers found out in the early 1900s, relying on municipal supply in a non-
standardised grid could result in unexpected inconveniences and financial costs when the
municipality decided to upgrade or replace their generating station.38
Technical standardisation is often seen as a simplification of the processes, materials, and
working methodologies used to manufacture products or services, but the implementation of
standards also has the potential to add extra layers of technical difficulty to the working process.39
In the case of electrification, standards have greater potential to simplify the generation,
transmission, and distribution of electricity than to add complexity. Unified voltages, frequencies,
and materials allow for more cost-efficient operation of generating plants and distribution
networks. Logistically, consolidated control also offers technicians and engineers easier access to
stockpiles of components, thereby improving worker efficiency and working costs. Despite these
advantages, it is possible that regulation of the industry adds extra layers of complexity to the
process, even if it is only because the system’s complexity grows with each new addition to the
overall network.
Engineering entrepreneurs found that during the electrification of the United States
imposing standards and specifications onto a system that already has some developmental
37 "Power Station Trouble: Lightning Causes a "Surge"," Rand Daily Mail, February 22, 1921. 38 X. Y. Z. [pseud.], "The New Lighting Plant," The Star, March 3, 1906; "Lighting Regulations," Rand Daily
Mail, May 11, 1906; "The Electric Light: Increase of Voltage," Rand Daily Mail, May 11, 1906; Property Owner [pseud.], "Electric Installation: A Strong Protest," Rand Daily Mail, May 11, 1906; J. R. C. [pseud.], "Lighting Regulations," Rand Daily Mail, May 17, 1906.
39 Amy Slaton and Janet Abbate, "The Hidden Lives of Standards: Technical Prescriptions and the Transformation of Work in America," in Technologies of Power: Essays in Honor of Thomas Parke Hughes and Agatha Chipley Hughes, eds. Michael Thad Allen and Gabrielle Hecht (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), pp. 94-95.
- 22 -
momentum can introduce extra complications that engineers and investors did not foresee. In the
case of the United States, the choice between Alternating Current and Direct Current distribution,
as eschewed by George Westinghouse and Thomas Edison respectively, resulted in a “War of
Currents” between the two engineering magnates. The battle for supremacy in the American
electrical industry was characterised by grandstanding and fearmongering as engineers and
entrepreneurs fought to convince decision-makers and consumers alike of the relative merits of
their systems.40 Even though the highly publicised Westinghouse-Edison battles reached more
grotesque and controversial heights than the arguments about South African electrification, the
introduction of standards and legislation offers a glimpse into the nature of electricity generation
and consumption during the embryonic stages of the national South African grid.41
The process of drafting and enacting legislation also helps to show how the municipalities
viewed themselves in relation to their ratepayers, as well as showing how they viewed themselves
in relation to larger governmental groups at the provincial and national level. For many of
Johannesburg’s residents, the issue of electrification centred on the municipal government’s
responsibility to provide a certain level of service delivery to ratepayers. For some of the city’s
residents, however, electrical service delivery was not so straightforward. David Nye wrote that
people in the United States at the start of the twentieth century saw electricity as “…a political
issue, an element of spectacle, a means of transportation, a motive force, and a source of profit.”42
Even though Nye was writing about American electrification, it is also possible to see these themes
appearing in the electrification of Johannesburg.
40 Tom McNichol, AC/DC: The Savage Tale of the First Standards War (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2006),
pp 77-94. 41 Hughes, Networks of Power, pp. 108-9; Jennifer L. Lieberman, Power Lines: Electricity in American Life and
Letters, 1882-1952 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2017), pp 51-90; Jürgen Martschukat, ""The Art of Killing by Electricity": The Sublime and the Electric Chair," Journal of American History 89, no. 3 (December, 2002): pp. 900-921; Roger Neustadter, "The "Deadly Current": The Death Penalty in the Industrial Age," Journal of American Culture 12, no. 3 (September, 1989): pp. 79-87; Terry S. Reynolds and Theodore Bernstein, "Edison and "the Chair"," IEEE Technology and Society Magazine 8, no. 1 (March, 1989): pp. 19-28 describe the macabre history behind one of the most infamous attempts to discredit Westinghouse’s use of Alternating Current.
42 Nye, Electrifying America, p. 138.
- 23 -
Johannesburg serves as a prime candidate for the study of municipal power supply in South
Africa. Aside from the city’s relative prominence in South African history during the twentieth
century, the residents of early Johannesburg were amongst the first city-dwellers in Southern
Africa to receive electricity through municipal supply. The first South African town to install
electric streetlighting had been the mining town of Kimberley in February 1882. The attempt to
illuminate the town’s streets had been a disappointing failure, since many of the streetlights had
been damaged en route to Kimberley. The lights underperformed so poorly that they were said to
be no brighter than “a glowing coal”.43 Johannesburg’s status as an early adopter of the relatively
new generation and distribution technologies means that it is possible to show how changes in
political, technological, and social factors affected – and were affected by – the process of
electrifying the city.
Running throughout the history of Johannesburg’s electrification are the connected themes
of municipal socialism and municipal ownership of infrastructure. The municipal socialism seen
in Johannesburg was similar to that which Daniel Rodgers wrote about in his study of the transfer
of ideas between the United States and Western Europe at the end of the nineteenth century. It is
a form of socialism which Rodgers calls “…the socialism of the business classes.”44 In
Johannesburg, as was the case throughout South Africa, municipal socialism was affected less by
social class than by race, but it was crucial to the ways in which municipal, provincial, and national
governments interacted.
Tied to this is the idea of municipal ownership, which Rodgers called the
“municipalisation” of infrastructure – the best way in which municipalities could offer services to
their ratepayers, while still ensuring that there was a certain level of “rate relief,” was to own the
infrastructure through which the services were delivered. In some cases, especially during the
interwar period, the Johannesburg Municipality had to choose between allowing other electricity
43 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, pp. 5-6; Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, p. 13. 44 Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press,
2000), p. 123.
- 24 -
distributors to supply the city’s residents and forgoing the municipal commitment to providing
electricity.
1. Gas Power, Failed Stations, and Trams: Early Electrification in Johannesburg
In June 1893, eleven years after the first streetlamps were turned on in Kimberley, and four
years before Johannesburg was granted official municipal status, a gas turbine at the municipally-
owned station in President Street was used to power the town’s electric streetlamps.45 The
streetlights in Johannesburg were less of an outright anti-climax than those in Kimberley, but there
were still complaints about supply shortages, poor quality service delivery, and changes that
accompanied the replacement of existing systems.46 These problems plagued the municipal power
supply for more than the first decade after the station at President Street went online, with
complaints about the quality of service delivery extending well past the turn of the century. In
1903, ten years after the municipality began delivering electricity, staff at the Post Office reported
that they needed to deploy oil-burning lanterns to supplement the electric lights, since they found
that the under-performing lighting system made their work extremely difficult.47
There were several factors that played a role in the problems encountered by the
municipality in their early electrification efforts. Firstly, the Anglo-Boer War between 1899 and
1902 interfered with all industry and supporting services across the Transvaal. Not only were the
usual wartime shortages of personnel, raw materials, and spare parts to blame, but sabotage by
Boer commandos at the New Kleinfontein and Brakpan stations in December 1900 and January
1901 affected the ability of the respective mining companies to supply their consumers.48 The
sabotage at these two power stations would not have directly impacted the growth of the municipal
grid, but output at the Witwatersrand’s gold mines had already been curtailed by conditions
45 John R. Shorten, The Johannesburg Saga (Johannesburg: John R. Shorten, 1979), p. 599. for the President
Street station. Charles van Onselen, New Babylon, New Nineveh: Everyday Life on the Witwatersrand 1886 - 1914 (Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2001), p. 17. for the granting of municipal status
46 "Public Lighting," Transvaal Leader, July 17, 1902. 47 "Untitled," Transvaal Leader, August 24, 1903. 48 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, p. 13; Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, p. 24.
- 25 -
imposed by the outbreak of war. The welfare of the city was closely tied to that of the gold mines,
making any decrease in mining production a potentially serious economic blow to the city.
Secondly, the disjointed design of the grid made the system relatively inefficient. Not only
was electricity generated and distributed from smaller, less productive stations, but the
municipality had established multiple grids that acted as subsystems within the larger municipal
electricity system. These three subsystems provided electricity to different areas of the city for
different purposes and used a variety of technical standards that kept each “mini-grid” separated
from the others in the overall system. The layout of the grid was further complicated by the choice
to separate the two mini-grids that ran to non-tramway customers into separate voltages, depending
on whether the electricity was used for lighting or other purposes. These three subsystems split
electricity distribution amongst municipal customers as follows:
• The electric tramways ran on their own system that used 575 V Direct Current;
• Inner city consumers received 460 V Direct Current electricity, with a step-down system
converting the power to 230 V for lighting purposes;
• Suburban consumers received 400 V Alternating Current electricity, with step-down
transformers converting to 200 V for lighting consumers.49
In July 1904, the Municipal Council, acting on advice given by the engineering firm of
Mordey and Dawbarn, decided to upgrade the President Street Power Station with eight gas-
powered internal combustion engines. The generators would be installed by Stewart and Company,
who would also be responsible for running the plant during its first year of operations. Most of the
reasons for the gas-powered plant’s failure were evident from before the start of the project, but
the council and both engineering firms that they hired ignore these warning signs. Most
problematically, the gas engines were relatively unproven in large systems like the Johannesburg
municipal power system, and the tender specified that the large generators would only be tested
49 J. H. Dobson, "The Distribution Plant of the Johannesburg Municipal Electric Supply System," Transactions
of the South African Institute of Electrical Engineers 6, (November, 1915): p. 280.
- 26 -
for the first time after they were installed at President Street. The engines had also been designed
to use gas produced as a by-product of processing anthracite, but the Johannesburg engines would
use gas manufactured from bituminous coal,50 which increased the unreliability of the generating
equipment.51
The delays involved in the installation of the gas engines and the equipment required to
produce the gas from coal meant that the first engine at the upgraded power station only started up
for the first time on May 1, 1906.52 In the meantime, the city had continued to use the older steam-
powered generators at the President Street Power Station, while also bringing extra capacity in
from Bertrams and Brakpan power stations.53
These problems in upgrading the power station were compounded by the decision to build
the three separate subsystems that supplied different areas of the city. The largest problem arising
from the implementation of the subsystems was the change in voltages that would accompany the
completion of the gas-powered equipment, since voltage changes would require changes in the
fixtures used by existing consumers. The municipal council’s position was that the voltage change
would be made for economic reasons, since the same generators could be used to power residential
and business premises, while still putting enough power into the system to run the tramways.54
The situation was exacerbated even further by the decision on the part of the Rand’s
insurance firms to insist that their policyholders would need to have their premises inspected, and
possibly rewired. This decision was made after a spate of electrical fires in Johannesburg had been
shown to be the result of poor quality work when the original wiring was done, but the combination
of the decisions made by the municipality and the insurers arrived at an inopportune time for their
50 Bituminous coal is a form of coal that becomes a “cohesive, binding, sticky mass” when it is heated. It
produces more energy when burned than anthracites, and contains high levels of volatile matter, which is suitable for coal-to-gas production, H. Wayne Beaty and Donald G. Fink, Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, 16th ed. (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2013), chap. 5.
51 Shorten, Johannesburg Saga, pp. 600-601. 52 Shorten, Johannesburg Saga, p. 602. 53 "The New Lighting Plant," The Star, March 3, 1906. 54 "The Electric Light: Increase of Voltage," Rand Daily Mail, May 11, 1906.
- 27 -
customers. To the municipality and insurance firms, the changes were caused by two related, but
distinctly separate issues – one was a pragmatic necessity arising from the much-needed upgrades,
one was an issue of safety. To many of the ratepayers and policyholders, however, the two issues
were part of one larger, overriding concern – the short-term economic effects of replacing
equipment that had already been installed.55
The concerns over poor workmanship were not new to the residents of Johannesburg. Even
before the insurance companies noticed the correlations between poor interconnections and fire
hazards, there were complaints from ratepayers and electrical tradesmen alike on the matter of
electrical work. These earlier moments in which the issue had been raised were less related to the
safety aspect, and more related to race. Writing under the pseudonym of “Linesman” in July 1902,
a resident suggested that the city should ensure that all electrical work should be done by qualified
workers with the best quality tools and materials and questioned why the municipality placed “too
much faith in natives.”56
Likewise, laypeople expressed their discontent with the town council’s policy on allowing
black labourers to work in semi-skilled positions for the Electricity Department – a resident wrote
that “the state of the electrical trade is not very bright just now, and if natives are to do the work I
don’t see any chance of it improving…” after seeing a team of workers where the white supervisors
allowed black labourers to work on the electrical installation.57 A Belgrave resident bemoaned the
lack of white supervisors overseeing the streetlight repairs in the area, stating that they had only
seen black workers performing the work.58 The same racial themes continued in 1910, when the
Power Companies Commission in the Transvaal was investigating the state of electrification in the
Colony, and persisted even after the Power Companies Commission had filed its report. In August
1913, a severe storm had hit Johannesburg, resulting in difficulties throughout the Municipality in
55 "The New Lighting Plant," The Star, March 3, 1906; "Electric Installation: A Strong Protest," Rand Daily
Mail, May 11, 1906; "Lighting Regulations," Rand Daily Mail, May 11, 1906; "The Electric Light: Increase of Voltage," Rand Daily Mail, May 11, 1906.
56 "Linesmen and Reform," Transvaal Leader, July 25, 1902. 57 F. E. Oliver, "The Electrical Trade," The Star, September 21, 1906. 58 "Belgravia and Lights," The Star, August 28, 1906.
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keeping services running. In compensation for their extra work, a local resident suggested that the
entire town should give thanks to the staff who had kept the station operational during the storm,
taking pains to mention that every white member of staff “…from the chief downwards…” should
receive bonus cheques equivalent to a month’s pay.59
Once the initial installation problems had been solved, the gas-powered engines were a
remarkable failure – the first generator was started on May 1, 1906 and the plant seemed to have
overcome the initial difficulties that had so drastically delayed the construction and installation
phases of the upgrades, but the untested technology in the power plant soon started becoming
increasingly unreliable. During 1906, the station’s chief engineer, J. A. McMullen, resigned,
claiming that conflict between the general manager and the station’s departmental supervisors was
inhibiting the efficiency and productivity of the operating staff. 60
The plant was further hobbled when a backfiring engine destroyed two of the eight gas
engines in March 1907, thereby removing a quarter of the power plant’s capacity.61 Workers at
the municipal station also started to complain that working conditions in the vicinity of the gas
engines had started to deteriorate once all engines were running, particularly after the engines
started to develop chronic leakages. White workers who lodged complaints about the continual
health hazards presented by the gas leaks were fired and promptly replaced with black workers,
one of whom was killed in an on-site accident. 62 The combination of lowered total capacity,
undependable equipment, and underperforming components caused Stewart and Company to end
their contract with the municipality on May 15, 1907, barely a year after the first generator had
been started. The gas-powered plant was scrapped after the city’s council voted against taking over
the operations from Stewart and Company on June 30, 1907.63
59 Citizen [pseud.], "Public Indebtedness," The Star, August 15, 1913. 60 J. A. McMullen, "Those Gas Engines: Why McMullen Resigned," Rand Daily Mail, September 4, 1906. 61 Shorten, Johannesburg Saga, p. 602. gives March 28 as the date of the explosion, but Christie, Electricity,
Industry and Class, p. 33. gives an alternative date of March 26. 62 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, pp. 33-34. 63 Shorten, Johannesburg Saga, pp. 600-602; Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, p. 34.
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After the problems with the gas-powered plant had become evident, the city’s residents
began to question the decision to use the untested technology in the municipality’s power plant.
Following the failure of the gas-powered plant, the municipality was facing a critical shortage of
electricity. The municipality approached privately-owned companies, which mostly provided
electricity for the city’s mines, to negotiate contracts for emergency electricity supplies. The city
also contracted with the engineering firm of Reunert and Lenz to replace the defunct gas engines
with steam-powered engines.
2. A Colonial Commission and a Colonial Law: Johannesburg, the Power Companies Commission, and the Transvaal Power Act of 1910
In 1909, the Earl of Selbourne, in his capacity as Governor of the Transvaal Colony,
appointed the Commission of Inquiry into the Power Companies to investigate the extent of
electrification in the region. The four members of the Commission were charged with determining
the effects of large-scale, centralised electricity generation on the mining industry; secondary
manufacturing industries; agriculture; the Central South African Railways (CSAR); labour; and
“the Country generally”.64
The Commission found that the four largest electricity undertakings in the Transvaal were
the Municipalities of Pretoria and Johannesburg, the Rand Mines Power Supply Company
(RMPS), and the Victoria Falls and Transvaal Power Company (VFP). The section on the
Johannesburg Municipal power supply is perhaps the shortest in the Commission’s report,
managing to reach a total of five sentences that briefly mention the original concession granted to
the Johannesburg Gas Company in 1889; the deals between the city and private suppliers to obtain
emergency supplies of electricity during shortfalls; and the installed and forecasted generating
64 "Report of the Power Companies Commission," National Archives of South Africa (TAB), CT 155, ref.
T39/56.
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station capacities. In what seems to be almost an afterthought, the report mentions that the
municipal grid did not provide any power to the mining industries on the Rand.65
For the Johannesburg Municipality, the concerns of the colonial government and mining
interests were of lesser importance than the implications of allowing privatised electricity supply.
The Mayor of Johannesburg told the Commission that the city’s council believed that a privatised
supply of electricity within municipal borders would be “injurious” to the city’s interests. In
explaining the council’s views on non-municipal suppliers, Chudleigh said that the city officials
believed that all private suppliers should be restricted from operating within municipal boundaries
without the city’s permission, since competition over an area of supply would negatively affect
the council’s ability to use the income from business and residential consumers to offset the high
costs of installing streetlights. It had also been municipal policy to place all high voltage cables in
underground trenches, and that granting any other supplier to install their own overhead cables
would prove too dangerous for Johannesburg’s residents.66
Professor Dobson, who had taken over the post of Town Electrical Engineer during the
failed attempt at running the gas-powered plant, gave evidence that the city would suffer a financial
loss if private supply was allowed. The city offered all residents and businesses equal tariffs across
the entire area of supply, based on the principle that a larger area of supply equates to overall lower
tariffs. The counter-argument to the city’s official testament against privatisation hinged on the
idea that lack of competition could negatively affect the city’s residents – without proper oversight,
the Commissioners believed, a Municipality could over-charge consumers for the service.67
65 "Report of the Power Companies Commission," National Archives of South Africa (TAB), CT 155, ref.
T39/56, pp. 17-18. 66 "Power Commission: Municipal Witnesses," Transvaal Leader, August 27, 1909. 67 "Power Commission: Municipal Witnesses," Transvaal Leader, August 27, 1909; "Power Commisison:
Electrical Engineers' Evidence," Transvaal Leader, August 28, 1909; "Report of the Power Companies Commission," National Archives of South Africa (TAB), CT 155, ref. T39/56, pp. 50-51.
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The Commission’s findings led to the drafting of the Transvaal Power Bill in early 1910,
for presentation to the Transvaal Parliament shortly before the formation of the Union.68 The Bill
was enacted as the Transvaal Power Act of 1910 on May 28, 1910, less than two months after the
Power Commission had presented its final report to the colonial government.69 The municipal
objections to the Power Bill were similar to those brought before the Power Companies
Commission, and focused on what the city’s officials saw as an infringement of municipal rights.70
For Johannesburg’s Town Council, there was more at stake than the loss of exclusive rights to
supply electricity to ratepayers. Partly, the municipal councillors were concerned that the city
would lose the income from residents who switched over to private electricity suppliers, as their
representatives had stated to the Power Companies Commission. The city also had to consider the
economic effects of the failed gas plant, as well as the expenditure that would be required to
complete the installation of the new coal-burning equipment at the President Street Station.
The representatives from the Johannesburg Municipality were not the only ones to publicly
speak out against the legislation. A newspaper editorial published by the Rand Daily Mail in mid-
April 1910 portrays the Transvaal Power Bill as a stand-off between the municipal service
providers and private generation companies to determine who had the legitimate rights to supply
electricity within municipal boundaries. This editorial column favours the municipality rather
openly – the writer stating that “the municipality must insist upon nothing less than the absolute
right to distribute power within the municipal area — save to the mines.”71
Throughout the process of reading the Power Bill before the Transvaal’s parliament, the
colonial government had attempted to present the Bill as important to the mining industry. During
the first day of the public readings of the Bill, the parliamentarians in favour of the Bill had even
tried to reassure the opposition that the legislation would not adversely affect white labourers at
68 "Power Propositions: State Control," Rand Daily Mail, April 5, 1910.;"Power Companies: The Commission's
Report," The Star, April 8, 1910; "Power Propositions: State Control," Rand Daily Mail, April 5, 1910. 69 "Power Companies Commission," The Star, May 15, 1909; Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power,
pp. 44-45. 70 "Power Bill: How it Affects the City," Rand Daily Mail, April 14, 1910. 71 "The Power Bill," Rand Daily Mail, April 18, 1910.
