BHUTAN JOURNAL of - Department of Livestock

Volume 4 Issue 1 March 2020

DOL

Department of Livestock Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Royal Government of Bhutan

BHUTAN JOURNAL of

International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) 2520-0194

Key title :Bhutan Journal of Animal Science Abbreviated key title :Bhutan J. Anim. Sci. Parallel Title :BJAS

Copyright © Department of Livestock, 2020

Ministry of Agriculture and Forests Royal Government of Bhutan

All rights reserved.

Publisher

Department of Livestock Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Royal Government of Bhutan, Post Box 113, Postal Code 11001, Tashichhodzong, Thimphu, Bhutan

Journal Concept & Design Dr. Kesang Wangchuk

Front Cover page Dr. Kesang Wangchuk and Mr. Namgay Dorji

Back Cover Page Dr. Karma Wangdi

Printing company Tshangpa Printing Press, Kawajangsa, Thimphu, Bhutan

BJAS is registered permanently with the ISSN International Centre, 45

rue de Turbigo, 75003 Paris, FRANCE

About the Journal

The Bhutan Journal of Animal Science (BJAS), founded in 2017, is an open access

English-language journal on animal science. All papers are peer and double blind

reviewed. BJAS is supervised by the Department of Livestock, Ministry of

Agriculture and Forests, and financed by the Royal Government of Bhutan. BJAS is

published annually with original work that makes a significant contribution to

understanding and enhancing the animal production practices in smallholder systems

in the mountains. The original works encompass the social, cultural, economic, and

policy influences affecting the use and management of plant and animal resources.

BJAS publishes research, reviews, reports on all aspects of ruminants, piggery,

poultry, aquaculture, and apiculture. BJAS also accepts livestock associated research

reports on climate change, sustainable development, rural livelihood, socio-

economics, and policy. BJAS requires academic papers and research reports to

display universal, strategic and innovative characteristics in both theory and practice.

BJAS is a forum for sharing information between researchers, policy makers and

practitioners.

Articles in BJAS present the results of original research, contributions to theory or

new conclusions reached from the review of a topic. Their structure conforms to that

of standard scientific articles and writing style is made clear and concise. Results are

critically analyzed and objectively presented.

Major topics published are on animal production, breeding and genetics, animal

health, socio-economic and post-production.

Bibliographic Details

ISSN: 2520-0194; Frequency: Annual; Current Issue: Volume 4 (1)

http://www.publish.csiro.au/issue/8030

BHUTAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE (BJAS) Volume 4, Issue 1, 2020

Foreword

I am very pleased to present the 4th issue of Bhutan Journal of Animal Science (BJAS). As research findings has to be

communicated effectively to contribute to knowledge and development, the BJAS provides a unique platform for all

the researchers to share new knowledge and research technologies amongst relevant stakeholders to facilitate them in

making an informed decision, framing enabling policies and guidelines, and promoting relevant technologies. On this

note, I am equally excited that the journal is motivating and inculcating young researchers in the mountains to publish

and share their knowledge and key research recommendations thereby fulfilling the intended goal of the journal.

This issue of BJAS present 24 papers which radiates light on both historical and contemporary questions in various

livestock development areas such as animal production, breeding and genetics, and animal health. The papers in this

journal are presented in two categories as the full-length paper and short communication organized in a standard

format as presented in the earlier volumes called “IMRAD” referring to the main sections of the paper: Introduction,

Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion. Though, there are number of journals covering the aforementioned

areas yet, the BJAS is unique in itself which encourages young and novice authors to submit works addressing the

fundamental and scientific aspects together with practical issues.

I would like to congratulate Mr. Towchu Rabgay, the Chief of “RED” and Mr. Jigme Wangdi, the Editor-in-Chief of

BJAS and the team for their commitment and hard works in timely publishing this journal. My sincere gratitude goes

to the dynamic leadership and guidance of Hon'ble Minister Yeshey Penjor and Dasho Rinzin Dorji, Secretary,

Ministry of Agriculture and Forests.

Finally, I would like to thank all the authors, reviewers and readers for their supports.

Tashi Delek!

Dr. Tashi Samdup (PhD)

Chief Advisor

EDITORIAL BOARD

BHUTAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE (BJAS) Volume 4, Issue 1, 2020

CHIEF ADVISOR DR. TASHI SAMDUP DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK, MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTS, THIMPHU, BHUTAN EMAIL: [email protected], PH: +975 17114221

CO-ADVISOR MR. TOWCHU RABGAY

DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK, MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTS, THIMPHU, BHUTAN EMAIL: [email protected], PH: +97517605539

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF MR. JIGME WANGDI

NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTRE, DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK, MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTS, BHUTAN Email: [email protected], PH: +97577653485

ASSOCIATE EDITORS DR. RATNA B GURUNG NATIONAL CENTRE FOR ANIMAL HEALTH, SERBITHANG, THIMPHU DR. KUENGA NAMGAY DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK, THIMPHU MR. JAMBAY GYELTSHEN NATIONAL RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT CENTRE FOR ANIMAL NUTRITION, JAKAR DR. DHAN B RAI NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTRE, YUSIPANG, THIMPHU DR. NB TAMANG NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTRE, YUSIPANG, THIMPHU DR. KARMA WANGDI DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK, THIMPHU DR. NARAPATI DAHAL DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK, THIMPHU DR. VIJAY RAIKA NATIONAL HIGHLAND RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT CENTRE, JAKAR DR. MP TIMSINA DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK, THIMPHU DR. KARMA RINZIN DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK, THIMPHU MR. TASHI DHENDUP DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK, THIMPHU MR. SONAM NORBU REGIONAL PIG BREEDING CENTRE, YUSIPANG, THIMPHU MR. SINGYE TSHERING NATIONAL RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT CENTRE FOR RIVERINE & LAKE FISHERIES, HAA

DR. SURYA B CHAMLING RAI NATIONAL POULTRY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMNENT CENTRE, SARPANG

Editorial correspondence should be addressed to: The Editor-in-Chief, Bhutan Journal of Animal Science, Department of Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Thimphu, Bhutan.

mailto:[email protected]



Vol. 4 No. 1 March 2020

BHUTAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE (BJAS)

A. Full Length paper

1. Effect of body condition, season of estrous induction and fixed time artificial insemination

on calving rate of local Thrabam cattle in Bhutan

NAR B TAMANG, DHAN B RAI AND ABI N KOIRALA

1-4

2. Y-chromosomal diversity on indigenous sheep (Ovis aries) breeds in Nepal: comparison with

domestic and wild sheep

NEENA AMATYA GORKHALI, LIN JIANG, SAROJ SAPKOTA, XIAO-HONG HE, QIAN-

JUN ZHAO, JIAN-LIN HAN AND YUE-HUI MA

5-12

3. Disentangling conflicts in pastoralism: genesis, arbitration and institutions

KUENGA NAMGAY 13-22

4. Dairy farming in Punakha: understanding constraints and opportunities

PEMA UGYEN 23-27

5. The demographic characteristics of dogs presented for the capture-neuter-vaccinate-release

(CNVR) program in Bhutan

KARMA RINZIN, IAN D ROBERTSON, HIRUKA MAHAT, KEYUR PATEL, SATISH

RAGHORTHE AND KINZANG DUKPA

28-37

6. Socio-economic importance of buffalo farming in Samtse district

TASHI DHENDUP 38-46

7. Staphanofilarial dermatitis (hump sore) treatment trial in Tashicholing, Samtse district

SANGAY RINCHEN, KARMA WANGDI, SONAM JAMTSHO, KARMA WANGCHUK,

KARMA TSHERING, BINDHU PARAJULI, YANGCHEN DEMA AND BASANT SHARMA

47-53

8. Milking management practices by small-scale dairy farmers of Trashiyangtse district in

Bhutan

TASHI DENDUP AND JIGDREL DORJI

54-59

9. A case study of pungdzong dairy farmers group: analysis of milk value chain

PEMA UGYEN AND RESIE OUDE LUTTIKHUIS 60-67

10. Evaluation of a capture-neuter-vaccinate-release (CNVR) program: intervention to control

the dog population and rabies in Bhutan

KARMA RINZIN, ID ROBERTSON, YESHEY TSHERING, N DAHAL AND RK PANDEY

68-75

11. Assess milk production of cattle breeds in different agro-ecological zones of western Bhutan

DEKI CHODEN, LOKEY THAPA AND NB TAMANG 76-82

12. Public perceptions towards macaque population along Thimphu-Phuentsholing highway:

imminent public health and conservation threats

KARMA WANGDI, SANGAY RINCHEN, SONAM JAMTSHO, KARMA WANGCHUK,

BINDHU PARAJULI AND BASANT SHARMA

83-89

13. Breed improvement, milk production and socio-economic benefit of contract heifer and bull

production program in west and west-central region of Bhutan

DHAN B RAI, NAR B TAMANG, LOKAY THAPA AND ABI N KOIRALA

90-97

14. Comparative performance of commercial broiler hybrids in sub-tropical zone of Bhutan

SURYA BC RAI, TASHI JAMTSHO AND KINLEY DEMA 98-102

15. Assessment of milk production and income from traditional and improved management

system of small dairy farmers in Bhutan

LOKEY THAPA, DEKI CHODEN AND NAR B TAMANG

103-109

16 Compositional analysis of market milk in Thimphu & Paro districts

PHUNTSHO T NORBU, KINLEY CHOKI AND SONAM YANGCHEN 110-113

17. Perception of Bhutanese farmers towards pig farming

GYEMBO TSHETEN, TENZIN PENJOR, PEMA SHERAB AND TASHI DORJI

114-118

18. Assessment of poultry farm bio-security measures in southern Bhutan

TASHI JAMTSHO, SB CHAMLING RAI, KINLEY DEMA AND CHENCHO TSHERING

119-123

B. Short Communication

19. Swine-fish integration: effect on culture performance of Ctenopharyngodon idella and

Cyprinus carpio

PEMA THINLEY, NAMGAY DORJI AND DRUKPOLA

124-127

20. A preliminary finding on the effectiveness of fishways at Kurichhu dam in Bhutan

CHANGLU, GOPAL PRASAD KHANAL, SANGAY NORBU AND SINGYE TSHERING 128-132

21. Exploring of alien fish species diversity in Amochhu of Bhutan

SANGAY NORBU, GOPAL PRASAD KHANAL, SINGYE TSHERING, PEMA TSHERING

AND CHANGLU

133-138

22. Comparison of growth performance of pig sucklers’ fed with creep feed and sow ration

TENZIN PENJOR, GYEMBO TSHETEN, PEMA SHERAB AND VIJAY RAIKA 139-142

23. Benefit-cost analysis of pullet rearing in Sarpang district

SURYA BC RAI, TASHI JAMTSHOAND KINLEY DEMA 143-146

24. Effect on milk production and compositions of jersey cross cows fed with dried lucerne chaff

as feed supplements in late autumn

WANGCHUK, JAMBAY GYELTSHEN, CHIMI RINZIN AND SONAM WANGCHUK

147-150

Bhutan Journal of Animal Science (BJAS) Volume 4, Issue 1, Page 1-4, 2020

1

Full length paper

EFFECT OF BODY CONDITION, SEASON OF ESTROUS INDUCTION AND FIXED TIME ARTIFICIAL

INSEMINATION ON CALVING RATE OF LOCAL THRABAM CATTLE IN BHUTAN

NAR B TAMANG*, DHAN B RAI AND ABI N KOIRALA

National Dairy Research and Development Centre, Department of Livestock, Yusipang

*Author for correspondence: [email protected]

Copyright © 2020 Nar B Tamang. The original work must be properly cited to permit

unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction of this article in any medium.

ABSTRACT: Response and calving rates of local Thrabam heifers and cows artificially

inseminated in induced estrous (heat) was assessed. A total of 298 animals in three Agro-

Ecological Zones of Samtse (Tading) and Tsirang (Barsong & Sergethang) were

inseminated on induced estrous and followed up till animals calved. Results indicated that

calving rate was 12.08% when inseminated on induced estrous (n=36/298) as compared to

37.5% (n=6/16) when animals were inseminated in natural estrous. Further, Thrabam

cows/heifers with average Body Condition Score (BCS) of 2.8 (n=41) had significantly

higher response to hormonal treatment, conception and calving (p<0.000) than animals

with BCS less than 2.4 indicating good health/better plane of nutrition are prerequisite for

birth of more calves when inseminated on induced estrous. Besides, estrous induction/

estrous synchronization with hormonal treatment (TRIU-B) and insemination during

winter produced less calves (14.2% calving) than estrous induced and inseminated in

summer (31.5% calving) in same cattle type. This indicates that seasonal variation of

environmental condition alters conception/calving. Hence, Artificial Insemination of cattle

on induced estrous in Bhutanese environment will be more conducive in summer when

weather is favorable for adequate access to green forages by animals. Thrabam

synchronized and inseminated during same season had lower conception than exotic dairy

breeds (Jersey & Jersey cross). Study concludes that estrous induced in animals using

hormonal drugs does not necessarily result in conception even when animals are

inseminated by skilled Technicians. Hence, selection of dairy cattle with optimum body

condition score, cattle breed/type, choosing of right season of the year for inducing estrous

and insemination is necessary for better outcome of such interventions.

Keywords: Artificial insemination; calving rate; induced estrous; local Thrabam cattle.

1. INTRODUCTION

Bhutan has over 317,451 heads of cattle of which about

39% (119121 heads) is improved breed with Bos taurus

inheritance (DoL 2017) and rest are local breeds and

crosses. Local Thrabam cattle (Bos indicus) reared by

farmers has low productivity. It has lower reproductive

efficiency including longer age at puberty/first calving

and long inter-calving period (Tamang & Perkins 2014).

Breed improvement effort along with good management

is fundamental to improve production which can offer

significant promise in reducing poverty and malnutrition

in the world (Hemme & Otte 2010). Genetic up-gradation

through artificial insemination with quality frozen semen

can improve reproductive efficiency of this cattle type

therefore can improve productivity and make dairy

farming profitable. To address the issue of high

reproductive inefficiency of local cattle types, treatment

of infertile animals with hormonal preparation to

minimize reproductive waste is tried (Tshering 2018).

This is aimed at inducing estrous in non-cycling/ infertile

female to bring into production through timed artificial

insemination applying technologies successfully applied

in developed world. In Australia where animals are

healthy with good body condition, mass estrous

synchronization and fix time Artificial Insemination is

reported to improve reproductive performance; produce

good number of desired types progenies (Lamb et al.

2001). Although such effort optimized time and resources

use by shortening the calving interval and increasing the

uniformity of the calf crop in developed countries, it is

not known whether similar intervention in harsh

Bhutan Journal of Animal Science (BJAS), Volume 4, Issue 1, Page 11-14, 2020

Tamang et al. (2020) 2

Bhutanese farming environment, where most animals

underfed can bring about substantial benefits to farmers.

Hence, efficiency and effectiveness of estrous

synchronization/ estrous induction and artificial

insemination to bring more animals into production was

assessed with the following objectives: to determine the

response rate (start of cycling in anestrous cows),

conception rate/calving rates of Thrabam cows/heifer

inseminated during estrous induced through hormonal

treatment and understand various underlying factors

hindering effectiveness of the program.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Selection of study site and data collection

Areas having adequate breedable local Thrabam cattle

were selected covering three Agro-Ecological Zones

(AEZs). The sites identified were: Tading geog (sub-

district) in Samtse and Barsong and Sergithang geogs in

Tsirang Dzongkhag (district) (Table 1).

2.2 Pre-selection of breedable females

Breedable females at the test sites were selected at Tading

geog of Samtse dzongkhag, Sergethang and Barsong

geogs of Tsirang dzongkhag of Bhutan from October to

December 2017 through consultative process with local

leader and extension agents.

2.3 Mating/insemination with four sire lines

Mating scheme was designed dividing breedable females

into four groups to receive almost equal doses of semen

of four Thai Holstein Friesian (THF) sire lines (poppular,

push, pound and puzzle) provided by Dairy Promotion

Organization, Thailand.

2.4 Body Condition Scoring

Body condition scoring to evaluate fatness or thinness

according to a five-point scale (PSU 2018) was applied.

A score of 1 was considered a very thin cow with poor

access to quality nutrition, while 5 denotes an excessively

fat cow with access of nutrition and 2.5 to 3 is considered

an average body condition.

2.5 Estrous induction and fixed time Artificial

Insemination (AI)

Estrous was induced in a total of 298 pre-selected local

Thrabam cows/heifers using intra-vaginal insert (TRIU-

B with 1380mg Progesterone) plus Gonadotropin

Releasing Hormone (GnRH)-0.0084 mg I/M. In total 153

inseminations done at Tading geog, Samtse, 74 at

Barsong geog and 71 at Sergithang geog, Tsirang from

December 2017 to January, 2018. Progesterone vaginal

implant was inserted on Day 0 (zero), and along with it

GnRH was administered. The insert was removed on Day

7 (seven) in all animals as per schedule. Animals were

inseminated 48-52 hours after removal of the inserts as

per standard practice/protocol.

2.6 Follow up and data recording

Follow-up was done after one year (November 2018 to

January 2019) and progenies born were ear tagged using

National Bovine Identification Number (NBIN), calves

body weight estimated and recorded in National Cattle

Information System (NCIS). The data available were

compared with similar intervention carried out in other

dzongkhags viz., Tsirang, Sarpang and Samdrup

Jongkhar.

2.7 Data analysis

Inferential data was analyzed using Minitab Version- 18

and descriptive data were analyzed using MS Excel. Field

observation was described.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Response rate to hormonal treatment

Over 91% (n=270) of animal treated with vaginal

hormonal insert responded and manifested estrous signs

and remaining 9% (n=28) either did not respond or

vaginal inserts were prematurely removed accidentally.

3.2 Calving rate

Over 298 cows/heifers were inseminated both in natural

and induced estrous with almost equal doses of frozen

semen from four Thai Holstein Friesian sire lines. A total

of 42 progenies (19 male and 23 female) were born and

registered. The overall AI success rate accounted to

14.1% (Table 2).

Among the progenies born recorded above (Table

2), six calves were born from 16 inseminations in natural

estrous, which accounts to AI success rate of 37.5%, and

is equivalent to the national average of 37% (NDRDC

2017). However, it was only 12.08% in induced estrous

Table 1: Dzongkhag/geogs selected for study in different Agro-ecological Zones (AEZs)

Dzongkhag Geog Agro-Ecological

Zone

Altitude

(masl)

Temp 0C

(mean)

Rainfall

(mm)

Female population

(Thrabam)

Tsirang Barsong Dry Sub-tropical 1200-1800 17 850- 980 275

Tsirang Sergithang Humid Sub-tropical 600-1200 19.7 950-1200 265

Samtse Tading Wet Sub-Tropical 150-600 24 1500- 4000 1234



(n=36/298) indicating that insemination in induced

estrous in Thrabam cattle may not be cost effective.

Among sire line used Pound has higher number of

progenies (Table 2), but Chi Square Test revealed no

significant association (p>0.05) between the four sire

lines used hinting that all sire lines tested is equally good.

Similar study on effectiveness of inducing estrous with

Prostaglandin (PGF2α) and insemination during natural

oestrus in Ethopia noted higher conception rate in natural

estrous (32.07%) as compared to synchronization result

of 26.88% (Tewodros et al. 2005). Besides, many other

authors have reported a decrease in pregnancy rates when

small follicles were induced to ovulate following fixed-

time AI in both heifers and cows (CIDR Protocol – Lamb

et al. 2001; CO-Synch protocol – Perry et al. 2001).

3.3 Body condition score and calving rate

Body Condition Score (BCS) is determined by nutrient

intake that influences health of the animals. It has direct

bearing on response rate to hormonal drugs and calving

rate. In a sampled population, animal with average BCS

of 2.8 (n=41) had significantly higher response to

hormonal treatment, conception and calving (p<0.000)

when inseminated during induced estrous. Animals with

BCS of below 2.4 (n=28) had poor response rate and even

if it responded, conception rate and calving remained

poor. This finding is supported by Mania et al. (2008)

who reported that Zebu cattle (Bos indicus) with BCS 2.5

to 3, exhibited medium follicles (p<0.001) than cows with

BCS 1 and 2 indicating that incidences of cycling and

pregnancy is positively correlated with BCS. Further,

research has shown an increase in pregnancy rates with a

flushing effect on cattle bred on increasing plane of

nutrition than cattle bred on a declining plane of nutrition

(Bethany 2013). These findings are further confirmed

through study on endocrine and ovarian changes in Bos

indicus heifers by Rhodes et al. (1996). Their study

reported that nutritionally induced anestrous through

reduced dietary intake of animals had significantly lower

mean concentrations of Luteinizing Hormone (LH) than

animals in ad-libitum dietary intake. Insufficient

circulating LH to stimulate maturation of the ovulatory

follicle and hindering release of ovum results in un-

ovulatory estrous.

3.4 Season of estrous induction and calving rate

Induction of estrous in animals with intra-vaginal implant

and artificial insemination done in late autumn and winter

had low conception rate (14.2%). However, animals

synchronized in late spring and summer of 2018 in similar

environment of Sarpang, Tsirang and Samdrup Jongkhar

resulted in 31.5% conception rate (n=19). Harsh weather

condition and scarcity of fodder during winter is likely to

affect health and reproduction of animals in Bhutan. This

finding is consistent with Gwazdauskas (1985) who

reported that seasonal variation of environment, nutrition,

and management alters estrous cycle and conception rates

are reduced under stress of heat and cold. Hence, if

synchronization and AI is timed in winter when fodder

shortage is acute and animals are struggling to adjust to

cold winter days, conception rate/calving rate is likely to

be low.

3.5 Breed type and calving/conception rate

In present study local Thrabam cattle synchronized and

inseminated had very low conception rate (14.1%) as

compared to 48% in Jersey cattle through similar

intervention at similar time (Rai et al. 2019). Studies have

also found that estrous induction and AI in cows with Bos

indicus influenced genetics is a challenge with low

conception rates (Hierset al. 2003) and is often

disappointing (Saldarriaga et al. 2005). This suggests that

cattle with Bos taurus gene could be targeted for estrous

synchronization and fixed time AI for better outcome of

such interventions. Nevertheless, though many animals

have not conceived, estrous induction/synchronization

with hormonal treatment is believed to have brought

many anestrous Bos indicus cattle to regular cycle

(Sanyasi pers. comm. 2018). Similarly, Sá Filhoa et al.

(2011) supplemented the view that exogenous estradiol

Table 2: Summary of AI done, progeny born and AI success rate

Location

Particulars THF Bulls used for AI and Progeny born recorded

Push

(C5008)

Puzzle

(C5009)

Pound(C4908) Poppular

(C4902) Total

Tading, Samtse AI 41 37 29 36 153

Progeny born 4 6 4 3 17

Barsong, Tsirang AI 20 19 23 12 74


Sergithang,

Tsirang

AI 16 19 16 20 71


Total AI 77 75 68 68 298

Total Progeny born 9 10 15 8 42

AI success rate by bull (%) 11.7 13.3 22.1 11.8 14.1

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Bhutan Journal of Animal Science (BJAS), Volume 4, Issue 1, -14, 2020


use can display better ovarian responses in Bos indicus

cows.

4. CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS

An animal's nutritional status is usually assessed on

changes in its live weight and body condition. The animal

with body condition score above 2.5 in village herd has

higher response and calving rate. In contrary, animal with

body condition score below 2.4 either does not respond to

treatment or conception will be low. In order to make

judicious use of expensive hormone to treat infertility and

induce estrous, animal in poor health should be excluded

until plane of nutrition improves and animals regain their

body condition. Owing to low level of circulating

Luteinizing Hormone (required to induce ovulation),

estrous induced in weak/underfed animals using

hormonal drugs does not necessarily result in conception

even when animals are inseminated by skilled

Technician. Hence, selection of dairy farmers with

healthy cattle, breed types for estrous induction/estrous

synchronization is crucial for better success rate. Timing

of estrous induction and insemination during summer

when animals have access to better nutrition can result in

better conception rate/calving rate than in winter. Hence,

mass estrous induction in lean season especially during

winter (when fodder scarcity is obvious) needs to be

avoided. Conception rate of local cattle when inseminated

in induced estrous is highly discouraging but animals

inseminated in natural estrous conception rate is better

even during winter. Hence, it is recommended to

inseminate local Thrabam cattle preferably in natural

estrous.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors gratefully acknowledge the support of Mr. RB

Chuwan, Mr. Sherman Tamang and Mr. Ugyen

Wangchuk, Livestock Extension staff of Barsong,

Sergethang and Tading respectively without whose help

the study would have been incomplete.

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(2015). Study on the Conception Rate of Dairy Cows

Artificially Inseminated During Natural Estrous and

By Synchronization in Fogera Woreda, Ethiopia.

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291-297.