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municipal power stations. They went on record to state that the enactment of the Power Bill would
favour the use of large power stations, which could result in a decline in the demand for firemen
and engine-drivers required to operate the stations as power generation became increasingly
centralised. The hope expressed before the parliamentary gathering was that this decrease in labour
requirements would be followed by a commensurate increase in the number of electrical
mechanics needed to keep the stations running.72
The point of concern was not the total expected decrease in jobs that would result from the
centralisation of power supply, but rather in the way that changes in energy supply would affect
the ratios of different job positions in the power stations. The South African Engine Drivers’ and
Firemen’s Association objected to the use of electricity on the Rand’s mines, because of the fears
that the use of electricity would reduce the need for white labourers on the mines that still used
steam power. By extension, the Association was concerned that this would shift the racial balance
too far away from what they believed to be favourable. The Commission reported that the shifts
in one type of skilled work would be counter-balanced by the increase in the demand for other
skilled workers. Instead, the report stated, “the cheap power is likely to lead to the replacement of
manual work by mechanical contrivances, and the Native is not generally capable of adequately
supervising the latter in a suitable manner.”73
As the Municipal Council in Johannesburg would do again in the early 1920s, it presented
itself as the legitimate provider of electricity to the businesses, industry, and residents of the
growing city. Some of these fears about the Power Act were founded on the existing threat that
the VFP and RMPS already presented to the Johannesburg Electricity Department. The Municipal
Council wanted the Transvaal government to change the provisions that would allow non-
municipal suppliers to use municipal roads and pavements for setting up their privately-owned
infrastructure.74
72 "Power Bill," Rand Daily Mail, April 14, 1910. 73 "Report of the Power Companies Commission," National Archives of South Africa (TAB), CT 155, ref.
T39/56, pp. 43-45. 74 "Power Bill: How it Affects the City," Rand Daily Mail, April 14, 1910.
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3. Interwar Changes, Post-War Integrations: From the Electricity Act of 1922 Onwards
The chronic shortages that had started before the misguided purchase of the gas-powered
engines, and that had been worsened by their failure, continued to affect Johannesburg a decade
after the gas-powered scheme had been scrapped. In November 1915, the Mayor of Johannesburg,
speaking at a gathering of the Association of Municipal Electrical Engineers of South Africa, stated
that the Johannesburg power plant “was second to none in the world.”75 Within two months of this
statement, the VFP put forward an offer to supply the city with bulk power purchases at lower
rates than the city could generate the power at its own station.76
Politicians, journalistic editors, and the ratepayers were split on the issue of whether to
accept the VFP’s offer, and not necessarily according to those three categories. A spat between the
Rand Daily Mail and the Evening Chronicle dailies started when the former made accusations of
journalistic impropriety against the latter publication after the Chronicle urged the city to accept
the VFP’s offer. The Daily Mail’s position on the contract offer should have been clear enough
from their initial article’s title, which warned Johannesburg’s residents of “The Cloven Hoof.” The
Chronicle responded in kind, with the statement that such accusations could only have come from
a “journalistic pervert”. 77
The point did not need to be laboured any further, but the Daily Mail published a series of
editorial cartoons on the debate around the VFP’s offers. In one cartoon, an exasperated
homeowner sees a stray cat climbing over his wall and exclaims, “Good gracious, I thought I
drowned that beastly thing five years ago.”78 In another cartoon, a travelling salesman offers to
help a domestic worker in exchange for “just getting his foot in the door,” to which she replies,
“I’ve seen that trick played before.”79 The message behind the cartoons was clear – the VFP was
more than a minor irritation, the company’s interference in municipal affairs was seen as an
75 "Municipalities and Electricity," Rand Daily Mail, November 16, 1915. 76 "Municipal Electric Supply (Report)," Evening Chronicle, February 7, 1916. 77 "Municipal Electric Supply (Report)," Evening Chronicle, February 7, 1916; "The Cloven Hoof," Rand Daily
Mail, February 8, 1916; "Municipal Electric Supply (Opinion)," Evening Chronicle, February 8, 1916. 78 ""The Cat Came Back"," Rand Daily Mail, February 9, 1916. 79 "Trying to Get His Foot In," Rand Daily Mail, February 17, 1916.
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unwelcome intrusion that simply would not desist. For those who were in favour of accepting the
VFP’s offer, the economic benefits of cheaper power from a non-municipal source made more
sense than the costlier option of upgrading the city’s existing power plant to meet expected demand
increases.
The economic arguments in favour of the VFP’s suggested contract gained further traction
when the state of local and global manufacturing industries during World War I was factored into
the debate. Wartime shortages of personnel, finances, and raw materials had caused British
companies and municipalities to impose restrictions on the availability of capital and labour,
restrictions which would have conceivably had an impact on the availability of new equipment for
Johannesburg’s power station. It was also stated that the interconnection of the two networks
would be beneficial for the engineers at both the VFP and Johannesburg power stations, since a
combined network would allow them to more easily balance the changes in demand over the course
of each 24-hour period.80
To the dissatisfaction of ratepayers, not to mention the VFP, the municipal councillors
voted against entering into negotiations with the Company. The town’s electrical engineers
believed that greater benefits could be derived from upgrading the existing municipal station than
from co-operation with an external entity.81
The 1910 Transvaal Power Act had helped to lay the foundation for the nationalisation of
electricity generation and distribution. The efficacy of centralised electricity generation from
larger stations had been proven by the start of the 1920s, especially by the success that the VFP
and RMPS enjoyed in supplying electricity to large swathes of the Rand, including the
municipalities of Boksburg, Germiston, Roodepoort-Maraisburg, and Springs.82 It should follow
80 "Town Finance: Power Station Plant," The Star, February 9, 1916; H. A. Wyndham, "Johannesburg and the
V.F.P.," Rand Daily Mail, February 11, 1916; "Town Council and the V.F.P.C.," The Star, February 14, 1916. 81 "Power Supply: Victoria Company's Offer," The Star, February 14, 1916; "Power Supply," The Star, February
16, 1916; "V. Falls Power: Town Council Turn Down Offer," Evening Chronicle, February 16, 1916; "Town Council and Power Plant," The Star, February 17, 1916; "Nothing Doing for the V.F.P.," Rand Daily Mail, February 17, 1916; "The V.F.P. Co.'s Offer," Evening Chronicle, February 18, 1916; Bernard Price, "Town and V.F.P.," Rand Daily Mail, February 18, 1916.
82 "V.F.P. Handbook," University of Cape Town Libraries Special Collections Manuscripts, BC697, A15.1.
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then, that the establishment of a national system of control over the generation and sales of
electricity would be a logical step in the process of electrification. When the first drafts of the
Electricity Bill were read before Parliament in 1921, the municipalities of South Africa once again
felt that their political and economic welfare was at risk.
Municipal councils presented a threat to the centralisation of electricity that the Electricity
Act was designed to secure. In turn, the municipal bodies saw the passing of such legislation as a
threat to their function as suppliers of electricity to their residents and ratepayers, and therefore
insisted on taking part in the drafting of the Bill that would be presented to parliament.83 These
political concerns stemmed from the fear that they would be supplanted as service providers in
their areas of jurisdiction. In the initial form of the Electricity Bill, the ECB would be allowed to
determine which generating stations and networks would be integrated into combined networks,
without needing to consider who owned the infrastructure. Under this arrangement, a less
productive municipal station would face closure if a governmental or private station in the same
area proved to be more productive.84
For their part, municipal groups felt that the Electricity Bill offered too much leeway to the
governmental and corporate power stations. Municipalities had been informed that non-municipal
power stations would have the right to install infrastructure without having to consult with
municipal authorities first. This clause gave governmental stations the right to install underground
cables without municipal approval – in particular, the Johannesburg Municipal Council found this
problematic because labourers working for the national government would be digging trenches
along municipal pavements and roadways.85
83 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, p. 82. 84 "Town Council Acts: New Electricity Bill," Rand Daily Mail, April 2, 1921; "Manufacture of Electricity:
Important Draft Bill," Rand Daily Mail, April 4, 1921; "Electricity Bill Dangers: Municipalities Alert," The Star, April 18, 1921.
85 "Manufacture of Electricity: Important Draft Bill," Rand Daily Mail, April 4, 1921; "Electricity Bill Dangers: Municipalities Alert," The Star, April 18, 1921.
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In the earlier phases of municipal electrification, urban distribution networks in cities like
Johannesburg were almost exclusively subterranean.86 Allowing construction engineers to work
on municipal roadways and pavements without requiring any consultation with the city council
created a credible threat to the longevity of the existing roadworks infrastructure. The companies
that were responsible for laying distribution cables in the early 1900s in Johannesburg had already
earned a reputation for not keeping thorough maps of their installed cables, making
troubleshooting a somewhat lengthy and laborious process, even when the Municipal Council had
been involved at any stage.87
Economically, the municipalities were afraid of the implications of revised tariff structures
that would be introduced under the Electricity Act. Municipal suppliers created tariff schemes that
would get the highest possible profit margin from business and industrial consumers, with the
intent to use these profits as “rate relief” for residential consumers. Should the tariff structures be
standardised at a governmental level, the municipalities feared that they would lose this economic
freedom, thereby handicapping their ability to offer lower rates to residential areas. 88
The municipal councils were concerned that an organisation running at a national level
would develop their own infrastructure and consumer base, thereby leaving the municipalities with
unused infrastructure that had been developed at great cost to their ratepayers. The draft Bill also
gave large businesses and industry the right to request that their electricity supply be provided by
either government or corporate stations, thereby creating a further threat to the rate relief that
municipalities wished to provide to residential customers.89 Losing these industrial consumers
could be problematic for municipalities, since a considerable portion of the income from these
larger consumers went to rate relief. In 1955, the Electricity Department in Johannesburg
86 Shorten, Johannesburg Saga, p. 604. 87 Shorten, Johannesburg Saga, p. 605. 88 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, pp. 54, 82. 89 "Electricity Bill Dangers: Municipalities Alert," The Star, April 18, 1921.
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contributed £630,000 towards residential rates from the department’s gross annual income of
£4,000,000.90
Municipalities across South Africa countered these perceived threats by sending a
deputation of councillors to Cape Town in order to meet with F. S. Malan, the Minister of Mines
and Industry during the drafting of the Electricity Bill. The deputation presented Malan with a
petition, which requested that the Bill be withdrawn, so that municipal representative could consult
with the drafting committee before any legislation was enacted. They requested that the ECB be
comprised of members who were not directly linked to any specific existing parliamentary
portfolio, to ensure that no single MP could exercise undue influence over the Board. The
deputation also requested that the Bill be drafted to give them the authority to decide on who was
allowed to install infrastructure, and even requested that the city councils be given the opportunity
to work as sub-contractors during the installation of underground cables. 91
The deputation to Cape Town managed to secure a place for municipal representatives in
the drafting committee’s next series of meetings. The mayors of Johannesburg and Pretoria were
invited to attend the committee’s sessions in Johannesburg, accompanied by a representative of
the Municipal Association.92 After municipal representatives had commented on the Bill,
corporate and government suppliers would have to notify municipalities of any plans to establish
electricity stations or infrastructure within the council’s area of supply.93 Municipal stations that
had been in operation for longer than thirty-eight years were eligible for appropriation by the
Electricity Supply Commission, which required the Commission to purchase the station and its
90 Seventy Golden Years, 1886-1956, (Johannesburg: Municipal Public Relations Bureau, n.d.), p. 339. 91 "Town Council Acts: New Electricity Bill," Rand Daily Mail, April 2, 1921; "Manufacture of Electricity:
Important Draft Bill," Rand Daily Mail, April 4, 1921; "Draft Electricity Bill: Delegation for Capetown," Rand Daily Mail, April 6, 1921; "Electricity Bill: Council's Deputation Leaving," The Star, April 8, 1921; "The Electricity Bill: Deputation Leaving for Capetown," Rand Daily Mail, April 11, 1921; "The Electricity Bill: Proposed Amendments," The Star, April 11, 1921; "Electricity Bill Dangers: Municipalities Alert," The Star, April 18, 1921; "Live Question for Local Bodies: Electricity Bill," The Star, April 20, 1921; "The Electricity Bill," Rand Daily Mail, April 22, 1921.
92 "The Electricity Bill: A Local Conference," The Star, April 16, 1921; "The Electricity Bill: Effect of Municipal Representations," Rand Daily Mail, April 18, 1921.
93 Government Gazette of 24 July, 1922, vol. 44, no. 1256, p. lxxix.
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supply network at a value that took the type, number, and condition of the station’s assets into
consideration.94
Municipalities presented their opposition to the Bill as a concern for the wellbeing of their
electricity consumers, basing their arguments on ideas about who had “legitimate” authority to
provide services to municipal customers. Problematically, businesses within the Johannesburg
Council’s area of supply had been reporting declines in productivity and income following the end
of the First World War. This was partly caused by the decrease in generating capacity that had
started during war rationing, and partly because equipment manufacturers were not able to restore
their pre-war supply networks immediately after the 1918 Armistice.95 Urban electricity demand
had continued to grow during the war, but the city’s generation capacity had not grown to the same
extent. Orders that had been placed in 1915 to upgrade the city’s power station were not filled until
1921, thereby worsening the city’s supply problem, since the new and upgraded equipment
required further upgrades to keep pace with the continuing increases in demand.96
Once the shortage had made itself increasingly apparent, members of the Johannesburg
Municipal Council had been in consultation with the VFP to begin the first steps towards the
purchase of emergency electricity supplies to compensate for the shortfall – a move that did not
earn favour with many Johannesburg residents. There were some in the city who felt that their
monthly rate payments should not be used to pay another organisation for a service that the
municipality was already delivering. Councillors countered this argument by pointing out that the
municipality needed to conduct emergency renovations on the city’s existing power station to
repair and upgrade equipment, but that the city could not afford to continue running at minimum
capacity while the renovations were in progress. Residents in the newer areas of Johannesburg
stated that the Municipal Council should attempt to make any and all necessary arrangements to
94 Government Gazette of 24 July, 1922, vol. 44, no. 1256, p. lxxxii. 95 "Be Sparing with Electric Light," Rand Daily Mail, December 24, 1920; "Electric Current Shortage: Appeal to
Customers," Rand Daily Mail, November 2, 1919; "Pressure on Municipal Plant," Rand Daily Mail, October 28, 1919.
96 Shorten, Johannesburg Saga, p. 606.
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meet the needs of the city. Houses built during and after World War I were not supplied with
electricity because of the lack of capacity, even when a house had been built in an area that already
received electricity. 97
It is likely that the Municipality was not only interested in who had the right to supply
electricity to ratepayers but was also concerned about who owned the infrastructure through which
the electricity was supplied. Contracts between municipalities and third party suppliers had been
a feature of Johannesburg’s electricity supply since the start of the twentieth century, when the
municipality contracted with the Robinson Deep Gold Mining Company to buy bulk electricity
shortly after the end of the South African War in 1902 and had to purchase roughly 60% of its
power from the RCEW following the failure of the gas engines in 1906.98 The rationale used by
the city’s electrical engineers in opposition to the VFP’s contract offer in 1916 did not still hold
true in the era after World War II. By the mid-1950s, the Johannesburg Electricity Department
boasted that interconnection with Escom’s grid have saved the city roughly £7 million pounds,
money that would otherwise have been spent on new equipment. The Electricity Department also
stated that the interconnection of the city’s local grid and Escom’s regional grid allowed for
engineers on both sides to better manage the peaks and dips in demand.99
In 1923, demand had increased to the point that the station at President Street could no
longer meet the needs of the city, and new extensions could not add enough generating capacity
to keep up with future growth in demand. As specified by the Electricity Act, the city requested
that Escom write a report on the state of the local grid for when the time came to submit an
application to the ECB for changes to the municipal grid. However, throughout much of 1923,
Escom was engaged in negotiations with the ECB and the VFP over the licence application for the
Witbank Power Station (see Chapter Two).
97 "Johannesburg's Power Shortage: The Inadequate Supply of Lighting," Rand Daily Mail, September 23, 1921. 98 Shorten, Johannesburg Saga, pp. 599-600. 99 Seventy Golden Years, p. 343.
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From Escom’s point-of-view, it would be unnecessary to construct a new power station in
Witbank, which was close enough to Johannesburg to offer a reliable supply of electricity to the
Municipality, and for the Municipality to build its own local power station. Instead, Escom
suggested that the Municipality wait until construction at Witbank was completed, either by the
VFP or the Commission, and purchase bulk power from the new station. The Municipality declined
the offer of power from Witbank, instead preferring to wait until a formal decision could be made
by the Provincial Administrator on whether a new municipal power station could be built. The
Municipality had to wait until January 1928 before receiving final approval for the new power
station.100
Once the plans for a new power station had been approved, construction started on the new
power station in Jeppe Street, roughly 200 metres from the President Street station. By 1932, the
Jeppe Street Power Station had taken over the majority of the load from the old President Street
station, which then started to act as a peak load station for periods of high demand. The Jeppe
Street Power Station was fully functional in 1939, but demand had grown to the extent that the
city had needed to start construction on another power station in Orlando in 1937.101
The Orlando Power Station took longer to build than expected, mostly due to the outbreak
of World War II during the plant’s construction. Aside from the widespread difficulties that Escom
experienced in getting machinery and parts during the War, the Orlando construction project also
suffered a setback when the ship transporting casings and bearings for one of the generators sank
due to enemy action.102 Most of these parts were replaced relatively quickly, but further equipment
losses and wartime delays meant that the station was not fully functional until 1946.103 Further
growth in demand required the construction of another municipal power plant between the late
100 "The Application of the Victoria Falls and Transvaal Power Company and Its Relation to the Future Power
Supply in the Transvaal," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), PM 1/2/56, ref. 15/6, pp. 14-15; Shorten, Johannesburg Saga, pp. 606-7.
101 Shorten, Johannesburg Saga, pp. 606-7. 102 "Sinking of Ship Affects City," Rand Daily Mail, November 1, 1940. 103 Shorten, Johannesburg Saga, p. 609.
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1950s and early 1960s. The Kelvin ‘A’ plant was completed in May 1960 and additional generating
capacity at the adjacent Kelvin ‘B’ plant was completed on February 14, 1964.104
The compromises that Escom and the Johannesburg Municipality reached with each other
benefited both parties by letting them retain a measure of control over their own infrastructure,
while also allowing them to balance their respective loads more easily than if the two networks
remained entirely isolated. This was an important step in the functioning of the National Grid,
because the final agreement meant that the Municipality and Escom could continue to function as
interdependent entities that could both fulfil their commitments to their respective consumers. It
also alleviated the need for Escom to supply electricity to municipal customers, who purchased
relatively small numbers of units each year, and gave the parastatal the opportunity to apportion
more of the country’s nationalised power stations to generating electricity for mining and industrial
customers.
104 Shorten, Johannesburg Saga, p. 616.
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CHAPTER TWO – “HARNESSING THE FALLS”: THE VICTORIA FALLS AND
TRANSVAAL POWER COMPANY, 1906 – 1948
Electrification and electrical technologies added extra momentum to the already vigorous
growth of mining activities on the Rand at the turn of the century, and the Victoria Falls and
Transvaal Power Company (VFP) played a central role in providing this electricity between 1906
and 1948. Within seventeen years of the Company’s founding, the VFP was generating more
electricity “than was consumed in the cities of London, Birmingham and Sheffield combined,”
largely due to the power that was being sold to the mines.105 Even though the first plans for the
organisation were soon abandoned, the VFP would become the largest electricity producer in the
British Empire and was a key element in the development of the National Grid.
Founded in 1906, the VFP was a subsidiary of the African Concessions Syndicate (ACS),
which was itself a subsidiary of Cecil Rhodes’ British South Africa Company (BSAC). The
Company was formed with the original intention of generating hydroelectric power on the Zambesi
River to supply electricity to the Witwatersrand’s mines, roughly 1 100 kilometres to the south.
The scheme was highly impractical, given the large transmission losses that would occur on such
long high-voltage power lines, the extreme costs of transmitting power over such long distances,
and the annual shortfall in electricity production that would occur during the dry season.106
Renfrew Christie has discussed much of the history of the VFP, but most of the discussion
in his book focuses on the intricate network of associations, contracts, concessions, and
subsidiaries that were required to establish the Company. The narrative of the VFP’s politics and
economics is a tangled, overlapping network of international deals made to secure generating
equipment, expertise, and capital from a variety of sources across Europe amidst the increasing
nationalism at the turn of the century (Figure 3). Aside from the challenges faced by the
Company’s founders, it is also important to understand the VFP’s contribution to the formation of
105 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, p. 6. 106 "Rand Power: Problems Generated Some Notable Achievements," University of Cape Town Libraries Special
Collections Manuscripts, BC697, A15.3; Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class; Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power.
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the National Grid – the purchase of the VFP’s assets by Escom in 1948 increased the Electricity
Supply Commission’s total generating capacity by almost a third.
In building a regional grid around the Witwatersrand, the VFP was drawn into a series of
negotiations, compromises, and agreements with local municipalities, the gold mines, and private
consumers, but it is the Company’s interactions with Escom that were most important for the
establishment of the National Grid. When the Electricity Act was signed in 1922, Escom was
charged with providing electricity that was both cheap and abundant; however, as the early annual
reports acknowledged, the parastatal was not responsible for beginning the process of
electrification, since other entities were already involved in generating and selling electricity. In
order to construct the National Grid, Escom would therefore have to negotiate agreements and
contracts with the owners of these other systems, whether to appropriate existing infrastructure or
to begin anew with establishing local and regional grids.
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1. “A Six Million Scheme”: Starting the Victoria Falls (and Transvaal) Power Company, 1906 – 1922
Once it became evident that the plan to generate hydroelectric power at the Victoria Falls
was impractical, the Company changed its name to the Victoria Falls and Transvaal Power
Company. As Renfrew Christie has noted, the Rand of the early twentieth century was proving to
be an ideal testing ground for the theory of centralised electricity generation and distribution.
Before the start of the Boer War, electrification in the Transvaal had not progressed much further
than streetlighting in the urban areas, and the mining companies had preferred the use of steam
engines to run machinery. By the eve of the First World War, the Witwatersrand’s gold mines
were the largest consumers of electricity in the country, and each of the largest gold mines
demanded more electricity than the entire coal mining industry. The differences in energy
requirements may be attributed to variables in the working conditions at gold and coal mines, such
as the type of rock in which the raw materials are found, but the vast differences in the needs of
the two industries does help to explain why the gold mines were responsible for consuming so
much of the electricity generated on and near the Witwatersrand.107
In October 1906, the VFP had requested permission to build a power station on the East
Rand. The Johannesburg and Boksburg municipalities objected to the application, on the grounds
that municipalities should be granted priority in supplying electricity to residential consumers. The
exact role played by the municipal objections in the government’s final decision is not entirely
clear, but the official rationale was that the Rand Central Electric Works Limited (RCEW) had
filed a protest against the VFP’s operations on the East Rand. The RCEW stated that the VFP was
not involved in mining operations, and therefore did not have the legal rights to construct or operate
any public services within the area.108
The VFP had encountered the first critical problem in supplying electricity to the Rand –
competition from the individuals, companies, and government groups who had already established
107 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, p. 21. 108 "Rand Power Scheme: The Jupiter Site," Transvaal Leader, November 4, 1906.
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their hold on resources and areas of supply. The VFP’s solution to this was relatively efficient and
simple. They engaged in a series of negotiations, payments, and buy-outs that cost the company
dearly in short-term financial costs but ensured that the Company had a dominant role in the supply
of electricity to the major gold mines until after World War II.
Within six months of the East Rand application being rejected, the VFP had bought the
assets and licenses owned by the RCEW and the General Electric Power Company Limited
(GEPC) for a combined total of £500, 000. These two purchases made the VFP the single largest,
and almost exclusive, provider of electricity to the Transvaal’s gold mines.109
During the problems with Johannesburg’s power supply after the failure of the gas-powered
municipal power plant, the city had made an emergency agreement with the RCEW in March 1906
to provide supplies of electricity to municipal customers. Once the RCEW was integrated into the
VFP’s business holdings, the VFP took over the responsibility for the emergency bulk supply to
the city until June 30, 1908.110 This contract gave the Company the opportunity to consolidate its
hold on the supply of power on the Rand, but also gave the city a convenient scapegoat when the
chronic problems at the Johannesburg Lighting Department caused the department to suffer a large
financial loss for the year 1907/1907. The town council announced that the city was facing an
increasingly large deficit in the lighting budget, and promptly blamed the VFP for causing the
situation.111 The contract between the Company and the city expired in June 1908, but the
municipality opted to wait for the municipal power plant to be repaired, instead of allowing the
VFP to continue supplying ratepayers with electricity.
The Company made further gains in creating a monopoly over electricity generation when
the Rand Mines Power Supply Company Limited (RMPS) was formed as a subsidiary of the VFP
109 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, p. 32; Clark, Manufacturing Apartheid, p. 26. 110 Shorten, Johannesburg Saga, p. 603. 111 Willliam Bickell, "Municipal Electric Supply: The Council and the Power Supply," Transvaal Leader, March
21, 1908.
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to supply electricity and compressed air to the Rand Mines Limited group.112 Up until the VFP
subsumed the RMPS in 1924, they were considered as separate legal entities.113 The VFP was
registered as a company in Southern Rhodesia, but all its operations were governed by the laws of
Southern Rhodesia, South Africa, and England. The RMPS, on the other hand, was registered in
South Africa and was subject to South African laws only.114 The legal wrangling necessary to
coordinate the activity of two legal entities that owned property, employed staff, and conducted
business across three countries was largely down to the payment of taxes – any tax incurred by the
VFP would be paid to the country in which the Company was registered. By registering the VFP
in Southern Rhodesia, the Company ensured that taxes were funnelled back to the BSAC.115
Even before the RMPS had started supplying power, engineers had already calculated that
the combined capacity of the VFP and RMPS would exceed that of the London Metropolitan area.
This system of amalgamating companies and establishing subsidiaries make it easy to understand
why a town councillor from Ophirton told the Power Companies Commission that the VFP wanted
“to have the run of Johannesburg, then of the Transvaal, next of the world, and finally of Heaven
itself.”116 This might be an overstatement of the VFP’s aims, but it is reflective of the tensions
between the VFP and local government.
Primarily, the objections raised by politicians outside of the greater Johannesburg area
related to the use of land by private electricity companies. The Transvaal’s farmers were concerned
that the private power companies would not need permission to obtain wayleaves for running high-
voltage power lines across farmland, and that the power companies would want to use any of the
coal reserves that might be found on agricultural land in the future. The coal industry was also
worried that centralised electricity generation would affect their returns on mining investment, and
112 "Compressed Air Supply on the Rand," University of Cape Town Libraries Special Collections Manuscripts,
BC697, A15.5; Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, p. 32. 113 "Souvenir of the Visit to the Rosherville Generating Station," University of Cape Town Libraries Special
Collections Manuscripts, BC697, A15.2. 114 "V.F.P. Handbook," University of Cape Town Libraries Special Collections Manuscripts, BC697, A15.1. 115 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, p. 36. 116 "Electric Power Schemes: Strong Opposition," Transvaal Leader, May 28, 1909.
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that the railways would lose revenue if coal was sent to the Transvaal instead of being transported
across the country.
Rather, the Witbank Colliery’s consulting mechanical engineer suggested to the Power
Companies Commission that the coal should be mined and transported by rail over long distances,
and that the Rand’s mines should invest in hydroelectric stations on the Crocodile River. The
VFP’s argument for privatised electricity generation was that a large company, such as themselves,
would be better suited to generating and transmitting electricity over longer distances, while
allowing smaller intermediaries to then distribute the electricity to individual consumers within a
specified area.
The Transvaal’s parliament had already drafted a bill to regulate the supply of electricity in
the colony before the Power Companies Commission had begun its hearings, but once the
Commission had started its work the reading of the draft was put on hold until the Commission’s
official report could offer recommendations on further legislation. When the Power Bill was
presented to the colonial parliament in April 1910, responses were largely determined by
organisational loyalty to either municipal suppliers or the VFP. For those loyal to the municipality,
the Power Bill was nothing but a ruse to hide the VFP’s attempts at establishing a monopoly in the
Transvaal – a “Power Plot” that threatened the city’s established right to supply services.117 For
ratepayers who felt somewhat marginalised by the lack of service delivery in their areas of
Johannesburg, the Power Bill offered an opportunity to frighten the city into improving services.
A municipal ratepayer complained that the municipality had only contacted him about receiving
electricity after their customer base had been threatened by the impending Power Bill.118
The Power Companies Commission reported to the Transvaal colonial government that
large and centralised generating stations would prove to be more cost effective in the long-term
117 "The Power Plot: City in Danger," Rand Daily Mail, April 16, 1910; "The Power Plot: Rousing the People,"
Rand Daily Mail, April 18, 1910; "Power Plot: Great Meeting of Citizens," Rand Daily Mail, April 19, 1910; "The Power Plot: Pretoria's Disapproval," Rand Daily Mail, April 23, 1910.
118 "Letters to the Editor: Power Bill — First Result," Transvaal Leader, May 12, 1910.
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than a network comprised of isolated stations that each covered their own small area of the grid,
and “…that undertakings of this nature should be left to private enterprise.”119 The report
recommended that municipal and government suppliers refrain from investing their own capital in
the construction of new power stations, since the upgrading or installation of new technologies
carried financial risks. Municipal ratepayers, according to the Commission, would be better off if
their municipalities refrained from investing large sums of money in establishing new power
stations, as technological improvements could make even the newest machinery redundant.
2. Witbank’s Coal for Johannesburg’s Gold: The VFP after the 1922 Electricity Act, 1922 – 1948
Once the Electricity Bill was enacted in the second half of 1922, the VFP’s undertakings
took on national importance. As the largest supplier of electricity to the Rand’s mines, the
Company had been important to the Union’s economy after 1910, but the VFP was now going to
be involved in the electrification of all four provinces. While the Company had worked for the
preceding two decades to secure their customer base on the Witwatersrand, Escom also wanted
the coal mines in the Witbank region to have access to a supply of cheap electricity. Witbank
presented an ideal site for the construction of a large power station to supply the Rand’s mines
because the region had the combination of fuel supply from the coal mines; water from the Olifants
River; and the power station’s proximity to the Rand made high voltage transmission lines feasible.
Shortly after being established in March 1923, Escom had started to investigate whether it
would be feasible to construct a new power station in Witbank, but their inquiries were somewhat
truncated by the VFP’s application for a license to build their own station and provide power to
the Rand and Witbank areas in May 1923. The Company had already been granted a license soon
after the signing of the Transvaal Power Act, but the license had expired when the Electricity Act
was passed in 1922.
119 "Report of the Power Companies Commission," National Archives of South Africa (TAB), CT 155, ref.
T39/56.
- 50 -
The rationale given by the VFP for choosing to construct a new station at Witbank – instead
of adding to the capacity at their existing station in Vereeniging – rested on the idea that they
would not be able to supply the gold mines forever, because the “Gold Mining Industry is a wasting
industry and must sooner or later fall away.” It would be in the best interests of the VFP and the
Railways Administration, according to General Manager Bernard Price, if the Company would
assist in the electrification of railways and the growing industries in Witbank.120 Price was forced
to retract his offer of a cooperative agreement between the VFP and Escom two months after
writing this letter, because the Company’s directors in London felt that there was not sufficient
time to negotiate with the South African government before the mines required extra power. Escom
believed that this meant that the VFP had reconsidered the construction of the Witbank station, but
the Company had instead decided to proceed with their plans for Witbank without government
assistance.121
On May 11, 1923, the ECB received notification from the VFP that the latter wished to
apply for a licence to establish a new power station at Witbank, with objections from the Railways
Administration and Escom being lodged on June 14 and June 15, 1923, respectively.122 The VFP
was concerned that future demand on the Rand would outstrip the available capacity in local power
stations, since the Company only had two spare generator sets that could be used to supply peak
loads. Engineers predicted that by June 1924, the Company would only have a single surplus
generator set that could be used for peak load supply.123
The Electricity Control Board was required to convene a hearing on the license application,
since objections were received from the Electricity Supply Commission; the South African
Railways & Harbours Administration (SAR); Government Gold Mining Areas, Limited; several
mining houses; and the Johannesburg Municipality. The mining houses based their objection to
120 "Bernard Price to Robert Kotze, January 26, 1923," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), ECB 10, ref.
56/8/1. 121 "Application of the Victoria Falls and Transvaal Power Company," National Archives of South Africa (SAB),
PM 1/2/56, ref. 15/6, p. 5. 122 "Sixteenth Meeting," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), MNW 634, ref. MM 2879/22, pp. 1-2. 123 "Sixteenth Meeting," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), MNW 634, ref. MM 2879/22, p. 2.
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the initial licence application, because the VFP had not given all of the information required by
the Electricity Act. The Act specified that all licence applications needed to give estimates of
tariffs, minimum monthly consumption quotas, the classes of consumers that were expected to use
generated power, and the cost price of generating electricity at the new station.124
The complaints from gold mining companies were largely withdrawn in the later stages of
the Board’s hearings regarding the licence application, after the VFP agreed to offer better tariffs
and rebates to the mines once operating costs decreased when the Witbank station was fully
operational.125 In exchange for withdrawing Escom’s objections to the licence application, the
VFP had to agree to offer a rebate to all consumers who received power directly from the Witbank
station.
The Electricity Act of 1922 stated that in cases where an undertaking made a “surplus”
profit in the course of a financial year, all customers were to be granted a pro-rata rebate equivalent
to twenty-five percent of the profit. The VFP’s agreement with Escom was that all customers
receiving power from the Witbank station would be granted a rebate to the value of fifty percent
of annual profits accrued from the Witbank undertaking. In addition to this rebate, the Company
agreed to give all mining consumers a discount of 15 percent, which would be applied retroactively
from January 1, 1923. This discount would then increase to 17½ percent once the power station
was in full commercial operation.126
The Mayor of Johannesburg voiced his objections to the ECB’s decision that allowed the
VFP to consult with its head offices in London on a provisional license agreement without first
consulting the Johannesburg councillors. The Council claimed that their application for an
extension to the municipal power station was pending, while the ECB’s hearings on the Witbank
124 Government Gazette of 24 July, 1922, vol. 44, no. 1256, pp. lxxvii-lxxviii.; "Petition of the Government Gold
Mining Areas (Modderfontein) Consolidated Limited," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), MNW 682, ref. MM2990/23, pp. 10-11.
125 "Million Pound Power Station," Rand Daily Mail, December 4, 1923. 126 Government Gazette of 24 July, 1922, vol. 44, no. 1256, pp. lxxix-lxxx; Electricity Supply Commission, 1923
Annual Report, p. 6, http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1923%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
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station were in progress. The city’s councillors felt that if the VFP was allowed to establish a
successful station in Witbank, it would allow the Company to monopolise electricity sales in the
city, thereby making the municipal station defunct – a power station that the Mayor called “our
very birthright,” 127 and for which the City Council promised to fight “tooth and nail.”128
A report written by the Municipal Council in 1925 stated that the Town Council’s
stubbornness in dealing with the VFP, and especially towards the Witbank Power Station, was
based on fears that the Company’s power supply was prone to regular interruptions. Most of all,
the Council stated that the ubiquitous thunderstorms that occur during summer on the Highveld
presented too great a threat to the safety of the VFP’s transmission lines.129
This animosity between the Johannesburg Municipality and the VFP was hardly new, and
the acrimony lasted well after the Witbank station had already been completed. In 1930, General
Manager and Chief Engineer of the VFP, Bernard Price, told the Empire Mining and Metallurgical
Congress that Johannesburg was the only major municipality on the Rand that did not take
electricity from the Company.130 Escom saw the council’s objections to the VFP’s Witbank
application as an attempt to restore the Labour Party’s public image after municipal employees
who had participated in the Rand Revolt had been fired. According to an internal memo, Escom
believed that many of these civil servants were “rank socialists and bolschevists [sic]” who had
been employed at the power station before the uprising and that the Labour Party wanted to regain
its lost credibility by forcing the city to reinstate those workers.131
The VFP’s representatives managed to establish an interim agreement with Escom that
amended the Company’s original application, which helped to settle most of the objections that
the Supply Commission had brought to the hearings. The VFP and Escom created an unusual set
127 "The Town and the VFP: Mayor's Strong Criticism," Rand Daily Mail, October 30, 1923. 128 "A Corner in Power?," Rand Daily Mail, October 20, 1923. 129 "Report on the New Power Station of the Gas and Electric Supply Department " National Archives of South
Africa (SAB), MNW 717, ref. MM1288/24, pp. 2-7. 130 "Power Supply on the Rand," University of Cape Town Libraries Special Collections Manuscripts, BC697,
A15.6. 131 "Untitled Memo," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), MNW 687, ref. MM3396/23.
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of rules for building and operating the prospective Witbank Power Station that would stay in place
for more than two decades after the station was constructed. Under these terms, the VFP would be
allowed to apply for a license to construct and operate a power station in the vicinity of Witbank
but would not be allowed to supply electricity directly to customers in Witbank itself. Instead,
ownership of the station would rest with both the VFP and Escom, thereby allowing Escom to sell
some of the generated electricity to their consumers in Witbank.132
The VFP had to also agree to amend the licence application to change the proposed area of
supply that would be covered under the licence. Instead of being granted control over transmission
and distribution of power from Witbank, the Company had to allow Escom to apply for local
distribution rights to supply the Witbank area from the new station, while maintaining control over
the high-voltage lines that would connect Witbank and the Rand.133 In the final agreement, Escom
would not be allowed to request supply in any areas that were already supplied by the VFP, except
in cases where the Railways Administration requested electricity supply along sections of their rail
lines.134
In exchange for these concessions, Escom would recompense the Company for their share
of the station’s construction costs and would pay for a percentage of the monthly operating costs
once the station was completed. During months when Escom’s share of the station generated more
power than was needed, they reserved the right to deduct the costs of generating power from their
monthly payment to the VFP, effectively forcing the Company to buy the surplus electricity
generated for the commission’s customers.135 When the final agreement between the two
organisation was completed, the VFP had also agreed to apply the same scheme that offered lower
rates to the mining companies to all their customers taking supply from Witbank.136 The ECB
132 "Draft Heads of Agreement," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), PM 1/2/56, ref. 15/6. 133 "Twenty-Second Meeting," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), MNW 634, ref. MM 2879/22, p. 1. 134 "Draft Heads of Agreement," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), PM 1/2/56, ref. 15/6, pp. 1-2. 135 "Draft Heads of Agreement," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), PM 1/2/56, ref. 15/6. 136 "Agreement Relating to the Generating Station at Witbank Transvaal," National Archives of South Africa
(SAB), MNW 717, ref. MM1367/24.
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granted the Company the license to start construction at Witbank on July 21, 1924 and Escom was
given permission to supply their consumers in the area on April 6, 1925.137 By the end of 1926,
the Company had invested £1 299 054 in construction, which included materials, land purchases,
machinery, and interest.138
Charles Merz wrote to Jan Smuts that these arrangements would ensure that “…the
Commission will not before the work proceeds have to make arrangements for finance…” and that
the VFP’s participation in the construction and operation of the station would protect Escom
against potential financial losses if electricity demand proved to be lower than expected.139 While
Escom was investigating the feasibility of operating a station from Witbank before the first public
hearings in front of the ECB, the parastatal did express some concern about the demand for
electricity in the area surrounding Witbank. The load in the immediate surroundings were not high
enough to guarantee that the station would be profitable, since secondary industry in the area was
still relatively undeveloped and the collieries did not use as much power as the gold mines. There
were two suggested solutions to this problem – either electrify the railway lines running from the
western edges of the Reef in Germiston and Springs to the Eastern Transvaal or convince the VFP
to buy a large bulk supply from the Commission on a monthly basis.140
3. After Witbank: The Rand Extension Undertaking, Klip Power Station, and Vaal Power Station
Even with the massive Witbank Power Station running, Escom and the VFP still needed to
continue adding to the available generating capacity in the Transvaal. Interwar electrical demand
had increased so rapidly that the station had already required the installation of extra generators in
137 "Report of the Commission on the Establishment of an Electrical Undertaking at Witbank (Transvaal),"
National Archives of South Africa (SAB), MNW 717, ref. MM1367/24; Electricity Supply Commission, 1924 Annual Report, http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1924%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
138 Electricity Supply Commission, 1926 Annual Report, http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1926%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
139 "Charles H. Merz to J. C. Smuts, November 2, 1923," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), PM 1/2/56, ref. 15/6.
140 "Application of the Victoria Falls and Transvaal Power Company," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), PM 1/2/56, ref. 15/6.
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1929 and 1930.141 After the fifth set of generators had been installed in 1930, the site in Witbank
could not be extended any further, because the Olifants River could not supply enough extra water
for a sixth set of generators and boilers. The Company also needed to decommission its power
station at Simmerpan, which was only useful for generating extra power to boost capacity during
peak hours. 142
In March 1934, the Commission applied for permission for a new power station that would
be built near to Vereeniging and permission to begin supply from a new undertaking in the region
of the Rand. Once the ECB approved these licence applications, the permits were ceded to the
VFP as a continuation of the cooperation between Escom and the VFP in building and operating
power stations.143 Electricity for the Rand Extension Undertaking was taken from Escom’s power
stations at Witbank and the new Klip Power Station near Vereeniging, as well as from the VFP’s
Rosherville, Brakpan, Simmerpan, and Vereeniging Power Stations.144
Klip Power Station needed large quantities of water for cooling, and there was no guarantee
that enough water would available to meet the needs of future expansions in generating capacity.
To ensure that the power station had an adequate supply of water for the foreseeable future, Escom
made a deal with the government to give £81 000 towards the cost of the Vaalbank Dam. In
exchange, Escom was given the rights to use an extra 12 million gallons (approximately 54.5
million litres) of water per day from the Vaal River.145 Once construction on the Vaal Power
Station started in early 1939, Escom’s contribution to the Vaalbank Dam increased to £124 875.
The extra contribution to the dam’s construction gave Escom the right to take 18.5 million gallons
141 Electricity Supply Commission, 1928 Annual Report,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1928%20Annual%20Report.pdf; Commission, 1929 Annual Report; Electricity Supply Commission, 1930 Annual Report, http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1930%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
142 "Rand Power: Problems Generated Some Notable Achievements," University of Cape Town Libraries Special Collections Manuscripts, BC697, A15.3.
143 Electricity Supply Commission, 1933 Annual Report, p. 5, http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1933%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
144 Electricity Supply Commission, 1935 Annual Report, p. 31, http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1935%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
145 Electricity Supply Commission, 1936 Annual Report, p. 33, http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1936%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
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(roughly 84.1 million litres) of water per day from the Vaal.146 The negotiations between the VFP
and Escom were yet again mediated by Charles Merz, much to the consternation of the VFP’s
Chairman, Arthur Hadley. 147 This was probably the last significant Escom project with which
Merz was directly involved – he and both of his children were killed in an air raid during the Blitz
in October 1940.148
In March 1939, while construction work was still in progress on the Klip Power Station,
work started on another new power station near Heilbron in the Orange Free State. This station,
which was designated the Vaal Generating Station Undertaking, was designed to have a capacity
of up to 400 000kW, and required cooling towers that could handle twice the hourly throughput of
the towers at the Klip station.149 The last two generating sets at the Klip Power Station were
synchronised to the grid and put into commercial service in January and July 1940.150 Construction
at the Vaal Power Station was slowed by wartime shortages after September 1939, especially since
the main turbines had been ordered from Sweden, but could not be exported to South Africa after
the outbreak of hostilities. However, the overall electricity requirements on the Rand decreased as
mining demands dropped, which gave the Commission some extra time in which to complete
construction.151
4. Integration into the System: Escom’s Purchase of the VFP in 1948
The co-operative agreements between Escom and the VFP had been tremendously
beneficial to both parties – Escom financed the construction of new power stations between the
146 Electricity Supply Commission, 1943 Annual Report, p. 12,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1943%20Annual%20Report.pdf. 147 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, p. 127. Hadley disliked Merz so much that even in correspondence
with Bernard Price, who had maintained a close relationship with Merz for several years, he referred to Merz as Escom’s “yard dog”.