Tshering L (2018). Estrous Synchronization and

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Bhutan Journal of Animal Science (BJAS) Volume 4, Issue 1, Page 5-12, 2020

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5

Full length paper

Y-CHROMOSOMAL DIVERSITY ON INDIGENOUS SHEEP (OVIS ARIES) BREEDS IN NEPAL:

COMPARISON WITH DOMESTIC AND WILD SHEEP

NEENA AMATYA GORKHALI1*, LIN JIANG2, SAROJ SAPKOTA1, XIAO-HONG HE2,

QIAN-JUN ZHAO2, JIAN-LIN HAN2,3 AND YUE-HUI MA2

1Animal Breeding Division, National Animal Science Research Institute, Nepal Agriculture

Research Council (NARC), Kathmandu, Nepal 2CAAS-ILRI Joint Laboratory on Livestock and Forage Genetic Resources, Institute of Animal

Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China 3International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya


Copyright © 2020. Neena A Gorkhali. The original work must be properly cited to permit


ABSTRACT: Studies are limited in the Asian region to separate out the male-specific contribution

specifically during breed development in domestic animals. The ancestral origin and genetic

diversity of the Nepalese sheep population was investigated in four Nepalese sheep breeds (n=50

rams) and 11 Argali (O. ammon byth) sampled in the northwestern China near Nepal using Y-

chromosome microsatellites and SNPs variation in SRY 5’ promoter gene. In the present study,

Nepalese sheep as well as Argali, wild species found in northwestern China, showed the paternal

monomorphism. Nepalese sheep shared the haplotype which most likely corresponds with defined

haplotype HY_6. This haplotype includes mouflons and high percentage of domestic sheep.

Nepalese sheep and speculated ancestor population, Argali population clustered separately revealed

that there is no introgression from any of the extant wild populations to today’s sheep population.

Paternal monomorphism in Nepalese male sheep might be due to an exaggerated reduction in male

effective population size; however, the reason for monomorphism in case of Argali is not clear. For

latter, further research with inclusion of more Y-chromosome markers are warranted for rigid

conclusion.

Keywords: Genetic diversity; Nepal; Ovis aries; Ovis ammon byth; Y-chromosome.

1. INTRODUCTION

The mammalian Y chromosome has two components, a

pseudo-autosomal region which frequently recombines

with the X chromosome and a male-specific region

(MSY). The human MSY makes up around 95% of the

chromosome and contains approximately 27 distinct

proteins or protein family related genes (Lahn and Page

1999; Jobling and Tyler-Smith 2003). The MSY is male

specific and constitutively haploid and constitutes a non-

recombinant block. One-half of this block consists of

tandemly repeated satellite data and the rest carries few

genes. Unlike other chromosomes, Y-chromosome

escapes meiotic recombination as in mitochondrial DNA

and therefore, passes intact from father to son from

generation to generation. The change occurs only by

mutations such as Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms

(SNPs), insertions and deletions (Indels) and/or structural

rearrangements with low mutation rates (Wallner et al.

2013). Using these binary polymorphisms with low

mutation rates, a unique phylogeny can easily be

constructed. Y chromosome, therefore, is an excellent

tool for investigating recent evolution from the male

perspective.

Genetic variation present at the male-specific region

of the Y-chromosome provides crucial complementary

information in understanding male-mediated events and

their impact during livestock domestication and recent

breed development (Groeneveld et al. 2010). Information

from the MSY is important specifically in domestic

animals where the contribution of a small number of

males involved in breed development. In addition,

examination of the Y-chromosome has the capacity to

reveal the identity of those wild ancestors, which were

domesticated to found the breeds of today. In cattle, for

instance, investigation of a Bos indicus-specific Y-



Gorkhali et al. (2020) 6

chromosomal sequence provided a contrasting

evolutionary perspective to that reflected in the

mitochondrial (mt) genome (Bradley et al. 1994; Taele et

al. 1995; MacHugh et al. 1997; Hanotte et al. 2000;

Kikkawa et al. 2003). The powerful phylogeographical

information of Y-chromosome has a counterpart in

mitochondrial genome and their comparison has often

been particularly informative and provides almost

complete picture of the origin, domestication of species

and breed development (Ferencakovic et al. 2012).

Like in other livestock species (Ling et al. 2010;

Wallner et al. 2013), studies into the genetic diversity of

sheep are dominated by studies on autosomal and

mitochondrial sequence variation. Diversity of mtDNA

has been widely used to assess the origin, phylogeny and

population structure of sheep breeds all over the world

(Hiendleder et al. 1998a, 1998b, 2002; Meadows et al.

2005, 2007; Pedrosa et al. 2005, 2007; Pereira et al. 2006;

Tapio et al. 2006; Oner et al. 2013), specifically in China

(Guo et al. 2005; Luo et al. 2005; Chen et al. 2006; Wang

et al. 2007a, b; Sulaiman et al. 2011; Zhao et al. 2011) and

India (Pardeshi et al. 2007; Arora et al. 2013; Singh et al.

2013). Analyses of mtDNA have provided genetic

evidence for multiple domestication events and have

revealed the genetic structure of sheep population

worldwide but have failed to establish well-resolved

phylogenies between breeds (Meadows et al. 2005).

However, introgression is generally ruled out as the cause

of clearly differentiated maternal lineages in livestock,

since introgression via females seems quite improbable as

introgression of males are more common. The genetic

diversity study would be more inclusive if the male-

mediated markers are considered along with the maternal

lineage marker. Nevertheless, some recent investigations

have been focused on variation on male specific region of

Y-chromosomal in sheep (Ovis aries) (Meadows et al.

2004, 2006; Meadows and Kijas 2009; Zhang et al. 2011).

Assuming a 1:1 sex ratio, in the population as a

whole, the effective population size of the Y-chromosome

is expected to be one quarter of that of any autosome, one-

third of that of the X-chromosome and similar to that of

the effectively haploid mtDNA. Moreover, it does not

undergo recombination like other chromosomes. Taking

all these facts into account, the lower sequences diversity

is expected on the Y-chromosome than elsewhere in the

nuclear genome which is indeed observed in different

domestic species (horses: Lindgren et al. 2004; Ling et al.

2010; Wallner et al. 2013; cattle: Hellborg and Ellegren

2004) and sheep is not an exception (Meadow et al. 2004).

In sheep, mutation at Y-specific microsatellites

(SRYM18) and the oY1-oY9 SNP polymorphisms have

been observed while studying the domestication and

population structure of the domestic sheep (Meadows and

Kijas 2009; Zhang et al. 2011), from which, SRYM18 and

oY1 (AY604734.2: g.67 A>G) were found to be

informative for domestic sheep and mouflons and widely

used as a haplotype block in ovine wild as well as

domestic populations (Meadows and Kijas 2009).

Genotyping of haplotype block established 17 haplotypes

in domestic and wild sheep (Meadows and Kijas 2009).

Only eight of these haplotypes (HY-4 to HY-10 and HY-

12) were present in domestic sheep (Meadows and Kijas

2009). The predominant and widely distributed haplotype

HY-6, fixed in mouflons, is considered to be the “wild”

ancestral Y-chromosome haplotype (Meadows and Kijas

2009). Only four haplotypes (HY-5, HY-6, HY-7 and

HY-8) have been identified in European breeds.

Haplotype HY-7 was found only in Europe, whereas HY-

4 was reported as being characteristic of African and

Asian breeds. HY-5 most likely descended from HY-7

and, like HY-7, it has a European origin (Meadows and

Kijas 2009).

Nepal, lying between India and China, can be

broadly divided into three geographic regions, the

Himalayan, the lower mountain or hill and the terai

regions (Joshi and Khatiwada 1986). As most of area of

the country is covered with high hills and mountains

(about 90%), domestic sheep (Ovis aries) have become

indispensable part of the life of inhabitants in these

regions. As per the FAO, 2014, the total population of

sheep in the country numbers to around 809,536 sheep

which originated from four different indigenous breeds:

Bhyanglung in the alpine region, Baruwal in the high

hills, Kage in the mid hills and Lampuchhre in the low

lands. Despite of its importance, their genetic

characterization remains scant (Gorkhali et al. 2014).

Many wild sheep, which are still found in the globe,

could have contributed to the origin of the modern sheep

population. Similar as in mitochondrial DNA study result

(Heindleder et al. 1998), on the modern sheep, clustering

was observed only with the feral species - Ovis mouflon

while studying ancestral population in sheep (Meadows

and Kijas 2009). Other extant wild species of sheep

separate out from the domestic population. However,

different sub-species of Ovis ammon population and

Pseudois nayaur (blue sheep/Bharal) are found around

alpine region of Nepal (Namgail et al. 2004) and also in

the northwestern region of China (Zhang et al. 2011).

Nepalese ewes are speculated to be hybridized

(introgression) through the crossing with males of wild

species specifically Argali, Ovis ammon byth as these are

abundantly found in the periphery.

The current study aims to investigate the origin,

population relationship and genetic diversity of the

Nepalese sheep population using paternal genealogy. The

study also investigated the patrilineal genetic variations

of Nepalese sheep breeds and their phylogeographic

polymorphisms using Y-chromosome microsatellites and

SNPs variation in SRY 5’ promoter gene. Further, the

study explored for evidence of gene flow between

Nepalese sheep and their speculated paternal ancestors

(Argali (Ovis ammon byth)) population using the samples

from Argali found around Nepal and northeast China



including GenBank sequences of the expanded set of

domestic and wild sheep.


2.1 Samples, material analysed and DNA extraction

Blood samples were collected from well-defined four

distinct indigenous breeds of Nepal: Bhyanglung (NSBh,

n=10), Baruwal (NSBa, n=13), Kage (NSKa, n=12) and

Lampuchhre (NSBa, n=15) and skin samples from wild

sheep, Argali (Ovis ammon byth) (WSAr, n=11) from

northwestern China. Information on Y-chromosome

haplotypes obtained from Meadows et al 2006 and

Meadows and Kijas 2009. For comparative analysis of

our sequences with sheep found surrounding the country,

SRY region of Y-chromosome sequences of domestic and

wild sheep (Table 1) were included during the analyses.

Total genomic DNA was extracted from whole

blood using standard phenol/chloroform extraction

protocol followed by ethanol precipitation (Sambrook et

al. 2001).

2.2 Re-sequencing the SRY region

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and re-sequencing

of the same region of the SRY gene and microsatellite

SRYM18 locus were performed for Nepalese sheep

according to Meadows et al (2004, 2006). Genetic marker

AY604734.2: g67A>G (oY1) is a SNP located in the 5’-

promoter region of the ovine sex determining region Y

(SRY) gene (Meadows et al. 2004).

Primer pair SRY 5'-promoter (3F): 5' - TCA GTA

GCT TAG GTA CAT TCA - 3' and SRY 5'-promoter

(3R): 5' - GTG CTA CAT AAA TAT GAT CTG C - 3'

were amplified 611-bp fragment following the procedure

described by Meadows et al. (2004). PCR amplification

was carried out in 50 µl reaction mixtures. The PCR

thermocycling condition included an initial denaturing

step at 95oC for 5 min followed by 35 amplification cycles

(94oC for 50 s, 57oC for 60 s and 72oC for 60 s) and a final

extension at 72oC for 10 min. Amplified mtDNA control

region fragments were directly sequenced.

A set of primers SRYM18 F (5' - GGC ATC ACA

AAC AGG ATC AGC AAT - 3') and SRYM18 R (5' -

GTG ATG GCA GTT CTC ACA ATC TCC T - 3') were

used for PCR amplification of SRYM18 microsatellite

loci. PCR was performed using standard conditions

(Meadows et al. 2004). Amplified fragments (143-bp)

were cloned and sequenced.

2.3 Data analyses

The raw sequencing profiles of mtDNA control region

from each of the 50 Nepalese sheep and 11 Argali sheep

were manually edited using program Chromas version

2.23 (http://www.technelysium.com.au/chromas.html).

Cleaned sequences were aligned using the Cluster W

algorithm included in program MEGA version 4.0

(Tamura et al. 2007) to identify different haplotypes.

Table 1: SRY region of Y-chromosome sequences of domestic and wild sheep

Domestic and Wild species GenBank # Reference

Ovis aries AY604734 Meadows et al. 2004

Ammotragus lervia EU938019-21 Meadows and Kijas 2009

Ovis aries musimon EU938022-23 Meadows and Kijas 2009

Ovis ammon EU938024-27 Meadows and Kijas 2009

Ovis vignei EU938028-31 Meadows and Kijas 2009

Ovis canadensis EU938032-33 Meadows and Kijas 2009

Ovis dalli EU938034-37 Meadows and Kijas 2009

Ovis aries EU938038-45 Meadows and Kijas 2009

Ovis aries HQ840956 Zhang et al. 2012

Ovis dalli JN992679-81 Driscoll 2011

Ovis nivicola JN992682-83 Driscoll 2011

Ovis orientalis JN992684 Driscoll 2011

Ovis vignei JN992685-87 Driscoll 2011

Ovis dalli JN992688-89 Driscoll 2011

Ovis canadensis JN992690 Driscoll 2011

Ovis ammon JN992691-93 Driscoll 2011

Ovis ariesg JX484138-40 Niemi et al. 2013



Haplotypes were constructed by combining sequence data

describing the repeat structure of SRYM18 with

genotypic data from oY1. Genotyping was then performed

and haplotypes assigned based on fragment length

(SRYM18) and SNP genotype (oY1). It should be noted

that the assignment of haplotypes, in the presence of

demonstrated microsatellite homoplasy, relied on

fragment length for the majority of individuals.

The relationship between haplotypes were

investigated by constructing median networks using

Table 2: Haplotypes generated through the combination of a compound microsatellite and five SNPs

Haplotype1 SRYM18 SRY SNPs Species

[TTTTG]m

Indel(G/-)

[TG]n Allele (bp)

oY1 88 nt oY5 157

nt oY6 393

nt oY7

397 nt oY8 399 nt

H1 4 – 14 145 A T A G T Ovis dalli

H2 4 – 13 143 A T A G T Ovis

dalli/Ovis canadensis

H3 4 – 11 139 A T A G T Ovis

dalli/Ovis canadensis

H4 3 G 16 145 A C G G A Ovis aries H5 3 G 16 145 G C G G A Ovis aries

H6 3 G 15 143 A C G G A

Ovis aries/ Ovis musimon/

Nepalese sheep (this

study) H7 3 G 15 143 G C G G A Ovis aries H8 3 G 14 141 A C G G A Ovis aries H9 3 G 9 131 A C G G A Ovis aries H10 NA NA NA 110 A C G G A Ovis aries

H11 NA NA NA 106 A T A G A Ammontragus

lervia H12 3 G 13 139 A C G G A Ovis aries H13 3 G 14 149 A C A T G Ovis vignei H14 3 G 17 147 A C A T G Ovis vignei H15 3 G 20 153 A C G G G Ovis ammon H16 3 G 17 147 A C G G G Ovis ammon H17 3 G 15 143 A C G G G Ovis ammon Source: (Meadows and Kijas 2009)



Network version 4.1.1.2 (http://www.fluxus-

engineering.com)

The population pairwise differences (FST) values

were calculated using Arlequin version 3.5.1.2 software

(http://anthropologie.unige.ch/arlequin/). Pairwise FST

values were calculated with 10,000 bootstrap and values

were displayed as an unrooted cladogram drawn with

MEGA version 4.0.

3. RESULTS

3.1 Sequence architecture of microsatellite SRYM18

The microsatellite array found in sheep are to be a

compound, comprising a penta-nucleotide and a di-

nucleotide repeat separated by an indel ([TTTTG]mG/-

[TG]n) and are multi-allelic (Meadows et al. 2006).

Investigation after cloning and sequencing showed that

all Nepalese male sheep population are monomorphic

displaying the same length fragment of 143-bp with same

SRYM18 repeat motif (Table 2). They fall on the same

cluster group which corresponds with HY-6 (referred in

Meadows et al. 2006) which is the most abundantly found

Y-chromosome haplotype in the globe (Table 2). The

similar finding has been arisen from the analysis of Y-

haplotypes in phenotypically divergent dog breeds where

one common haplotype was distributed across groups

(Sundqvist et al. 2006). It is possible, however, that a

significant portion of animals that carry HY-6 are not

identical-by-descent due to homoplasy or the mutability

and recurrent mutation associated with microsatellite loci

(Heyer et al. 1997; de Knijff 2000). This haplotype

includes the feral species of mouflons: O. musimon, O.

orientalis and domestic sheep (Ovis aries); however

earlier studies revealed that at least two paternal lineages

present in the modern domestic sheep (Meadows et al.

2006).

3.2 Sequence variation of 5’ promoter region of Y

chromosome (Determination of the ancestral allele of

SNP oY1) in Nepalese domestic sheep

The second locus that we investigated was an A>G SNP

located upstream of SRY that has been previously

described (Meadows et al. 2004). All Nepalese sheep are

observed to be monomorphic with A-oY1 locus as well as

in other identified loci. When analyzed with other

sequences in the GenBank, Nepalese sheep shared the

same haplotype with Ovis musimon (Table 2, Figure 1)

which is most likely corresponds with very common in

domestic breeds of sheep from across Africa, Asia, the

Caribbean, Europe, the Middle East/ Central Asia and

Australia (Meadows et al. 2006). Furthermore, the result

is strengthened by the cladogram drawn by Fst value

calculated in order to determine the genetic distance

between different species of wild and domestic

populations (Figure 2).

http://www.fluxus-engineering.com/

http://www.fluxus-engineering.com/

http://anthropologie.unige.ch/arlequin/



3.3 Sequence variation of 5’ promoter region of Y

chromosome in wild sheep, Argali

SRY 5’ promoter region of Y chromosome sequences

from individuals of Argali sheep population in the study

were consensus with the sequences that were published

earlier for O. ammon which were already proven unlikely

to be one of the ancestors (Meadows and Kijas 2009).

Nonetheless, Argali and Nepalese sheep have obvious

two different clusters. This result, therefore, further

revealed that the domestic sheep including Nepalese

sheep is less likely to be influenced by different species

Argali and furthermore, also strengthened the view that

domestic sheep are free from signatures of wild sheep

introgression. However, for concrete conclusion,

comprehensive investigations using the different Y-

chromosome markers are necessary with samples of

different sheep breeds in the world.

3.4 Median- Joining (MJ) Network analyses

Possible gene flow different wild and domestic

population using the sequences of 5’ promoter region of

Y-chromosome using MJ-network. Nepalese sheep

clearly clustered together (H-4 in Figure 2) with other

domestic sheep along with different species of mouflons

(O. musimon, O. orientalis). Argali sequences from the

northwestern China clustered with other Argali sequences

which were in a single mutation difference from the

cluster developed by Nepalese sheep sequences. In order

to rule out the possibility of Argali to be one of the

ancestors of the modern sheep, more comprehensive

sampling from the northwestern China is warranted.

4. DISCUSSIONS

Investigations into the origin of the modern sheep have to

date primarily utilized maternally inherited mitochondrial

sequence variation. Very few studies have been done to

separate out the male-specific contribution specifically

during breed development in domestic animals,

specifically in the Asian region.

In the present study, Nepalese sheep showed the

paternal monomorphism with no substitution in bases in

all four breeds, in contrast to the analyses of mtDNA of

Nepalese sheep breeds revealed four maternal

haplogroups and high haplotype diversity of maternal

lineages (Gorkhali et al. 2014). Low Y-chromosome

diversity was well-expected in domesticated animals

where, following domestication, a strictly controlled

breeding system has been imposed. This has resulted in

highly skewed male reproductive success where a small

number of males contribute a disproportionately large

amount to subsequent generations. Hellborg and Ellegren

(2004) compared sequence from 3.0 kb of the MSY

within 10 cattle from five taurine breeds and failed to

identify any segregating sites. Similarly, 14.3 kb of MSY

sequence was compared between 52 horses from 15

breeds and also failed to identify a SNP (Lindgren et al.

2004).

It is therefore reasonable to conclude that the

complete absence Y chromosomal nucleotide diversity

observed within Nepalese sheep can be primarily results

from an exaggerated reduction in male effective

population size. This result is consistent with earlier

researches which had also shown the low polymorphism

in Y-chromosome (Meadows et al. 2004) illustrating the

paternal homogeneity in most of the sheep populations

(Ferencakovic et al. 2012). The present study adds to the

emerging view that low nucleotide diversity on the Y

chromosome is a common feature of domestic species and

indeed is a feature of the sex-limited chromosome across

other species including birds (Montell et al. 2001) and

plants (Filatov et al. 2000).

This is also supported by the high nucleotide

diversity observed within chimpanzees (Stone et al.

2002). This promiscuous wild species has a contrasting

breeding structure to domestic animals where a much

higher proportion of males contribute to subsequent

generations (Yu et al. 2004). The result is chimpanzees

have an effective male population size four times higher

than humans (Stone et al. 2002). The fact that

chimpanzees also have approximately fourfold higher

nucleotide diversity compared with humans (The

International SNP Map Working Group, 2001) implicates

effective population size as a major determinant of

nucleotide diversity. This is, however, not the case in

Argali, wild sheep species abundantly found in

northwestern China, showed no base substitution in SRY

5’ promoter region in its population.

Argali sequences from the northwestern China

clustered with other argali sequences which were in a

single mutation difference from the cluster developed by

Nepalese sheep sequences. In order to rule out the

possibility of Argali to be one of the ancestors of the

modern sheep, more comprehensive sampling from the

northwestern China is warranted.

5. CONCLUSION

Absence of Y chromosomal nucleotide diversity observed

among Nepalese breeds and paternally monomorphic can

be due to low effective population size of breeding ram

which is a major determinant of nucleotide diversity.

However, in wild, the breeding is natural and there is

unlikely the human interference for male selection, but

still the Argali in northwestern China also showed

monomorphic sequences and were the same as in

recorded sequences. Nepalese domestic sheep follows the

most common haplotype developed by mouflons (Ovis

musimon and O. orientalis) and majority of the domestic

sheep. This study contributes at least some information on

the understanding of domestication and development of

global sheep populations.



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Bhutan Journal of Animal Science (BJAS)

Volume 4, Issue 1, Page 13-22, 2020

13

Full length paper

DISENTANGLING CONFLICTS IN PASTORALISM: GENESIS, ARBITRATION AND INSTITUTIONS

KUENGA NAMGAY*

Department of Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Thimphu, Bhutan.


Copyright © 2020. Kuenga Namgay. The original work must be properly cited to permit


ABSTRACT: Increasing human population and reduced resource availability is expected to result

in conflicts owing to the vicious cycle of irrational resource use and management. Worldwide,

mobile herders are caught in conflicts brought about by changing policies, shifting user rights and

climate change. This study explored different types of conflicts mobile herders in Bhutan face,

existing arbitration forums and changes being experienced, against the backdrop of new land law

that sought to nationalize grazing areas. Research information was collected through qualitative in-

depth interview with 33 informants and seven focus group discussions with mobile herders,

residents downstream living adjacent to herders’ grazing areas and government agents. Results

revealed mobile herders face various types of conflicts but not necessarily lead to neo-Malthusian

and Hardinian situation. Old traditional institutional arrangements and formal government structures

are being rendered defunct by new legislations, causing confusion and varied interpretations. With

the new land law now under implementation and having nationalized all grazing areas, how these

conflicts transform and impact the mobile herders is yet to be seen. Much of the conflicts are brought

on to the mobile herders, owing to their way of life and new policies, and not of their making.

Consistent policy interpretation and sustained tenurial rights will reduce conflicts herders face. Prior

participatory consultation and information sharing with the constituents would enhance

understanding and ownership of such policy changes and reduce conflict.

Keywords: conflict, grazing, land legislation, land tenure, pastoralism, rangeland, rights.

1. INTRODUCTION

The increasing human population and shrinking resource

size and availability, lead to conflicts in accessing these

resources. As productive resources such as land and water

become scarcer, conflicts between mobile pastoralists and

sedentary farmers escalate (Dixon et al. 2001). The

growth in human population and equivalent reduction in

human-animal ratio amongst pastoral societies is most

apparent in Greater Horn of Africa than anywhere else

(Sandford 2006). Conflicts also result from land grabs,

either state sponsored or through corporate capture, with

vague tenure arrangements (Hall et al. 2011).

Reports on conflicts affecting mobile pastoralists

are largely on African pastoralists (Moritz 2006; Blench

2017) and Mongolian pastoralists (Boone et al. 2008;

Mearns 1993, 2004). The narratives often evoke neo-

Malthusian and neo-Hardinian models of population

growth and the vicious cycle of irrational and

unsustainable resource management (Milligan & Binns

2007). The discussions on these models dominate the

political and public policy making discourse in the

developing world.

It is important to note that crisis situations, conflicts,

and weakening of indigenous customary institutions are

not uniform. Spatial and temporal heterogeneity within

regions and states also needs to be considered (Milligan

& Binns 2007; Moritz et al. 2009).