148 "Charles H. Merz, D.Sc.," Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 87, no. 528 (December, 1940): p. 708.
149 Electricity Supply Commission, 1938 Annual Report, p. 45, http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1938%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
150 Electricity Supply Commission, 1940 Annual Report, p. 20, http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1940%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
151 Commission, 1943 Annual Report, p. 12; Commission, 1944 Annual Report, p. 47.
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early 1920s and the outbreak of World War II, while the VFP had been responsible for staffing
and operating these stations. This arrangement meant that the VFP did not need to accumulate the
substantial capital necessary for building the power stations, and the Commission did not need to
worry about the rapid expansion of trade unions and industrial strikes that were taking hold
amongst South African workers during the interwar period. It was easier for Escom to find
financing for new power stations because of its standing as a state institution, while also selling
power indirectly to the mining industry.152
However, as Nancy Clark has stated, Escom had been given a mandate to supply electricity
at low cost and in abundance. Lowering costs through economies of scale was difficult, if not
outright impossible, if the parastatal was functioning almost exclusively as “a wholesale
producer.”153 In 1947, the last full year in which the VFP was acting as an independent company,
Escom’s bulk sales for mining and municipal resale accounted for 85.1% of the total sales during
the year. Of these bulk sales, almost 88% was being sold to the VFP for resale to mining consumers
(see Table 1). The fact that the VFP was the sole bulk mining sales consumers is evident from the
1949 Escom Annual Report, which states that the bulk mining group of consumers was no longer
active after July 1, 1948.154 In essence, almost three quarters of the total electricity generated by
Escom was being sold to consumers at higher prices than if the same number of units had been
purchased directly from the parastatal. To shift Escom’s role from that of wholesaler to that of
retailer, the Commission needed to eliminate as many intermediaries as possible.155
152 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, pp. 114-15. 153 Clark, Manufacturing Apartheid, p. 84. 154 Electricity Supply Commission, 1949 Annual Report, p. 11,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1949%20Annual%20Report.pdf. 155 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, pp. 145-7; Clark, Manufacturing Apartheid, p. 84.
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Consumer Class Units Sold % of Total
Bulk Sales
Bulk Mining 3 819 269 018 74.7
Bulk Municipal 534 161 654 10.4
Bulk Sales Subtotal 4 353 430 672 85.1
Direct Sales
Traction 454 255 098 8.8
Direct Mining 70 105 747 1.3
Direct Industrial 196 178 295 3.8
Domestic and Street Lighting 40 504 912 0.7
Direct Sales Subtotal 761 044 052 14.6
Total 5 114 474 724 100
Table 1 - Electricity Sales to Classes of Consumer in 1947156
The Electricity Act of 1922 had given Escom the right to give notice of their intention to
expropriate the VFP in 1948, which would allow the parastatal to take ownership of the Company
in 1950. Hendrik van der Bijl, the President of the Chamber of Mines, and the Minister of
Economic Development decided instead to give notice of Eskom’s wishes to begin negotiations
with the VFP in February 1947. By beginning the negotiations earlier than the Electricity Act
allowed, Escom would be purchasing the VFP’s assets, not expropriating the Company outright.157
Van der Bijl had been preparing for the expected expropriation since the VFP and Escom
had been planning the construction of the Klip Power Station in 1937. As part of the final
156 Electricity Supply Commission, 1947 Annual Report, p. 17,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1947%20Annual%20Report.pdf. The figures given in the third column add up to 0.3% less than 100, because the individual amounts specified for each class of consumer have been rounded up or down for the sake of readability.
157 "Report of the Commission Upon the Establishment of an Electricity Undertaking: Acquisition of the Undertaking of the Victoria Falls and Transvaal Power Company Limited, and The Rand Mines Power Supply Company Limited," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), HEN 3387, ref. 508.
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agreement between the two organisations, the Klip station would be the last power station that the
Company would be allowed to operate until expropriation and the installed capacity at existing
stations had to remain at 1937 levels.158
There was a measure of uncertainty about whether Escom could expect to be able to
expropriate the VFP in 1945 or 1948, which was caused by the differences between the Transvaal
Power Act of 1910 and the Electricity Act of 1922. The Power Act granted the government
permission to expropriate privately owned generating stations and associated infrastructure thirty-
five years after the company’s licence had been issued. The Electricity Act of 1922 had changed
this time limit to thirty-eight years after the licence was granted, but also specified that the terms
governing any licences which had been granted under the previous law were to remain
unchanged.159
To work around this problem, a tripartite series of negotiations were undertaken with
representatives from the VFP, Escom, and the Gold Producers’ Committee (GPC) to establish the
conditions and amount for which Escom would purchase the VFP. After a protracted process of
discussions and compromises that lasted from 1945 until May 1948, the three parties concluded
that Escom would pay £14 500 000 for a complete buy-out of the VFP.160
This purchase added the power stations at Rosherville, Simmer Pan, Vereeniging, and
Brakpan to Escom’s generating system, which granted a cumulative total of 297 600 kW of
electrical generating capacity and 117 600 kW of compressed air capacity to the grid. There were
also 41 miles (65.9 km) of compressed air pipeline; 711 miles (1 144 km) of power and telephone
lines; 1 309 miles (2106.6 km) of transmission power lines; 18 distribution substations; and 918
transformers that were added to Escom’s total generating and transmission system (see Table 2 for
a comparison of the size of the national transmission network in 1947 and 1949).161
158 "H. J. van der Bijl to J. C. Smuts, November 24, 1944," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), HEN
3398, ref. 508. 159 "Expropriation of the Victora Falls and Transvaal Power Company, Ltd," National Archives of South Africa
(SAB), HEN 3387, ref. 508. 160 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, pp. 145-6. 161 Commission, 1947 Annual Report, p. 9.
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Perhaps more noteworthy than what the purchase of the VFP added to the rapidly growing
grid is what the purchase signified in political and economic terms. Buying out the assets of the
VFP gave Escom direct access to the vast consumer base of the gold mines in the Witwatersrand
and northern Orange Free State. This was important because it allowed Escom to begin reaching
its objective of supplying abundant power at low cost to all classes of consumers, and because it
meant that the large revenue from selling electricity to the mining houses was no longer going to
a foreign company.
Voltages 1947 1949
132kV — 255.05
88kV 957 2 156.82
66kV 0 115.46
40kV 140 576.57
33kV 458 493.19
20/21/22kV 257 475.47
10/11/12kV 372 758.82
2.0/2.2/3.3/6.6kV 523 —
6.6kV — 566.42
3.3kV — 81.14
2.0/2.1/2.2kV — 77.24
480/230V 457 —
525V — 127.52
380/220V — 640.51
Street Lights — 169.24
Totals 3 164 6 508.45
Table 2 - Comparison of Transmission Network Lines and Cables in Miles between 1947 and 1949162
162 Commission, 1947 Annual Report, p. 98; Commission, 1949 Annual Report, pp. 84-88.
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Tim Cross states that the purchase of the VFP in 1948 was the defining moment in which
Escom gained a true monopoly over electricity supply in South Africa. It certainly dramatically
increased the generating capacity of the parastatal, but Escom was still far from having “complete
control over the electricity industry”.163 In 1958, a decade after the sale, roughly 18 billion units
of power were sold throughout the Union, of which Escom had sold about 13½ billion units.164
Escom was definitely generating and selling the lion’s share of power in South Africa, but other
suppliers were still generating a quarter of the electricity sold each year.
163 Tim Cross, "The Afrikaner Takeover: Nationalist Politics and the Colonization of South Africa's Parastatals,
1948 to 1960," Institute of Commonwelth Studies' Collected Seminar Papers 48, (1994): p. 125. 164 Electricity Supply Commission, 1958 Annual Report, p. 67,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1958%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
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CHAPTER THREE – RAILWAYS, COOKING RANGES, AND RURAL SUPPLIES:
ELECTRICITY OUTSIDE OF MINING AND SECONDARY INDUSTRY
When Charles Merz presented the South African government with the 1920 Merz Report
on the potential for future electrification, he proposed that the development of local and regional
grids should develop alongside the electrification of local railways. The Merz Report
recommended that centralised control over the generation of electricity would allow for fewer,
more efficient power stations to supply electricity to more than one class of consumer
simultaneously. This would, in turn, allow the power stations and their consumers to take
advantage of the economies of scale that result from supplying goods and services to a large group
of customers. It would also provide opportunities for industry and rural consumers in areas outside
of the major metropolitan centres to be supplied with electricity, because the local distribution
lines could be linked to the nearby electrified railways.
Figures 4, 5, and 6 show the importance of railway electrification, especially in the earlier
phases of Escom’s national electrification plans. For the sake of clarity, any contribution less than
10% of the total is shown in the bar to the side of the pie chart. This makes is easier to see the
smaller consumer classes, such as domestic and streetlighting sales. The first aspect of these charts
that is noticeable is the dramatic differential in the relative sizes of the contributions by each
consumer class, especially between mining, industry, and domestic consumers before 1950.
However, this does not mean that domestic electricity usage was necessarily small during these
years, since a portion of the bulk sales was comprised of large purchases by municipalities, who
acted as intermediaries between Escom and the ratepayers. In Figure 6, the bulk category
exclusively contains municipal bulk purchases, which made up 17% of the electricity sales in 1950.
In 1930, the largest portion of sales went to bulk consumers, with the most significant bulk
consumers being the VFP and the municipality of Durban. These two consumers purchased almost
90% of the 701 285 627 units that Escom provided to bulk customers.165 Traction sales made up
165 Commission, 1930 Annual Report, p. 4.
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just over 14% of the total sales for 1930, more than direct sales to mining, industrial, municipal,
and residential consumers combined.
However, this relative proportion of traction sales in comparison to total sales did not
remain as high as these early values. As Figure 7 shows, the percentage that traction sales
contributed to Escom’s annual totals declined significantly after the mid-1940s. On this graph, the
yellow blocks represent the total number of units sold for railway traction each year, while the
black line is the percentage of traction sales relative to the annual total. Even though the number
of units sold each year increased steadily, the ratio of traction to total sales declined rapidly after
the middle of the century.
Figure 4 - Electricity Sales to Category of Consumer in 1930166
166 Commission, 1930 Annual Report.
Domestic and Lighting
Industrial and MiningRailway Traction
Bulk Supplies
Other
Electricity Sales by Category of Consumer, 1930
Domestic and Lighting Industrial and Mining Railway Traction Bulk Supplies
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Figure 5 - Electricity Sales to Category of Consumer in 1940167
Figure 6 - Electricity Sales to Category of Consumer in 1950168
167 Commission, 1940 Annual Report. 168 Electricity Supply Commission, 1950 Annual Report, p. 101,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1950%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
Domestic and Lighting
Mining Bulk
Municipal Bulk
Industrial Direct
Mining Direct
Railway Traction
Other
Electricity Sales by Category of Consumer, 1940
Domestic and Lighting Mining Bulk Municipal BulkIndustrial Direct Mining Direct Railway Traction
Domestic and Lighting
Industrial DirectMining Direct Railway Traction
Bulk Supplies
Other
Electricity Sales by Category of Consumer, 1950
Domestic and Lighting Industrial Direct Mining Direct Railway Traction Bulk Supplies
- 65 -
Figure 7 - Traction Consumer Sales, 1927-2000169
Periodic outbreaks of industrial unrest that had extended from the mid-1910s until the Rand
Revolt in 1922 meant that the South African Railways (SAR) were also eager to ensure that private
companies were excluded from railway electrification as much as possible, in order to prevent
higher charges for power and to have more control over the labourers who were working in the
power stations.170 General Manager of the SAR, William Hoy, was especially interested in taking
control of the power stations away from the municipalities, since the staff at municipal power
stations had proved more problematic during strikes and other industrial actions than their
counterparts at privately owned stations.171
Electrification of small sections of railways, especially along sections with steep gradients,
had already been investigated in 1902, 1904, and 1908, but technology and generating capacity
had to catch up to the point where these plans were feasible. Electric traction over these sections
169 Escom Annual and Statistical Reports, 1927-2000. 170 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, pp. 75-6. 171 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, p. 82; "Electricity Bill," National Archives of South Africa (SAB),
PM 1/2/56, ref. 15/6, pp. 1-2.
0
5
10
15
20
25
0
500 000 000
1 000 000 000
1 500 000 000
2 000 000 000
2 500 000 000
3 000 000 000
3 500 000 000
4 000 000 000
4 500 000 000
5 000 000 000
1927
1929
1931
1933
1935
1937
1939
1941
1943
1945
1947
1949
1951
1953
1955
1957
1959
1961
1963
1965
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
Traction Consumer Sales, 1927-2000
Traction (kWh) Traction (%)
- 66 -
was theoretically more powerful and cheaper than steam locomotives, although the purported
savings were on labour costs, not on the costs of running the trains.172 The SAR had already started
to implement their plans to electrify the railways between Durban and Volksrust after 1912, but
the outbreak of World War I in 1914 meant that the resources intended for this project had to be
diverted to wartime production.173
Electrification of the railways also presented the solution to the problem of transporting
coal from the mines to power stations for the furnaces and to the harbours for export. According
to Escom, coal represented the largest cost involved in generating electricity, thereby making
thermal efficiency and fuel transportation costs vital for the economical functioning of a power
station.174 The need to balance thermal efficiency and transportation costs was reflected in the
design decisions and operational requirements of Escom’s power stations. The coal found in the
Eastern Transvaal typically had a lower caloric value than would have been optimal for use in
power stations, since more fuel would have to be burned at the station to produce each unit of
electricity, thereby pushing transportation costs up.175
Escom solved this problem by constructing the power stations in the Rand Undertaking as
close to the mines as possible. For power stations that could not be constructed near to the coalface,
the coal was sorted according to caloric value, so that these stations would receive coal of sufficient
quality.176 The reality was that these stations, particularly in Natal and the Western Cape, did not
always receive the required amount or quality of coal that was required for generating power.
This chapter looks particularly at the early work on electrifying the Natal main line and the
railway lines surrounding Cape Town, since these were the first two lines to be electrified after
172 Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, pp. 46-47; Nancy Clark, "South African State
Corporations: 'The Death Knell of Economic Colonialism'?," Journal of Southern African Studies 14, no. 1 (October, 1987): p. 182n34.
173 Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, pp. 46-47. 174 "Electrification of Rural Towns and Farms, With Special Reference to the Proposed Sale of the Zwartkops
Power Station by the Electricity Supply Commission," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), HEN 3370, ref. 507/1/1, p. 2.
175 The caloric value of a fuel is the amount of energy produced when a fuel is burned in the presence of oxygen, James G. Speight, The Chemistry and Technology of Coal, 3rd ed. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2012), p. 49.
176 "Electrification of Rural Towns and Farms," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), HEN 3370, ref. 507/1/1, pp. 2-3.
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1922. A report on the proposed electrification of the country’s main railway lines was submitted
to Parliament by Merz and McLellan in June 1919, which suggested that the first lines to be
electrified should be centred on Cape Town, Witbank, and Glencoe Junction. From this report, the
SAR&H decided to electrify the Natal main line between Durban and Pietermaritzburg and the
suburban railway between Cape Town and Simonstown. The decision to electrify the Durban-
Pietermaritzburg section was changed to a scheme to use electricity on the Pietermaritzburg-
Glencoe line, since large amounts of coal were being transported along that section of the Natal
main line.177
1. The Cape Railways: Electrification in and around Cape Town
At roughly the same time that Escom and the VFP were negotiating the terms of the
Witbank licence application, the South African Railways and Harbours Administration (SAR)
approached Escom to discuss the construction of a new power station in Cape Town to assist with
electrifying railway lines in and around the city. The municipality seems to have initially resisted
attempts by the fledgling parastatal to build the new power station in the city, but this opposition
started to recede during a series of meetings between the Capetown Corporation and Charles Merz,
who was one of the official Consulting Engineers to both the city and Escom.
In his dealings with the city, Merz was of the opinion that the city council would reject any
plans for Escom to supply electricity to the local railway lines, since this would deprive the
municipality of the income that could potentially come from the SAR.178 It is also possible that
the municipality would resist any plans that Escom or the SAR would have suggested for the same
reasons that the Johannesburg municipality objected to the VFP’s and Escom’s proposals –
namely, that the town council wished to protect its existing contracts with its ratepayers. In either
case, Merz was the ideal person to arbitrate between the Cape Town municipality and Escom – the
177 "Report of the Railways and Harbours Board on the Electrification of the Capetown-Simonstown, Monument-
Sea Point and Monument-Table Bay Docks (Passenger Service) Lines," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), MNW 785, ref. MM1711/25, p. 2.
178 "Merz to Smuts, November 2, 1923," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), PM 1/2/56, ref. 15/6.
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report that he had submitted to the South African government in 1920 led to the drafting of the
Electricity Bill in 1921/1922 and had espoused the idea of railway electrification breaking the
ground for industrial, mining, and domestic consumption.
Hendrik van der Bijl, as Chairman of the Electricity Supply Commission agreed with the
idea that railway electrification should take priority over mining and industry, so much so that he
placed higher priority on concluding the negotiations with the Cape Town municipality than he
did on finalising agreements with the Rand’s municipal groups.179 The negotiations with Escom
and Merz meant that by April 1924, the Capetown Corporation had granted the parastatal
permission to build and operate a new power station on the Salt River, with the express purpose
of supplying power to the local railway lines. A year later, in April 1925, when the ECB granted
Escom the licence to operate the Salt River power station, the conditions specified that the station
would be allowed to supply all properties and railways within a radius of 110 miles, as well as any
customers within 5 miles of the electrified railways. This provision thereby allowed the Salt River
power station to supply consumers outside of Cape Town’s municipal borders.180
2. Railways in Natal: The SAR&H, Escom, and the Colenso Power Station
The SAR&H had started construction on the Colenso Power Station before the
establishment of Escom to electrify the main line running between the Rand and Durban. William
Hoy, as General Manager of the Railways Administration, was keen to electrify the country’s
railways, because he believed that the electrification of railway lines would encourage the
electrification of nearby towns and rural areas.181 The Natal main line was selected to be one of
the first main railway lines in the country to be electrified, because railway traffic in Natal was
179 Clark, Manufacturing Apartheid, p. 79. 180 Commission, 1924 Annual Report, pp. 22-27. 181 Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, pp. 76-77.
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exceeding the available capacity, and because electrification was believed to be the best available
option for upgrading the line.182
Once the Commission had been officially founded in 1923, Escom and the Railways
Administration decided that Escom should expropriate the station from the SAR&H, but only once
construction was complete and the station was in full commercial service. This decision was
reached at a meeting between the Minister of Mines and Harbours, representatives from Escom
and the Railway Board, the General Manager of the SAR&H, and Charles Merz in September
1923.183
Before the discussions about the terms under which the station would be handed over to
Escom had taken place, customers along the planned railway route were already requesting
electricity. Escom felt that these customers should be connected to the grid as soon as possible,
because several of the requests were from municipalities that had delayed the necessary upgrades
to their local grids while appealing to Escom and the Railways Administration for power. Escom
was also of the opinion that these customers should be supplied by the Commission from the outset,
stating that customers would not want to enter into initial contracts with one supplier and then have
to enter into new contracts at a later stage.184 The permit to supply these consumers was granted
by the ECB in June 1925, but it would take until March 1928 for the plant to reach the stage where
Escom could take over operations.185 Based on advice from the Consulting Engineers, Escom and
182 "Reports on the Electrification of the Pietermaritzburg-Glencoe Section of the Natal Main Line," National
Archives of South Africa (SAB), MNW 785, ref. MM1711/25.@1 183 Commission, 1923 Annual Report, p. 8; "Report of the Commission Upon the Supply of Electricity From the
Colenso Power Station (Natal)," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), MNW 785, ref. MM1711/25, pp. 3-4; "W. W. Hoy to Messrs. Merz and McLellan, October 11, 1924," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), SAS 19, ref. ELEC274/12; "Report of the Commission Upon the Acquisition of an Electricity Undertaking at Colenso (Natal)," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), MNW 785, ref. MM1711/25, p. 4.
184 "Report of the Commission Colenso," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), MNW 785, ref. MM1711/25, p. 4.
185 "Forty-First Meeting," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), MNW 634, ref. MM 2879/22, pp. 1-2; "Minutes of the Forty-Seventh Meeting of the Board," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), HEN 3370, ref. 507/1/1, p. 1.
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the SAR&H agreed that the Commission should not only take over plant operations, but that all
employees at the power station would be transferred to Escom at the same time.186
By the end of 1925, it was clear that the installed equipment along the section of rail
between Pietermaritzburg and Glencoe Junction was already being overwhelmed with the demand
imposed by railway traffic. The Pietermaritzburg-Glencoe section of the Natal main line had been
designed to handle a maximum of 30 000 tons of rail traffic per day along the southbound parts of
the line, and it was expected that traffic on that section of the railway line in 1926 would reach an
average of 27 000 tons per day.187 These figures were based on year-long estimates of average
railway usage, during which the expected traffic would remain relatively steady between January
and July, increase during the annual maize harvest season between August and November, and
then decrease back to pre-harvest levels for December.