In Bhutan, the environmental policies take pride in

following a middle path approach, balancing

conservation objectives with livelihood and wellbeing of

the people (RGoB 1998). However, with more than 51%

of land under some form of protection and changing

policies on resource access for extensive pastoral

practices, some conflicts are inevitable. Moreover,

conflicts with the residents living adjacent to herders’

grazing areas were reported in 2009 by some mobile

herders from Ura Village in Bumthang district. It was also

reported later in the Bhutanese mainstream media about

such conflicts from other districts, particularly after the

enactment of Land Act of Bhutan 2007.

1.1 Conflicts in pastoralism

Moritz (2006) in a review on conflicts notes, Africa has

transformed, ‘from an abundance to scarcity of land in



Namgay (2020) 14

one century’. Over the years, increasing imbalances in

humans, livestock and the environment has resulted in

inequality and impoverishment of pastoralists (Sandford

2006). Consequently, pastoral conflicts in Africa take a

whole new level, often involving arms, on the grounds of

ethnicity, religion, and culture in addition to the normal

herder-farmer and herder-herder conflicts (Moritz 2006).

The rise in human population and trade, means more

demand for meat and milk, but with taking over of fertile

river bed areas by croppers and government’s policy of

adopting ranching system for these traditional nomadic

pastoralists means more conflict (Blench 2017).

Similarly, in Mongolia pastoral populations have

increased after the collectivised system ended in 1990.

Many former technical and urban cadres, rendered

redundant by the decollectivisation, took up pastoral

trade. High numbers of new entrants in pastoral systems

reduced overall grazing resource availability and caused

tension. In 1995, more than 40% of these Mongolian

pastoralists owned less than 50 head of livestock per

household (Boone, et al., 2008; Mearns, 1993, 2004).

However, Milligan and Binns (2007) contends contrary to

the dominant discourse on the herder-farmer conflicts,

symbiosis between them does exist in many places and

local resource management rules are being adhered to.

The authors further note myopic focus on natural resource

degradation and management, donor influence, lack of

reliable research and statistics constrained by funds, and

lack of space for pastoralists to articulate their needs,

impedes formulating evidence-based policies (Milligan &

Binns 2007).

Similarly, Moritz et al. (2009) have argued that

despite similar if not greater increases in human

population in West Africa than Greater Horn of Africa,

pastoralism is not necessarily in crisis. They have shown

how West African pastoralists have used different

strategies such as integration and intensification;

movement to the sub humid zone; and extensification to

cope with pressures on their pastoral systems.

In Bhutan, the national parks provide incentives

such as corrugated aluminum sheets, electric cookers and

a few exotic crossbred cattle to compensate for the

restrictions imposed on pastoralists’ access to forest

resources for roofing materials, firewood, and traditional

extensive system of grazing local cattle in forest

tsamdros. However, such incentives do not meet local

people’s needs, while restrictions on the locals’ access to

the natural resources are many and sanctions often

punitive (RGoB 1995). This creates resentment and risks

retaliatory actions, such as poisoning wild animals or

poaching which, again risks stricter penalties (RGoB

1999; Rinzin et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2006; Wangchuk

2004). Such policies and conflicts together have caused

loss or weakening of traditional resource management

institutions.

1.2 Pastoral conflict in Bhutan

The study reported here is an excerpt out of a broader PhD

project on transhumant agro-pastoralism in Bhutan. One

of the issues that prompted this study at the conceptual

stage and later emerged strongly during the in-depth

interviews in 2010 was, the conflict between the mobile

herders from northern Bhutan with the residents

downstream, living adjacent to winter tsamdros (grazing

areas). It appeared though some conflicts existed earlier,

however, the magnitude and frequency has increased with

the enactment of the new land law (Land Act of Bhutan

2007).

This paper, therefore, attempts to understand the

nature of conflicts, its causes and how such conflicts were

resolved in context of modernization and new legislations

replacing local traditional/indigenous institutions.


The results reported here are based on the qualitative data

collected from six pastoralist villages in western region,

two pastoralist villages in central east, and 2 resident

villages in the south, Kungkha in Chhukha district in the

south and Brokser in Mongar district, in the east.

A qualitative in-depth interview with 33 informants

involving 24 herders, six government employees, and

three non-government informants, collected information

on different types of conflicts that existed between mobile

herders from northern Bhutan and residents living

downstream adjacent-to or along the migratory routes.

This was later probed further and triangulated with seven

focus groups discussion with mobile herders, downstream

residents and government agents.

In-depth interviews in 2010 in six villages, namely,

Papali, Bempu, Tshebji, and Damchena in the western

region, and Urchi and Doshi in the central east region in

Bhutan (Figure 1), confirmed the report of such conflicts

brought to Ministry of Agriculture and Forests’ notice in

2009 by herders in Ura, Bumthang. These villages were

selected as majority of people in these villages relied

heavily on their cattle raised through mobile herding.

This was followed up in 2011 with focus group

discussions with mobile pastoralists in Tshebji village in

west, Doshi and Urchi Village in central east, and

downstream villages of Brokser in east, and Kungkha in

west south. Another focus group discussion was held with

livestock development personnel in Lhuentse district, in

the east where Doshi herds migrate to (Figure 2).

Purposive sampling was done to select key

informants who had extensive knowledge on mobile

herding and issues surrounding it. A few informants,

initially selected based on their local knowledge, helped

to gather more informants through the snow-balling

technique (Noy 2008). The nine agency informants

possessed substantial knowledge on livestock

development and conservation policies in Bhutan.


Namgay (2020) 15

In-depth interviews with open-ended questions took

place at key informants’ residences in the local language

Dzongkha (Tong et al. 2007). The in-depth interviews

were audio recorded, and later transcribed into English

using MS Word.

In-depth interviews were analyzed manually, coding

and grouping data under thematic categories

Figure 1: Bhutan in a regional context with the six study

sites

Figure 2: Focus group discussion areas

and sub-categories. An inductive cross–interview

analysis allowed patterns, themes and categories to

emerge out of the data that helped draw conclusions on

interview questions (Patton 1990).

3. RESULTS

3.1 Understanding upstream-downstream resource

access conflicts

During the in-depth interviews in 2010, conflicts between

Doshi herders and downstream residents in Lhuentse

district concerning access over tsamdro resources

emerged. This type of inter-district resource use conflicts

appears to be chronic but reportedly got reignited as a

result of the new land law-Land Act of Bhutan 2007.

Probing further during focus group discussions in 2011, it

was revealed that not only did the new land law escalate

existing conflicts, but there existed other types of

conflicts in other areas that migratory herders experienced

with local residents. During the course of the in-depth

interviews and focus groups three types of conflicts were

uncovered – conflict over access to tsamdro resources,

conflict over traditional route right of way, and conflict of

mobile herders’ cattle straying into local residents’ crops.

3.1.1 Conflicts associated with access to tsamdros

This type of conflict is experienced by mobile herders

with local residents over access to tsamdros in the south.

The issue seems to have recurred many times in the past

and has in some places been instigated or heightened by

the Land Act of Bhutan, 2007. This type of conflict was

present in south-western tsamdros, central-south

tsamdros and central-east tsamdros.

It was first reported in Ura gewog, during the

researcher’s visit to Bumthang in April 2009. The herders

reported, owing to the provisions reflected in the Land

Act of Bhutan 2007; provision to lease tsamdros only to

the residents domiciled in that particular district, the

locals have repeatedly grazed migratory herders’

tsamdros before the herders arrived. Reportedly, when

confronted by mobile herders from Shingkhar Village of

Ura gewog, the locals retaliated, citing reasons that the

new land law provides tsamdros to the local residents.

The same issue emerged again during the in-depth

interviews with the herder key informants in 2010 in

Doshi. Although this type of conflict does not appear to

be uniform, the herder key informants during interviews

indicated such conflicts were not a new phenomenon. One

elderly herder reported that such issues have always been

there since Zhabdrung’s time (17thcentury). Historically,

herders from Bumthang district particularly from Ura

gewog had conflicts with the residents of Lhuentse and

Mongar districts.

The focus group discussions in 2011 also revealed

such conflicts occurred in Brokser where the local

residents complained of unequal access to resources.

Bumthang herders denied Brokser residents access to

tsamdros located near Brokser village. Bumthang herders

would even injure and cause harm to animals belonging

to locals if cattle strayed into those tsamdros.

Mobile herders from Bempu, Tshebji, and Urchi

were also informed by residents living in the south

adjacent to their tsamdros, of their interest to access the

tsamdro resources, as per the provisions of the new Land

Act. This was an indication for potential conflict in future.

Conflicts seemed inevitable then when the LA 2007

implementation did not take a definite position. Details on

how unclear legislation is causing new conflicts rather

than providing solutions are provided under the section

on causes of conflicts.


Namgay (2020) 16

3.1.2 Conflicts over the traditional migration routes

The second type of conflict is the blocking of mobile

herders’ traditional routes used for migration, by local

residents, fencing it off and making paddocks for their

sedentarised herd. This type of conflict was mentioned

during focus group discussions in Doshi and during the

researcher’s visit to Sengoren-route, Mongar and

Lhuentse. While Doshi herders complained that Sengor

residents have fenced off their traditional routes of

migration, Sengor herders alleged Ura herders had

destroyed their fences and paddocks. Details on how such

episodes occurred are detailed in the succeeding sections.

3.1.3 Conflicts caused by migratory cattle straying

into local residents’ crops

The third type of conflict is caused by migratory cattle

straying into the local residents’ fields. The participants

from Tshebji reported their cattle straying into others’

crops. In cases where the conflict could not be resolved in

the villages, it was referred to Phuntsholing Drungkhag

(sub-district) court. One elderly herder from Tshebji,

however, asserts this type of conflict is a thing of the past

and do not occur now.

However, participants in Kungkha indicated that the

problem of Jabana and Geling herds straying into their

crops still exist. Cattle from these herds stray into their

maize fields, cardamom orchards, vegetable gardens and

destroyed other plants such as Napier, Ficus saplings, and

other planting materials including the ones supplied

through Sustainable Land Management Project (SLMP).

Participants in Kungkha also reported, some of the Jabana

herders started leaving behind the general herd (dry cows,

young stock and old animals) and took back only milking

cows and oxen (used for ploughing the fields) when they

migrate back to their villages in spring. Jababs seemingly

owing to shortage of family labour, are not in position to

manage larger herds. The local residents reported this is

becoming a real menace in summer as these stray cattle

damaged their crops.

3.2 Factors causing conflicts

Although the new land legislation is often criticized by

many mobile herders as the main contributor to inter-

district conflicts, either directly or implied, there are other

reasons that are important in understanding the conflicts.

These factors that contribute to the contentious resource

access issues are discussed in the following sections.

3.2.1 Development interventions by government

agencies that overlooked local institutions caused

inter-community conflict

There is evidence from Doshi and Sengor to suggest that

government agencies promoting intervention programs

such as subsidising improved pasture seeds, exotic

crossbred cattle, and supplying fencing materials to fence

and develop modern style paddocks, may have been

ignorant or have deliberately overlooked local

institutional arrangements. This had resulted in

unintended inter-community conflict amongst the Sengor

locals and Ura mobile herders.

The focus group participants in Doshi indicated how

one such intervention by a development agency supplying

barbed wire fencing materials to fence the paddocks,

blocked their traditional migratory route at Sengor.

During a focus group discussion, a male participant in his

thirties from Doshi said:

“… it appears very likely that we will again have some conflict soon. The Sengorpas have fenced with barbed

wire on our traditional migratory route and left only the highway. Sengor is traditionally our camping area. They

said the fence was supplied by the Park … for generations it has been our tradition to spend a night

there and it’s our traditional route. Nobody says anything …”

That has not only caused them inconvenience, but has

created dispute with Sengor herders with whom they have

traditionally had mutual respect based on their traditional

rights and customs.

3.2.2 Conflict arising from the location of Tsamdros

All the focus group discussions highlighted that the

conflicts arising due to migratory cattle straying into local

residents’ crops or locals grazing herders’ tsamdros is

inevitable and had much to do with the evolution of some

villages in the south. Dovan village in Sarpang district,

where Urchi herds migrate to, Dolepchen village in

Chhuka district, where Tshebji herds go, Kungkha village

in Chhukha, where some Jabana herds go, and Brokser

village in Mongar distrct, where some Bumthang herds

go, were all carved out of former tsamdros. These villages

were tsamdro of the migratory herds prior to settlement

of today’s residents. The residents cleared the forest and

started settling in those existing tsamdros to what locals

today call their village. Kungkha, Dolepchen, and Dovan

tsamdros were cleared and villages formed in later part of

the 1960s and early 1970s. The focus group participants

in Bempu and Kungkha indicated that until 1971 the

tsamdro right holders of the then tsamdros collected lease

fees from the new settlers. These settlers were mostly

ethnic Nepalese settling in those tsamdros and cultivating

maize. Participants in Kungkha revealed the following,

thus supporting the view of the herders from Bempu,

Tshebji and Urchi:

“The reason why such conflicts occur is because our village [Kungkha] was a tsamdro before our parents and grandparents started settling down. They leased part of these tsamdros … cleared and grew crops for

which they paid lease fees in kind called TanamPathi ...


Namgay (2020) 17

In 1971 the government surveyed the area, asked the tsamdro owners to collect the price of the land and whatever land we farmed thus far was paid for and

registered in our name. Our parents paid @Nu. 75/acre. The rest of the areas surrounding new villages continued

as tsamdros of migratory herders to this day ….”

In 1971 the government allowed the new settlers to

register those areas they have cleared and farmed in their

name, with payment to erstwhile rights holders, at the

existing market rate of Nu. 75 per acre.

A similar story emerged for Brokser village (Figure

3) but for different purposes and by a different ethnic

group. Brokser village had also been a tsamdro of

migratory herds coming from Bumthang. Some 40 years

ago a woman named Abi Choden bought some tsamdro

land in Brokser. Abi hails from a village called Jaigon,

which in those days was far away and difficult to send

children to school in Mongar. Abi settled in Brokser and

sent her children to school in Mongar.

Abi Choden was 102 years old when the researcher

conducted focus group discussions in August 2011.

Brokser then had 21 households, all related to Abi

Choden. Owing to the ecology of the village being part of

the tsamdros, situated adjacent to or at the heart of a

tsamdro, conflicts of cattle straying into crops and local

animals grazing in these tsamdros is inevitable.

3.2.3 No available tsamdros despite a declining

migration trend

In spite of a significant overall decline (31%) in

households practicing migration between 1990 and 2010

in the study areas (Namgay et al. 2014), there are no

tsamdros in the south left unused. Logically one would

expect many tsamdros in south to be lying idle since

migratory herds have declined in number. This situation,

tantamount to a disconnect between logic (expecting idle

tsamdros) and empirical situation (virtually nonexistence

of unused tsamdros), beckons explanation and is

presented in what follows.

Focus group participants suggested there are no

empty tsamdros, despite the decline in the number of

migratory herds. When a mobile herder stops

transhumance movement, the tsamdro user right is given

to their family members, friends and networks from

within the herder communities who still migrate, to use it.

Those household with recently established herds, from

their own community, were also permitted to graze in

these tsamdros through some informal arrangements but

not residents in the south.

Some tsamdros of former herders from Tshebji and

Bempu continue to be grazed by their relatives, because

there was no expansion in tsamdro areas and all siblings

that separated and established their own families in the

villages continued to camp in the same tsamdro that

belonged to their parents in winter. The herders that have

stopped migrating send their animals with their friends

and relatives that still practice migration and allow them

to use the tsamdros.

During a focus group in Tshebji, when asked if some

of the tsamdros remained empty after some herders

stopped migration, a female herder in her late thirties said:

“No, there is no vacant tsamdro or allowed to be used by anybody not related. All tsamdros continue to be used. It

works like this, even if I stopped migration, if a far relative of mine still does it, I would send my oxen and

dry cows with them and allow them to use that Tsamdro.”

Among the Urchi and Doshi mobile herder

households, many tsamdros in the south are held in

common with local institutions for assigning tsamdros for

each herd in winter. Local institutions have successfully

assigned herds to graze in a particular tsamdro for a

certain season (for details on these arrangements refer to

Ura 1992). Similar to herders in Tshebji and Bempu,

Doshi herders are also organised in such a way that the

incumbent migratory herders and the newly established

migratory herds take with them the cattle of herders that

have ceased migration. This way tsamdros that belonged

to the retired herders continue to be used by herds that still

migrate thereby excluding the locals. This is a deliberate

exclusion strategy to deny local residents access to those

tsamdros. During a focus group in Doshi, a male herder

in his early forties said:

“Well even if some stopped migration others have started a new herd. There is a new herd with over 60 animals and another 2 herds from the other village …

Because we own [only usufruct right] the tsamdros, held in common amongst Uraps [people of Ura], the new comers request the community and …being from our

own village, we allow them but not the residents down there …”

Figure 3: Brokser Village, surrounded by Tsamdros,

created by Abi Choden


Namgay (2020) 18

Arrangements among herders are made to ensure the

continuity of tsamdros in the south and keep away the

locals. They use many justifications such as local

residents from warmer areas can grow different crops

continually throughout the year, as opposed to herders

being in high altitudes where choice of crops is limited

with short growing season. Some herders also tend to use

their usufructory rights almost as a private property rights

to keep away the locals and deny giving rights to locals to

graze in those tsamdros.

3.2.4 Contradictory claims of rights over tsamdro and

possible ignorance by development personnel of the

existence of such conflicts

The focus group discussions with development agency

personnel in Lhuentse and informal conversations with

some agency personnel in Mongar indicated a lack of

awareness of herder conflicts and disputes. One livestock

extension personnel in Lhuentse reported that a Lhuentse

herder claimed that Bumthaps and Lhuentse herders had

equal rights over the tsamdros. The tsamdros in Lhuentse

used to be grazed at the same time occupying different

sites. This claim, however, was dismissed by the Doshi

herders.

The development agency personnel in both Mongar

and Lhuentse districts similarly indicated being unaware

of the conflicts, saying it had not been brought to their

attention. While the herders reported the Ura-Kurtoe

conflict as chronic and had required central authority’s

intervention in the past, because local authorities were

ineffective, the agency personnel appeared ignorant of the

conflicts. These agency personnel are also unaware of the

issue of migratory herders from Ura confronting herders

in Sengor. When asked if the district livestock personnel

have come across such conflicts, one district livestock

personnel said: “No, so far we haven’t had any issues

brought here for settlement.”

3.2.5 Unclear legislation responsible for some conflicts

The focus groups discussions revealed that number of

inter-district disputes either on-going or newly

developing or escalating in seriousness have been the

result of uncertainty in the law and a lack of enforcement

by authorities.

The focus group participants in Doshi believed the

conflicts had escalated between the Ura herders and some

of the Lhuentse local residents. The participants are of the

view, although some occasional disputes existed in the

past, but it largely remained benign. Locals have always

respected the existing policies and judgements passed

down through generation of our monarchs, that has given

rights to Bumthaps to graze. With new land law giving

rights to locals in contrast to previous laws, the locals

have now become bolder and started grazing Urap’s

tsamdros. The Doshi participants highlighted, a recent

incident where altercations had occurred between an old

herder couple from Ura and a group of young locals from

Lhuentse, in a tsamdro, over grazing accessibility. This

dispute was said to have become serious and almost led

to physical assault. The focus group participants indicated

that the case has been referred to local authorities but the

locals do not heed the restrictions and continue to graze

their tsamdros:

“… It’s been 4 years [indicating effect of the Land Act 2007] they have been grazing our tsamdros in our

absence. Earlier by 5th month [June] it is Ridam[forest closure] and their animals cannot even step into our tsamdros. We have asked them repeatedly not to graze but they don’t listen …. They say they have heard over

radio that they can use it or some survey people told them …as per law they have the right ….”

In another instance Bempu, Tshebji and Urchi

participants mentioned that locals downstream have

indicated to them of interest to get access to those

tsamdros. A male herder in his fifties during a focus group

in Bempu said:

“It is only now that they informally indicate that there is a government order that people from different District are not allowed to graze in other districts. We tell them

that such orders have never been relayed to us but rather we were told by the newly elected government in 2008 that traditional system can continue as it used to be in

the past.”

In Urchi the focus group participants said the

tsamdros in their locality which had exclusive rights with

certain families have now become a common property as

a result of the new Land Law, and no one could now

exclude the other.

In the study areas and in eastern Bhutan as informed

by one agency key informant, new land legislation was

either not explained to the herders or grossly distorted in

interpretation by individuals, resulting in more confusion

and uneasiness among the mobile herders as well as local

residents.

The data indicated that while herders despite making

strong claims to tsamdros are also unsure what the final

decision will be regarding mobile herding and the locals

in Brokser are even more concerned. For example, focus

group participants in Brokser mentioned, the local

authorities told them the government was going to take

over even the smaller grazing areas they had access to and

they will have to pay an annual fee of Nu 1000 per acre if

they wished to lease it back.

When asked what they understood about the

provisions on accessing tsamdros in relation to the new

land law, a male resident in his for early fifties from

Brokser said:


Namgay (2020) 19

“We are also … confused hearing issues like the government is going to close the tsamdros. We do not know what to do. But if such an opportunity is granted to us to utilise some of the tsamdros around our village, we of course have aspirations to rear more cattle … we

feel that an amount of Nu. 1000 per acre is very expensive for a simple farmer given the income from

animals is not substantial. I wish people here are given access to tsamdros around our village without having to

pay lease fees.”

However, the researcher crosschecked with the land

lease rules. The amount of Nu 1000 mentioned relates to

the lease of annual fee per acre for leasing government

reserved forest (GRF) land for commercial agriculture

and not for tsamdros. Even this amount has been reduced

to Nu 640. The lease fees for tsamdros is much lesser.

In all the study areas the provisions of the new land

law were not explained well to local people and in places

like Chumey gewog where some information was relayed,

it was with no clear mechanisms on how to lease tsamdros

and GRF land for pasture development and what the

process entailed.

When asked if the herders have heard about

possibilities of leasing GRF land for pasture

development, participants in Urchi said,

“… The Tshogpa told us about the possibility with government approval but nobody applied so far, we do

not know the procedures yet.”

A Tshogpa (village representative) during a focus

group in Brokser said the authorities told them that

Bumthang herders had the priority to tsamdros around

Brokser locality even if the government leased it back

after nationalisation:

“When we asked if we can get access to some of the

Bumthap tsamdros around our village, our local authorities told us that we can get only if those

Bumthaps [previous right holders] do not lease it back for themselves. In case they [Bumthaps] wish to lease it

back, they have stronger say over us.”

The information collected from mobile herder

communities and downstream locals demonstrates that

while the legislation has not been properly understood

both by local authorities and communities, little

information that was relayed by the authorities to

communities was incomplete with no understanding of

the mechanisms for leasing GRF land.

3.3 Strategies and institutional arrangements used to

avoid further conflicts

Tshebji herders in a focus group reported that because the

conflicts have been recurring in the past, some locals have

adapted and adjusted their cropping seasons to avoid

conflicts. While residents have started fencing the fields

paying special attention to critical entry points for the

animals, others have completely abandoned winter

cropping. The Tshebji focus group herder participants

said they also tie their animals and help the local erect

fences at critical entry points to their fields. A male

participant in his late fifties from Tshebji said:

“… they stopped certain crops and fenced others properly and we too take care of our animals strictly – we both have realised the inconveniences caused to us

both in the event of cattle destroying crops.”

The Kungkha residents hope to avoid conflicts in the

future through mutual respect and want the Jababs take

back all of their animals in summer and look after their

cattle well in winter. The focus group participants in

Kungkha said they needed to co-exist and respect each

other’s way of life. When asked how they think such

disputes with migratory herds coming from Jabana could

be resolved in future, a male resident in his forties

responded by saying:

“We don’t ask them to stop migrating or rearing cattle, it is their traditional practice and lifestyle and we need to co-exist. We just wish they do it as it used to be done

in the past and take back their cattle in summer and come only in winter and pay more attention to their

animals. As long as they take responsibility to take care of their animals, we should not have any problem.”

Although certain disputes continue as a result of

migratory animals straying into the crops of the local

residents, it appears the latter are tolerant as long as the

herders respect their local institutional arrangements to

compensate and take responsibility for after their animals.

3.3.1 Conflicts at local level are handled by local

institutions

It emerged from the focus group discussions that local

institutional arrangements existed either for allocating

resources within a village or for settling minor disputes

within the village. However, the jurisdiction and

effectiveness of such institutions appear to be limited to

their village and subject to parties’ agreement with the

decision passed by the local institution.

Focus group participants in Doshi, Kungkha, and

Tshebji indicated how and when such conflicts were

either settled within the gewog (local government for

group of villages) or brought to the court to settle their


Namgay (2020) 20

case. Tshebji herders and Kungkha residents said that

some of the cases of mobile herders’ cattle straying into

local crop fields have been settled amicably within the

village through the Thoksup (village crop administrator).