From the estimates given by the SAR&H, it was likely that the average load would only
increase above the 30 000 tons per day mark in late 1928. However, the Administration also
cautioned that estimates of daily averages could be deceptive, because the load could increase
substantially above average during the course of a single day.188 Calculations by the Railways
Administration showed that these once-off increases in daily traffic during the peak season could
push the system past its limits as early as 1927.189
Merz and McLellan, as the Consulting Engineers working on the construction of the
Colenso Power Station, recommended that relatively minor alternations be made to the power
plant to meet the increased railway traffic. The alterations would include two extra boilers at the
power station, one extra substation along the section of railway line, and one transmission line to
186 "Merz and McLellan to William W. Hoy, January 27, 1924," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), SAS
19, ref. ELEC274/12; "A. C. McColm to W. W. Hoy, January 23, 1924," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), SAS 19, ref. ELEC274/12; "W. W. Hoy to A. C. McColm, February 27, 1924," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), SAS 19, ref. ELEC274/12.
187 "Merz and McLellan to General Manager South African Railways and Harbours, November 5, 1925," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), SAS 19, ref. ELEC170/1; "W. W. Hoy to Assistant General Manager, December 10, 1925," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), SAS 19, ref. ELEC170/1.
188 "J. R. More (Assistant General Manager) to W. W. Hoy, January 27, 1926," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), SAS 19, ref. ELEC170/1.
189 "J. R. More (Assistant General Manager) to Messrs. Merz and McLellan, May 12, 1926," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), SAS 19, ref. ELEC170/1.
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link the new substation to the transmission network that powered the Pietermaritzburg-Glencoe
line. This recommendation was based on lower estimates of average daily traffic, not on the higher
estimates that the SAR&H had given for the maximum expected daily traffic during peak season.
The Chief Mechanical Engineer suggested that the renovations suggested by Merz and McLellan
should proceed, but that the buildings at Colenso should be retrofitted to make space for extra
boilers that could then be added to the station after Escom had taken control of the station.190
Escom agreed with these proposals and decided to upgrade the power plant at Colenso.
Extra space was added for up to four new boilers in the boiler house; two new boilers were installed
to increase the station’s generating capacity; and the Willbrook substation between
Pietermaritzburg and Glencoe was upgraded to increase the capacity of the transmission
network.191
In June 1931, the Colenso Power Station, with Escom’s blessing, embarked on a scheme to
replace unskilled black workers with roughly half the number of white workers.192 With this plan,
Escom faced the problem that white labourers were typically expected to earn higher wages, but
the plan was ostensibly designed to ensure that operating costs at the power station did not increase
with the addition of extra white workers.193 The need to balance operational costs with higher
wages is, in all likelihood, the reason for Escom’s choice to employ fewer white workers in these
unskilled roles. From the outset, Escom stated that the experiment (and any similar labour policies)
would depend on the economic viability of white labour.194
For their part, some of the white workers objected to the types of jobs that they were
expected to perform, which required the plant’s managers to take “…strong disciplinary action”
190 "Messers. Merz and McLellan to General Manager, May 6, 1926," National Archives of South Africa (SAB),
SAS 19, ref. ELEC170/1; "F. R. Collins (Chief Mechanical Engineer) to General Manager, July 12, 1926," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), SAS 19, ref. ELEC170/1.
191 Commission, 1926 Annual Report, pp. 8-9. 192 "White Labour Policy: Colenso Power Station," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), TES 7996, ref.
F103/13. 193 "H. J. van der Bijl to A. P. J. Fourie, May 16, 1932," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), TES 7996,
ref. F103/13. 194 Commission, 1930 Annual Report, p. 15.
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by firing two workers who refused to do the work. The station’s manager was pleased to report
that this had seemed to change the remaining workers’ attitudes towards the nature of their jobs,
but also stated that he felt that the Commission should not replace all black labourers with white
counterparts, because the local climate in Natal “…during the summer may preclude white men
from doing work such as boiler cleaning, ash handling, etc.”195
3. The Cape Rural Supply System
Rural areas in the Cape Western Undertaking were supplied by the same power station at
Salt River that supplied electricity to the SAR&H. The Salt River Power Station had been built to
supply the SAR&H, as had been recommended by Charles Merz, but also included another design
that Merz had suggested during his discussions with the Capetown Corporation – Escom’s Salt
River power station and the Cape Town municipal station at Dock Road were to be interconnected
to share a common distribution network. Rather than the piecemeal system which existed on the
Rand, where conflict between Escom, the VFP, and municipalities slowed the process of
interconnection, the system in Cape Town allowed both power stations to supply their own
consumers, while also offering backup capacity during times of high demand at either station.196
This interlinked system would also provide Escom the benefit of taking on new consumers, even
while the Salt River station was under construction. Any power supplied by Escom before the
station was in commercial operation was purchased from the Dock Road power station and resold
to Escom’s consumers.
By the start of 1925, the demand for electricity in the areas surrounding Cape Town’s
municipal area of supply had risen sufficiently to allow Escom to begin investigating the
possibility of supplying electricity outside of the municipal borders. In order to receive supply of
195 "White Labour Policy," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), TES 7996, ref. F103/13, p. 2. 196 Commission, 1924 Annual Report, p. 25. Conradie and Messerschmidt state that the interconnection between
the two stations was only functional in 1934, see Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, pp. 87-88, however the link seems to have been established well before that date. Escom’s annual reports had stated that the interconnection had been in operation since at least 1929, see Commission, 1929 Annual Report, p. 29.
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electricity, these consumers had to agree to minimum monthly quotas, so that the scheme would
remain economically viable. A large percentage of the decisions that Escom made regarding
consumers outside of municipal areas were guided by a condition in the Electricity Act of 1922,
which stated that “…undertakings shall, as far as practicable, be carried on neither at a profit nor
at a loss.” The financial implications of having to continually break-even were further complicated
by the following section, which said that the finances of all undertakings had to be calculated
separately, thereby making it impossible to use the profit made by one undertaking to write off the
loss of another.197
The parastatal was given some leeway by the clause that said that the finances had to
balance “as far as practicable,” but in practice, the Commission was generally unwilling to take on
electrification schemes that could have caused a loss. Despite this, the risk that Escom took on the
Cape’s rural supply grid certainly paid off. In 1926, the first year that the Cape Rural Supply
Scheme sent power to industrial and municipal consumers, they sold 280 242 units; by 1928, the
rural consumers used 9 767 699 units annually; and demand in 1929 reached 11 231 658 units.198
The Cape Rural Supply Scheme benefitted from the higher population density in the areas
outside of Cape Town compared to similar regions in the Transvaal and Orange Free State. The
larger populations had larger demands for electricity, and the industrial consumers in the south-
western Cape were willing to use relatively large quantities of electricity. The region also had the
advantage that several smaller municipalities, such as Wellington and Somerset West were
applying to Escom for electricity but could not be supplied by the Capetown Corporation’s Dock
Road power station.
197 Government Gazette of 24 July, 1922, vol. 44, no. 1256, p. lxxiii. 198 Commission, 1929 Annual Report, p. 31.
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4. Requesting Rural Electricity Supply: The Boere-Lig-en-Krag (Ko-Operatief) Beperk and the Electricity Control Board
The Boere-Lig-en-Krag (Ko-Operatief) Beperk (BLK) approached Escom and the Pretoria
Municipality in July 1948 to request that either of the government bodies allow farmers and
households in the region of Brits, to the north-east of Pretoria, to interconnect with the regional
grid. The city of Pretoria and Escom had both given provisional approval to the scheme, on the
condition that the BLK was given official permission by the ECB.199 The BLK was not the only
organisation requesting a supply of electricity to a rural area after World War II, but their process
of applying for the rights to interconnect with the local Escom grid is better documented than most
applications of the time. The remaining surviving letters and documents in the South African
National Archives in Pretoria offer a look at the procedure that such organisations had to follow,
as well as allowing for an examination of the reasons why the Electricity Control Board chose to
reject or approve these requests.
In the period during and after World War II, Escom was increasingly constrained by
materials and labour shortages, while the demand for electricity amongst all categories of
consumers was increasing dramatically – the total installed capacity of all Escom’s power stations
had doubled during the decade immediately after the War’s end, while ongoing construction
projects were still adding extra capacity.200 Despite the fact that Escom had built seven new power
stations between 1945 and 1955, the parastatal was still having difficulty in keeping up with
demand.201 Aside from these difficulties, Escom also displayed an overall reticence to supply
electricity to “sub-economic” electrification schemes, which were plans that would not be able to
adhere to the principle of making neither profits nor losses on electricity sales.
199 "Minutes of the 198th Meeting of the Electricity Control Board," National Archives of South Africa (SAB),
HEN 3371, ref. 507/1/1, p. 6; "W. H. Milton to Electricity Control Board, July 5, 1948," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), ECB 4, ref. 24.
200 Electricity Supply Commission, 1955 Annual Report, pp. 7-10, http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1955%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
201 Electricity Supply Commission, 1954 Annual Report, p. 7, http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1954%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
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Mostly, the electrification of rural areas would involve lengthy transmission lines and
expensive transformers on farms and in towns to convert the high-voltage electricity into useable
current for mechanisation and domestic use. Escom was unwilling to subsidise these types of plans,
even when under political pressure from figures such as Jan Smuts.202 As such, the BLK had
assurances from the Pretoria Municipality that would include a loan of £100 000, in order to assist
the organisation in setting up a small grid around Brits. Agriculture in the area to the south of Brits
focused mainly on the growing of tobacco, which needed to be dried before the produce was
marketable. On farms without electricity, the drying of tobacco was performed using the heat
generated by burning coal, which the local farmers’ associations felt was “…injurious and
wasteful…” and that using so much coal for the drying process was “damaging to soul, mind and
body.”203
In the case of the rural areas around Brits and Rustenburg, electricity was being presented
as more than a technological change. Part of the argument was that the technological change from
heat generated via combustion to heat generated by electricity would make the work on these farms
less labour-intensive and more cost efficient, but there was also the implication that the working
environment itself would be profoundly more wholesome. Even though the “injurious and
wasteful” coal will still have to be burned at the power station to generate the electricity, it seems
that there is a connotative difference, at least for the farmers’ associations, between the rural and
urban environments.
The ECB reviewed the initial request from the BLK, and gave provisional approval for the
scheme, providing that the city of Pretoria, Escom, and the BLK gave further details on the costs
and statistics involved in establishing the scheme. Pretoria, however, was having difficulty in being
able to justify the £100 000 loan to the farmers, since the Provincial Ordinance of 1939 prevented
them from being able to use municipal funds for public works projects outside of their municipal
202 Clark, Manufacturing Apartheid, p. 158. 203 "Explanation of the Objects of the Proposed Boere-Lig-en-Krag (Ko-Op) Beperk," National Archives of
South Africa (SAB), ECB 4, ref. 24, p. 2.
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borders. When informed about the Pretoria Municipality’s resolution to help the BLK, the
Provincial Administrator had queried the legality of the loan, leading the city to request that an
amendment be made to the Provincial Ordinance that would allow the Town Council to provide
this loan.204
When the report on the proposed scheme was submitted to the ECB, the Board voiced
concern over the area of supply that the BLK intended to cover. The area demarcated by the
scheme’s planners was problematic because it was partially within the area of supply covered by
the Pretoria Municipal licence; partially within Escom’s licence for the Undertakings on the Rand,
and partially outside of any licenced area. The councillors in Pretoria had already told the Board
that they had no intent of supplying current directly to the consumers in the area, but instead would
willing to sell bulk power to any organisation which wanted to supply power to these rural
regions.205
On the other hand, Escom was opposed to the suggestion that a piece of the Rand Extension
Undertaking be ceded to another organisation but stated that the Commission would be willing to
allow the BLK to supply power within that small section of the Undertaking. The Board decided
to notify the farmers’ associations of Escom’s conditions that would allow for the local grid to be
built.206
At this point in May 1939, the BLK seems to have no further direct correspondence with
the ECB about the licence application. It is not certain whether they opted to request direct supply
as domestic consumers from the Pretoria Municipality, or whether they requested supply from
Escom through the Rand Extension Undertaking. It is possible that Escom would agree to supply
the farms in the Brits area, since the 1949 Annual Report mentions that the Rand Undertaking was
204 "Proposed Bulk Supply of Electricity and Loan to Boere-Lig-en-Krag (Ko-Operatief) Beperk," National
Archives of South Africa (SAB), ECB 4, ref. 24; "Borrowing Powers: £100, 000: For Loan to Boere-Lig-en-Krag (Ko-Operatief) Beperk," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), ECB 4, ref. 24.
205 "Minutes of the 200th Meeting of the Electricity Control Board," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), HEN 3371, ref. 507/1/1, pp. 3-4.
206 "Minutes of the 205th Meeting of the Board," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), HEN 3371, ref. 507/1/1, pp. 3-4.
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going to be extended in the direction of Rustenburg to offer supply to the South African Iron and
Steel Corporation (Iscor) in the vicinity of Thabazimbi.207
Not only do these microhistories, such as the story of the BLK, help to show more of the
otherwise hidden processes that were taking place behind the visible appearance of electricity
distribution networks, but they also show how the grid was taking shape. Each time that a
community was granted or denied access to Escom’s network, the area of supply would slightly
change shape. It is these small changes that turned the perfectly circular licenced areas in Escom’s
1929 map (Figure 1) into the amoebic blobs in the corresponding 1944 map (Figure 2).
5. Electricity and the Domestic Sphere: Appliance Hire-Purchase Plans and Advertising
The Johannesburg Municipality had been trying to encourage the use of domestic
appliances since 1911 by adjusting tariffs to lower the rates paid by residential consumers – which
the Star newspaper called “Good News For Housewives.” The problem with incentivising the use
of domestic electricity in this manner was that the wiring in most houses could not handle the extra
current required for cooking food. Early household connections had been designed and installed
to supply power for domestic illumination, and the concurrent use of appliances and lighting
fixtures would increase the amount of current flowing through the household wiring dramatically.
To avoid the potentially dangerous overloading of residential connections, people were advised to
keep all lighting fixtures turned off while domestic appliances, such as stoves and irons, were in
use. Residents were also required to inform the Electricity Department of the Municipality which
extra appliances they intended to use or face the penalty of having their electricity supply
disconnected.208
Rural electrification across the country after 1930 was hindered by the Great Depression,
World War II, and post-war shortages of materials and labour. During the Depression, the annual
207 Commission, 1949 Annual Report, p. 42. 208 "Cheaper Current: Cooking by Electricity," The Star, June 26, 1911.
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growth in demand slowed slightly, but electricity was less affected by the economic downturn than
other sectors in the economy. Escom attributed the continued increase in demand to the changing
social norms, as it seemed that South Africans in both urban and rural environments were starting
to see electricity as a key component of improving living conditions. This is attested to by the
continued success of Escom’s hire-purchase schemes for domestic appliances. The undertakings
at Witbank, Colenso, and Salt River had initiated a scheme whereby consumers who used power
from those stations could purchase cooking ranges, refrigerators, water heaters, and small
appliances209 on credit through Escom.
The sale of domestic appliances was important enough for Escom to dedicate a permanent
display of “approved appliances” in the Hall of Achievement at Escom House in central
Johannesburg. Customers interested in purchasing appliances would be able to browse through the
appliances that Escom had deemed good examples of domestic appliances, which the Commission
hoped would guide and promote the use of domestic electricity.210 A municipal counterpart to this
was opened by the Johannesburg Municipality on April 1, 1939.211
By-and-large, the Cape Undertaking sold the most appliances on an annual basis, with
cooking ranges being the most popular items on sale. Until December 31, 1940, the Cape
Undertaking had sold almost ten times more ranges than the Witbank Undertaking, but direct
comparisons between the two undertakings are difficult to make, because of the vast differences
in their consumer bases. In 1940, the power station in Witbank sold 1 593 028 units of generated
power directly to consumers for lighting and domestic purposes, which equated to approximately
one-tenth of one percent of the total power generated at the station. By comparison, the Salt River
Undertaking had sold 10 721 104 units to lighting and domestic consumers. 212
209 Escom did not specify which appliances were categorised as “miscellaneous small appliances,” although they
were distinguished from washing machines, refrigerators, water heaters, and cooking ranges. 210 Commission, 1936 Annual Report, p. 13. 211 "Electricity Showroom Opened," Rand Daily Mail, April 1, 1939. 212 Commission, 1940 Annual Report.
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Comparisons between the power stations are further complicated by the distinctions made
between different classes of consumers. For instance, Escom typically did not distinguish between
bulk purchases by companies like the VFP and those made by municipalities for domestic
purchases – bulk purchases were typically consolidated as a single category in the yearly statistics
before the late 1940s.
The hire-purchase schemes in larger urban areas were typically run by the individual
municipalities, rather than by the Escom-owned undertakings in the region, but the principles
behind these plans were the same. The split between Escom and the municipalities makes it
difficult to assess how rapidly electrical appliances transferred into the domestic sphere, since the
annual reports only gave the figures for appliances sold by Escom.
What can be ascertained is how social groups in Johannesburg related to the use of hire-
purchase schemes to sell domestic appliances, as per the discussion on relevant social groups in
Pinch and Bijker. 213 The municipality comprises the first group as the electricity suppliers, who
wanted to increase the demand for electricity by selling appliances to their consumers. The
suppliers did not want to increase demand for the sole purpose of increasing income but were also
interested in managing the load on their power stations by minimising the variations between peak
and average demand on the stations.
Demand would typically increase during the working day, then decrease as businesses and
industries closed during the night. By promoting the use of electricity in the home, especially
during the evening hours, the suppliers hoped to increase the demand on their power stations,
thereby negating at least some of the downturn in demand. Higher overall demand would also
make the power stations more efficient, since the stations would be burning extra fuel to meet the
increasing demand as the working day began again. The increase in the use of domestic appliances
did result in a commensurate increase in the consumption of electricity – by the middle of World
War II, increased demand and the lack of machinery for power station upgrades meant that The
213 Pinch and Bijker, "Social Construction of Facts and Artifacts," in Bijker, Hughes, and Pinch, Social
Construction of Technological Systems, pp. 22-28.
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Cape Times had to publish an article telling housewives how to tell which appliances in the kitchen
used the most electricity and how to conserve energy.214
The second group is made up of appliance retailers who were not part of the hire-purchase
plans, who objected to the financial terms of the agreements between the municipality and the hire-
purchase customers. The hire-purchase customers form the third group; from their correspondence
in the newspapers at the time, this group seems to have been mostly from lower income middle
class and working-class households in the city who wanted to take advantage of the financial
benefits of municipal hire-purchase plans.
The appliance retailers did not object to the principle of the hire-purchase scheme, since
the municipalities had initially started off by purchasing the appliances wholesale from the
retailers, which allowed the municipality to buy at reduced costs. The appliances were then resold
to consumers within the municipality at lower rates than if they had purchased the goods in smaller
quantities from the retailers. However, the friction between the retailers and Johannesburg
Municipality started to increase when retailers felt that their profits were being adversely affected
by the hire-purchase plan rules. Initially, customers would select appliances in the stores operated
by participating retailers; the retailers would sell these appliances to the municipality; the
municipality would then resell the goods to the customers at a specified rate. The new rules that
the municipality wanted to enforce from the middle of 1940 onwards stated that the municipality
would buy all goods wholesale, then resell the appliances to their customers with a 10% mark-up
that would cover administrative costs.215
The Johannesburg Chamber of Commerce told the Municipality that this would cause a
fundamental change in the relationship between the Municipality and the retailers, since they
would no longer be cooperating, but would be in competition with each other. The Chamber
believed that this would negatively affect businesses in the city, which would lead to reduced
214 "Anti-Waste in the Kitchen," Cape Times, February 3, 1942. 215 "Electrical Appliances: Council Scheme Opposed," The Star, December 19, 1940; "Municipal Trading," The
Star, December 20, 1940; "Opposition to City Instalment Scheme," Rand Daily Mail, December 20, 1940.
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income in the form of rates from businesses; and that the plan could potentially ruin long-running
businesses in the city. 216
A letter to the editor in the Star during December 1940 gave attention to one aspect of the
new hire-purchase agreements that had not been previously discussed – the issue of where the
Municipality got the money to cover their overheads on the hire-purchase plans. The writer noted
that businesses in Johannesburg needed to apply a 45% mark-up on electrical goods to cover their
running costs, whereas the Municipality would only be applying a 10% mark-up on goods
purchased through hire-purchase. This implied, stated the letter’s author, that the Municipality
would be required to make up for this rather large 35% difference in pricing by using revenue
accrued from other ratepayers. 217“Ratepayer” also asked why the Municipality was so intent on
providing easier access to specific types of commodities.218 The Municipality had based their
counter-argument to the Chamber of Commerce and the retailers on opposition to the prices of
imported goods in the city’s shops.219
In socio-economic terms, this represents a continuation of the municipal socialism evident
in the fight for the “right to supply” that the Johannesburg Municipality had been engaged in with
Escom and the VFP since the turn of the century. In this case, the dispute was not over who would
be providing the electricity, but who would be providing the means for the consumers to use the
electricity. The Municipality had already gained the right to supply their ratepayers, despite their
apparent inability to keep up with demand over time; the electrical retailers believed that the city
wanted to take control of the domestic appliance market in 1940.220
216 "Electrical Appliances: Council Scheme Opposed," The Star, December 19, 1940. 217 Ratepayer [pseud.], "Municipal Trading: Robbing Peter to Pay Paul," The Star, December 31, 1940. 218 Ratepayer [pseud.], "Municipal Trading: Robbing Peter to Pay Paul," The Star, December 31, 1940. 219 "Municipal Trading," The Star, December 20, 1940; Interested [pseud.], "Electrical Appliances," The Star,
December 23, 1940; Working Man [pseud.], "Council's Hire-Purchase Scheme," The Star, December 23, 1940; Householder [pseud.], "City Trading: Domestic Electrical Appliances," The Star, December 24, 1940; Suspicious [pseud.], "Electrical Appliances," The Star, December 27, 1940.