Similarly, a local mechanism existed to allocate tsamdros

among herders in Ura to graze in their common pastures,

and a system amongst Tshebji herders to use tsamdros

together for joint right holding. However, Tshebji herders

indicated that sometimes when the parties do not agree

with the decision of local Thoksup then it has to be

referred to judicial court.

3.3.2 Conflicts at a larger scale require higher level

intervention

When confronted with disputes or conflicts involving

parties from different district jurisdictions or when parties

fail to respect the decision of the local institutions, these

cases need intervention either from district administration

office or district court.

Herders in Bempu, Doshi, Urchi and local residents

in Brokser indicated that conflicts over tsamdro resource

use in the past have sought district administration and

judicial court intervention, sometimes reaching the high

court in Thimphu. An elderly focus group participant in

Bempu said:

“When we put up the case in Drungkhag court [sub-district court] in Phuntsholing, they [Chimups]

argued that in the past they too have contributed butter and meat tax to the government. However, the court passed the verdict in our favour because we had the

registration in our names. Since then they never grazed and we did not have formal issues with them.”

Once the court or district administration intervenes,

the parties must respect the verdict and restrict resource

appropriation within the boundaries set by the verdict.

However, herders indicated that the Land Act of Bhutan

2007 has and is fueling more conflicts and causing social

disharmony among mobile herders and residents

downstream living adjacent to tsamdros.

For example, an elderly Doshi herder with a

substantial herd size, indicated an ongoing case with the

downstream residents over access to tsamdro, as being

exacerbated by the new land law. His tsamdro was

reportedly grazed by downstream residents for which he

had sought clarification from the district administration.

His application was reportedly forwarded to the Ministry

of Home & Cultural Affairs (MoHCA), following which

a ‘status quo’ has been issued by MoHCA as per the old

land law (Land Act of Bhutan 1979). The status quo

allows for herders to continue migrating and utilise the

tsamdros in the south in winter as they have done for

hundreds of years until further notice.

During the interview with the herder in Doshi in

2010 he explained that the encroachers did not stop even

after the status quo had been issued. One herder reported

his pasture was again being grazed and he is expecting

further conflicts next season:

“… the residents have grazed …. about half of our tsamdros … prior to our arrival and we had a conflict ...

they have grazed even this year… Now … they are saying, as per legislation Bumthaps are not supposed to migrate down and they can graze in those tsamdros.”

While these herders faced with increased conflicts

are relying on the status quo issued by the government as

a temporary measure, rest of the herders and downstream

residents appeared confused because of the uncertain

nature of the new land law.

DISCUSSION

The study revealed the dynamics of conflicts mobile

herders face at their winter grazing areas and along the

migratory routes. It showed the local institutional

arrangements existed to resolve the issues traditionally

though at times it warranted authorities’ interventions. It

indicated when the polices are clear with firm legislation,

it is easier for local authorities to resolve local conflicts

as there is a basis to relate their judgement. It is when new

legislation in contradiction with previous understanding

and in contrast to local traditional systems is formed, it

makes everyone confused. Moreover, when these policies

are not informed well to those who are potentially

affected, people are confused and make their own

interpretations to suit their desire. The authorities too, in

absence of clarity in the legislation, are confused. It also

showed, how when the government development workers

are ignorant of local traditional arrangements, their

development interventions instead of being beneficial

yield unintended negative effects.

The results also suggested conflicts are partly

because mobile herders deploy different strategies to

exclude the locals from accessing tsamdros. Herders do

that because with the uncertainty of implementation of the

new Land Law, there is hope, the law could be repealed

someday. Problems leading to conflicts are not always

self-evident. As much as it is material, it is also perception

based. Therefore, prior to suggesting policy solutions, it

is important to engage stakeholders to understand the

perception of each stakeholder on the same issue (Adams

et al. 2003). Genuine participatory process, conducted

exhaustively in a transparent manner, will enhance

understanding of main problems leading to these

conflicts.

Government policies and interventions that fail to

recognize traditional institutions that have successfully

managed common local resources sustainably, often


Namgay (2020) 21

impose ban or restrict pastoral way of life. Such policies

also favor sedentary systems that is causing conflict with

pastoralists over resource (land, fodder, and water) and

passage access (Chakrabarti 2011; Greenough 2007).

Today, pastoralists are faced with conflicts either

directly with government policies or with farmers

because of the interventions promoted through these

policies (Chakrabarti 2011; Blench 2017). It is evident,

most of the conflicts the mobile herder face, whether it is

in Africa or Mongolia or Sikkim in India or Bhutan, they

have little contribution. It is often brought to them and

they end up at the receiving end. The grazing areas in

Africa are encroached by agriculturists and

conservationist with government policy supporting them

and yet herders are blamed (Blench 2017). Mobile herders

in Mongolia face competition from mining giants but

miners have state and donor support, while pastoralists

face degradation of environment and their livelihood

(Byambajav 2012; Upton 2012).

This supports similar findings by Chakrabarti

(2011) in the Sikkim State of India where government

policy aimed to completely halt mobile yak herding

system in contrast to their traditional way of governing

the commons. Policies restrict traditional way of life

before identifying and implementing interventions that

make a meaningful contribution to herders’ livelihood

(Chakrabarti 2011).

It is necessary to understand and respect local

institutional arrangements while implementing

development interventions lest some communities are

adversely affected in the name of development elsewhere.

When locals are consulted and facilitated well through

genuine participatory process, a workable solution is

possible. Additionally, a proper management plan, strong

community by-laws, an opportunity for learning

processes and strong involvement of local stakeholders

are found to be important components in managing such

conflicts (Wangchuk et al. 2006).

When there is lack of clarity of legislation or policy,

it ignites conflicts and defeats the intended purpose of the

very legislation, to bring peace and order in the society.

The old system of village representatives, now members

of parliament, going back to their constituencies and

explaining to subjects the new laws enacted and

resolutions of the parliamentary sessions is crucial

(Namgay et al. 2017). With the Land Act of Bhutan 2007

being implemented as it is, while writing this paper, it is

yet to be seen what implications it will result in livelihood

and wellbeing of the mobile herders. Nationalization of

tsamdros has now been completed. However, accessing

tsamdros on lease, as was foreseen in the new land law,

has not happened yet.

While previous rights have ceased with the new

legislation, herders are unsure of how the new leasing

scheme would play out. Meanwhile, some herders

continue to hang on to the previous rights while others are

too eager to make new claims. The result is more

conflicts, often getting violent and requiring police

intervention. On October 31, 2015 Kuensel, Bhutan’s

national print media reported police in Sakteng sub-

district in Trashigang district, investigating a case on

herder conflicts which involved physical feud and caused

injury (Tshering 2015).

4. CONCLUSION

Rising population and shrinking resource sizes does not

always result in neo-Malthusian situation and lead to

conflicts in pastoral societies. Adhering to age old,

sustained, local institutional arrangements and

participatory involvement of stakeholders, result in

amicable solutions. When these are ignored during

development process or creation of new legislation, it

creates confusion and brews conflict. It also indicates in

absence of clarity in rules, people would use all sorts of

tactics and intimidation to hang on to the resources while

others jump at the opportunity to counteract and grab it.

While exact impact on herders’ livelihood is yet to be

established, with the nationalization of tsamdro under

process, it will help to reinstate old system of MPs visiting

constituencies and briefing the subjects on new

legislations and resolutions. More importantly, it would

help if MPs consult their constituents and village elders

thoroughly prior to coming up with discussion on policies

or new laws in the parliament. As a good fence makes

good neighbors, it would be necessary to clearly

demarcate the pasture boundaries once leasing starts with

support for fencing materials. This will ensure sustainable

pasture management while maintaining harmony in the

pastoral society.

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23

Full length paper

DAIRY FARMING IN PUNAKHA: UNDERSTANDING CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES

PEMA UGYEN

District Livestock Sector, Dzongkhag Administration, Punakha


Copyright © 2020 Pema Ugyen. The original work must be properly cited to permit unrestricted

use, distribution, and reproduction of this article in any medium.

ABSTRACT: The study was undertaken to gain a deeper understanding of the constraints and

opportunities of dairy farming in Punakha District. The field survey was conducted using both

open and closed-ended structured questionnaire with dairy farmer groups in seven subdistricts

of Barp, Dzomi, Guma, Kabisa, Shelnga-Bjemi, Talog and Toedwang in Punakha district. A

total of 60 respondents; 30 existing milk suppliers of Pungdzong Dairy Farmer’s Groups and

30 non-milk suppliers, were drawn using a simple random sampling technique. The data were

analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences software version 20. The study found

that the daily mean milk production by each household was higher in DFGs which was found

to be 12.23 ± 7.89 litres in comparison to 8.75 ± 5.03 litres in Non-DFGs. The result showed the

majority (87%) of the respondents do not have improved pasture developed. Further, the area

of landholding under improved pastureland was only 0.44 ± 0.63 acres per household. Women

have a major contribution in all areas of dairy farming activities such as cattle herding, milking

and processing of milk into butter and cheese. It was found that 85% of the respondents were

ready to increase their milk production capacity despite of limited land holdings of 2-3 acres

per households being a limiting factor for dairy sector growth. To this, the land lease rules and

regulation formulated in 2018 allows the farmers to develop pasture in the state reserved forest

land under lease which provides opportunities for dairy commercialization. Further, the study

concluded that DFGs are ahead of Non-DGs in terms of milk production and dairy management

system, that provides avenue for linking smallholder dairy farmers to modern dairy value chains

which will be a special feature in encouraging Non-DFGs to form the groups for sustainable

milk production and marketing. Overall, there is good scope for the dairy value chain and

achieve milk self-sufficiency in the District.

Keywords: Dairy farming; dairy farmer groups; milk production.

1. INTRODUCTION

Dairy farming is a primary livelihood income for most

of the rural population in developing countries. In most

of the countries, milk produced by smallholder farmers

play an essential role in the dairy value chain, and milk

production contributes directly to household livelihood,

food security and nutrition (Chagunda 2016). The

global milk output was recorded at 811 million tons in

the year 2017, which is 1.4% higher than in 2016 (Food

and Agriculture Organisation [FAO] 2018).

Particularly in Asia, the milk output increased by 1.9%

with a significant contribution from India and China.

Dairying in Bhutan is a very important economic

activity to the farmers and a flourishing sector with

various resources and potentials. By volume, 21.88% of

liquid milk is consumed in the country out of 52,496

MT of milk produced in 2018 (Department of Livestock

[DoL] 2019). It has also reported that self-sufficiency

for fresh milk, butter and cheese combined is 88.80%

as of 2018 (DoL 2019). Dairy farming in Punakha

District is kept mainly for subsistence; however, the

trend is picking up towards commercialization. Out of

6,079 households in the district, 30.71% (n = 1867) of

the families owns dairy cattle (DoL 2018). The district

has 11,045 cattle heads with improved dairy cattle of

jersey and brown Swiss breeds accounting to about

30% of the total cattle population in the year 2017. The

DoL (2018) also indicated that close to 1251 MT of

milk is being produced in the district, achieving milk

self-sufficiency of about 62%. The rest 38% of the milk

shortfall is being imported from a dairy processing

company within the country as well as from India in the

form of fresh milk and tetra pack milk respectively. The

district has to put a further concerted effort to attain

self-sufficiency in the dairy sector by taking realistic

approaches. The district livestock sector during the 11th

FYP (2013-2018) had worked closely with relevant

stakeholders to enhance production, market access and

innovation in the dairy sector and is mandated to focus

on a similar approach of mainstreaming value chain in

12th FYP (2018-2023) as documented in 12th FYP of



Ugyen (2020) 24

Livestock Department (DoL 2019). The demand for

fresh milk and dairy products in the market is

increasing with high marketing scope, mainly from

urban settlement and neighbouring district (Regional

Livestock Development Centre [RLDC] 2015). Going

by this trend, the need for milk is anticipated to increase

further in the future with a growing population and an

increase in purchasing power. In addition, with the

increasing awareness on the importance of dairy

products in healthy diets, the demand for milk and milk

products is expected to increase in the future.

Therefore, this study was undertaken to gain a

deeper understanding of the constraints and

opportunities of dairy farming in Punakha District.

2. MATERIAL AND METHODS

2.1 Study area

Punakha district is located in the west-central part of

Bhutan and stretches over an area of 1,109.81 square

kilometers with an altitude of 1200–5400 meter above

sea level (National Statistical Bureau [NSB] 2017). The

district is administratively divided into eleven

subdistricts, with a population of 29,391 people and

6,079 households (NSB 2018). The favourable climatic

conditions make this district most suitable for dairy

compared to other districts. The study was conducted in

seven subdistricts; four existing subdistricts (Dzomi,

Guma, Kabisa, Toedwang) currently supplying the milk

at Milk Processing Unit (MPU), Khuruthang and three

subdistricts (Barp, Shelnga-Bjemi, Talo) which are near

and having potentials to deliver milk to MPU.

2.2 Research methods and sample size

The data were collected through a survey using both

closed and open-ended structured questionnaire. A

sample of 30 respondents was drawn using simple

random sampling technique from 108 registered

Pungdzong dairy group members currently engaged in

milk supply and marketing chain from four subdistricts

of Dzomi, Guma, Kabisa and Toedwang. Similarly, a

total of 30 respondents out of 76 registered dairy

farmers from three subdistricts of Barp, Shelnga-Bjemi

and Talo. This technique had been proposed confirming

each member had an equal probability of being chosen

through random draws using random calculating

function Microsoft Excel 2016. The top 30 samples

drawn from the sampling frame were surveyed from

both groups in July 2019 using semi-structured

questionnaire.

2.3 Data Analysis

The data collected from the survey were computed

using MS Microsoft Office Professional Excel 2016,

and the coded data were analyzed using Statistical

Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) IBM statistics

version 20. Both descriptive (mean, proportion,

crosstab) and inferential (Chi-square) (χ2) statistics

were used to analyze the data. Simple bar graph, pie

charts and contingency tables were used where

appropriate to interpret and present the survey findings.

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Socio-demographic information of the study

area

The socio-demographic information of the respondents

is presented in Table 1. From the total respondents

interviewed (n = 60), 16 were male and 44 female

respondents. The mean age of respondents in DFGs was

51.70 years and 53.53 years for non-DFGs indicating

the respondent selection was within the same age range.

Majority of the respondents were illiterate with

exceptionally some respondents having a primary and

secondary level of education. The household family

labour ranged between one to six members and farming

land between 0.25 acres to 6.30 acres.

Table 1: Socio-demographic information of the study area

Variable Groups Male Female Total No. of respondents

DFGs 6 24 30

Non-DFGs 10 20 30

Total 16 44 60 Level of education

Illiterate Primary Above secondary

Educational background

DFGs 23 7 0

Non-DFGs 21 6 3

Total 44 13 3

Mean Minimum Maximum

Age of respondents (Years)

DFGs 51.70 26 80 Non-DFGs 53.53 32 78

Household family labour (Nos.)

DFGs 2.97 1 6

Non-DFGs 2.37 1 5

Farmland (Acres) DFGs 2.02 0.25 5.00

Non-DFGs 2.64 0.50 6.30


Ugyen (2020) 25

3.2 Cattle population and milk production The finding reveals that the non-DFGs had a

maximum number of cattle holding (8.53 ± 4.99) in

comparison to DFGs with 5.70 ± 3.14 number of

cattle (Table 2). However, DFGs had a maximum

number of improved cattle breeds of 4.80 ± 3.14

cattle when compared to non-DFGs of 4.40 ± 3.45

number of cattle. The finding also shows that the total

daily milk production per household was higher in

DFGs which was found to be 12.23 ± 7.89 litres in

comparison to 8.75 ± 5.09 litres in Non-DFGs.

Similarly, the mean daily milk production per cow

was higher in DFGs which was estimated at 6.25

litres when compared to 3.60 litres in Non-DFGs.

3.3 Cattle housing and management system

Cattle housing differed significantly within the study

areas (Table 3). The result showed majority (70%) of

respondents had permanent shed over the temporary

shed. A day-out & night-in cattle rearing system is

predominant (72%) over the stall-feeding system. The

study found the presence of more permanent dairy shed

when compared to temporary shed in the district. In

contrast, Tamang and Perkins (2005) had found that the

majority of households had temporary cattle housing

made of wooden poles and a bamboo mat or plastic

sheet for roofing. The finding is conclusive that the

increased support of livestock sector to dairy farmers

with shed construction materials and awareness on

good dairy husbandry could have probably attributed to

the increase in the number of permanent dairy shed in

the district. Provision of such supports in the initial

years may have motivated farmers for dairy farming

which is evident and promoting element for the

presence of more permanent dairy shed in the district.

3.4 Availability of fodder resources and source

The findings on the availability of feed and fodder

resources in the study area (Figure 1) revealed that the

majority (87%) of the respondents do not have

improved pasture developed. Further, the area of

Figure 1: Availability of fodder resources and their resources

Table 2: Cattle population and milk production in the study area

Variable Groups Mean SD Minimum Maximum

Local cattle holding (Nos.) DFGs 0.90 2.14 0 10

Non-DFGs 4.13 5.13 0 16

Improved cattle holding (Nos.) DFGs 4.80 2.34 1 11

Non-DFGs 4.40 3.45 0 16

Total cattle holding (Nos.) DFGs 5.70 3.14 1 16

Non-DFGs 8.53 4.99 3 19

Milking cows (Nos.) DFGs 2.07 0.83 1 4

Non-DFGs 2.43 1.46 1 6

Morning milk production per household

(Litres)

DFGs 7.53 4.87 3.50 22.00

Non-DFGs 5.23 3.40 0.50 15.00

Evening milk production per household

(Litres)

DFGs 4.70 3.08 0.00 12.00

Non-DFGs 3.51 2.14 0.00 8.00

Daily total milk production per household

(Litres)

DFGs 12.23 7.89 5.00 34.00

Non-DFGs 8.75 5.03 1.00 23.00

Table 3: Number of respondents with the different cattle housing and management system Variab

le Type DFGs Non-

DFGs Total

Cattle shed

Permanent shed

23 19 42 (70%)

Temporary shed

7 11 18 (30%)

Total 30 30 60 (100%) Management system

Stall feeding

9 8 17 (28%)

Day-out night-in

21 22 43 (72%)

Total 30 30 60 (100%)


Ugyen (2020) 26

landholding under improved pastureland was only 0.44

± 0.63 acres per household.

To overcome this problem, farmers are dependent

on different sources of feed and fodder resources. By

proportion, the maximum feed resource comes from

winter oat cultivation and the minimum from enriched

fodder and others inclusive of vegetables, beverage

residues and tree fodder. Thus, the finding revealed

that dairy farmers were constrained with inadequate

feed and fodder resource due to limited landholding for

fodder development. This limitation is common with

most of the dairy farmers, though adequate fodder

resources are available to meet the nutrient requirement

of dairy cattle in the west-central region of Bhutan

(Bhujel et al. 2018).

However, this study found that the National Land

Commission of Bhutan had recently formulated the

land lease rules and regulation 2018 in order to

facilitate various socio-economic developmental

activities (National Land Commission Secretariat

[NLCS] 2018). With this policy change, dairy farmers

will have an opportunity to lease in the state reserved

forest land to develop Tsamdro (pasture) and enhance

feed and fodder development activities in the district.

The policy, financial and technical support is vital for

the progression of dairy activities. The overall national,

regional and district-level support for dairy

development program is strong. Dairy farmers are

guided by the strong policy as they play a vital role in

commercializing dairy production and fulfilling the

dairy commodity policy objectives (Sonam and

Martwanna 2011). The support for establishment and

conservation of fodder resources will lead to better

feed, higher productivity and reduction of feed costs for

the dairy farmers.

3.5 Household farm labour contribution

Respondents' views on farm labour contribution to

dairy farming activities shows that women have a major

contribution in all areas of dairy farming activities such

as cattle herding, cleaning of sheds, feeding, fodder

collection, milking and processing of milk into butter

and cheese (Figure 2). Among the 60 respondents, it

was reported that the work of cattle herding is mostly

done by women (50%). The dairy producers in this

study area rarely use their children and hired farm

labourer in dairy farming activities.

In this study, the contribution of children in dairy

farming is very less and contradicts to the findings of

Phangchung et al. (2002) who mentioned that children

also play a critical role in dairy farming especially for

cattle fodder collection, feeding and herding during off-

Figure 3: The proportion of respondents' plan towards

increasing milk

hour from the school. This could be attributed to an

increasing number of children being enrolled in schools

for education orthe children prefer staying away from

home in search of temporary jobs during off-hours and

they cannot make household labour contribution to

dairy farming. A similar conclusion was reached by

Tshering (2018) who reported that most youths stay

away from home seeking better opportunities in the

Figure 2: Farm labour contribution of family members


Ugyen (2020) 27

urban areas and they cannot extend help to their parents

in dairy farming.

3.6 The readiness of dairy producers towards

increased milk production

The study looked into the readiness of dairy producers

in increasing their production capacity. It was found

that 85% of the respondents were ready to increase their

milk production capacity through one or more of the

dairy farming activities; sourcing of good quality dairy

cows, growth from within farm through breed

improvement program, production of more on-farm

animal feeds, purchase of commercial feeds,

dependency on extension advice(Figure 3). By

proportion, the maximum outcome of 31% will rely on

on-farm growth of high yielding dairy cattle and the

minimum (7%) through timely extension advice and

supports.

4. CONCLUSION

This study highlights the constraints and opportunities

of dairy farming in Punakha district. The milk

production performance in the district implies that milk

production per household is attributed to the difference

in the type of dairy cattle owned, feeding and

management system. The major share in the total cost

of milk production was of variable cost and is important

to recognise that the cost of milk production should be

taken into consideration as a benchmark upon which to

base their milk pricing decisions. Remarkably, DFGs

are ahead of Non-DFGs in terms of milk production and

overall dairy management system. This is one way of

linking smallholder dairy farmers to modern dairy

value chains and will be a special feature in

encouraging Non-DFGs to form the groups to increase

their milk production and supply. There is good scope

for dairy value chain and achieve milk self-sufficiency

in the District by taking advantage of revised land lease

rules and regulation formulated in 2018 as it allows to

develop pasture in the state reserved forest land under

lease against the limiting factor of limited land holding

of farmers for dairy commercialization.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author would like to sincerely thank District

Livestock Officer and Livestock Extension Officers of

Punakha District for their boundless support provided

during the research works. Appreciation to all the

respondents for their cooperation, support and

providing all the valuable information without any

hesitations during the field works.

REFERENCES

Bhujel AK, Namgyel U and Rai BD (2018). Dry matter

content of fodder resources utilised by dairy

farmers' groups in west-central Bhutan. Bhutan

Journal of Animal Science, 2(1):70-74.

Chagunda M (2016). Assessing and managing

intensification in smallholder dairy systems for food

and nutrition security in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Regional Environmental Change, 16(8): 2257-

2267.

DoL (2018). Livestock Statistics 2017, Department of

Livestock, Thimphu, Bhutan.

DoL (2019). 12th FYP Write-up, Department of

Livestock, Thimphu, Bhutan.

FAO (2018). Transforming food and agriculture to

achieve the SDGs. [Online] available at:

http://www.fao.org/3/I9900EN/i9900en.pdf

[Accessed 21 04 2019].

Kaur I, Singh VP, Kaur H and Singh P (2012). Cost of

Milk Production in Punjab: A Pre-requisite for

Pricing Policy. Indian Research Journal of

Extension Education, Vol. 1, pp. 313-321.

Kumawat R, Singh N and Meena CL (2014). Economic

analysis of cost and returns of milk production, the

extent of adoption of recommended management

practices on sample dairy farms in Bikaner district

of Rajasthan. Global Journal Inc. (USA), 14(5).

NLCS (2018). Land Lease Rules and Regulations 2018.

National Land Commission Secretariat, Thimphu,

Bhutan.

NSB (2017). Punakha Dzongkhag at a Glance, National

Statistics Bureau, Thimphu.

NSB (2018). World Statistics Day, National Statistics

Bureau, Thimphu.

Phangchung, Dorji P, Sonam T and Peldon K (2002).

Sustainable development of smallholder dairy

farming in Bhutan. In PM Tulachan, Mohamed A

Jabbar and M Saleem (Eds.), Smallholder dairy in

mixed farming systems of the HKH (pp. 19-34),

ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal:.

Rai DB and Norbu PT ( 2011). Dairy Production,

quality control and marketing system in Bhutan. In:

SK Pal & MNA Siddiky (eds). Dairy production,

quality control and marketing system in SAARC

Countries. Dhaka: SAARC Agriculture Centre, pp.

25-52.

RLDC (2015). Regional Livestock Development

Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests.

[Online] Available at:

http://www.moaf.gov.bt/freshmilkforpunakha/[Acc

essed 27 05 2019].

Sonam T and Martwanna N (2011). Smallholder dairy

farmers' group development in Bhutan:

strengthening rural communities through group

mobilization. Khon Kaen Agriculture Journal, Vol.