220 "Municipal Trading," The Star, December 20, 1940; "Opposition to City Instalment Scheme," Rand Daily Mail, December 20, 1940; Veritas [pseud.], "Threat to Commerce: Council's Trading Scheme," The Star, December 28, 1940.
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The use of electricity for lighting and cooking was advertised through the cooking
demonstrations that Escom and the municipalities held in their appliance showrooms, and through
public spectacles in large urban centres. Renfrew Christie mentions that labour recruiters for
Kimberley’s diamond mines in the early 1880s found that the installation of streetlights drew
people in from rural areas, thereby making the recruitment of black labourers easier. When Durban
held celebrations for Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee in June 1897, the newly installed
streetlights were turned on for the first time as part of the festivities.221 The “Tower of Light,”
which still stands on the Western Campus of Wits University, was built through the co-operative
efforts of Escom, the VFP, and the Pretoria Portland Cement Company for the Empire Exhibition
of 1936 in Johannesburg.222
The provision of electricity to residential consumers highlights one of the obvious
discrepancies in both the eras of segregation and apartheid, namely the uneven distribution of
services amongst the country’s various racial groups. Provision of residential connections to all
consumers would have meant greater overall loads and faster growth in the residential sector.
However, the fastidious commitment to separate development kept municipal and governmental
services outside of the areas that were designed as “non-European” for far longer than even the
nominally working class white areas. The expansion of the grid into the townships, especially after
the end of the 1980s is seen clearly in Figure 8, which shows the relationship between the total
sales in domestic sales and the relative percentage that these sales contributed to the overall annual
total. Unlike Figure 7, which shows a decline in the contribution of traction sales each year, the
domestic and streetlighting sales begins to increase rapidly and fairly consistently after 1990. This
coincides with the beginning of Eskom’s first serious efforts to grant electricity supply to black
residential consumers.
221 Vivian Bickford-Smith, The Emergence of the South African Metropolis: Cities and Identities in the
Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), p. 70. 222 Commission, 1936 Annual Report, p. 11; Jennifer Robinson, "Johannesburg's 1936 Empire Exhibition:
Interaction, Segregation and Modernity in a South African City," Journal of Southern African Studies 29, no. 3 (September, 2003): pp. 770-2.
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The sales of electricity to domestic consumers constituted a relatively small, but vital, part
of the growth of the National Grid. Between 1948 and 1994, electricity was an important signifier
of racialised social status within the apartheid system. At the period of transition during the early
1990s, the expansion of electricity grids for domestic use into the townships and black rural
households hinted at the shifts that were occurring in governance at the national level. Electrical
lighting and appliances underwent a change from being signifiers of the inequalities in society to
being signifiers of the level and pace of change. The provision of electricity to households has
somewhat normalised electricity, so that it has become a key part of the list of services that the
national and municipal governments are expected to provide to all South African citizens, on a par
with running water and healthcare.
Figure 8 – Domestic and Streetlighting Sales, 1927-2000223
223 Escom Annual and Statistical Reports, 1927-2000
0
0.5
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1.5
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2.5
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7 000 000 000
1927
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1941
1943
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1969
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1981
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1985
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1989
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1999
Domestic and Streetlighting Sales, 1927-2000
Domestic and Lighting (kWh) Domestic and Lighting (%)
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CHAPTER FOUR – “RESOURCE CONSTRAINTS AND THE NATIONAL INTEREST”:
NUCLEAR POWER, BANTUSTANS, TOWNSHIPS, AND LINKING THE NATIONAL
GRID, 1960 – 2000
This final chapter is intended to cover the final forty years of the twentieth century, during
which the Electricity Supply Commission took the final steps to completing the National Grid.
The early 1960s make an ideal starting point for examining the last phase in the process of
nationalising the country’s electricity supply. Increasing local and international opposition to
apartheid placed the South African government under increasing pressure to change the country’s
political system, pressure from which state-owned organisations were not immune. Not for the
first time, electricity infrastructure in South Africa was subject to sabotage attempts at various
points between the 1960s and the early 1980s.
At the start of the decade, the six large regional areas of supply covered by Escom’s grid
were not fully interconnected, especially in the country’s interior. Each of these large areas of
supply consisted of a regional grid, known as an Undertaking, which pooled the power supply
from Escom’s power stations in that region. There were particularly large gaps between the
Undertakings in the southern part of the Orange Free State and northern Cape provinces, and urban
areas such as Bloemfontein and Port Elizabeth were not yet linked into the National Grid. Instead,
these cities still relied entirely on the supply from municipal power stations.
The beginning of the 1960s also marks the period when Escom began to investigate the
feasibility of nuclear energy for electricity generation. The Atomic Energy Board (AEB) had been
established in 1948 with the passing of the Atomic Energy Act (Act 35 of 1948) and was given
similar mandates to those handed to Escom and the Electricity Control Board in the Electricity Act
of 1922. The powers granted to the AEB, however, were shaped by the nuclear nature of the
board’s work. The AEB was charged with overseeing the mining, extraction, processing, sales,
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and use of nuclear materials in South Africa, as well as being granted the legal rights to supervise,
approve, or restrict patent applications in the field of nuclear technology.224
During the second half of the century, the political shifts in the country also required Escom
to start planning to extend electricity supplies outside of the exclusively white urban areas. A report
from 1961 states that in Natal,
“In so far as the consumption of electricity is concerned, Europeans are the
only significant consumers, although within the last ten years increasing
number [sic] of Indians and Coloureds within the Durban Borough have
become consumers. Native consumption for domestic purposes is virtually nil,
only one small township at Chesterville with 1, 200 houses, plus a small
number in Lamontville having been connected to the system.”225
The same report also mentions that the plans for electrification in the townships around
Johannesburg was expected to cost £2 500 000 over the next years, and the report notes, with a
curious hint of optimism that the forced removals in areas such as Sophiatown would result in
“greatly increasing loading in an extensive area, hitherto electrically undeveloped.”226 These plans
for extending the grid outside of white-owned residential areas seem to have not been implemented
for some time, since newspaper articles in the mid-1970s still reported that Soweto residents were
trying to secure government approval and finances to establish the grid.
A large part of this chapter covers the nuclear aspect of the National Grid. It would be
impossible to entirely extricate any writing about the Koeberg Nuclear Power Plant from the
political or environmental aspects of the larger anti-/pro-nuclear debate. Likewise, there is a
duality inherent in any discussion of nuclear power that links the ostensibly peaceful use of
radiation for electricity generation or medicine to images of mushroom clouds over cities. These
224 Government Gazette of 9 September, 1948, vol. CLIII, no. 4022, pp. vi-xxxi. 225 Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the Application of Nuclear Power in South Africa, p. 8. 226 Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the Application of Nuclear Power in South Africa, p. 12.
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environmental, political, and military uses of nuclear energy are co-joined to the generation of
electricity, but the discussion of Koeberg as a part of the National Grid is still somewhat lacking.
The existing published work on nuclear energy in South Africa focuses almost exclusively on the
South African bomb project, uranium enrichment, the Vela incident, speculation on the
international origins of South Africa’s nuclear technology, and safety issues in nuclear power
plants.227 Instead, this chapter is intended to present the Koeberg Nuclear Power Plant as a
significant, although controversial, addition to the more mundane process of electrifying South
Africa.
1. Completing the Interconnections: Connecting the National Grid
At the start of the 1960s, Escom still had not established the full set of interconnections that
would create the National Grid. The six Undertakings, mostly clustered around the northern half
of the country, were not fully capable of sharing power. The Cape Western Undertaking, which
had been the basis for the formation of the Cape Rural Supply System, was particularly worrisome
for Escom. Haulage on coal accounted for large differences in the running costs at Escom’s power
227 David Albright, "South Africa Comes Clean," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 49, no. 4 (May, 1993): pp. 3-5;
David Albright and Corey Gay, "A Flash from the Past," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 53, no. 6 (November/December, 1997): pp. 15-17; Edwards and Hecht, "History and the Technopolitics of Identity," pp. 619-39; David Fig, Uranium Road: Questioning South Africa's Nuclear Direction (Johannesburg: Jacana, 2005); Fig, "Price Too High," in McDonald, Electric Capitalism, pp. 180-201; Verne Harris, Sello Hatang and Peter Liberman, "Unveiling South Africa's Nuclear Past," Journal of Southern African Studies 30, no. 3 (September, 2004): pp. 457-75; Gabrielle Hecht, "Negotiating Global Nuclearities: Apartheid, Decolonization, and the Cold War in the Making of the IAEA," Osiris 21, no. 1 (2006): pp. 25-48; Gabrielle Hecht, Being Nuclear: Africans and the Global Uranium Trade (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2012); Zondi Masiza, "A Chronology of South Africa's Nuclear Program," Nonproliferation Review 1, no. 1 (Fall, 1993): pp. 34-53; Jeffrey T. Richelson, Spying on the Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007); Anna-Mart van Wyk, "South Africa's Nuclear Programme and the Cold War," History Compass 8, no. 7 (2010): pp. 562-72; Anna-Mart van Wyk, "Apartheid's Atomic Bomb: Cold War Perspectives," South African Historical Journal 62, no. 1 (2010): pp. 100-120; Jo-Ansie van Wyk and Anna-Mart van Wyk, "From the Nuclear Laager to the Non-Proliferation Club: South Africa and the NPT," South African Historical Journal 67, no. 1 (2015): pp. 32-46; Jo-Ansie van Wyk, "Nuclear Terrorism in Africa: The ANC's Operation Mac and the Attack on the Koeberg Nuclear Power Station in Africa," Historia 60, no. 2 (November, 2015): pp. 51-67; Martha van Wyk, "Sunset over Atomic Apartheid: United States-South African Nuclear Relations, 1981-93," Cold War History 10, no. 1 (February, 2010): pp. 51-79; Martha S. van Wyk, "Ally or Critic?: The United States' Response to South African Nuclear Development, 1949-1980," Cold War History 7, no. 2 (May, 2007): pp. 195-225.
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stations – in 1960, a short ton (2 000 lbs., roughly 907 kilograms) of coal cost 10s. 7d. at Witbank,
while Salt River in Cape Town was paying 48s. 4d. for the same quantity of fuel.228
The Coalbrook Colliery shaft collapse in 1960 had also sent a stark reminder to the
parastatal of how vital a consistent supply of coal was for the running of the power stations. In
accordance with the existing policy of constructing power stations on or near to coalfields, the
Taaibos and Highveld stations had been built near to Sasolburg in the Orange Free State to make
use of the nearby coalfields. On January 21, 1960, a shaft collapse at the Coalbrook North Colliery
killed 437 miners and cut off all supplies of coal to the Taaibos Power Station.229 Operations at
the South Colliery, which provided coal for the Highveld Power Station, were able to continue,
but the North Colliery was closed until late February 1960. Escom had to start diverting the load
on the Taaibos station to as many other stations as possible, while also making arrangements for
emergency supplies of suitable coal.
The Coalbrook collapse resulted in the re-examination of working conditions in coalmines
throughout the southern and eastern Transvaal areas. The investigation into mine safety led to the
temporary closure of the Vierfontein Colliery’s East Shaft and both collieries at Coalbrook. The
Taaibos and Highveld stations were only able to resume normal operations after April 1960.230
Coal prices at the Highveld and Vierfontein stations were almost unaffected by the interruptions
in coal mining during 1960, but the average price per pound of coal at Taaibos was double that of
1959.231
This increase can be attributed to the way that organisational, technological, and design
choices were made at Escom in the years leading up to the Coalbrook disaster. The power stations
in the Transvaal and Orange Free State were typically placed as closely as possible to the
228 Electricity Supply Commission, 1960 Annual Report, p. 10,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1960%20Annual%20Report.pdf. 229 This disaster also helps to highlight the racial disparity in the subterranean workforce during this period. Of
the 437 miners who were killed in the collapse, only 6 of the casualties were white, Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, p. 121.
230 Electricity Supply Commission, 1959 Annual Report, p. 9, http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1959%20Annual%20Report.pdf; Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, pp. 163-4.
231 Commission, 1960 Annual Report, p. 66.
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coalmines that were contracted to supply fuel. Such stations were also designed to work most
efficiently with the specific grade and type of coal that would be supplied by the contracted mines,
which made it extremely difficult to haul coal in from other areas when the fuel supply was
interrupted.
Some of the features of the tragic mine collapse were beyond Escom’s control, such as the
geological features of the northern Orange Free State that made the coal so easily available, while
other factors were entirely within the organisation’s control, such as power station design. It is the
way in which these environmental and organisational factors overlapped and interacted with each
other that created a unique problem for Escom. If, for instance, the power stations had been capable
of burning a wider variety of coal types, it would not have been as difficult to find suitable
replacement fuel for the stations. After the Coalbrook mining disaster, Escom started to design
newer power stations to be more impervious to similar environmental factors, and especially to
make the plants harder to sabotage.232
The shortfall in power output during the crisis at Coalbrook was somewhat ameliorated by
the interconnections that were already in place throughout the Transvaal and Orange Free State.
The output at other stations in the two provinces could be increased to compensate for the decline
in production at the Taaibos and Highveld stations. Escom had already started the process of
interconnecting stations within the various undertakings and between undertakings before 1960.
In October 1954, the Commission applied to the ECB for permission to interconnect the Eastern
Transvaal Undertaking (the licenced area that was supplied by the Witbank Power Station) with
the Rand and Orange Free State Undertaking (comprised of Brakpan, Klip, Rosherville,
Simmerpan, Vaal, Taaibos, Wilge, Vereeniging, and Vierfontein Power Stations).233
Escom had also applied during 1954 to make changes to the licences for the Cape Northern
Undertaking, which supplied the area around Kimberly, and the two licences for the stations
232 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, p. 164. 233 Commission, 1954 Annual Report, pp. 10-11.
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operating in Natal. The Colenso and Congella stations in Natal would cooperate in meeting the
combined demand for Natal, which Escom estimated would save more than £4 million in
equipment upgrades for the two stations between 1954 and 1959. For the Cape Northern
Undertaking, Escom was operating the power plant in Kimberley that had originally been owned
by De Beers, but the old power station was struggling to keep up with load demand in the northern
region of the Cape Province. Instead of upgrading at Kimberley to supply an increasing but
relatively small load, Escom decided that extra generator sets would be added to some of the power
stations in the Rand and Orange Free State Undertaking so that an interconnection could be
established between the two areas.234
In general, Escom had been finding the increase in demand after the late 1940s difficult to
match. Despite having enough installed capacity, the Cape Northern Undertaking was also
struggling in the years preceding 1954 to supply enough power to consumers in the area because
of chronic water shortages. The stations in the Cape Western and Natal Central Undertakings had
been experiencing problems throughout the early 1950s with ensuring adequate coal supplies,
sometimes having less than a day’s worth of coal in stock at the stations. Even when there was
enough coal to burn, the power stations in Cape Town had difficulty with the quality of the coal
that was being supplied. In the 1951 Annual Report, Escom noted that the Cape Western
Undertaking had to implement a ration system, “whereby consumers in certain sections of the
Commission’s and the City Council’s areas were in rotation liable to disconnection at times which
were notified in advance.”235
Power stations in the Transvaal and the Orange Free State needed help from the local
municipalities in meeting demand, and customers in the Transvaal had to start using the available
load more carefully. Even the often fiercely independent Johannesburg Municipality was willing
to interconnect the city’s power grid to Escom’s regional grid so that the two systems would be
234 Commission, 1954 Annual Report, pp. 10-11. 235 Electricity Supply Commission, 1951 Annual Report, p. 8,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1951%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
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able to support each other during peak hours. This interconnection worked well because the two
systems had their respective peak demand during different times of the day – Escom’s load was
greatest in the late morning and early afternoon, while the city’s power stations experienced
increased demand during the evenings.236
These interconnections then grew in the early and mid-1960s into a high voltage
transmission system that would use a network of lines carrying power at 275kV and 400kV
between the Cape Northern, Rand and Orange Free State, and Eastern Transvaal Undertakings.
Another high voltage line would transmit power at 275kV between the Ingagane Power Station in
Natal, which was due be competed in 1963, and the Georgedale distribution network.237 By 1996,
Escom felt confident enough in the development of the technology used in transmission networks
to begin discussions with other governments in southern Africa to interconnect grids beyond South
Africa’s borders. This included talks with the Portuguese colonial government in Mozambique
about cooperating on the Cahora-Bassa project; to sign a supply agreement with Lesotho; and to
begin investigating the possibility of building at least two new power stations South-West Africa.
As administrators over South-West Africa, South Africa would work in conjunction with the
Industrial Development Corporation (IDC) and Suid-Wes Afrika Water en Elektrisiteitskorporasie
(SWAWEK).238
The first tangible appearance of the fully interconnected National Grid appeared in October
1969, when the interconnection between the Eastern Transvaal and Cape Western Undertakings
went into service. At the same time, Escom had finalised cooperative contracts for the construction
of Cahora-Bassa and was contemplating an agreement with Swaziland to collaborate on a new
power station near to recently discovered coalfields in Swaziland.239
236 Commission, 1950 Annual Report, pp. 45-47. 237 Electricity Supply Commission, 1962 Annual Report, p. 14,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1962%20Annual%20Report.pdf. 238 Electricity Supply Commission, 1967 Annual Report, p. 12; Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of
Power, p. 139. 239 Electricity Supply Commission, 1969 Annual Report, p. 8.
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These interconnections were key parts of the foundation of the National Grid, but one of
the largest steps in facilitating the national connections between power stations was the formation
of the Central Generating Undertaking (CGU). The CGU was founded on January 1, 1972 after
the Electricity Amendment Act 60 of 1971 altered the relationships between the Undertakings.
This turned all the former Undertakings, which had been tasked with the generation and
distribution of electricity, into Distribution Undertakings and placed the control of the power
stations solely under the CGU.240
This effectively centralised control over the individual power stations, thereby creating a
shift in the role of each power station. No longer were stations important only in relation to their
own Undertaking, but their output was integrated with all other Eskom-operated stations in the
country. This meant that some of the less cost-efficient power stations would only be used during
peak hours, thereby lowing total running costs. The creation and running of the CGU also created
a fundamental shift in the economy of scale that Escom could leverage – the same logic that led to
the interconnection of power stations within an Undertaking led to the interconnection of power
stations across the country.241
It was this centralisation and the extent of control that was granted to the CGU that limited
its lifespan to six years. By 1978, the CGU had started to become increasingly unpopular amongst
Eskom management and within the distribution Undertakings, largely due to perceived managerial
and operational overreach. In September 1978, Escom reverted back to operating via Undertakings
that controlled their own generation and distribution, but transferred managerial control to Escom
head office.242
240 Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, p. 142. 241 Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, pp. 142-3. 242 Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, pp. 230-31.
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2. “Thousands of Experts”: Escom’s Nuclear Power Projects, 1960 – 1990
South Africa was pulled into the international nuclear community by a request from the
Allied Powers during World War II, when the British government asked Jan Smuts to begin
research on the availability of uranium ore in the country.243 In 1947, Smuts followed up with a
post-war project to get gold mines to assist in the process of adding uranium processing facilities
to the existing gold extraction systems.244 Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the AEB was also
involved in establishing international networks for civilian nuclear research and signed agreements
with the United States and the United Kingdom, which included the eventual installation of the
South African Fundamental Atomic Research Installation (SAFARI-1) reactor in 1965.245
By the time that research was beginning to get underway at the SAFARI-1 reactor, the
South African government had already commissioned two reports on the future of nuclear energy
for electricity generation. In both cases, the reports reached the same conclusion – the country
could invest in at least one nuclear power station in the future, but any plans should be held off
until nuclear energy could compete economically with traditional coal-fired power stations. The
earlier of the two reports served as more of a preliminary study into the feasibility of nuclear power
stations and nuclear energy research. As such, it offered fewer recommendations on potential
technological and economic choices that would have to be made in the process of building a
nuclear power station.246
In researching the 1968 report, the AEB considered four of Escom’s undertakings as
potential sites for a nuclear power station. By the late 1960s, each undertaking did not consist of a
single power station, as was the case shortly after the signing of the 1922 Electricity Act. Instead,
an undertaking was comprised of several power stations that supplied a common area. For
243 Masiza, "Chronology of South Africa's Nuclear Program," p. 36. 244 A. R. Newby-Fraser, Chain Reaction: Twenty Years of Nuclear Research and Development in South Africa
(Pretoria: The Atomic Energy Board, 1979), p. 24. 245 Masiza, "Chronology of South Africa's Nuclear Program," p. 36; Newby-Fraser, Chain Reaction, pp. 8,10-11. 246 Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the Application of Nuclear Power in South Africa (Pretoria: The
Government Printer, c. 1961); Atomic Energy Board, Report on the Investigation into the Possible Introduction of Nuclear Power in the Republic of South Africa (1968).
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statistical and accounting purposes, the output and income for the stations within an undertaking
were combined. As their borders expanded, these undertakings would become the building blocks
of the expanding National Grid.
For their 1968 report, the AEB examined the Rand and Orange Free State; Eastern
Transvaal; Natal; and Cape Western Undertakings. The two inland undertakings were discounted
fairly soon, as the costs of coal in the Transvaal and northern Orange Free State were low enough
to make nuclear power uneconomical. The Natal and Cape provinces were also favoured as
possible sites for nuclear power stations, largely because of the easy availability of seawater for
cooling purposes.
All nuclear power reactors use the same basic physical processes to generate electricity; a
controlled nuclear chain reaction generates heat, this heat is used to boil water, and the resulting
steam powers the turbines that generate the electricity. The differences in between reactor designs
are mostly determined by factors such as the type of fuel used, or which materials are used to
moderate the nuclear fission reaction. In terms of technological choices, the AEB made the
recommendation to use relatively small reactors of the CANada Deuterium Uranium (CANDU)
design.