39: 413-428.

Tamang N and Perkins J (2005). Cattle management

systems in humid subtropical areas of western

Bhutan. Journal of Bhutan Studies, 5:105-118.

Tshering G (2018). Dairy farming enhances household

income in peri-urban and rural areas of Choekor in

Bumthang, Bhutan. Bhutan Journal of Animal

Science, 2(1):107-111.

http://www.moaf.gov.bt/freshmilkforpunakha/%5bAcc

http://www.moaf.gov.bt/freshmilkforpunakha/%5bAcc



28

Full length paper

THE DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DOGS PRESENTED FOR THE CAPTURE-

NEUTER-VACCINATE-RELEASE (CNVR) PROGRAM IN BHUTAN

KARMA RINZIN1*, IAN D ROBERTSON2, HIRUKA MAHAT4, KEYUR PATEL3,

SATISH RAGHORTHE3 AND KINZANG DUKPA4

1Department of Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Thimphu, Bhutan 2College of Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch

University, 90 South Street Murdoch, Perth, WA, Australia 6150 3Humane Society International, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India

4National Centre for Animal Health, Department of Livestock, Serbithang, Thimphu, Bhutan


Copyright © 2020 Karma Rinzin. The original work must be properly cited to permit


ABSTRACT: A Capture Neuter Vaccinate Release (CNVR) programme was started in 2009

in Bhutan with the aim to control the dog population and the number of cases of rabies in humans

and other animals. As of 30 June 2013, a total of 48,051 dogs had been neutered and vaccinated

in Bhutan. A clear understanding of the dynamics of the owned and un-owned dog population

that were presented for the programme would enable better planning and targeting of resources

to maximise the benefits of this programme. The aims of this study were to: describe the

population demographics and health status of the dogs presented at the CNVR clinics. Analyses

were performed on data of 22,399 dogs processed at the CNVR clinic from 01 July 2011 to 30

June 2013, which had individual records of their owner, sex, age, neuter and pregnancy status,

and presence or absence of diseases such as transmissible venereal tumour (TVT), pyometra

and mange. More than half (53.3%; 95% CI 52.8 – 53.7) of the dogs presented to the CNVR

clinic were not owned (stray animals). The overall sex ratio in dogs was 1.2 males per female

(1.06:1 for the stray dogs and 1.4:1 for the owned dogs). The age distribution was highly

skewed towards the adult age groups in both the stray and owned dog populations.

Approximately one quarter of the dogs brought to the clinic had been previously neutered. A

higher proportion of owned dogs (32.7%) had previously been neutered than stray dogs (15.8%).

Approximately 5% of the dogs presented to the CNVR clinic had one or more health problems

(mange, TVT or pyometra). Stray dogs were at increased risk of acquiring a health problem

(OR = 2.75; 95% CI 2.40 - 3.16) and this highlighted the need for a sustainable programme to

look after both the health and welfare of the stray dog population. Of the 7,929 female dogs

that were neutered at the clinic, 6.5% were pregnant. The number of foetuses ranged from 1 to

11 with a mean count of 4.9 ±1.6 (n = 518). The mean foetal count was lower in juvenile bitches

(4.1 ±1.3) than in adult females (5.1 ±1.6). The mean foetal count in stray dogs (5.2 ±1.6) was

higher than in owned dogs (4.4 ±1.5). Pregnant bitches were seen thorough-out the year;

however more pregnancies were observed in September to December. To maximize the impact

of the programme, future CNVR programmes should target females (owned and stray) with

reinforcement of the programme at the time of the peak mating season.

Keywords: Bhutan; CNVR; demographic; dog population; free-roaming.

1. INTRODUCTION

In many developing countries, including Bhutan, there

are large numbers of free-roaming or stray dogs (Childs

et al. 1997; Kato et al. 2003; Kayali et al. 2003; Reece

and Chawla 2006; Totton et al. 2010c). Although

domestic dog plays an important role in human life, ,

they pose a significant public health threats through

dog bites and transmission of diverse range of zoonotic

diseases (Ashford et al. 1998; Robertson and Thompson

2002; Acha and Szyfres 2003c, a, b; Schlundt et al.

2004). It has been estimated that approximately 55,000

people die each year from rabies globally and infection

is mainly acquired from street dogs (WHO 1996, 2004).

In Bhutan from 1996 to 2009, a total of 814 cases of

rabies were reported in domestic livestock species, of

which cattle and dogs accounted for 55% and 39% of

the cases, respectively (Tenzin et al. 2011c). From 2006

to 2011, a total of 18 human deaths due to rabies (3 in



Rinzin et al. (2020) 29

2006, 2 in 2007, 3 in 2008, 4 in 2009, 1 in 2010 and 5

in 2011) were reported in Bhutan (BHMIS 2012).

Although domestication of dogs was initiated

14,000 years ago they retain some of their wild

instincts, including behaviours that can lead to attacks

on humans. Dog bites in humans are a serious public

health problem and have been well documented

worldwide (Bernardo et al. 2002; Feldman et al. 2004;

Gilchrist et al. 2008; Brooks et al. 2010; Cornelissen

and Hopster 2010; Hossain et al. 2013). A survey of dog

bites conducted in three hospital catchment areas in

Bhutan reported an annual dog bite incidence of 869.8,

293.8 and 284.8 per 100,000 population in Gelephu,

Phuentsholing and Thimphu, respectively (Tenzin et al.

2011b). There has been considerable media coverage

concerning the stray dog population, the risk of dog

bites and the public nuisance caused by free-roaming

dogs in Bhutan (Gyelmo 2011). The free-roaming dogs

also pose a threat to endangered wildlife species

through the transmission of diseases or predation

(Butler et al. 2003; Manor and Saltz 2003; Cleaveland

et al. 2007). Despite Bhutan being a popular tourist

destination, the presence of large numbers of free-

roaming dogs and incessant barking at night can have

an adverse effect on tourism (TCB 2010a 2011). In

addition, free-roaming dogs cause other problems

including fouling public places with excreta, causing

road accidents and putting pressure on the road users

(Robinson 1974). In addition stray dogs in the

developing countries suffer from poor welfare

conditions such as skin diseases, starvation,

malnutrition, high mortality and injury from road

accidents and abuse by humans (Jackman and Rowan

2007). The Bhutan National News paper (Kuensel)

issue on the 11th September 2011 reported the treatment

at the National Animal Hospital, Chubachu, Thimphu

of 64 dogs that were injured as a result of motor vehicle

accidents between January and August 2011 (Pelden

2011). This is likely to be an underestimate of the real

number of cases as many dog injuries would go

unreported.

Several strategies were implemented in the past to

control the population of free-roaming dogs and their

associated problems (WHO 1987; WHO and WSPA

1990; ICAMC 2007; OIE 2010). These include

population control through culling of unwanted dogs

and reproductive control, habitat control and legislative

measures including responsible dog ownership

(registration of dogs, restriction on number of dogs that

can be owned, providing food and shelter to the dogs,

confining of the dogs). However population control

through culling has been opposed by members of the

public and has not been effective as dogs from adjacent

areas moved in and replaced the culled dogs and

population growth from the surviving dogs quickly

repopulate the area where culling has been

implemented (OIE 2010). It has been demonstrated that

the combination of animal birth control (ABC) and

vaccination programme was successful in reducing the

size of dog population and elimination of rabies

incidence and improving the welfare condition of stray

dogs in the campaign programme area in India (Reece

and Chawla 2006; Reece et al. 2008; Totton et al.

2010c; Totton et al. 2011a).

Since the 1970s Bhutan has attempted several

measures to control the free roaming dog population

(NCAH 2006; UNDP 2008; Wangmo 2010). As a part

of the national rabies control programme, mass culling

of dogs was undertaken in the 1970s and 1980s. This

was discontinued as it was not effective in controlling

the dog population or the number of rabies cases, as

well as being heavily criticized by the Bhutanese

community. Impounding of stray dogs was

implemented in 2008, but was also discontinued due to

its associated costs and on animal welfare ground. Ad

hoc vaccination and sterilization of both owned and

stray dogs were initiated in the 1990s, however this was

not successful in controlling rabies or the dog

population due to the low coverage (below 20%)

compared with the recommended target of 75% (WHO

2004).

To address the chronic dog population and rabies

problem in Bhutan, the Humane Society International

and the Royal Government of Bhutan jointly embarked

on the National Dog Population Management and

Rabies Control Project in 2009. Through this project

dogs are caught, neutered, vaccinated and released back

to their place of origin. As of 30 June 2013, a total of

48,051 dogs had been neutered and vaccinated. A

clearer understanding of the dynamics of the owned and

un-owned dog population that were processed at the

Capture Neuter Vaccinate Release (CNVR) clinics

would enable better planning and targeting of resources

to maximise the benefits of the ongoing CNVR

programme in Bhutan. The aims of this study was to

describe the population demographics and health status

of the dogs presented at the CNVR clinics from July

2011 to June 2013.


2.1 National Dog Population Management and

Rabies Control Programme

The Department of Livestock of the Royal Government

of Bhutan and the Humane Society International (HSI),

USA initiated a pilot spay/neuter/vaccination program

or CNVR programme between February and June 2009

in Thimphu, the capital city of Bhutan. After the

success of this pilot project, the two entities signed a

memorandum of understanding in September 2009 and

formed a partnership to implement a long term project

titled the “National Dog Population Management and

Rabies Control Project” (NDPM & RCP) to undertake

a three to five year CNVR campaign.

The CNVR programme focused on sterilization

and vaccination of stray and owned dogs. All

procedures performed on dogs were approved by the

Murdoch University Animal Ethics Committee. All the

animal handling and surgical procedures were done by

veterinarians and para-veterinarians trained on the



standard HSI protocol for the CNVR programme.

Sexually intact dogs older than 4 months of age were

humanely captured by trained dog catchers using nets.

The owned dogs were either brought to the clinics by

their owners or collected from a designated place. The

dogs brought to the CNVR clinics were administered

xylazine (1mg/kg) and atropine sulphate (0.05 to

1mg/kg) as pre-anaesthetic medications and

anaesthetised using intramuscular ketamine at 15mg/kg

body weight. All dogs were given ivermectin (1% w/v)

injectable for parasite control. Benzathine penicillin

(11,000 to 22,000 IU/kg) and meloxicam (0.2 mg/kg)

were administered to prevent secondary bacterial

infection and to relieve pain, respectively. Male dogs

were castrated through a single prescrotal incision.

Bitches were sterilized by complete

ovariohysterectomy through a mid-ventral abdominal

incision. To identify the neutered dogs, they were ear

notched while anaesthetized using a cautery device.

After surgery the dogs were observed until they were

fully recovered from their anaesthesia and were then

either returned to their owners or to the place where

they had been captured.

A brief physical examination of the dogs was done

to assess their health condition as well as to check for

the presence of skin and other health problems. During

the surgery female dogs were examined for the

presence of pyometra and pregnancy.

2.2 CNVR data

As of June 2013 a total of 48,051 dogs and 2,636 cats

had been neutered and vaccinated in Bhutan (Figure 1).

Data were compiled separately for two different periods

i.e. from Feb 2009 to June 2011 (first phase) and July

2011 to June 2013 (second phase). There are no

electronic records of individual animals processed at

the CNVR clinic during the first phase. The data were

compiled and aggregated by district on a monthly basis.

During the first phase period 25,594 dogs were neutered

and vaccinated, of which 54.2% were strays.

From July 2011 onwards the CNVR team

recorded all cases in a database. The field data were

entered in an excel spreadsheet which were later

uploaded to the main database maintained at the

project’s headquarters. The short comings of the

previous recording system were addressed in this

second phase. Separate records for dogs and cats, as

well as records of animals that were only vaccinated or

those that were vaccinated and neutered were kept.

During this period a total of 22,399 dogs and 2,578 cats

were either neutered and vaccinated or vaccinated only.

2.3 Data Analysis

Analyses were performed on data of 22,399 dogs

processed at the CNVR clinic from 01 July 2011 to 30

June 2013, which had individual records of their owner,

sex, age, neuter and pregnancy status, and presence or

absence of diseases such as TVT, pyometra and mange.

Analyses were done using Microsoft Excel (Microsoft

Excel 2010, Redmond, USA) and Statistical software R

Figure 1: Number of dogs and cats nutered and vaccinated in two phase



(R Development Core Team 2013). Descriptive

statistics were performed and 95% CI for proportions

were calculated using the exact binomial method (Ross

2003). Chi-square tests were used to compare the

proportions of dogs presented between groups

categorised by gender, age, neuter status, owner status,

pregnancy status and presence or absence of disease

conditions. Reproductive parameters, including

proportion of pregnant females, foetal counts and

monthly pattern of pregnancy, were evaluated and

compared by age class and owner status. An

independent two sample student’s t-test was used to

compare the mean foetal counts of the pregnant bitches

between owned and stray dogs as well as adult and

juvenile bitches. The χ² Goodness-of-Fit test was used

to investigate the influence of season on the monthly

pattern of pregnancies. Risk factors associated with the

occurrence of various health problems such as mange,

transmissible venereal tumour (TVT) and pyometra

were assessed in different groups by odds ratios and

their 95% confidence intervals.

3. RESULTS

3.1 CNVR Programme in Bhutan

From February 2009 to June 2013 a total of 48,964 dogs

and 2,636 cats were presented to the CNVR Clinic

including 913 dogs that were brought from Indian

border towns. Of the total of 48,051 dogs neutered and

vaccinated in Bhutan, 22,443 were owned and 25,608

were stray. The details of the dogs presented to the

CNVR clinic are shown in Figure 1. The CNVR

programme was undertaken in all 20 districts of Bhutan

with the highest number of dogs neutered and

vaccinated in Thimphu followed by Samtse, Sarpang,

Paro, Chukha and Samdrup Jongkhar (Figure 2). The

lowest number of dogs (less than 1,000 dogs) were

vaccinated and neutered in Gasa, Lhuentse, Trongsa

and Haa.

3.2 Demographic characteristics of the dog

population.

The analysis reported in this paper was from a total

dataset of 22,399 dogs that were presented to the CNVR

clinic between July 2011 and June 2013, that had

individual data on their owner, sex, age, neuter and

pregnancy status, and presence or absence of disease

conditions. The demographic characteristics of the dogs

presented at the CNVR clinic during this two year

period are summarised in Table 1.

3.2.1 Sex ratios

Overall there were slightly more males (54.6%; 95% CI

53.9 - 55.2) than female dogs (46.1%; 95% CI 44.8 -

46.1) presented to the CNVR clinic (sex ratio of male:

female of 1.2:1 - Table 1). There was a similar

distribution of males (51.4%; 95% CI 50.5 - 52.3) and

females (48.6; 95% CI 47.7 - 49.5) with a sex ratio of

1.06:1 for the stray dogs. There was a greater proportion

of males (58.1%; 95% CI 57.1 to 59.0) compared with

females (41.9%; 95% CI 41.0 - 42.9) with a sex ratio of

1.4:1 for the owned dogs. Sex ratios of the stray dogs

were significantly different to that of the owned dogs

(χ² = 101.20, df = 1, p <0.001).

3.2.2 Age structure

The age distribution was highly skewed towards the

adult age groups (73.4%; 95% CI 72.8 - 74.0) followed

by juveniles (13.4%; 95% CI 13.0 - 13.7) and puppies

(13.1%; 95%CI 12.7 - 13.6). There was no significant

difference in the age distribution of owned and stray

dogs (χ² = 0.00, df = 1, p = 0.98).

Figure 2: A district map of Bhutan showing the total number of dogs vaccinated and neutered (shown as

proportional symbols) from February 2009 to June 2013 (n = 48051).



3.2.3 Neuter status

Approximately one quarter (23.8%; 95% CI 23.3 - 24.4)

of the dogs brought to the clinic had been neutered

previously. Not surprisingly a significantly higher

proportion of owned dogs (32.7%; 95% CI 31.8 - 33.6)

had previously been neutered than stray dogs (15.8%;

95% CI 15.1 - 16.4) (χ² = 886.38, df = 1, p <0.001).

3.2.4 Health condition

Most dogs presented to the CNVR clinics were

categorised as being in good health condition (84.9%;

95% CI 84.4 - 85.4). Significantly more un-owned dogs

(87.1%; 95% CI 86.5 - 87.7) were in good health

condition than owned dogs (82.5%; 95% CI 81.7 - 83.2)

(χ² = 136.06, df = 2, p <0.001).

3.2.5 Health problems

Of the dogs presented to the CNVR clinics, 4.8% (95%

CI 4.6 - 5.1) had one or more health problems (mange,

TVT or pyometra). Significantly more stray dogs

(6.9%; 95% CI 6.4 - 7.3) had a health problem than

owned dogs (2.6%; 95% CI 2.3% to 2.9%). The risk of

a stray dog having a health problem was 2.75 greater

than that of owned dogs (95% CI 2.40 - 3.16; χ² =

220.12, df = 1, p <0.001). The various risk factors

associated with occurrence of different health problems

are presented in Table 2. There was no difference in the

risk of mange in male and female dogs (OR = 1.02; 95%

CI 0.88 – 1.19), while male dogs were less likely to

have TVT (OR = 0.65; 95% CI 0.48 – 0.88). Intact

dogs were at increased risk of mange (OR = 4.02; 95%

CI 3.03 – 5.34) and TVT (OR = 4.19; 95% CI 2.33 –

7.54). Adult dogs were at increased risk of acquiring

pyometra (OR = 2.47; 95% CI 1.75 – 3.47) and TVT

(OR = 2.61; 95% CI 1.65 – 4.12), while they were less

likely to have mange (OR = 0.70; 95% CI 0.61 – 0.84)

than young dogs.

3.2.4 Reproductive parameters

Of the 7,929 females that were neutered at the clinic,

6.5% (95% CI 6.0% to 7.1%) were pregnant (Figure 3).

The pregnancy levels of owned (7.0%, 95% CI 6.1 to

8.0%) and stray dogs (6.2%, 95% CI 5.6% to 6.9%)

were similar (χ² = 1.80, df = 1, p =0.18). The foetal

count in pregnant bitches ranged from 1 to 11 with a

mean foetal count of 4.9 ±1.6 (n = 518). The mean

foetal count was significantly lower in juvenile bitches

(4.1 ±1.3, n = 90) than in adult females (5.1 ±1.6, n =

Table 1: Characteristics of dogs presented at the capture-neuter-vaccinate-release (CNVR) clinic from 01 July 2011 to 30 June 2013

Characteristics Total n (%) Stray n (%) Owned n (%) χ² P-Value

Sex

Male 12221 (54.6) 6033 (51.4) 6188 (58.1) 101.20 <0.001

Female 10175 (45.4) 5709 (48.6) 4466 (41.9)

Unknown 3 (0.01) 3 (0.03) 0 (0)

Age

Adult 16451 (73.4) 8627 (73.5) 7824 (73.4) 0.00 0.98

Juvenile 5948 (26.6) 1397 (26.5) 1607 (26.6)

Neuter status

Neutered 5336 (23.8) 1850 (15.7) 3486 (32.7) 886.38 <0.001

Intact 17063 (76.2) 9895 (84.3) 7168 (67.3)

Health condition

Poor 381 (1.7) 230 (2.0) 150 (1.4) 136.06 <0.001

Okay 3003 (13.4) 1285 (10.9) 1718 (16.1)

Good 19015 (84.9) 10229 (87.1) 8786 (82.5)

Presence of health problems

Yes 1085 (4.8) 807 (6.9) 278 (2.6) 220.12 <0.001

No 21314 (95.2) 10938 (93.1) 10376 (97.4)

Pregnancy status

Yes 518 (6.5) 304 (6.2) 214 (7.0) 1.80 0.18

No 7411 (93.5) 4569 (93.8) 2842 (93.0)



428) (t = 5.115, df = 516, p <0.001). The mean foetal

count in stray dogs (5.2 ±1.6, n = 304) was significantly

higher than in owned dogs (4.4 ±1.5, n = 214) (t=-5.401,

df = 516, p<.001). The monthly distribution of pregnant

bitches observed at the CNVR clinics during the two

year period is presented in Figure 3. Both owned and

stray dogs were found to be pregnant throughout the

year, although more pregnancies were found in the

period from September to December (Figure 3). The

pregnancy rates differed significantly between months

(χ² = 189.37, df = 11, p <0.001).

4. DISCUSSIONS

This study provides insights into Bhutan’s owned and

stray dog population that were presented to CNVR

clinics from July 2011 to June 2013. A total of 22,399

dogs had been neutered and vaccinated in Bhutan

during the study period of which 52.4% were strays.

Although similar CNVR programmes have been

undertaken in other countries, this is the only

programme covering a whole country with all 20

districts in Bhutan being included. This is a major

achievement given the high volume of CNVR coverage

and the logistical challenges in implementing such a

programme in scattered settlements across a rugged

geographical terrain.

It has long been recognized that understanding the

population dynamics of owned and stray dog

populations is required for successful rabies and dog

population control (Immink and Charbon 1988; OIE

2010). The availability of electronic records of

individual dogs during the two year period enabled

description of the population characteristics of both

owned and stray dogs. As the stray dogs are captured

by trained dog catchers and processed at the CNVR

Table 2: Risk factors associated with occurrence of various diseases of those dogs brought to the CNVR Clinic (a) Mange in dogs, (b) TVT in dogs and (c) Pyometra in female dogs that were neutered at the clinic

Risk Factor Disease No Disease Odds Ratio 95% CI P-Value

(a) Mange Owner status

Stray 528 11216 2.84 2.38 - 3.37 <0.001

Owned 174 10480 Gender

Male 387 11834 1.02 0.88 - 1.19 0.760

Female 315 9859 Neuter status

Intact 650 16412 4.02 3.03 - 5.35 <0.001

Neutered 52 5284 Age

Adult 468 15983 0.71 0.61 - 0.84 <0.001

Young 234 5713 (b) Traumatic-Veneral-Tumour (TVT)

Owner status Stray 139 11479 4.00 2.72 - 5.88 <0.001

Owned 32 10579 Gender

Male 75 12060 0.65 0.48 - 0.88) <0.001

Female 96 9995 Neuter status

Intact 159 16761 4.19 2.33 - 7.54 <0.001

Neutered 12 5297 Age

Adult 150 16160 2.61 1.65 - 4.12 <0.001

Young 21 5898 (c) Pyometra

Owner status Stray 155 4718 1.49 1.11 - 1.99 0.010

Owner 66 2990 Age

Adult 180 4935 2.47 1.75 - 3.47 <0.001

Juvenile 41 2773



clinic while owned dogs are presented on a voluntary

basis by their owners, there are potential sampling

biases and as such the demographic characteristics

reported in this study must be interpreted with caution.

Some studies in other developing countries have

reported the demographic characteristics of the owned

dog population (Brooks 1990; De Balogh et al. 1993;

Butler and Bingham 2000; Matter et al. 2000; Kitala et

al. 2001a; Kongkaew et al. 2004; Knobel et al. 2008;

Suzuki et al. 2008; Acosta-Jamett et al. 2010).

However, there are very limited studies that have

examined the demographical characteristics of stray or

un-owned dogs (Childs et al. 1997; Kato et al. 2003;

Reece and Chawla 2006; Reece et al. 2008; Totton et

al. 2010b; Totton et al. 2011b).

Even though the main focus of the HSI/ RGOB

CNVR programme was towards stray dogs, 47.6% of

the dogs presented were owned dogs. This high

percentage is likely due to effective dissemination of

information about the programme and involvement and

support provided by livestock officials in the districts

and sub-districts to the project team. Approximately

92.3% of the owned dog population (based on 2012

census) (22443 of 24320) had been neutered and

vaccinated from February 2009 until June 2013. This

high proportion may be due to underestimation of the

actual owned dog population from the census which is

focused on livestock and rural communities rather than

urban and pet animals. In order to come up with a

reliable estimate of the owned dog population, a

properly planned cross-sectional household survey in

both rural and urban areas should be undertaken (De

Balogh et al. 1993; Childs et al. 1997; Butler and

Bingham 2000; Kitala et al. 2001b; Kayali et al. 2003;

Flores-Ibarra and Estrella-Valenzuella 2004;

Horisberger et al. 2004; Gsell et al. 2012; Hossain et al.

2013). It is likely this would be cheaper, as well as more

accurate, than a census. Similarly population estimates

of free-roaming and stray dogs should be undertaken in

urban areas using wildlife techniques which are now

commonly applied for estimating populations of free-

roaming dogs (Caughley 1977; Bookhout 1994;

Sutherland 2006). These methods have been used in

several countries including Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cairo,

India, Nepal and Sri Lanka to enumerate free-roaming

dogs (WHO and WSPA 1990; WSPA 2009; Hiby et al.

2011).