CANDU reactors use bundles of fuel rods that are placed inside tubes that run through a
pressure vessel known as a calandria, and use heavy water as a moderator to control the nuclear
reaction.247 The investigators also researched the British Magnox and the more commonly used
Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR) types, but concluded that the CANDU design was more suitable
for South African purposes because the uranium fuel used in the Canadian designs did not need to
be enriched.248
The use of natural, or unenriched, uranium would have presented two advantages for the
South African government at the time the report was published. Enrichment processes are typically
247 "Nuclear Power Reactor Characteristics," World Nuclear Association, last modified May 2017,
http://www.world-nuclear.org/getmedia/80f869be-32c8-46e7-802d-eb4452939ec5/Pocket-Guide-Reactors.pdf.aspx. 248 Board, Report on the Investigation into the Possible Introduction of Nuclear Power in the Republic of South
Africa, p. 50.
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extremely costly, in terms of financial investments, the amount of time required to produce fuel
that is sufficiently enriched to support a chain reaction, and the amount of available electricity that
can be used to run the enrichment facility. Secondly, as Escom and the AEB discovered during the
construction of the plant at Koeberg, relying on foreign sources of enriched fuel can present
economic and political challenges that restrict the availability of the fuel.
When the time arrived for Escom to make the decision to proceed with a nuclear
construction project, the parastatal opted to build the station in the Western Cape. The site for the
Koeberg Nuclear Power Plant was approximately thirty kilometres outside of Cape Town, in order
to act as a baseload generating station for the city. The rationale for placing the station relatively
close to a major urban settlement was that the Duynefontein area is relatively geologically inactive;
the station would have easy access to the National Grid from that location; the seawater from the
Atlantic was well-suited to provide water for the cooling systems; and the nearest coal-fired power
station was roughly 1 500 kilometres away from the city. 249
Escom sent out a request for tender applications for the nuclear power station construction
project during February 1974. The original project schedule called for any successful tender
applications to be ready for addition to the grid in September 1982. The initial applications were
reviewed by Escom in October 1974, and three applications were selected for further
investigation.250 The three tender applications were submitted by groups of engineering and
construction firms that represented international and local interests. None of the three applications
proposed to use the CANDU reactor design that the AEB had recommended in 1968; two of the
proposals advocated using a PWR design, while one recommended a Boiling Water Reactor
(BWR) design.251
249 "Nuclear Energy: Koeberg Power Station," Eskom, accessed July 7, 2015,
http://www.eskom.co.za/AboutElectricity/FactsFigures/Documents/Nuclear.pdf. 250 Electricity Supply Commission, 1974 Annual Report, p. 10,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1974%20Annual%20Report.pdf. 251 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, pp. 194-97; Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, pp.
204-5.
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The PWR and BWR designs both use light water to generate steam and to moderate the
reaction in the core and, unlike the CANDU designs, both require enriched uranium as fuel. The
key difference between the two design concepts is that the BWR design has only a single system
to circulate the water for both the coolant and turbine systems, while a PWR design uses two
separate systems. In a BWR, the water around the core turns into steam, which is pumped directly
into the turbines, cooled back into liquid water, and sent back to the core. In a PWR design, water
is circulated through a primary loop, which moves heated water from the reactor core into a steam
generator to transfer the heat into pipes that comprise part of the secondary loop. The primary loop
then carries water back to the reactor core to be reheated. The water in the secondary loop is turned
into steam and pumped to the turbines.252
A suitable analogy for the two systems would be like cooking food in a pot of boiling water.
The BWR system would be akin to placing potatoes directly into the boiling water – there is direct
contact between the coolant from the core and the generator turbines. A PWR system would be
more like sealing the potato in a plastic bag before putting it into the pot – heat is transferred from
the water to the potato, but the potato and the water are never directly in contact.
The eventual decision, announced officially in May 1976, was to tender the contract for the
nuclear power station to the French-led consortium of Framatome, Alsthom, Spie-Batigonolles,
and Framateg, who were contracted to construct two 1 000MW PWR reactors at Koeberg. There
was some initial confusion over whether the contract had been granted to the United States or
France, since the American tenderers, headed by General Electric Technical Services Co, stated
that they had been informed in April 1976 that they would be given the construction contracts.253
The final contracts were signed between the South African and French interests on August 5, 1976,
and an agreement between the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), South Africa, and
France was entered into on January 5, 1977. This agreement established safeguards and inspections
252 "Nuclear Power Reactor Characteristics," http://www.world-nuclear.org/getmedia/80f869be-32c8-46e7-802d-
eb4452939ec5/Pocket-Guide-Reactors.pdf.aspx. 253 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, p. 196.
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protocols so that the IAEA would have regulatory jurisdiction over the Koeberg Nuclear Power
Plant.254
The apartheid state placed particular importance on the advancement of technology to
create a modern state, even if the idea of continued institutionalised racism is discordant with the
ideas behind modernity.255 This distinctly South African form of “technopolitics” can be seen in
the construction of the Koeberg power plant. Firstly, the use of nuclear technology has a long
history of being heavily politicised, even if the legal and diplomatic bodies charged with
overseeing the use of such technology are ostensibly apolitical. Secondly, the very term “nuclear”
is associated with specific connotations in the minds of diplomats, politicians, scientists, and
laymen alike. Over time, these connotations have created a sort of nuclear exceptionalism that is
transferred across into any discussion on the use of nuclear power. Associated with this nuclear
exceptionalism is the idea that there is not necessarily a clear-cut line between what constitutes
“nuclear” technology, or even where to draw the line between “dangerous” and “safe” uses of this
technology.256
These concepts of modernity, nuclear technology, and nuclear exceptionalism combined to
confer a certain amount of prestige upon the Koeberg construction project. From the perspective
of the South African government, the construction of Africa’s first nuclear power station would
demonstrate the country’s mastery of a potentially dangerous form of energy for the apparently
benevolent purpose of generating electricity.
As the first nuclear power plant, not just in South Africa, but on the African continent,
Koeberg provided a valuable opportunity for the country’s anti-apartheid movements to sabotage
254 International Atomic Energy Agency, Information Circular, INFCIRC/244, pp. 1-9. 255 Sparks, "Apartheid Modern," pp. 1-30. 256 For a historical overview of the development of nuclear exceptionalism in Western society, see Spencer R.
Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012). For the localised South African ideas surrounding nuclear technology, see Edwards and Hecht, "History and the Technopolitics of Identity," pp. 619-39; Hecht, Being Nuclear; Hecht, "Negotiating Global Nuclearities," pp. 25-48; Gabrielle Hecht, "The Power of Nuclear Things," Technology and Culture 51, no. 1 (January, 2010): pp. 1-30; Gabrielle Hecht, "On the Fallacies of Cold War Nostalgia: Capitalism, Colonialism, and South African Nuclear Geographies," in Entangled Geographies: Empire and Technopolitics in the Global Cold War, ed. Gabrielle Hecht (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011), pp. 75-99; Gabrielle Hecht, "An Elemental Force: Uranium Production in Africa, and What It Means to be Nuclear," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 68, no. 2 (March/April, 2012): pp. 22-33.
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a high-profile target, while still trying to ensure that casualties would be minimised. On the night
of December 18/19, 1982, four modified limpet mines detonated at the Koeberg construction site,
damaging the reactor heads for both reactors, part of a tunnel near the station’s pumphouse, and
some of the cabling systems that had already been installed. The four mines had been planted by
Rodney Wilkinson, who had been working on the construction project while also aiding the ANC
to plan the attack on the plant.
The Star reported the next day that the ANC office in Dar es Salaam claimed responsibility
for the explosions, stating that the power station had been attacked in retribution for a recent
incident, in which twenty-nine South Africans had been killed in Maseru during a South African-
led raid.257 It is most likely that the attack had not been carried out in response to the Maseru
incident, since the timeline that Wilkinson later described to journalists suggests that the bombing
had been in planning for at least a year beforehand.258
The bombing did cause delays in the completion of the Koeberg construction project, but
the project was already behind schedule – in July 1981, Framatome was trying to dispute claims
that South Africa had responded to construction delays by threatening to withhold payment until
the reactors had achieved a self-sustaining chain reaction.259 By July 1982, Escom had changed
the dates for the first unit to be ready for commercial operation from December 1982 to the less
specific deadline of early 1983.260 In any case, it may not be possible to calculate exactly how
much of a delay was caused by the sabotage attack, since there had already been other construction
problems before December 1982.
The construction on Unit-1 at the Koeberg Nuclear Power Plant was officially completed
when the reactor achieved criticality, thereby being capable of maintaining a stable chain reaction.
The connection to the National Grid went online on April 4, 1984. Coincidentally, a blackout
257 "Koeberg: Doubts on Security," The Star, December 20, 1982. 258 David Beresford, "How We Blew Up Koeberg (... And Escaped on a Bicycle)," Mail & Guardian, December
15, 1995. 259 "Framatome Denies South Africa Can Withhold Payment For Its Koeberg Units," Nucleonics Week, July 30,
1981. 260 "Koeberg: Doubts on Security," The Star, December 20, 1982.
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affected central Cape Town on the same day, prompting further suspicion about the plant’s safety
and efficacy. Escom later stated that the widespread blackout had been caused by a fault in one of
the three main cables leading into the city’s local grid, which had caused the remaining two cables
to overload.261
Further problems during the final phases of construction on Unit-2 delayed the plant’s
commissioning even more. During inspections on the water circulation systems, the plant’s
engineers discovered iron impurities in the stainless-steel pipes in Unit-2’s secondary water loop.
Escom decided on January 21, 1985, that Unit-1 should be shut down so that the pipes in the
reactor’s two water circulation loops could be fully inspected, a decision that further strained the
tense relationship between the parastatal and Framatome.262 After inspecting the primary and
secondary water loops on Unit-1, Koeberg’s engineers decided that the presence of iron in the
stainless-steel pipes did not present any significant threat to the system’s integrity, but the Atomic
Energy Corporation of South Africa (AEC), the governmental body that had been formed by a
merger between the AEB and Uranium Enrichment Corporation of South Africa (Ucor) in 1982,
wanted further proof that the pipes were safe.
Further inquiries into the iron impurities revealed that the company which had produced
the stainless-steel for Framatome had allowed the iron identification tags that were used as labels
on their ingots of stainless-steel to contaminate some of the ingot moulds. This resulted in the
contamination of the materials used to cast the pipes that were used at Koeberg.263 The additional
delays caused by the extra pipe inspections meant that Unit-2 at Koeberg only achieved criticality
on July 7, 1985 and was connected to the National Grid on July 25, 1985.264
261 "Heat Caused Power Failure," Cape Times, April 5, 1984. 262 Ann MacLachlan and Stephanie Cooke, "Dispute Over Koeberg Shutdown Erupts Between Escom and
Framatome," Nucleonics Week, February 28, 1985. 263 Stephanie Cooke, "Koeberg-1 Restart Delayed Because AEC Not Sure Steel Pipes are Sound," Nucleonics
Week, May 16, 1985. 264 International Atomic Energy Agency, Operating Experience with Nuclear Power Stations in Member States
in 2014, p. 567, http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/OPEX_2015_CD_web.pdf.
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3. Electrifying Non-White Areas: Electricity in Townships and Bantustans
Determining when and how electrification occurred in the areas of South Africa that were
nominally reserved for African, Indian, and Coloured residences is complicated by a lack of
consistency in government policy and nomenclature. Relatively late in the process of
electrification as 1952, Escom still referred to areas reserved for white residents as “townships,”
and some areas that the Group Areas Act of 1950 demarcated as exclusively non-white had already
received some measure of electricity supply before the National Party electoral victory of 1948.
John Shorten makes a brief reference to the final stages of “…the reticulation of Orlando Bantu
Township…” in May 1938 and to the completion of municipal grid extensions into Soweto in 1956
but does not mention for how long these installations were active.
It is also difficult to determine to what extent the grid in Orlando would have electrified the
township, since Shorten also does not mention whether it was meant for streetlighting, industrial,
or residential use.265 It is likely though, that the local distribution network in Orlando did not
extend very far past the point it reached in 1938, because Renfrew Christie stated five years after
Shorten’s book was published that people living in the Orlando Power Station’s immediate
surroundings still did not receive electricity from the station in their homes.266
In any case, concerted efforts at electrifying the sprawling townships that lay in proximity
to the major urban areas only started in the mid-1980s, and the 1990 Annual Report stated that
there were still more than two million urban households that were not electrified.267 Even in areas
that had received some measure of electrification, the terms of supplying electricity were
sometimes dependent on racial classification. For instance, permits to receive electricity in
Bophuthatswana in 1986 still specified that electricity would only be supplied to properties under
white ownership, and that all such properties could only then be resold to what the permit
euphemistically called “the qualified group.” It also seems that applicants were subject to
265 Shorten, Johannesburg Saga, pp. 609, 613. 266 Christie, Electricity, Industry and Class, p. 2. 267 Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, pp. 269-70; Eskom, 1990 Annual Report, p. 13,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1990%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
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screening process before permits were approved. A comment added by government officials at the
end of a permit application states that the South African Police “…vind niks nadelig teen die
karakter van die aansoeker nie.” (…found nothing objectionable about the applicant’s
character…).268
To electrify some of the larger townships in the country, Eskom needed to use its existing
relationships with foreign firms to put together the resources and manpower to rapidly establish
infrastructure in underdeveloped areas. The first of these collaborative efforts brought Eskom, the
Électricité de France (EdF), and East Midlands Electricity together in 1993 to supply roughly
43 000 households in Khayelitsha with electricity. 269
Despite these efforts, progress into the urban townships and former Bantustans was slow.
In an inversion of the conflict between the Electricity Supply Commission and municipalities over
who had the right to supply ratepayers, Eskom often clashed with governments at the municipal,
provincial, and national level over who should carry the responsibility for electrifying urban
townships. In this later situation, the conflict was not over who would be granted the coveted right
to supply municipal ratepayers. Instead, both parties believed that the right to supply the townships
was more of burden and tried to convince each other to take on the responsibility. There had also
been a certain amount of resistance to continued electrification from the parastatal’s management
when consumers in townships and rural areas either engaged in rates boycotts or did not settle
outstanding accounts.270 There was enough resistance, according to Conradie and Messerschmidt,
268 "Permit Issued in Terms of Section 21 of the Group Areas Act, 1966," National Archives of South Africa
(SAB), VBW 565, ref. 13/1/4/4054/53; "Beslissing: Permit Aansoek," National Archives of South Africa (SAB), VBW 565, ref. 13/1/4/4054/53.
269 Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, pp. 300-1. 270 Prishani Naidoo and Ahmed Veriava, "From Local to Global (And Back Again?): Anti-Commodification
Struggles of the Soweto Electricity Crisis Committee," in Electric Capitalism: Recolonising Africa on the Power Grid, ed. David A. McDonald (Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2009), pp. 321-37; Greg Ruiters, "Free Basic Electricity in South Africa: A Strategy for Helping or Containing the Poor?," in Electric Capitalism: Recolonising Africa on the Power Grid, ed. David A. McDonald (Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2009), pp. 248-63; Peter van Heusden, "Discipline and the New 'Logic of Delivery': Prepaid Electricity in South Africa and Beyond," in Electric Capitalism: Recolonising Africa on the Power Grid, ed. David A. McDonald (Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2009), pp. 229-47; von Schnitzler, "Citizenship Prepaid," pp. 899-917; von Schnitzler, "Traveling Technologies," pp. 670-93. Discuss the history of, and responses to, the rollout of prepayment meters in South Africa’s townships for electricity.
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that some members of Eskom’s board argued that “electricity for all” should not be given priority
over other goals, such as starting work on the international southern African power grid.271
Eskom also had to contend with the overwhelming scope of electrification across South
Africa’s urban townships and former Bantustans – not only was the parastatal expected to supply
electricity to households across the country, but businesses, schools, and clinics had to be added
to the long list of properties that needed electricity. As of 2016, this monumental task was still in
progress – Statistics South Africa stated that 84.2% of South African households had access to
mains electricity, up from 77.1% in 2001. The remaining 15.8% utilise coal, wood, paraffin, gas,
and other sources of energy.272 Despite the work that still needs to be done in electrifying more
than a tenth of households across the country, the progress that has been made since the start of
the 1990s is significant. The World Bank Sustainable Energy for All database states that household
electrification in 1990 was only 56.5% and only reached the 75% mark during 2002.273
271 Ian McRae, The Test of Leadership: 50 Years in the Electricity Supply Industry of South Africa,
(Johannesburg: EE Publishers, 2006); Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, p. 270. 272 Statistics South Africa, “General Household Survey,” Statistical Release P0318 (Pretoria: Stats SA, 2016),
pp. 32-35, http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0318/P03182016.pdf. The publication does not specify which fuel types are classified as “other” sources.
273 "Access to Electricity (% of Population)," last modified 2014, accessed January 29, 2018, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?end=2014&locations=ZA&start=1990&view=chart.
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CHAPTER FIVE – THE NATIONAL GRID AS A HUGHESIAN LARGE TECHNOLOGICAL
SYSTEM
As a means of evaluating and summarising the progress of building the National Grid, it is
perhaps best to use the factors that Thomas Hughes listed as important sociological features that
give technological artefacts their particular localised style.274 There is, inevitably, some overlap
between these factors, especially when examining the effects of a social system as pervasive as
South Africa’s segregation and apartheid had on the development of a technological system with
a national scope. Even so, it is still possible to isolate some factors that fall distinctly within each
of these categories that each played a role in the formation of the National Grid.
South Africa’s physical and social geographies affected the shape and form of the grid
itself. Two of the most significant factors in South African physical geography were the
mineralogy and rainfall patterns of the country’s interior. After the Mineral Revolution in the late
1800s, interior urban settlements started to accumulate around the diamond fields in the vicinity
of Kimberley in the North-Western Cape and the gold veins in the Transvaal. This created a
significantly larger demand for electricity in the northern half of the country, especially after the
alluvial gold deposits had been depleted and the Rand’s mines needed to sink shafts ever deeper
to reach the Reef.
The city of Cape Town, one of the most populous cities in the country, had grown around
the site of the original settlement established by the Dutch East India Company after 1652. The
mining centres of the country had been established around the diamond mines in the region of
Kimberley and the precious metals on the Witwatersrand. The straight-line distance from Cape
Town to Kimberley is slightly more than 830km, while Johannesburg is roughly 1 260km from
Cape Town. The focus on these three regions created uneven urban settlement patterns that left
large swathes of the country in-between these three areas relatively sparsely populated. The
localised nature of mining and settlement patterns created regional clusters of electricity demand.
274 Hughes, Networks of Power, p. 405.
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Not only did the country’s mineralogy affect the geography of electricity demand, but also
determined where supplies of fuel could be located. Coal reserves have typically been found most
heavily clustered in the Eastern Transvaal/Mpumalanga region, with smaller deposits also
available in the Free State, Natal, and Northern Transvaal/Limpopo provinces. If electricity was
to be supplied as cheaply as possible, then Escom needed to keep fuel costs down. This problem
was largely solved by the construction of power plants adjacent to the coal mines.
However, there were still power plants near large urban or industrial centres that required
coal supplies, but that were too far away from the coal seams to make a pithead power station
viable. Between the 1920s and the early 1950s, power transmission technology was still relatively
undeveloped, making high voltage transmission from a pithead power station to the centre of
demand impractical. These stations, most notably the stations in and around Cape Town, relied on
the freighting of coal from the mines in the Transvaal and Natal to the site of the power station.
This solution vastly elevated the operating costs of these power stations because coal had to be
regularly carried via railways to the power stations. For the Commission, this made the physical
geography of the country and the economics of power generation and transmission overlap. In
1950, the average cost of coal per short ton at the Salt River Power Station in Cape Town was 32s
5d, while the cost for the same quantity of coal at Witbank was 4s 2d.275
In 1956, Escom reported that nuclear power would definitely be implemented into the grid
at some point in the future, but that conditions in the 1950s did not warrant building such a facility
at that point in time. The Annual Report for 1956 states that Escom believed that there were four
factors that stood against construction of a nuclear power station:
1. The plentiful supplies of coal in the Transvaal and Natal kept fuel prices at South African
power stations low;
2. Areas in which coal needed to be regularly freighted by rail still had relatively small load
requirements, thereby helping to maintain low fuel prices;
275 Commission, 1950 Annual Report, pp. 23, 27.
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3. Nuclear power was still proving to be more expensive in the long run than traditional
fuel sources;
4. Nuclear engineering was still experimental and needed much more development before
it was a viable alternative to fossil fuels.276
The high costs of coal transport from the Eastern Transvaal to the Western Cape, combined
with security concerns about the safety of the high voltage transmission lines leading into the Cape
from the 1960s onwards, presented Escom with the ideal opportunity to begin the planning and
construction of the country’s first nuclear power plant.
The economics of power generation and distribution were particularly important for Escom
for as long as the parastatal was mandated to supply electricity without making either a profit or a
loss, as had been specified in the Electricity Act of 1922. Not only did the overall balance sheet
for Eskom have to reflect as close to a zero balance as possible for each financial year, but each
undertaking had to be treated as an individual entity in its own right – thereby making it impossible
for the cumulative profits at some undertakings to be used to write off the losses incurred at others.
These financial restrictions affected urban regions somewhat less than rural electrification. Firstly,
many of the towns and cities across South Africa had municipal power stations that generated and
distributed electricity to local consumers. This made the electrification of these locales less urgent
for Escom between 1922 and the 1950s.
Secondly, Escom had to consider the relative population density of a non-urban area before
the residents could be offered electricity. This made it unlikely that larger farms would receive
electricity during the interwar period, mostly because of the costs involved in establishing these
local grids. In order to supply electricity to an agricultural region, Escom had to transmit the power
at relatively high voltages, in the same way that power was transmitted from the power station at
Witbank to the Rand’s mining consumers. This required the construction of substations at the site
of consumption to convert the current from higher transmission voltages down to the voltages that
276 Electricity Supply Commission, 1956 Annual Report, p. 6,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Annual%20Reports/1956%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
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were used for machinery and domestic appliances. Such substations were typically expensive,
making it difficult for individual farmers to be able to afford the costs of electrifying their farms.