In this study we found a similar distribution of

males and females (sex ratio of 1.05:1) for stray dogs,

although more males were owned than females (sex

ratio of 1.39:1). The preference for owning male dogs

is consistent with the findings of other studies and is

likely associated with avoiding the issues of oestrus in

female dogs or the likelihood of pregnancies (De

Balogh et al. 1993; Suzuki et al. 2008; Ratsitorahina et

al. 2009). The age distribution was more skewed

towards the adult age group for both owned and stray

dogs. There were fewer juveniles and puppies as a

reasonable proportion of the adult females had already

been neutered and the likely poor survival rates of the

Figure 3: Monthly pattern of female dogs neutered and proportion of pregnant bitches observed when spayed

during the CNVR programme in Bhutan from July 2012 to June 2013.



puppies. High mortality rates of puppies has been

reported in other studies undertaken in developing

countries (Brooks 1990; De Balogh et al. 1993; Butler

and Bingham 2000; Kitala et al. 2001b). Correct

records of the number of puppies born and those that

survived in both owned and stray dogs would be a

useful adjunct to better understand the dog population

dynamics.

In this study 15.8 and 32.7% of the stray and

owned dogs, respectively presented to the clinics were

already neutered. This demonstrates that some of the

dogs which had been neutered prior to the initiation of

the ongoing CNVR campaigns are still surviving. Ad

hoc neutering and vaccination campaigns have been

conducted in Bhutan since the early 1990s by the

Department of Livestock as part of an anti-rabies

campaign for both owned and stray dogs (NCAH 2006,

2007). As a result of these campaigns, in combination

with the removal of in-contact animals during rabies

outbreaks, outbreaks of rabies in animals are now

reported only from the Southern border districts

(Tenzin et al. 2010; Tenzin et al. 2011a; Tenzin et al.

2011c; Tenzin et al. 2011d). Recent outbreaks in the

interior part of the country have been associated with

the movement of domestic animals from the south

where rabies is still endemic (Tenzin et al. 2010; Tenzin

et al. 2011a; Tenzin et al. 2011c). The coverage of

previous campaigns has been below the WHO/WSPA

recommendations of 70%. These low coverages would

not be sufficient to significantly reduce the dog

population or to prevent an outbreak of rabies.

Most of the dogs observed at the CNVR clinics

were found to be in good health (84.9%), with very few

owned (1.4%) or stray (2.0%) dogs being in poor health

condition. This highlights that even stray dogs have

access to a reliable food source, most likely from the

predominantly Buddhist community. Approximately

5% of the dogs presented to the clinic had a

recognisable health problem. Not surprisingly a higher

proportion of stray dogs (6.9%) had health problems

than owned dogs (2.6%). Stray dogs were more likely

to have mange, TVT and pyometra. These differences

are likely to be associated with differences in

behavioural, hormonal and immunological factors

between the two populations (Reece and Chawla 2006;

Totton et al. 2011a; Yoak et al. 2014).

Approximately 6.5% of the female dogs that were

neutered at the clinic were found to be pregnant. The

pregnancy rates in the owned and stray dogs were not

significantly different which likely indicates that the

owned dogs were not continuously confined but had

access to males during oestrus. As expected lower

foetal counts were observed in younger dogs than in

adult females and similar findings have been reported

by others (Brooks 1990; Butler and Bingham 2000;

Kitala et al. 2001b). Stray dogs had a higher mean foetal

count than owned dogs. Pregnancies in both owned and

stray dogs were observed throughout the year, although

more pregnancies were reported in the months of

September to December (Figure 3). Higher pregnancies

have been observed in these months in similar studies

conducted in Jodhpur and Jaipur City in India (Reece et

al. 2008; Totton et al. 2010a; Hiby et al. 2011). To

maximize the impact of the programme, future CNVR

programmes should target females (owned and stray)

with reinforcement of the programme at the time of the

peak mating season (August to October).

In conclusion, this study provided insight on the

population demographics of the owned and stray dog

population presented to CNVR clinics in Bhutan. This

study will allow better planning and targeting of

resources to maximise the benefits of the ongoing

CNVR programme in Bhutan. As expected, stray dogs

are more prone to acquiring health problems and this

highlights the need for a sustainable programme to look

after both the health and welfare of the stray dog

population. The owned dog population are likely to be

the main source of stray dogs due to poor responsible

ownership (uncontrolled breeding and abandoning of

puppies). Therefore the CNVR programme should

focus on both owned and stray dogs by working closely

with the communities and the relevant stakeholders

through a one health approach in order to bring the free-

roaming dog population down to a manageable level. In

order to have a sustainable dog population control

programme, the CNVR programme should be

continued along with implementation of legislative

measures to ensure responsible dog ownership, better

habitat control through proper solid waste management

in the urban areas, as well as aggressive awareness

campaigns on the benefits of CNVR programme.

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38

Full length paper

SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BUFFALO FARMING IN SAMTSE DISTRICT

TASHI DHENDUP*

Department of Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan

*Author for Correspondence: [email protected]

Copyright © 2020 Tashi Dhendup. The original work must be properly cited to permit


ABSTRACT: The study was aimed to assess the socio-economic importance of buffalo

farming in Dorokha, Samtse, Lharini, Gumouney and Sipsoo gewogs under Samtse district.

A total of 34 households were purposively sampled and surveyed using semi-structured

questionnaire for the study. Data gathered were analyzed descriptively and multi regression

analysis was applied. The study found out that the socio-cultural and economic importance

of buffalo is declining in general, yet for those buffalo rearing households it still has some

importance during marriages as dowry, inheritance to children, gaining access to social and

financial services serving as surety or mortgage and serves as social status in the

community. Economic contributions from buffalo are similar to neighboring regions with

substantial contribution of 19.2% to the overall household income and 66.2% towards dairy

income. Among the household assets, household size and number of household members

with tertiary literacy level determines 25% of variance of buffalo herd size. Household size

significantly affected the buffalo herd size. Majority of farmers (94.1%) attribute decline

of buffalo population to fodder scarcity and non-availability of buffalo breeding bulls. With

the current level of policy and technical support from the government, buffalo farming is

doomed to decline further. Nonetheless, with appropriate and timely interventions

particularly subsidy on breeding inputs and pasture development policy could perhaps

revive and sustain the buffalo farming tradition.

Keywords: Buffalo farming; herd size; household income; socio-cultural importance;

subsidy.

1. INTRODUCTION

Agriculture farming in Bhutan is traditionally a

subsistence type based on integration of crop and

livestock. But livestock has more multi-functional roles

ranging from provision of food, manure, cloths and

draught power to provision of social security such as

insurance, mortgage and dowry. Cattle dominates

livestock species in Bhutan with over 90% of households

owning them (MoA 1999). However, the importance of

livestock varies depending on functionality, contribution

to household income and geographic locations. Buffalo

(Bubalus bubalis) is one of the versatile livestock species

fulfilling social, cultural and economic functions in

southern foothill districts in Bhutan Globally, buffalo

farming has significant contribution of milk and meat

product in south west and south-east Asia. Majority about

70 % of global buffalo population is concentrated in India

(98.5 million head), Pakistan (29.8 million head) and

Nepal (4.4 million head). Cruz (2010) reported an annual

increase in buffalo population by about 1.5 percent in the

aforementioned countries. Buffalo rearing dates back to

many years with population concentrated in warmer

regions of southern districts in Bhutan. Nonetheless,

unlike other buffalo rearing countries in the region the

buffalo population has declined sharply over the years

despite it possessing better productivity, reproductive

efficiency and higher economic return as compared to

local Siri cattle (Tamang et al. 2009). Nanda (2003) also

reported better performance of buffalo over the local

Indian cattle. However, the superior performance of

buffaloes couldn’t draw as much attention as cattle from

scientists, policy makers and other relevant stakeholders,

and to this the buffalo has remained as the “undervalued

asset” of the household in most of the livestock dominated

regions (FAO 2000). Similarly, despite buffalo farming

having significant contribution to the socio-economic

development of rural households had not received


Dhendup et al. (2020) 39

adequate policy attentions in Bhutan. In addition,

research studies were neither undertaken nor planned to

document the socio-economic roles of buffalo farming to

the rural household livelihood in Bhutan. Thus, this study

was conducted to document the socio-economic

importance of buffalo farming to rural populace under

Samtse district.


2.1 Site selection and characteristics

The study was conducted in five gewogs (sub-districts)

viz. Samtse, Sipsoo, Lharini, Dorokha and Gumouney of

Samtse district (Figure 1). Aforementioned sites were

selected due to highest numbers of buffalo rearing

farmers with buffalo population of 479 heads (DoL 2008)

in the country. In the district, buffalo farming spreads

from the lower plains to the hilly areas. Wetland

cultivation is an important activity with rice as the main

staple food, and the people also depend on maize, orange

and cardamom cultivation in the district.

The study area selected for the study lies

between 300 to 2100 meters above sea-level (masl) and

experiences mean annual rainfall of 1500-4000 mm, and

mean temperature ranges between 15 to 30 degree Celsius

(NSB 2010).

Figure 1: Study locations

2.2 Sampling and data collection method

Initially secondary data on buffalo population were

collected from the Livestock Statistics 2008 compiled

centrally by the Information and Management Section

(IMS), Department of Livestock (DoL). The data

gathered centrally was authenticated with records

maintained at the District Livestock Sector (DLS). The

DLS records 77 households rearing 356 numbers of

buffaloes in Samtse in 2008. However, on field

verification for the study recorded only 44 households

rearing about 181 heads of buffalo in five sub-districts

viz. Dorokha, Sipsoo, Lharini, Gumouney and Samtse.

From this total buffalo rearing households, 34 households

were purposively sampled for the study. The data on

economic variables, labor and inputs variables, household

assets and socio-cultural contribution were collected

using semi-structured questionnaires developed based on

the conceptual framework (Figure 2). In addition to the

field data specified in the socio-cultural conceptual

framework historical information on buffalo farming in

Bhutan and their future prospects was gathered using

focus group discussion.

The conceptual framework was adopted to assess

economic and socio-cultural contribution from buffalo

farming towards household income. Indicators relevant to

socio-cultural and economic are illustrated under

respective functions. Surety, which fulfills both socio-

cultural and economic functions, is shown as items with

dual functions.

Information gathered from the survey

questionnaires were validated with available secondary

information.

Figure 2: Framework of investigation of socio-cultural

and production functions of buffalo farming on household

income

2.3 Data Analysis

Data collected was analyzed using statistical software –

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS version

16). Descriptive statistics and multiple regression were

applied for data analysis. Multiple regression was

modeled as:

µi =β0 +β1Si + β2ei +εij

Where µi = Buffalo herd size for household i (i=

1…, ni)

Si = household size in nos. for household i (i=

1…, ni)

ei = household members with tertiary education

level in nos. for household i (i= 1…, ni)

εij= random errors, assumed to be independent

and N (0, σ2)

β0 = constant

β1= pooled within group regression coefficient

of household size



β2= pooled within group regression coefficient

of nos. of household members with tertiary

education level.


3.1 Socio-demographic profile of buffalo rearing

households

Table 1 shows socio-demographic information of the

respondents. Majority of respondents in the study were

male constituting 82.4% and remaining 17.6% were

female. The respondents involved in buffalo farming

consisted of five casts namely Chhetri (11.8%), Ghalley

(2.9%), Rai (20.6%), Sharma (32.4%) and Uraon (32.4%)

rearing buffalo.

Table 1: Social demography profile of the buffalo

rearing household

Parameters Percentage

Caste Chhetri 11.8

Ghalley 2.90

Rai 20.6

Sharma 32.4

Uraon 32.4

Gender Male 82.4

Female 17.6

3.2 Buffalo rearing system

Figure 3 illustrates the buffalo rearing system and their

interaction with different components. Inputs like feed

concentrate, roughage (straw) and molasses were

required for buffalo production. The input in the form of

household labor was required for buffalo rearing, but in

return buffalo also supplemented household labor

requirement.

Draft

Fodder

Labour

Milk

Butter

Cheese

Market

IncomePurchase inputs

Concentrate

Roughages

Milk

Cheese

Butter

Manure

Hides

Household

Land Buffalo

Forest

Forages

Leaf litter

Crops

manure

Figure 1: Buffalo rearing system framework

Major outputs from buffalo rearing were milk, butter,

cheese and draught power for ploughing land. Milk,

butter and cheese were either consumed at household

level or sold to the market to generate cash income. Forest

grazing and rice straws were the major roughage for

buffalo. Buffalo provided manure and draught power

which helps in crop production for sustenance of the

household system.

Due to less income generating options in the rural

areas, outputs especially butter and cheese constituted the

main income generating sources. Where there was labor

shortage, buffalo draught power also served as an

alternate and substituted the labor shortage issue through

hiring and bullock exchange system in the locality.

3.3 Buffalo husbandry practices

Majority of farmers do not provide shelter for buffaloes

with exception to calves. Calves are provided with shed

or kept close to homestead for about a year. Other

categories of buffaloes are tethered in the open field and

such practices is reported to saves household labor

through dung being directly deposited to agriculture field.

Buffaloes are let loose and taken for grazing in the

forest beside grazing freely in open field. Buffaloes were

also left to graze the of fodder or grasses along the

waysides. The buffalo in general were found to graze in

the open field freely for around 7-8 hours a day. Farmers

reported that buffaloes prefer to browse on their own than

feeding cut forages. The animals are tethered in the

evening, and fed rice straw which is the major roughage

source and looped green fodder. Rice bran and hulls were

also fed whenever available. Farmers reported that

commercial concentrate feed are fed to milking buffaloes

only.

Farmers in general believe that buffaloes are more

resistant to diseases as compared to cattle. Nonetheless,

worm infestation and tick infestation in buffalo are

reported as the most important problem encountered by

61.8% and 20.60% respondents, respectively. Farmers

reported that diseases such as Foot and Mouth Disease

(FMD), Black Quarter (BQ) and Hemorrhagic Septicemia

(HS) are the common concern in cattle farming but it is

not a threat to buffalo. The respondents reported that

wallowing (locally known as aal khel) at least once a day

for buffalo is necessary to cool their body temperature,

and having access to wallowing result into enhanced milk

production. Farmers in general preferred to rear one or

two cattle along with buffalo herd to improve market

access for buffalo products in particular to butter. The

farmers interviewed reported that the butter of buffalo

being whiter in color than the butter of cattle is not

preferred by the consumers readily.

3.4 Buffalo breed preference

Figure 4 shows the buffalo breed preference by the

farmers under Samtse district. Murrah buffalo locally

known as Gujarati is highly preferred due to high milk

producing capacity, followed by local breed. Dobla the

crossbreed between the local and Surti breed followed by

Kagay is the least preferred buffalo breed mainly due to

its’ low milk producing capacity and small body size. The



study found that 85.3 % respondents preferred Gujarati

followed by local (11.8%) and 2.9 % for the Dobla.

Figure 2: Buffalo type preferences by respondents

3.5 Sources of livelihood

The households surveyed in this study are mostly depend

on livestock rearing, crop cultivation and partly on

horticulture for their livelihood. The study recorded that

more 90 % of respondent are dependent of mixed crop-

livestock farming for their livelihood, and the rest are

dependent on business and off farm activities for

livelihood sustenance.

3.6 Socio-cultural beliefs and importance of buffalo

In contrast to cattle, people associate and perceive buffalo

as unholy. This is due to their association with water that

buffaloes need for wallowing “aal khel (wallowing or

puddling in marshes and ponds)” on daily basis in dirty

ponds and marshes. The belief that buffalo emerged from

ocean also culminate it as unholy animal. In addition,

buffalo by myth is considered as ghost or demons as such

milk and milk products of buffaloes were not used in the

religious offerings. In line, unlike cow dung which is

popularly used for plastering homes, buffalo dungs were

not used in plastering homes attributing to the above

myth. However, there is a logical reasoning for not using

buffalo dung for plastering of homes. The buffalo dung is

comparatively finer and smoother than cow dungs and

when plastered, it tends to peel off unlike the cow dung.

The exact date when buffalo rearing started under

Samtse district could not be traced. But most respondents

in this study claimed that the buffalo was reared since

their grand parents’ time. The study areas fall under

different topographical settings and buffalo rearing was

found to be accustomed in accordance to topography and

its importance. For instance, farmers in Dorokha gewog

reared buffalo only for milk and manure, and are never

used for draught purpose. Whereas, in the lower plain area

buffaloes are reared for milk, meat manure and draught

too.

Among Hindus, some castes eat buffalo meat as

such these groups prefer to rear buffalo than cattle. Even

if a buffalo dies accidentally or otherwise, there is a

saying that “Charo khuto moryo bune eek khuto uben

cha” which means that they will recover the cost of one

limb even if four limbs die. Therefore, at all times some

part of household income is assured from buffalo carcass.

The age-old tradition like bullock carts or ranga

gari (bullock carts drawn by buffalo bulls), marts and

melas, bull fights are lost due to socio-economic

development and better road connectivity. Today, most of

the cart wheels drawn by the buffaloes in the past can be

seen hanging on the walls. Currently, buffaloes are only

used for ploughing in the study area. Most respondents

(73.5%) reported that the buffalo has a socio-cultural

Figure 5: Percentage of households against respective social attributes

0

20

40

60

80

100

Kagay Dobla Gujarati Local

0 2.9

85.3

11.8Pe

rce

nt

pre

fere

nce

23.5

14.7

64.7

41

52

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Dowry

Gift

Inheritance

mortgage

Status symbol

% Respondent

Soci

al A

ttri

bu

tes



significance, and it is changing or dying. Buffalo is

inherited to their siblings as reported by 64.7% of the

respondents in this study, and 23.5% of the respondents

reported buffalo as a medium of payment for dowry

during marriages (Figure 5).

While the tradition of doya (requesting for buffalo

from relatives and neighbors) are rare now, 14.7%

responded that they still gave buffalo as gifts to their

immediate friends and family. In most areas, having large

herd of buffalo is still considered as rich and affluent

individual in the community. The study observed that all

family members are engaged in buffalo farming but

differs in time of engagement. In average father was

found to be engaging more time about 8.6 hours a day

managing buffaloes. The other household members also

shared their time on buffalo farming (Table 2).

All respondents interview reported that buffalo do not

have any religious significance in contrary to the findings

of Tamang et al. (2009), who reported use of buffalo as

sacrificial animals. It was also observed that none of the

products from buffalo were used in the festivities and

religious offerings in the study areas.

Figure 6: Annual income (Nu) contribution from various

sources

3.7 Income from buffalo farming

Figure 6 and 7 represents different annual income sources

for the buffalo rearing households. Income from various

sources was assessed to determine proportion of income

contributed through buffalo rearing to the household

annual income. The study recorded the highest mean

annual income of Nu. 13529.41 from dairy farming,

followed by Orange and Arecanut farming of Nu. 5000

and 4852.94, respectively. The household also generate

additional cash income through engagement in off farm

activities and sale of vegetable and cardamom.

On further assessment of annual income generated

for the household from dairy farming, the study observed

that buffalo farming contributed to 66.2% of the total

annual income of the household. It was observed that

most respondents do not market fresh milk but they

processed into butter and cheese for home consumption

and excess produced are sold. The sale of butter and

cheese contributed to 55% and 23 % of the household

annual income, respectively. The remaining income of

about 22 % was contributed through hiring of draught

animals (Figure 6). The dung produced by buffaloes are

not monetized and not included in the income source for

this study as it is used to fertilize the agriculture field

directly.

Live buffalo serves as a living bank and it is highly

valued by the farmers. The use of live buffalo as a surety

4416.76

4852.94

5000

13529.41

1176.47

7941.18

0 5000 10000 15000

Ginger

Off farm

Arecanut

Dairy

Rice

Orange

Nu.

So

urc

e o

f in

com

e

Table 2: Daily engagement of household

members in buffalo farming

Family member Time allocation (hr)

Father 8.6

Mother 1.7

Children 1.4

Hired Labor 1.1

Figure 8: Respondents' opinion on the buffalo population

trend

55.3

23.0 21.7

Butter Cheese Draught hire

0

15

30

45

60

Income sources

% c

on

trib

uti

on

Figure 7: Income contribution (%) from buffalo milk

and milk products

94.1

5.90

0

20

40

60

80

100

Decreasing Same Increasing

Per

cent

Status of buffalo herd size at farm level



to acquire loans and lending was reported by 48.8% of the

respondents in this study. The mean value of female and

male buffalo reported during the study period was about

Nu. 17588.24 and Nu. 18661.76, respectively. However,

the value of buffalo was found to vary based on the

location and utility. For instance, the price range for

buffalo bulls was found higher in the lower plains as

compared to mid altitude region mainly due to utility

purpose of ploughing field in lower plains area. The study

recorded that the buffaloes are not used for draught power

in Dorokha gewog.

3.8 Influence of household assets on buffalo farming

Table 3 shows the household assets and distribution of

household members with different educational levels in

the study areas. The study recorded highest and lowest

mean household member size of 14 numbers and 5.8

numbers in Lharini gewog and Ghumouney gewog

respectively. Whereas, Dorokha and Samtse gewog

recorded the highest and lowest mean land holding size of

7.5 acres and 1.2 acres, respectively.

Linear regression on buffaloes (in LU) as

dependable variable was carried out to assess the

influence of household assets on buffalo herd size.

Among the assets assessed, household size significantly

(p<0.05) affected the buffalo herd size. For every unit

increase in household size, buffalo herd size increased by

0.24 LU. Similarly, the number of household members

with tertiary education level significantly (p<0.05)

affected the buffalo herd size. For every unit increase in

the number of household members with tertiary education

level, buffalo herd size increased by about 0.49 LU in the

study area. These household assets explained only 25% of

variation of buffalo herd size in the study area.

3.9 Perceptions on the future of buffalo farming

A decline in buffalo population both at household and

village level was reported. Of the total respondents in this

study, 94.1 % reported that the buffalo herd size had

decreased at the household level, and the remaining

reported that the herd size have not changed over the time

(Figure 8). The main reasons attributing to decline in

buffalo population as reported by the respondents are feed

and fodder shortage (85.3%), non-availability of breeding

bulls (70.6%) and sale of live buffalo (41.2%). A few

respondents about 5.9% reported low economic returns as

Table 3: Mean (± SD) household assets and distribution of household members by education levels in study area

Gewogs

HH Assets Dorokha Sipsoo Lharini Samtse Gumouney

N 12 11 4 2 5

Total HH Size 6.9 ± 3.9 9.1 ± 4.1 14 ± 4.3 6 ± 2.8 5.8 ± 0.8

Total Land Holding 7.5 ± 8.7 5.1 ± 5.1 5.3 ± 2.7 1.2 ± 1.0 5.7 ± 6.4

Total large ruminants 13.5 ± 12.7 9.5± 4.0 18 ± 4.5 8.5 ± 2.1 5 ± 1.5

Education level Primary 2.5 ± 1.9 1.2 ± 1.1 2.5 ± 2.5 0 ± 0 1.8 ± 0.8

Secondary 1.3 ± 1.6 0.8 ± 1.1 1.5 ± 1.0 1 ± 0 0 ± 0

Tertiary 0.5 ± 0.9 0.3 ± 0.9 1.5 ± 1.7 0.5 ± 0.7 0 ± 0

No Education 2.2 ± 2.5 6.1 ± 4.1 3.0 ± 0.8 4.5 ± 3.5 3.6 ± 1.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Non-avail. B.bull

Slaughter

Live buff. Sale

F.& fodder shortage

Not profitable

Respondents (%)

Figure 9: Causes of buffalo population decline



one of the causes for decline in buffalo population (Figure

9). The other factors reported to have contributed in

decline of buffalo population in study areas are drying up

of wallowing ponds, labor shortage, schooling, rural-

urban drift, and shrinking of grazing areas. On the future

buffalo rearing prospects, 82.4% farmers responded that

they will continue rearing buffalo in the future, while

8.8% of the farmers said that they will stop rearing buffalo

in the future. 8.8% of the respondents said that they will

increase their present herd size and rear buffalo in future

(Figure 10).

There is a clear indication of the need for buffalo

breeding bull in the study areas. 44.1% of the respondents

were of the view that the supply buffalo breeding bulls by

government could help reviving and sustaining buffalo

rearing. While 35.3% suggested artificial insemination, if

introduced could boost up buffalo rearing. Another 11.8%

of the respondents felt that the government land lease and

other input subsidy could revive and sustain buffalo

rearing (Figure 11).

3.10 Socio-cultural and economic significance

In general, socio-cultural traditions that had relation to

buffalo is decreasing in the study areas. This is in contrast

to the strong prevalence of traditions such as dowry

during marriages and buffalo recreations like bull-cart

racing, bull racing, buffalo ploughing contest and bull

fights in Pakistan and India (Iqbal et al. 2009). The

decreasing roles of buffalo in socio-cultural and traditions

activities could be attributed to the availability of other

alternative gifts during marriages and other entertainment

alternatives in the study areas. The other reasons could be

lesser dominance of buffalo farming as compared to cattle

and weak policy and technical support rendered in

promotion and development of buffalo in the country.

The contribution from dairy accounts to about

66.2% of annual household income, and the study

recorded that buffalo farming alone contributed about

19.2% shares to the annual household income. The

findings on income contribution from buffalo farming in

study area was found similar to the observations of Nanda

and Nakao (2003), who reported contributing to about 10-

25% of household income from buffalo in the region.

Despite similarities of findings, income contribution

from buffalo in our context could possibly be over-

estimated due to respondents’ inability to exactly quantify

the milk and milk products of buffalo and other cattle

separately. Milk from buffalo and other cattle in first

place are not recorded and it is processed together.

Buffalo farming although may not be popular in the study

Table 4: Regression coefficient for selected variables buffalo (in LU) as dependent variable.

ls mean s.e1 regression s.e

Buffalo Herd Size (LU) 3.87 0.91

Household size (No) 0.24* 0.12

No. of HH members with tertiary education (No) R2 full model: 25%

0.49 0.50

1 standard error; * p<0.05

Figure 10: Perception on future of buffalo rearing

Figure 11: Respondents expectations from the

government

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Continuerearing

Stop rearing Increaseherd

% R

esp

on

den

t

0 10 20 30 40 50

Supply breeding bulls

Supply replacementstocks

Introduce AI

Others..land lease, etc

Respondent (%)



areas, it however, has the potential given its sturdy

characteristics, strong resistance to diseases and cultural

acceptability of certain caste of people.

3.11 Influence of household assets on buffalo farming

Household assets possession significantly affected the

buffalo herd size (Table 4). When the household size is

bigger, it is more likely that there will be more labor

availability and the household could afford to rear more

buffaloes. Further, when there are more family members

in a household, they can afford to engage in other

activities as well. It is also likely that if the household size

is bigger, the opportunity to attend school and vocational

or agricultural trainings is more. This may affect in

decision making and favor buffalo rearing. This finding

confirms to the findings of Tamang et al. (2009), whereby

one of the causes of buffalo population decline in Bhutan

was attributed to labor shortage. Similar findings were

also reported (Nanda and Nakao 2003) and Cruz (2007).

3.12 Influence of household assets on future of buffalo

farming

Majority of the farmers (94.1%) are of the view that the

population of buffalo in the study area is decreasing. The

main reasons attributing to decline in buffalo farming are

feed and fodder shortage (85.3%) and non-availability of

breeding bulls (70.6%) (Figure 9), which is in line with

the findings of Tamang et al. (2003). Nanda and Nakao

(2003) reported rapid urbanizations resulting in shrinking

of grazing areas as one of the causes of buffalo population

decline in neighboring regions.

With the enactment of Land Act (2007), it could

further exacerbate feed and fodder shortage hence urgent

interventions in the form of government land lease for

pasture development and subsidy support for breeding

inputs is essential to revive and sustain buffalo farming

tradition. About 44.1% of the respondents had similarly

expressed the need of buffalo breeding bulls while 35.3%

expressed the need for AI services.

4 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Buffalo farming is a multi-functional enterprise. Buffalo

farming system is not bound simply to livestock farming

alone but has inter-linkages to crop farming and

surrounding natural resources. It has both economic and

socio-cultural importance. Socio-cultural importance,

although may be on a decline, it still has some importance

for: marriage serving dowry, family cohesion serving as

parental inheritance to children, building social status

serving as wealth, gaining access to social and financial

services serving as surety or mortgage.

Economic contributions from buffalo are similar to

neighboring buffalo rearing countries in the regions with

substantial contribution of about 19.2% to the overall

household income and 66.2% towards dairy income.

However, assessment could possibly be slightly

overestimated with the failure to distinctly identify

buffalo products from other cattle products.

Among the assets, household size and number of

household members with tertiary literacy level

determines 25% of variance of buffalo herd size.

Household size significantly affected the buffalo herd

size. Majority of farmers (94.1%) attributes decline of

buffalo population to fodder scarcity and non-availability

of buffalo breeding bulls.

With the current level of policy and interventions

from the government, the buffalo farming is doomed to

decline further. Nonetheless, with appropriate and timely

interventions particularly subsidy on breeding inputs and

pasture development policy could perhaps revive and

sustain the buffalo farming tradition.

A comparative assessment of contribution of buffalo

and cattle is recommended to understand the relative

socio-economic importance of cattle and buffalo.

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47

Full length paper

STAPHANOFILARIAL DERMATITIS (HUMPSORE) TREATMENT TRIAL IN TASHICHOLING,

SAMTSE DISTRICT

SANGAY RINCHEN*1, KARMA WANGDI2, SONAM JAMTSHO3, KARMA

WANGCHUK4, KARMA TSHERING4, BINDHU PARAJULI4, YANGCHEN DEMA4 AND

BASANT SHARMA4

1National Centre for Animal Health, Department of Livestock, Serbithang, Thimphu 2Animal Health Division, Department of Livestock, Thimphu 3Thromde Veterinary Hospital and Satellite laboratory, Department of Livestock, Chukha 4Regional Livestock Development Centre, Department of Livestock, Tsimasham, Chukha


Copyright © 2020 Sangay Rinchen. The original work must be properly cited to permit


ABSTRACT: Humpsore is a skin disease in cattle caused by a vector borne nematode belonging to

the genus, Staphanofilaria. To select a treatment option with the highest sore recovery rate, a

treatment trial was conducted in four villages under Tashicholing Drungkhag, Samtse involving 80

humpsore affected animals. These animals were randomly assigned to four groups namely: 1) group

1 (single ivermectin injection sub-cutaneously @ 1ml/50 kg body weight + topical application of

Zinc Oxide (ZnO) ointment daily); 2) group 2 (single levamisole HCl injection sub-cutaneously @

1ml/50 kg body weightt + topical application of Zinc Oxide (ZnO) ointment daily); 3) group 3

(Topical application of Zinc Oxide (ZnO) ointment daily); and group 4 (untreated control). ZnO

ointment was applied daily for the entire trial period. Ivermectin and Levamisole injection was given

on the second day of the trial. The sore size (in cm) was measured before application of any

treatment and thereafter on weekly interval. The change in mean sore size for each group was

computed using a one sample t-test while the comparison between group was made using one-way

ANOVA and pair-wise t-test. In total 24 deep lesion scrapings were collected from the animals that

were enrolled in the trial as well as from those which were not. Samples were processed using

conventional sedimentation method and the Baermann’ technique for recovery of the parasite. By

the end of the trial, complete healing of the lesion was observed in 14 (70%) animals under group

1, 12 (60%) under group 2 and 13 (62%) under group 3. Analysis showed that the reduction in the

mean sore size for all the group was statistically significant (p <0.0001) except for the control group

(p=0.06). There was no statistically significant difference in the mean sore size between the groups

before the start of the trial (p=0.24). By the third week, the difference in the mean sore size for all

the treatment groups, group 1 (p <0.0001), group 2 (p <0.001) and group three (p <0.0001) was

statistically significant difference from the control group. Microfilaria was isolated in 9 of the 24

samples with a microfilaria recovery rate of 37.5%. This study has further validated that ivermectin

injection @ 1 ml/50kg body weight with topical application of zinc oxide ointment for three weeks

has the highest efficacy against humpsore. It also proposes a speculation, for further validation, that

isolating active microfilaria is more likely in samples that are collected in the later part of the day.

Keywords: Bhutan; humpsore; microfilaria; parasitic dermatitis; Staphanofilaria assamensis.

1. INTRODUCTION

Staphanofilarial dermatitis, commonly called as

humpsore, is a vector borne skin disease caused by a

nematode parasite belonging to the genus

Stephanofilaria. The muscid flies are known to be the

common biological vector for the parasite (Saparov et al.

2014). Based on the species of parasite affecting their


Rinchen et al. (2020) 48

host, the lesion can be found in different parts of the body.

For instance, S. assamensis is known to cause a condition

called humpsore as the lesions in animals are commonly

seen on and around the hump. While the S. stilisi usually

affects the ventral line of the host’s body. The lesions are

characterized by alopecia and ulcerative nodular

dermatitis in cattle. Humpsore is mostly prevalent in the

Indian sub-continent and south-east Asian countries (Rai

et al. 1994). The impact of this disease is numerous.

Besides compromising the animal welfare, economic

loses result from the lose of hide value, draught power,

decreased milk production, and decreased growth rate are

reported (Rai et al. 2010). In Bhutan, humpsore is highly

prevalent in the southern foothills of the country with hot

and humid weather conditions that favour biting fly

activities. In a study conducted at Sarpang Dzongkhag,

Dukpa et al. (2008) reported humpsore herd prevalence of

36.3%. Treating humpsore is difficult as it requires a

multifactorial approach targeted towards management of

the parasite, biological vector, and environment.

Approaches aligned towards any one of these has yielded

no success, and if at all, just for a transient period. As

early as 1948, researchers have conducted several

treatment trials using different parasiticides such as

acriflavine, anthiomalin, anthisan, antimony tartarate,

fenitrothin formula, florocid, formalin, levamisole,

methyridine, promintic, sodium arsenite, suramin, tartar

emetic, tetramisole, tobacco extract, vaseline, neem leave

extract and reported varying efficacy (Rai et al. 1994;

Dukpa et al. 2008; Al Masud et al. 2017; Johnson 1989;

Ibrahim et al. 2013; Singh et al. 2014). In a maiden study

conducted in Bhutan, Dukpa et al. (2008) reported that the

combination of ivermectin injection and zinc oxide

ointment showed the highest treatment efficacy rate of

85% followed by the group comprising of the

combination of levamisole and zinc oxide application

(80%), Salycilic acid and butox ointment (75%) and

Coumaphous ointment (70%). However, the trial

involved only 20 animals. There are no trials conducted

thus far in other humpsore endemic parts of the country.

Humpsore has remained a persistent problem in the

southern parts of the country inflicting heavy economic

loses to the marginal farmers and compromising animal

welfare. Therefore, this trial was conducted to identify

and document the most effective treatment option against

humpsore and their associated benefit in veterinary

medicine indenting and supply at the field level.


2.1 Study area

Of the two southern districts, Chukha and Samtse, under

the western region of Bhutan, Samtse reports the highest

number of humpsore cases. Therefore, Samtse was

selected for the trial. Under Samtse dzongkhag, several

sub-districts report humpsore in cattle. However, based

on the convenience (logistic), Tashicholing was selected.

Humpsore affected cattle from four villages namely,

Dewachen, Peljorling A, Peljorling B and Norgangsa

under Tashicholing geogs were enrolled. Tashicholing is

a sub-tropical sub-district. The annual average maximum

temperature during 2017 was 29.1 degrees centigrade and

the annual average minimum temperature was 18.3

degrees centigrade. The annual total rainfall received was

5763.2 mm that year.

2.2 Study design

Before the start of the trial, two days meeting was

arranged with the dairy farmers who owned cattle that

were affected with humpsore from the selected study

areas. This meeting was organized to sensitize them about

the study and obtain their consent to participate, besides

educating them on the pathogenesis, treatment options

and prevention of humpsore in cattle. The meeting also

provided us an opportunity to learn about the

ethnoveterinary practices that are currently used to treat

humpsore.

After the meeting, with the help of the gewog livestock

extension agent, households in the villages mentioned

above were visited. Based on the convenience,

households nearby the livestock extension centre were

visited first and then the visit stretched out until the

required number of humpsore affected animals was met.

In this study, all the animals that had ulcerative nodular

lesion on their skin were considered humpsore positive.

As the team visited the humpsore affected cattle, best

effort was made to randomly assign animals to the

treatment groups designed for the study. In total 80

humpsore affected animals were enrolled for the trial, 20

each in the group 1 & 2 and 21 and 19 each in group three

and four respectively. And for identification, apart from

taking the photographs of each animal, the horns were

Figure 1: Painting the horn of the animals selected for the

trial: A) red colour horn corresponds to the treatment

group 1, B) Blue colour corresponds to the group 2, C)

Green colour corresponds to the group 3 and D) Brown

colour to untreated control



painted corresponding to the treatment that they would

receive. The animals that were assigned to group 1, 2 and

3 were painted red, blue, and green respectively while the

untreated controls were painted brown (Figure 1). For the

animals that were dehorned, their hooves were painted.

The paints although faded over the trial period, it was

clear enough to recognize till the end of the trial.

2.3 Data collection

A record of the animals such as age, gender, breed, weight

and the size, number and location of the sore was

collected during the inventory. Weight of the animals was

estimated using a body weight estimating tape. For the

purpose of this study, the longest open wound was

recorded as the sore size. The sore size was measured

using a plastic ruler and recorded in centimeters.

2.4 Treatment protocols

Three treatment options were designed for this study

(Figure 2). The first group received a single injection of

ivermectin sub-cutaneously @1ml/50kg body weight and

application of Zinc Oxide (ZnO) ointment daily while the

second received a single shot of levamisole hydrochloride

sub-cutaneously @7mg per kg body weight and

application of ZnO ointment once daily. The animals in

the third group was applied only ZnO ointment daily.

Depending on the size of the sore, around 15-30 gm of

ZnO was applied once daily (between 6 am to 9 am) on

the lesion for successive 21 days. The animals in group 4

(untreated control) was not provided any treatment.

A clear instruction was reiterated to the animal

owners in the control group to ensure that no treatment,

in any form, must be given to the animals until the

completion of the trial. Starting 9th day, cypermethrin

(5%) was sprayed around the wound to control fly activity

for group 1, 2 and 3.

The presentation of the ZnO used was 15% W/W in

white soft paraffin jelly. The ointment was prepared at the

Livestock Extension Center. A required amount of ZnO

powder was taken on an ointment slab and mixed.

Subsequently, a required amount of white soft paraffin

jelly was weighed. Then the ZnO powder and paraffin

jelly was uniformly mixed to form a homogenous

ointment. The preparation was stored in small containers

which were carried to the field next day for application.

2.5 Efficacy indicator

To assess the effect of treatment, the sore size was

measured at a weekly interval. As an attempt to control

measurement bias, the study recorded the cattle owners’

subjective assessment of treatment on four qualitative

scales-no improvement, mild improvement, drastic

improvement and complete healing- on the first and

second week after the start of the trial. In this study, the

reduction in the size of the sore was taken as an efficacy

indicator. In animals having more than one sore, the size

of the largest sore was recorded, and used for analysis.

2.6 Sample collection and isolation of microfilaria

Deep skin scraping samples were randomly collected

from 24 humpsore affected animals. Some of the animals

were those enrolled in the study while some were not.

After incubating the samples in normal saline for 2 hours,

the samples were centrifuged at 1000 revolutions per

minute (rpm) for 3 minutes. For isolation of adult parasite,

the tissue debris were separated by decantation and

presence of actively motile adults were examined as

described by Singh et al. (8). An aliquot of tissue debris,

after thorough mixing, were placed on a glass slide and

examined for the presence of microfilaria under

microscope (10 and 40X). The study also adopted

Baermann’s technique to overcome the limitation

Figure 2: Trail time line and different activities undertaken once the trial was initiated



(obscuring field) of observing tissue debris under the

microscope. Skin scrapping collected from 5-6 animals

were pooled in a muslin cloth which was then suspended

in an inverted funnel containing a distilled water. It was

ensured that the sample remained fully immersed in the

water. The sample was incubated for 24 hours. After

incubation, the filtrate was taken in a centrifuge pipette

and centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 3 minutes. Discarding the

supernatant, the sediment was observed for the presence

of microfilaria. Due to the lack of adequate facilities,

identification of isolated parasites was not carried out.

2.7 Data analysis

The sore size of each animal for three measurements were

managed in Microsoft excel 2013 (Microsoft excel 2013,

Redmond, USA). All the analyses were conducted in R

statistical software using inbuilt packages “dplyr”,

“descr” and “ggplot2”. For analysis, measurement of the

largest sore was used in those animals that had more than

one sore. Descriptive analysis was conducted to derive the

maximum, minimum and mean size of the sore for all the

treatment groups. To assess the effect of each treatment

on the reduction of the sore size, the mean sore size of

each treatment group before and weekly (first week,

second week and third week) after the start of the trial was

compared on weekly interval. The comparison of the

mean sore size of each treatment group before and after

the start of trial was made using a one sample t-test. The

comparison of the mean sore size between the treatment

groups before and after the start of the trial was conducted

using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and

pairwise t-test. All the test with p-value of less than 0.05

was considered statistically significant.

3. RESULTS

In total, 80 humpsore affected cattle were included in the

trial of which 62 were female and 18 males. Forty-five

cattle were jersey cross while the rest were local cattle.

Except for four heifers, rest of the affected animals were

all adults. The youngest animal affected was the 11

months old heifer. The sore was observed mainly on the

hump region, neck, forehead, base of the ear, inner eye

canthus. Forty-four animals had humpsore lesion only on

the single location while the rest had on multiple

locations.

3.1 Mean sore size before treatment and at weekly

interval categorized by group

The mean sore size has decreased in all the treatment

groups including the control group. The details of the

decreasing sore size are provided in Table 1 and

graphically presented in figure 6. The overall mean sore

size before the treatment started was 7.8 cm (range=2-

17cm). One week after the start of treatment, the overall

mean sore size decreased to 5.5 cm (range=0-15cm) and

subsequently to 2.8 cm (0-9.5cm) and 1.8 cm (0-10cm)

second and third week respectively.

The paired t-test analysis showed that the reduction

in the mean sore size for all the treatment group before

the start of the trial and after completion of the trial was

statistically significant (p <0.0001) except for the control

group (p=0.06). Complete healing of the lesion was

observed in 14 (70%) animals under the group 1, 12

(60%) under group 2 and 13 (62%) under group 3.

Surprisingly, complete healing of humpsore lesion was

also observed in 2 (10%) animals under the control group.

There was no statistically significant difference in the

mean sore size between the groups before the start of the

Table 1: Details of the sore size at weekly interval for the different treatment groups

Treatment group Mean sore size (in cm)

Before trial First week Second week Third week

The overall 7.8 (2-17) 5.5 (0-15) 2.8 (0-9.5) 1.8 (0-10)

Group 1 9.9 (5-17) 6.6 (0-15) 2.5 (0-9.5) 0.67 (0-5)

Group 2 8.05 (3.5-15) 4.8 (0-15) 2.4 (0-9) 1.5 (0-10)

Group 3 7.7 (4-15) 6.0 (2-14) 2.2 (0-6) 1.1 (0-5.5)

Control 5.7 (2-15) 4.6 (2-14) 4.3 (0-9) 4.1 (0-10) The figures in the parenthesis represent the range of sore size

Figure 4: Image showing the humpsore before

and after treatment trial



trial (p=0.24). By the third week, the difference in the

mean sore size for all the treatment groups, group 1

(p<0.0001), group 2 (p <0.001) and group three (p

<0.0001) was statistically significant from the control

group. Whereas, there was no difference in the mean sore

size between the groups where treatment was given.

3.2 Subjective assessment

The farmers’ subjective assessment of the lesion healing

supported the assessment in this study. One week after the

trial, 16 farmers under group 1 reported drastic

improvement in the humpsore lesion while 4 reported

mild improvement. Similarly, for the group 2, 1 farmer

reported complete healing, while 16 reported drastic

improvement and 3 mild. For group three, 15 farmers

reported drastic improvement while 5 reported a mild

improvement and 1 reported no improvement in the

lesion.

Two weeks after the trial, for the group 1, 3 farmers

reported complete healing while the rest reported drastic

improvement (Figure 4). For the group two, 4 farmers

reported complete healing while the rest drastic

improvement. For group 3, 18 famers reported drastic

improvement, 2 reported mild improvement and one

reported no improvement in the lesion.

3.3 Recovery of parasite

This study could not isolate adult parasite in any of the

sample. However, microfilaria was isolated in 9 of the 24

samples with a microfilaria recovery rate of 37.5%

(Figure 5). The active microfilaria was mostly observed

in the samples that were collected in the evening and

examined later that day as opposed to the samples that

were collected in the morning and examined during the

mid-day. Interestingly, the study could have also isolated

microfilaria using Baermann’s technique. However, since

the samples were incubated for 24 hours, live microfilaria

could not be isolated using this technique. The

microfilaria thus isolated presented in an open circle or c-

shape form.

4. DISCUSSION

The trial compared three commonly used treatment

options for treating humpsore. All the three treatment

Figure 3: Microfilaria observed under oil immersion

isolated using Baermann's technique(A) and observed

under 40X using direct method (B)

Figure 4: Figures showing the variation in the sore size on a weekly interval for different treatment groups



options brought about drastic improvement in humpsore

lesion. Group 1 (Ivermectin and daily application of zinc

oxide ointment) had the highest cure rate (70%). This

finding agrees with the finding reported by Dukpa et al.

(2008) and Johnson (1989). Contrast to the finding

reported by Dukpa et al. (2008), group three had efficacy

rate of 62% followed by group two (60%). The finding

was also in contrast with the study conducted by Rai et al.

(1994) who reported that application of zinc oxide

ointment alone failed to cure a single case while

combination of levamisole HCl and topical zinc ointment

application cured all the animals. Taking into the account

of cattle owners’ assessment, the cure rate after second

week of the trial was higher in the group 2 than other

groups; however, it was observed that a common side

effect associated to levamisole HCl injection was

swelling at the injection site.

In this study, humpsore was largely restricted to

adult animals. This could be attributed to the differences

in the way adult and young cattle are managed. A

predisposing factor to humpsore development is a break

in epidermis (wound) where biological vectors can

deposit the microfilaria. Unlike the calves, which are

mostly tethered and managed in the cattle shed, adult

cattle are free grazed in the forest whereby the chances of

sustaining scratch wounds are higher.

Apart from the humpsore treatment services that the

farmers avail from the nearest livestock extension centre,

they reported resorting to ethnoveterinary practices such

as application of used engine oil, turmeric powder mixed

in mustard oil, application of soot, application of pork lard

and battery contents. The efficacy of these agents in

curing humpsore is still unknown. The study suspects that

the 10% cure rate in the untreated control group could

have resulted from farmers non-compliance to the

instructions of not using any medication in the control

animals till the end of the trial.

Except for topical application of Zinc Oxide alone,

which do not have anti-microfilarial property, two other

treatment groups were designed to kill microfilaria in the

lesion (ivermectin and levamisole HCl), prevent

biological vectors from further depositing microfilaria

(Zinc oxide ointment paste and cypermethrin spray

around the lesion), and expediting wound healing (Zinc

Oxide ointment). However, finding group 3 (Zinc Oxide

alone) having more cure rate than group 2 (levamisole

HCl and topical application of Zinc Oxide ointment) was

surprising.

No adult parasites could be isolated. This could be

because of the issues associated with sample collection.

Some of the earlier studies have reported not being able

to isolate adult parasites from the lesion (Dukpa et al.

2008) while those who could were mostly in a tissue

section (Saparov et al 2014; Md. Nazur Islam et al. 2018).

Thus, this finding points out to variation in the location

between adult parasites and microfilaria. In contrast,

microfilaria was recovered in 38% of the samples that

were collected. Our observation of detecting active

microfilaria in the samples collected at the later part of the

day and observed subsequently than in sample collected

during the earlier part of the day could be associated with

the biological rhythm of the microfilaria. Although the

number of samples collected and examined were limited,

it was speculated that the Staphanofilaria microfilaria

recovery would be enhanced in the samples collected in

the later part of the day and examined subsequently.

However, this claim requires further validation. One

problem associated with direct microscopic examination

of tissue sediment was the risk of missing dead

microfilaria. The tissue and hair particle made the

microscopic field crowded obscuring the observation

field, and thus decreasing the sensitivity of this method of

examination. The Baermann’s technique proved to be

very effective in isolating microfilaria in addition to the

advantage of having no crowded microscopic field as the

direct method. The Baermann’s technique was employed

for the first time in isolating Staphanofilaria microfilaria

through this study. While the study could only observe

dead microfilaria, it was assumed that the incubating time

can be calibrated (shortened) to isolate live microfilaria

using this technique.

While many cattle have been affected by

Staphanofilaria spp., it was surprising to see minimal

number of effective drugs, such as ivermectin and

levamisole, available in the livestock centres. For

instance, the total supply of ivermectin to Tashicholing

geog for the fiscal year 2018-2019 was about 10% of the

total ivermectin that would have been required. This

observation underlines the gaps in the current veterinary

drug indenting and supply mechanism. If the indenting of

veterinary medicine is done based on the need relating to

the types of cases common in the area followed by supply

of medicines as per the indent, the current problem of

drug shortages and the disparity in the indent and supply

of the drugs can be drastically alleviated.

This trial has some limitations. Firstly, as described

in the materials and methods section, due to the

withdrawal period for the ivermectin and levamisole HCl

in milk, it was ensured that milking animals were not

placed in group 1 and group 2 where ivermectin and

levamisole respectively, was used. This must have

resulted in the selection bias. Secondly, for the objective

assessment of the lesion recovery by the measuring the

sore size, the study could have blinded the assessment

using officials who were not involved in the trial.