Escom was also not able to fund the construction of the substations, since the overall cost of the
substation would be too great when compared to the amount of revenue that could be gained from
the consumption of electricity on the farm.
This restriction was finally done away with when the Eskom Act 40 of 1987 was signed.
This legislation both renamed the organisation and changed the rules governing how the
parastatal’s finances worked. After the Eskom Act in 1987, the parastatal was officially known as
Eskom – a portmanteau of the former English and Afrikaans abbreviations for the Electricity
Supply Commission.277 The new law also stated that Eskom’s role was to generate and sell
electricity “…in the most cost-effective manner, subject to resource constraints and the national
interest…”278 This effectively freed Eskom from having to maintain a nil balance over the course
of each financial year, instead making the terms of supplying electricity to consumers more
nebulous than under the previous laws.
There had been previous stopgap measures that had been signed into law to help Escom
bypass some of the financial restrictions from the Electricity Act of 1922. In June 1947, the
Electricity Amendment Act 44 of 1947 provided the Minister of Mines and Industries some extra
leeway in providing electricity to an area where power would have to be supplied at a loss. In this
provision, the Minister had been granted the right to decide whether Escom should supply
electricity to an area that would normally either require Escom to charge consumers more than a
reasonable amount for electricity or to supply electricity at a loss. In these cases, the Minister was
allowed to use annual funds that were granted by Parliament to make up the difference between
the costs of supplying electricity and the income from these consumers. 279
277 Government Gazette of 4 September, 1987, vol. 267, no. 10893, p. 2. In English, the abbreviation “Escom”
had been used to denote the Electricity Supply Commission, while the Afrikaans term “Evkom” was used as an abbreviation for Elektrisiteitsvoorsieningskommissie.
278 Government Gazette of 4 September, 1987, vol. 267, no. 10893, p. 4. 279 Government Gazette of June 18, 1947, vol. 148, no. 3834, pp. xc-xcii.
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The most obvious political aspect of South African society that helped shape the National
Grid was the increasingly overarching role that racial segregation and control played throughout
the twentieth century. Between 1910 and 1948, the government had remained committed to the
idea of segregation, even if it was not as deeply ingrained in as many aspects of society and
lifestyles as it became after 1948. The government led by the National Party became widely-known
for passing laws like the Group Areas Act 41 of 1950, but the segregation-era cabinets had signed
the Natives Land Act 27 of 1913 and the Immorality Act 5 of 1927 long before the advent of
apartheid.
These overtures towards establishing a segregated South Africa make it difficult to
determine what difference, if any, the defeat of the National Party in 1948 might have made on the
progress of electrification. It is extremely difficult, even nigh impossible, to distinguish where the
segregation government would have decided to draw the metaphorical line. In any case, such
speculation is typically outside the scope of historical research, but it would be fair to say that no
matter which party had won the critical 1948 national elections, black South Africans would have
waited much longer for electrification than their white counterparts. Despite the focus on white
consumers for much of the organisation’s history, the continued growth of the mining and
industrial sectors helped to ensure continued, if slightly uneven, load growth between 1926 and
2000 (Figure 9).
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Figure 9 - Total Electricity Sales per Annum, 1926-2000280
Figure 10 shows the state of the National Grid as of the time of writing at the end of 2017.
This map shows Eskom’s continued reliance on fossil fuels, especially coal. Fourteen of the fifteen
baseload power stations in the country are still coal-burning stations, with Koeberg Power Station
in Cape Town being the sole exception. Koeberg is also the only baseload station that is south of
the Vaal River, all other power stations to the south of the Gauteng-Free State border are used for
peak load or emergency supplies. This leaves all provinces southwards of Gauteng vulnerable to
disruptions in power supply, especially in major urban centres like Cape Town. This weakness in
the system was clearly demonstrated by events in the mid-2000s, when a series of equipment
280 Data from Escom/Eskom Annual and Statistical Reports, 1926-2000,
http://www.eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Pages/Annual-Reports.aspx.
0
20 000 000 000
40 000 000 000
60 000 000 000
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120 000 000 000
140 000 000 000
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180 000 000 000
200 000 000 000
1926
1928
1930
1932
1934
1936
1938
1940
1942
1944
1946
1948
1950
1952
1954
1956
1958
1960
1962
1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
Total Sales per Annum (kWh), 1926-2000
- 108 -
failures and maintenance-related mishaps between November 2005 and March 2006 resulted in
multiple blackouts in the Western Cape.281
The effects of these outages were worsened by the earlier closure of several of the older
power stations in the Gauteng, Mpumalanga, and Free State region. These power stations had been
constructed and commissioned between the mid-1930s and the late 1960s; many of these stations
had relatively small installed capacities in comparison to the newer station designs and were
decommissioned between 1987 and 1990. Commissioned in 1936, the Klip Power Station had an
installed capacity of 424 MW, while the newer Duvha Power Station, commissioned in 1980, had
3 600 MW installed capacity.282
Jaglin and Dubresson believe that the key problem in the energy crisis that became evident
after the problems at Koeberg was not a lack of supply, but that poor maintenance and a series of
decisions made in the late 1990s meant that the overall system had deteriorated to the point where
peak demand made the system too unstable.283 In particular, Eskom has been criticised for the
decentralisation of electricity generation and distribution. This decentralisation started with the
dismantling of the CGU in the late 1980s, and has been blamed for increasing system instability
and therefore making the system less resilient against widespread failure.284
In effect, the National Grid had become an increasingly complex technological system,
with components that were technological and sociological in nature. Smaller problems, which
individually would not have created a nationwide electricity crisis, overlapped and interacted with
each other to create a situation where the National Grid could not maintain stability when any of
the major power plants experienced an interruption in generation. By comparison, the coal supply
281 Thembani Bukula and Smunda S. Mokoena, Investigation into the Electricity Outages in the Western Cape
for the Period November 2005 to March 2006, http://www.sinetech.co.za/news/wcreport.pdf; K. L. Rodseth, et al., "Executive Report on the Koeberg "Bolt-in-the-Generator" Incident," Energize, September 6, 2006.
282 Commissioning dates, decommissioning dates, and installed capacity from Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, p. 114.
283 Jaglin and Dubresson, Eskom, pp. 62-75. 284 Stephen Greenberg, “Market Liberalisation and Continental Expansion: The Repositioning of Eskom in Post-
Apartheid South Africa,” in Electric Capitalism: Recolonising Africa on the Power Grid, ed. David A. McDonald (Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2009), p. 101.
- 109 -
problems faced by Salt River Power Station in the early 1950s resulted in problems that affected
the stability of the Western Cape Undertaking, but the shortfalls in power generation from poor
coal supply remained confined to that Undertaking.285
It is this type of problem experienced with the supply of electricity via the National Grid
that highlights the value of the contributions made by STS research. Capital had played a role in
the electricity crisis, in that investment in infrastructure had almost come to a standstill while the
national government debated whether Eskom should remain nationalised. However, many of the
factors that caused the slow breakdown of the National Grid were caused by worsening coal
shortages, chronic maintenance problems at major power stations, a lack of experienced
technicians, and the inability of the National Grid to handle high demand (even within the
parameters of normal peak loading).286
The National Grid had grown since 1923 into a large and complex technological system.
The private companies, like the VFP and RMPS, had made way for the nationalisation of electricity
supply during the 1930s and 1940s. Municipalities, such as Johannesburg, had been increasingly
interconnected to the system, so that even those town councils that had tried to retain full
independence after the signing of the Electricity Act in 1922 were integrated into Eskom’s system.
During the 1960s and 1970s, the disparate Undertakings that had been formed around the
power stations were gradually interconnected as high voltage transmission technology advanced
to allow for high voltages to be carried over ever larger stretches of the country. Legislative
changes – such as the law that created the CGU – turned the formerly isolated Undertakings into
a web of power stations, high voltage transmission lines, distribution cables, and control systems
that could carry electricity from the point of generation in the northern Orange Free State to Cape
Town.
285 Commission, 1951 Annual Report, p. 8. 286 Jaglin and Dubresson, Eskom, pp. 65-68.
- 110 -
After the 1980s, Eskom was faced with the need to rapidly expand this web into areas that
had been denied service delivery for decades. These changes in social and technological
components of the system have allowed the parastatal to carry electricity into the vast majority of
South African households. Yet, it is also these changes that created a situation in which seemingly
unrelated failures within the network worked in combination to create a nationwide crisis in
electricity supply.
- 111 -
Figure 10 - Map of Eskom's Operational Power Stations, 2017287
287 Data on the locations of the power stations from "Power Station GPS Coordinates," accessed December 14,
2017, http://www.eskom.co.za/Whatweredoing/ElectricityGeneration/PowerStations/Pages/Power_Station_GPS_Coordinates.aspx. Map produced using ArcGIS Pro.
- 112 -
Power Station Commissioned Decommissioned Location Coal-Fired Stations Arnot 1971 — Middelburg, Mpumalanga (Transvaal) Brakpan 1908 1970 Brakpan, Gauteng (Transvaal) Camden 1967 1990 290 Ermelo, Mpumalanga (Transvaal) Central 1904 1966 Kimberley, Northern Cape (Cape Province) Colenso 1924 1985 Colenso, KwaZulu-Natal (Natal) Congella A 1928 1973 Durban, KwaZulu-Natal (Natal) Congella B 1946 1978 Durban, KwaZulu-Natal (Natal) Duvha 1980 — Witbank, Mpumalanga (Transvaal) Grootvlei 1969 1990 Balfour, Mpumalanga (Transvaal) Hendrina 1970 — Middelburg, Mpumalanga (Transvaal) Hex River 1952 1988 Worcester, Western Cape (Cape Province) Highveld 1959 1995 Sasolburg, Free State (Orange Free State) Ingagane 1963 1990 Newcastle, KwaZulu-Natal (Natal) Kendal 1988 — Ogies, Mpumalanga (Transvaal) King William’s Town 1948 1972 King William’s Town, Eastern Cape (Cape Province) Klip 1936 1987 Vereeniging, Gauteng (Transvaal) Komati 1962 1990 Middelburg, Mpumalanga (Transvaal) Kriel 1976 — Kriel, Mpumalanga (Transvaal) Kusile — — Kriel, Mpumalanga Lethabo 1985 — Viljoensdrif, Free State (Orange Free State) Majuba 1996 — Volksrust, KwaZulu-Natal (Natal) Matimba 1987 — Ellisras, Northern Province (Cape Province) Matla 1979 — Kriel, Mpumalanga (Transvaal) Medupi 2015 — Lephalale, Limpopo (formerly Ellisras, Transvaal) Rosherville 1911 1966 Johannesburg, Gauteng (Transvaal) Salt River 1 1928 1979 Cape Town, Western Cape (Cape Province) Salt River 2 1955 1995 Cape Town, Western Cape (Cape Province) Simmerpan 1909 1957 Germiston, Gauteng (Transvaal) Taaibos 1954 1995 Sasolburg, Free State (Orange Free State) Tutuka 1983 — Standerton, Mpumalanga (Transvaal) Umgeni 1954 1988 Pinetown, KwaZulu-Natal (Natal) Vaal 1945 1989 Viljoensdrif, Free State (Orange Free State) Vereeniging 1912 1970 Vereeniging, Gauteng (Transvaal) Witbank 1927 1969 Witbank, Mpumalanga (Transvaal) West Bank 1292 1947 1978 East London, Eastern Cape (Cape Province) West Bank 2 1956 1988 East London, Eastern Cape (Cape Province) Wilge 1954 1995 Ogies, Mpumalanga Gas Turbine Stations Ankerlig 2007 — Atlantis, Western Cape Acacia 1976 — Cape Town, Western Cape (Cape Province) Port Rex 1976 — East London, Eastern Cape (Cape Province) Paratus/Kendal 1986 1986 Namibia/Kendal Hydroelectric Stations Colly Wobbles 291 1995 — Mbashe River, Eastern Cape (Former Transkei Bantustan) Gariep 1971 — Norvalspont, Eastern Cape (Cape Province) Ixopo 1956 1958 Ixopo, KwaZulu-Natal Malieveld 1925 1928 Sabie, Mpumalanga Ncora291 1995 — Ncora River, Eastern Cape (Former Transkei Bantustan) Sabie Gorge 1927 1970 Sabie, Mpumalanga (Transvaal) Umtata – First Falls291 1995 — Umtata River, Eastern Cape (Former Transkei Bantustan) Umtata – Second Falls291 1995 — Umtata River, Eastern Cape (Former Transkei Bantustan) Vanderkloof 1977 — Petrusville, Northern Cape (Cape Province) Nuclear Power Koeberg 1984 — Cape Town, Western Cape (Cape Province) Diesel Stations Alice 292 1948 1954 Alice, Eastern Cape (Cape Province) Caledon 1939 1943 Caledon, Western Cape (Cape Province) Margate 1938 1944 Margate, KwaZulu-Natal (Natal) Port Shepstone 1944 1969 Port Shepstone, KwaZulu-Natal (Natal) Volksrust 1939 1957 Volksrust, KwaZulu-Natal (Natal) Pumped Storage Schemes Drakensberg 1981 — Bergville, KwaZulu-Natal (Natal) Palmiet 1988 — Grabouw, Western Cape (Cape Province) Wind Turbines Sere Wind Farm 2015 — Vredendal, Western Cape
Table 3 - List of Commissioned and Commissioned Power Stations Owned by Escom/Eskom, 1923-2017293
290 Returned to commercial service in 2010. 291 Originally owned by the Transkei Electricity Supply Corporation (Tescor). Taken over by Eskom in 1998. 292 Taken over by Escom in the year listed in the “Commissioned” column. 293 Adapted from the table in Conradie and Messerschmidt, Symphony of Power, p. 114.
- 113 -
CONCLUSION
1. Conclusions on the Research Aims and Objectives
As stated in the introductory chapter, the primary aim of this research was to examine the
development of the South African National Grid from a viewpoint that relied heavily on the
theories associated with sociological analysis of systems building. This perspective was chosen as
an alternative to the more traditional Marxist influences in published writings on South African
electrification. The Marxian trend in South African historiography had led to a labour-centric view
of the development of the country’s parastatals, which allowed for scholars such as Renfrew
Christie and Nancy Clark to answer the question of why the National Grid was constructed and
utilised. However, as also mentioned above, these published works had not sufficiently addressed
the question of how the National Grid was constructed.294
In particular, the systems building perspective helped in addressing the effects of factors
aside from capital-labour relationships and racial segregation in the growth of the National Grid.
In Chapter Two, the interactions between private and governmental capital were shown to have
directed the growth of electricity in the Transvaal area, especially between 1922 and the late 1940s.
From a pragmatic perspective, the VFP and Eskom were constrained some of their choices by the
distribution of the country’s mineral resources – power stations needed to be constructed in
proximity to load centres, fuel resources, and water supplies.295
Chapter Three demonstrated the link between the electrification of railway lines and the
country’s outlying rural areas. In the case of the railways, electrification was undertaken for
reasons that were mostly economic, but also for the more practical reason of hauling freight up the
steep escarpment that separates the country’s coastal regions from the Highveld.296 At the same
time, rural and agricultural areas adjacent to the railway lines were receiving electricity. The
294 Cf. Introduction, pp 5-21. 295 Cf. Chapter Two. 296 Cf. Chapter Three, pp. 65-75.
- 114 -
majority of the farms and households in these non-urban areas were in nominally “whites only”
regions, but economic and technical considerations also played large roles in the development of
the network through these areas.297
Lastly, the discussion on the development of nuclear power in Chapter Five showed the
impact of sociological and political factors during the development of the National Grid from the
early 1980s onwards. The gradual changes in governance before the mid-1990s were reflected in
the uneven growth of the electrical network into the country’s townships and non-white rural
areas.298 National identity, modernity, and apartheid governance worked in conjunction to add
momentum to the addition of nuclear power to the South African National Grid. This was partly
due to the prestige that was conferred upon large technical projects during the 1970s and 1980s,
and partly due to increasing fears that the grid was susceptible to sabotage by anti-apartheid
groups.299
2. Limitations and Associated Recommendations for Future Research
There is little focus on the interplay between gender and the establishment of the National
Grid in this research. Primarily, this can be attributed to the male-centric nature of Escom and the
ECB during most of the period discussed. In the discussion on the electrification of the domestic
sphere, it also proved problematic to find records beyond those of the male engineers, politicians,
and journalists. In the surviving records of events such as the cooking lessons held at Escom
House, all information has been mediated and edited either by Escom or newspaper editors – there
seem to be no quotes, interviews, or articles that show any of these events from the perspective of
the female participants. Likewise, there are also very few sources that show how black South
Africans acted and reacted in response to electrification. Many of these sources have also been
shaped by the views of the writers and publishers, whether they are official parastatal publications,
297 Cf. Chapter Three, pp. 75-80. 298 Cf. Chapter Five, pp. 102-4. 299 Cf. Chapter Five, pp. 95-101.
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newspapers, or archival sources. Filling in these gaps would require access to sources such as the
diaries and personal correspondence of these participants. It might be possible to conduct
interviews with the people who participated in the more recent events, such as the construction of
the Koeberg power plant and the electrification of the townships, but the decades since Escom’s
early days would prevent similar interviews with early consumers. Whether such records remain
in the Eskom corporate archive is difficult to determine, because multiple requests for access to
these archives were declined at the start of the research process.
There is possible scope for more focused studies on the history of individual artefacts or
sets of artefacts within the South African context, such as those by Fred Schroeder and Damon
Taylor on electrical plugs and sockets in the United States and Europe.300 Such studies are useful
for examining the effect of more localised influences on the technological style of a system. This
would rely on the ability to not only find sources pertaining to the development of a national
system, but would also depend on the availability of sources on the choices (and the rationale for
these choices) by the engineers and systems designers who made those choices.
300 Fred E. H. Schroeder, “More “Small Things Forgotten”: Domestic Electrical Plugs and Receptacle, 1881-
1931,” Technology and Culture 27, no. 3 (July 1986): pp. 525-43; Damon Taylor, “Plugging In: Power Sockets, Standards and the Valencies of National Habitus,” Journal of Material Culture 20, no. 1 (2015): pp. 59-75.
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Bijker, Wiebe E., Thomas P. Hughes and Trevor Pinch, eds. The Social Construction of
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Edwards, Paul N. "Infrastructure and Modernity: Force, Time, and Social Organization in the
History of Sociotechnical Systems." In Modernity and Technology, edited by Thomas J.
Misa, Philip Brey and Andrew Feenberg, pp. 186-225. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003.
Fig, David. "A Price Too High: Nuclear Energy in South Africa." In Electric Capitalism:
Recolonising Africa on the Power Grid, edited by David A. McDonald, p. 180-201. Cape
Town: HSRC Press, 2009.
Greenberg, Stephen. "Market Liberalisation and Continental Expansion: The Repositioning of
Eskom in Post-Apartheid South Africa." In Electric Capitalism: Recolonising Africa on the
Power Grid, edited by David A. McDonald, pp. 73-108. Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2009.
Hecht, Gabrielle. "On the Fallacies of Cold War Nostalgia: Capitalism, Colonialism, and South
African Nuclear Geographies." In Entangled Geographies: Empire and Technopolitics in
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the Global Cold War, edited by Gabrielle Hecht, p. 75-99. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
2011.
Hecht, Gabrielle, ed. Entangled Geographies: Empire and Technopolitics in the Global Cold
War. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011.
Hughes, Thomas P. "The Evolution of Large Technological Systems." In The Social
Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of
Technology, edited by Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes and Trevor Pinch, pp. 45-76.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012.
McDaid, Liz. "Renewable Energy: Harnessing the Power of Africa?" In Electric Capitalism:
Recolonising Africa on the Power Grid, edited by David A. McDonald, p. 202-28. Cape
Town: HSRC Press, 2009.
McDonald, David A., ed. Electric Capitalism: Recolonising Africa on the Power Grid. Cape
Town: HSRC Press, 2009.
Misa, Thomas J., Philip Brey and Andrew Feenberg, eds. Modernity and Technology.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003.
Naidoo, Prishani and Ahmed Veriava. "From Local to Global (And Back Again?): Anti-
Commodification Struggles of the Soweto Electricity Crisis Committee." In Electric
Capitalism: Recolonising Africa on the Power Grid, edited by David A. McDonald, p.
321-37. Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2009.
Pinch, Trevor J. and Wiebe E. Bijker. "The Social Construction of Facts and Artifacts: Or How
the Sociology of Science and the Sociology of Technology Might Benefit Each Other." In
The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and
History of Technology, edited by Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes and Trevor Pinch,
pp. 11-44. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012.
Posel, Deborah. "The Apartheid Project, 1948-1970." In The Cambridge History of South Africa,
vol. 2, edited by Robert Ross, Anne Kelk Mager and Bill Nasson, pp. 319-68. Cambridge:
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Ruiters, Greg. "Free Basic Electricity in South Africa: A Strategy for Helping or Containing the
Poor?" In Electric Capitalism: Recolonising Africa on the Power Grid, edited by David A.
McDonald, p. 248-63. Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2009.
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Schwartz Cowan, Ruth. "The Consumption Junction: A Proposal for Research Strategies in the
Sociology of Technology." In The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New
Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, edited by Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas
P. Hughes and Trevor Pinch, pp. 253-72. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012.
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Transformation of Work in America." In Technologies of Power: Essays in Honor of
Thomas Parke Hughes and Agatha Chipley Hughes, edited by Michael Thad Allen and
Gabrielle Hecht, pp. 95-143. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001.
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