However, due to the shortage in human resources, the

individuals involved in the trial were involved in

measuring the sore size. Furthermore, not the same person

measured the sore sizes. Differences in the measurement

resulting from different assessors must have resulted and

this was evident from some of the sore sizes observed in

this study. Due to the limited trial period and difficulty in



accurately assessing the humpsore based on isolation of

etiological agent, the study assumed all the animals

having sore on the skin as humpsore positive animals.

This assumption can be questioned as numerous other

agents can be attributed to skin lesion, particularly

dermatophytes which produces similar lesion in animals.

If conducted in future, it would bring improvement in

selection of case animals (based on isolation of etiological

agent), randomization and allocation to treatment groups,

blinding while assessing/measuring the sore size and use

proper methods to identify the isolated microfilaria.

5. CONCLUSION

This study has further validated that ivermectin injection

@ 1 ml/50kg body weight with topical application of

zincoxide ointment for three weeks has the highest

efficacy against humpsore. Furthermore, the use of

levamisole HCl in place of ivermectin had a comparable

efficacy. Although topical application of Zinc Oxide

alone showed a comparable efficacy in treating

humpsore, as ZnO doesn’t have anti-microfilarial

activity, adopting to this option as a choice of treatment

may be made with caution. The study also proposes a

speculation, for further validation, that isolating active

microfilaria is more likely in samples that are collected in

the later part of the day

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The team would like to thank Dasho Director General for

his continued guidance and directives. We would extend

our acknowledgement to the Dzongkhag Livestock

Sector, Samtse for facilitating this study and providing

support where required. Further, our heartfelt thanks also

go to the in-charge RNR-EC Tashicholing for his support

during the entire study period. We also would like to

thank our support staff during the field work. Finally, we

extend our special thanks to the cattle owners of

Tashicholing and those animals that were involved in the

trial. Mr. Yab Raj Ghalley and Ms. Januki Chettri for

their effort and tireless commitment in supporting the

team.

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54

Full length paper

MILKING MANAGEMENT PRACTICES BY SMALL SCALE DAIRY FARMERS OF

TRASHIYANGTSE DISTRICT IN BHUTAN

TASHI DENDUP1 AND JIGDREL DORJI2*

1Department of Sustainable Development, College of Natural Resources, Royal University of

Bhutan, Lobesa, Punakha 2Department of Animal Science, College of Natural Resources, Royal University of Bhutan

* Author for correspondence: [email protected]

Copyright ©2020 Tashi Dendup. The original work must be properly cited to permit unrestricted


ABSTRACT: This study was conducted to draw baseline information on milking management

practices adopted by small-scale dairy farmers of Yangtse and Boomdeling gewogs under

Trashiyangtse dzongkhag, Bhutan. The study sites and respondents were selected using multi-stage

random sampling, whereas data were gathered using pre-tested structured questionnaires through

face-to-face interviews with dairy farmers and field observations in December 2019. The data

gathered from 131 dairy farmers were cleaned and analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results

show that person milking animals are mostly female and illiterate. Dairy farmers predominantly rear

jersey cross and native cattle. Most farmers manually milk using hands, milk letdown by allowing

calves to suck before milking, practice straining of milk, and breed cattle by bulls. However, the

majority of farmers use stripping or knuckling milking methods, follow irregular milking intervals,

milking in the byre, do not practice teat dip, do not test for mastitis, maintain wide calving intervals,

and keep drying periods longer than two months. The findings from the study show a lack of

scientific knowledge and skills in milking practices. Accordingly, this study recommends concern

stakeholders to educate dairy farmers of rural Bhutan on scientific milking management practices.

Keywords: Milk management; milking practices; small-scale dairy farmers; stripping.

1. INTRODUCTION

People engaged in self-employment, particularly those

working on their land, predominate Bhutan's economy

(National Statistics Bureau [NSB] 2019). For instance,

53.7% of overall employment and 74% of rural

employment is in the agriculture sector (NSB 2018a).

Livestock plays a vital role in the self-subsistence

integrated farming system of Bhutan to meet households'

nutrition, draft power, income, and manure. Among

others, cattle are widely reared animals in many parts of

Bhutan. According to the Department of Livestock

(2018), the cattle population in Bhutan as of 2018 was

317,451. Traditionally, dairying involved the rearing of

native cattle (e.g., Siri breed). Despite low productivity,

native cattle are resistant to diseases and easy to manage

compared to improve animals (Tamang et al. 2019).

However, with the commencement of dairy development

programs in the country in the 1960s, the Royal

Government of Bhutan has been investing in extension

services to increase animal production and improve

animal management. Extension services include breeding

programs (supply of breeding bulls and artificial

insemination), animal disease management, fodder

management, animal production, and product value

addition. Additionally, the government has been

supporting dairy farmers to buy high-yielding animals

and the construction of sheds on a cost-sharing basis

(Thapa et al. 2019).

Today, dairy farmers are gradually transforming

from self-subsistence to semi-commercial and

commercial farming by adopting improved cattle and

better management practices. According to NSB (2019),

the population of improved cattle increased from 99,544

in 2016 to 112,648 in 2018, whereas the population of

native cattle in Bhutan dropped to 185,953 in 2018 from

203,194 in 2016. It is essential to ensure clean dairy

products for self-consumption and customers during such

a transformation of dairying. However, Asian dairy

farmers are less aware of the economic aspect of

scientific milk production because they are smallholders,

illiterate, and follow traditional dairying (Aulukh and

Singh 2015). Similarly, there is a limited understanding


Dorji & Dhendup (2020) 55

of milking management practices followed by Bhutanese

dairy farmers in general. In an attempt to address this

research gap, this study aims to draw baseline

information on milk management practices adopted by

smallholder dairy farmers in the Trashiyangtse district in

eastern Bhutan.


2.1 Study site selection and sampling

The study was carried out in two gewogs (sub-districts),

namely Boomdeling and Yangtse gewogs under the

Trashiyangtse district (Figure 1). The study sites and

respondents were selected, employing a multi-stage

random sampling method. First, researchers randomly

selected Boomdeling and Yangtse gewogs using the

lottery (with replacement) method out of eight gewogs in

the district. In the second phase, researchers randomly

selected 135 farmers.

Figure 1: Study sites (Boomdeling and Yangtse gewogs)

2.2 Data collection and analysis

The data were collected in December 2019 by personal

interviews using structured questionnaires (pre-tested

with five dairy farmers not included in the analysis). The

structured questionnaire used in this study was partially

adopted from several other studies (Thapa et al. 2019;

Bafanda et al. 2018; Bashir and Kumar 2013; Gupta et al.

2008). Some questions were added or deleted to capture

information in Bhutan’s context. Besides, researchers

also observed the milking cows and their environments

physically to validate their responses. However, this

study excluded four respondents from the analysis due to

their incomplete responses. Therefore, responses

provided by 131 dairy farmers of the selected gewogs

yielded the current results. The data gathered were

analyzed using descriptive statistics, including mean,

frequencies, and percentages in the Statistical Package for

Social Science (SPSS) version 19.0.


3.1 Profile of person milking

Table 1 presents the age, gender, and qualification of

persons involved in milking. Understanding the profile of

people who milk the animals is of paramount importance

to design programs to improve general milking

management practices. The average age recorded for

person milking was 43.3 years, with a standard deviation

of 13.2, indicating the engagement of middle-aged family

members in milking. The study results also reveal that in

rural Bhutan, more women (80.9%) were engaged in

milking than men (19.1%). This finding is true, as

agriculture farming in general employed more women

(63.2%) than men (46.2%) in Bhutan (NSB 2018a).

Kumar et al. (2017) also reported the engagement of more

women than men in milking in India. The study recorded

that about 66.4% of family members involved in milking

animals are illiterate. These results imply that

stakeholders design programs related to milking

management practices to suit illiterate farmers with a

particular focus on women.

Table 1: Characteristics of persons milking animals

Characteristics Categories Sample (n = 131)

Frequency Percent

Age Mean = 43.3

Gender Male 25 19.1

Female 106 80.9

Qualification None 87 66.4

Non-Formal

Education 25 19.1

Primary

School 09 06.9

Secondary

School 05 03.8

High School 05 03.8

Graduate 00 00.0

3.2 Cattle composition among dairy farmers

Dairy farmers in Trashiyangtse rear pure jersey, jersey

cross, and native cattle. Most dairy farmers (46.37%)

were rearing jersey cross cattle (Table 2). A plausible

reason is that purchasing pure jersey is expensive for

many dairy farmers; thus, they crossbreed jersey with

native cattle. Thapa et al. (2019) also reported the



crossbreeding of improved cattle with native cattle as a

common practice in Bhutan. The total number of native

cattle was also large at 42.15%. The prevalence of low-

yielding cattle, such as native and jersey cross, indicates

that dairying for many farmers is a small-scale venture

meant for self-consumption. Less quantity of milk due to

the fewer high-yielding cattle (Tamang et al. 2019) could

be a potential reason for not having a milk-processing unit

in these two gewogs in 2018 (NSB 2018b). However,

farmers also rear native bulls (8.55%) and jersey cross

bulls (6.67%) as draft animals because of their known

resistance against geo-climatic conditions of the region

(Tamang et al. 2019).

3.3 Milking management practices

Table 3 presents the milking management practices

adopted by smallholder dairy farmers. The study recorded

that all dairy farmers milk animals manually with their

hands. In agreement with this result, several published

papers in India have also reported that the majority of

dairy farmers practiced hand-milking (Bafanda et al.

2018; Kumar et al. 2017; Bashir and Kumar 2013).

In the study area, farmers practice small-scale

dairying with few numbers of milking cows; thus, they do

not require sophisticated machines for milking, unlike

commercial dairy farmers. More than half of the dairy

farmers (50.4%) used the stripping milking method,

followed by a few farmers (9.2%) practicing the

knuckling milking method. Several other studies

conducted in India have also reported that the majority of

smallholder dairy farmers practice either knuckling or

stripping milking methods (Kumar et al. 2017; Sabapara

et al. 2016; Sabapara et al. 2015; Kumar et al. 2014;

Rathore et al. 2010). Scientifically, these two methods are

unhealthy practices because they can injure teats and

cause mastitis (Bafanda et al. 2018). Thus, extension

officials should educate and encourage rural farmers to

use the full hand milking method like farmers of some

regions in India (Bashir and Kumar 2013; Kumar and

Mehla 2011). The results suggest that some dairy farmers

are less aware of proper milking methods even today. The

study recorded about 50% of dairy farmers milking cows

with wet hands, which upsets the health of udder

(Sabapara et al. 2016, 2015).

The study recorded 84.7% of the total respondents

adopting calf to suck teats before milking as the most

common practice to initiate milk letdown. Similar other

studies have also supported the practice of milk letdown

with the help of calves as a widespread practice (Thapa et

al. 2019; Bafanda et al. 2018; Kumar et al. 2017; Sabapara

et al. 2015; Gupta et al. 2008). However, when the calf is

dead, concentrate feeding is popular (54.2%), followed by

letting dams lick the hide of the dead calf (22.9%), and

the use of warm water (19.8%). The majority of farmers

in the Surat District of India also reported using

concentrate feeding during the death of the calf (Sabapara

et al. 2015). Only 3.1% of dairy farmers have access to

oxytocin, and the majority of respondents are neither

aware of its availability nor its uses.

It was observed that 91.6% of respondents milked

the animals once a day, which might be attributed to being

smallholders’ dairy farmers, rearing a few numbers of

native cattle or jersey, and also calves are released along

with dams for grazing during the daytime. This finding

disagrees with the results of studies from India (Kumar et

al. 2014; Bashir and Kumar 2013; Gupta et al. 2008), who

have reported milking the animals twice a day. The

remaining farmers (8.4%) who reared pure jersey and

adopted stall feeding reported milking their animals twice

a day. More than half of the dairy farmers (55.7%) had an

irregular milking interval showing the need to create

awareness on the merits of milking at regular intervals.

On average, dairy farmers took slightly over eight

minutes to complete milking a cow. Scientifically,

milking should complete within a short time, as the

oxytocin effect lasts only about five to seven minutes

(Bafanda et al. 2018). Thus, there is a need for concerned

stakeholders to educate dairy farmers on the benefits of

completing milking in the shortest time possible.

The majority of dairy farmers (80.2%) tethered

milking animals in the byre. A conceivable reason could

be that many cowsheds have concrete floorings and zinc

roofing, which is much cleaner than the traditional sheds.

However, dairy farmers should be encouraged to milk

outside the cowsheds (preferably dry and hygienic places)

to improve milk cleanliness. Similarly, dairy farmers in

India were also found milking animals in the byre (Kumar

et al. 2014; Bashir and Kumar 2013; Rathore et al. 2010;

Table 2: Average cattle composition of dairy farmers

Cattle Type Calf

Milch Dry Heifer Bull Total Male Female

Jersey 10 (1.17) 19 (2.22) 29 (3.40) 11 (1.29) 15 (1.76) 14 (1.64) 98 (11.48)

Jersey cross 37 (4.33) 70 (8.20) 93 (10.89) 66 (7.73) 73 (8.55) 57 (6.67) 396 (46.37)

Native 30 (3.51) 48 (5.62) 66 (7.73) 90 (10.54) 53 (6.21) 73 (8.55) 360 (42.15)

Total 77 (9.02) 137 (16.04) 188 (22.01) 167 (19.56) 141 (16.51) 144 (16.86) 854 (100)



Gupta et al. 2008). The majority of dairy farmers (95.4%)

in the study areas strain milk before milking using a clean

piece of cloth or a sieve. This result was encouraging in

contrast to the result reported by Bafanda et al. (2018),

where farmers in the Jammu district of India do not strain

milk.

Maintaining a healthy udder is necessary for milking

cows. Thus, dairy farmers should regularly practice teat

dip after milking and test for mastitis to reduce udder

infection. However, the result observed that the majority

of farmers (90.1%) did not practice teat dip or test for

mastitis (61.1%). Several studies in neighboring India

have also reported that dairy farmers do not practice teat

dips and do not test for mastitis (Bafanda et al. 2018;

Bakat et al. 2017; Sabapara et al. 2016; Sabapara et al.

2015; Bashir and Kumar 2013). These two results suggest

that dairy farmers in rural Bhutan are less aware of the

advantages of teat dipping and mastitis testing. As teat

dipping and testing for mastitis will improve udder health

by reducing infections in the long run, concerned

stakeholders should design training programs to enhance

farmers’ knowledge and skills to practice teat dip and test

mastitis.

It is essential for dairy farmers to dry-off milking

cows roughly two months before the beginning of the next

lactation (Bafanda et al. 2018; Sabapara et al. 2016).

However, the study recorded longer drying periods with

a mean of 4.47 months and a standard deviation of 3.48.

This finding disagrees with that of Sabapara et al. (2016),

who reported that farmers dry-off dairy animals for less

than two months. Plausible reasons reported are failure to

detect heat on time and failure to meet the nutritional

Table 2: Milking methods practiced by dairy farmers

Milk management practices Categories Sample (n=131)

Frequency Percent

Milking mode Hand milking 131 100.0 Machine milking 0 00.0

Hand milking style Full Hand 13 09.9 Knuckling 12 09.2 Stripping 106 80.9

Habit of milking Dry hand 66 50.4 Wet hand 65 49.6

Milk let down (calf alive) Sucking by calf 111 84.7

Concentrate feeding 9 6.9 Combination of above two 11 8.4

Milk let down (calf dead) Concentrate feeding 71 54.2 Use of oxytocin 4 3.1 Letting dam lick the hide of a dead calf 30 22.9 Use of warm water 26 19.8

Daily milking times Once 120 91.6 Twice 11 8.4

Milking interval Regular 58 44.3 Irregular 73 55.7

Milking completion time (minutes)

Mean = 8.30

Milking place Tethering in the byre 105 80.2 Outside of the byre 26 19.8

Straining of milk Yes 125 95.4 No 06 04.6

Teat dip practices Practice teat dip 13 9.9 Do not practice teat dip 118 90.1

Mastitis control Test for mastitis 51 38.9 Do not test for mastitis 80 61.1

Drying off cow Self-drying 107 81.7 Complete cessation of milking 19 14.5 Incomplete milking 04 03.1 Intermittent milking 01 00.8

Drying period (months) Mean = 4.47 Breeding method Natural insemination 119 90.8

Artificial insemination 12 9.2 Calving interval Mean = 1.44



requirements of cows. Farmers are not able to meet the

nutritional requirements of animals because commercial

concentrate feeds are expensive and not affordable by

many small dairy farmers owing to high transportation

costs. The Department of Livestock and relevant

authorities should explore alternative solutions to

increase access to commercial concentrate feeds at

reasonable prices.

Despite several techniques of drying milking cows,

self-drying and complete cessation of milking are widely

practiced by dairy farmers with 81.7% and 14.5%,

respectively. Kumar et al. (2017) and Kumar et al. (2014)

also reported cases where the majority of farmers

practiced self-drying. All farmers practice the drying of

cows. However, maintaining an extended drying period

and the practice of self-drying indicates that farmers are

not able to meet the nutritional requirements of cows.

Thus, stakeholders must create awareness of the

importance of feeding a nutritive diet, so that cows can

give milk for about ten months, followed by two months

of drying-off periods.

More than 90% of dairy farmers breed cattle by

breeding bulls supplied by the government or those

owned by private individuals in the community. A recent

study by Thapa et al. (2019) conveyed that members of

dairy farmer groups are more likely to adopt artificial

insemination (AI) compared to non-members. The

prevalence of exceptionally few such groups in the study

area could also be a reason for not opting AI. However,

improving access to resources of the AI could accelerate

its usage soon. In agreement with the current findings,

Rathore et al. (2010) and Gupta et al. (2008) also reported

that the majority of farmers were relying on natural

services for breeding their cattle. The average time taken

by a cow to give a calf is 1.44 years, with a standard

deviation of 0.67, possibly due to poor heat detection and

undernutrition.


The current study suggests that dairy farmers in rural

Bhutan still lack knowledge and skills in scientific

milking management practices. For instance, many

farmers use the stripping and knuckling style of hand

milking, which could cause teat and udder infection.

Additionally, farmers neither practice teat dipping nor test

for mastitis. Furthermore, results found unhealthy

practices, including milk at irregular intervals, milk in the

unhygienic byre, take more than 7 minutes to complete

milking, prolong calving interval, and maintain an

extended drying period (more than two months). Given

these findings, the Department of Livestock, along with

other stakeholders, needs to provide hands-on training

programs on good milking management practices to dairy

farmers in rural Bhutan. Training packages containing

demonstrations, field visits to integrated dairy farms, and

awareness sessions could provide adequate exposure to

good milking management practices. Since the majority

of people milking in remote areas are women and

illiterate, the training design and other interventions

should focus on this section.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to acknowledge extension

officials, dairy farmers, and enumerators lending help

during data collection in the field.

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60

Full length paper

A CASE STUDY OF PUNGDZONG DAIRY FARMER’S GROUP: ANALYSIS OF MILK VALUE CHAIN

PEMA UGYEN1* AND RESIE OUDE LUTTIKHUIS2

1District Livestock Sector, Dzongkhag Administration, Punakha, Bhutan 2Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences, The Netherlands


Copyright © 2020 Pema Ugyen. The original work must be properly cited to permit unrestricted


ABSTRACT: This applied research is an attempt to analyse the effectiveness of milk marketing

and facilitate developing a sustainable milk value chain for dairy farmer’s groups in Punakha

district. Both quantitative and qualitative methods of survey, key informant interviews and focus

group discussion were used as research strategies to obtain relevant information. The survey was

conducted using both open and closed-ended structured questionnaire in seven subdistricts of

Barp, Dzomi, Guma, Kabisa, Shelnga-Bjemi, Talog and Toedwang. A total of 60 respondents; 30

existing milk suppliers and 30 non-milk suppliers were drawn using a simple random sampling

technique. One-to-one interviews were conducted following semi-structured questions with eight

key informants in the chain. One focus group interview was conducted with the existing dairy

farmer groups representatives to triangulate and discover in-depth information about the situation

of the milk value chain in the district. The survey data was analysed using the Statistical Package

for Social Sciences software version 20. A method of grounded theory design was used to analyse

the qualitative data of interviews and focus group discussion. Value chain mapping was employed

for assessing the operational situation of the current milk chain. The mean cost of milk production

was estimated at Nu.27.53 per litre and the maximum expenses were incurred in animal feeds

which were estimated to be 46.34% of the total cost of milk production. In this study, milk

producers had the highest share of added value and profit which were estimated at 45.45% and

44.85% respectively. Limited information and coordination amongst stakeholders have

contributed to slow progression in the formal milk market. The finding reveals that 90% of non-

dairy farmer groups respondents were interested in joining formal milk marketing. The average

morning milk available for supply from this group would be 4.41 ± 3.07 litres daily by each

household. The study also found that 50% of the respondents were interested in supplying evening

milk with an average of 4.43 ± 2.25 litres per day per household. Based on the result of this study,

it was concluded that there are possibilities of expanding the milk value chain in the district.

However, there is a need to enhance consistent milk supply through a quality-based milk payment

system, access to reasonable input supplies, and facilitate strong multi-stakeholder processes along

the milk value chain.

Keywords: Dairy farmer groups; milk; stakeholders; value chain.

1. INTRODUCTION

Dairying in Bhutan is a very important economic

activity to the farmers and a flourishing sector with

various resources and potentials. By volume, 21.88% of

liquid milk is consumed in the country out of 50,250.50

MT of milk produced in 2017 (Department of Livestock

[DoL] 2018). It has also reported that self-sufficiency for

fresh milk, butter and cheese combined is 88.80% as of

2017 (DoL 2019). The average per capita milk

consumption for Bhutan stands over 68 kg of milk per

year, while the average global milk consumption

according to Hemme and Otte (2010) was about 100 kg

of milk per year, indicating significant differences

between developed and underdeveloped countries.

The scenarios of a future dairy value chain in

developed countries are intended towards producing

differentiated raw milk with improved manufacturing

practices, reduced the production of individualistic dairy

products and shift towards environmentally sustainable

dairy farming with improved animal welfare (Demeter et

al. 2009). However, for developing countries, the



Ugyen & Luttikhuis (2020) 61

scenarios of a dairy value chain are still in infant stages.

The study conducted by Muhamma et al. (2014) on dairy

supply chain management and critical investigations on

dairy informal channel partners in Pakistan revealed that

without formal dairy value chain, most of the milk

producers and consumers are facing economic, social

and health losses due to informal dairy supply chain

partners. The United Nations Development Programme

(2016) reported that the surplus milk and milk products

produced by the typical Bhutanese dairy farmers’ are

sold both through the informal and formal markets. The

author refers informal system for the sells of milk and

milk products to neighbours and in the local market,

while formal system refers to the collection of milk

through organised dairy farmers’ group initiative at the

milk processing unit.

The milk value chain in Punakha district has both

formal and non-formal milk marketing system. The

formal market is functioned mainly by organised Dairy

Farmer Groups (DFGs) and links the market in a

coordinated chain. The informal market is primarily

practised by individualist dairy farmers that are not

registered in a group. The district recognises collective

action thorough DFGs as a positive force for developing

the dairy sector and has formed 19 DFGs so far. In the

year 2017, five DFGs from four subdistricts of Dzomi,

Guma, Kabisa and Toedwang with a total of 99

members have started fresh milk supply and marketing

at Khuruthang town in Punakha district.

The main constraint of this milk value chain is

insufficient milk supply. As a result, the milk processor

is not able to use maximum plant capacity to collect,

process and sell milk and milk products for better

economic gains. Thus, this study will respond to the

need for a clear analysis of the milk value chain in the

district. The research will also enhance the decision-

making ability of the milk processor, other chain actors

and supporters to invest in expanding the milk value

chain.


2.1 Study area

The study was conducted at seven subdistricts; four

existing subdistricts (Dzomi, Guma, Kabisa, Toedwang)

currently supplying the milk and three new subdistricts

(Barp, Shelnga-Bjemi, Talo) which are near and having

potentials to deliver milk in the milk processing unit

(Figure 1).

Figure 1: Study areas



2.2 Research methods and sample size

2.2.1 Survey

A sample of 30 respondents was drawn using simple

random sampling technique from 108 registered

Pungdzong dairy group members currently engaged in

milk supply and marketing chain from four subdistricts

of Dzomi, Guma, Kabisa and Toedwang. Similarly, a

total of 30 respondents out of 76 non-dairy group

farmers from three subdistricts of Barp, Shelnga-Bjemi

and Talog. This technique had been proposed

confirming each member had an equal probability of

being chosen through random draws using random

calculating function Microsoft Excel 2016. The top 30

samples drawn from the sampling frame were surveyed

from both groups

2.2.2 Key Informant Interviews

One-to-one interviews were conducted following semi-

structured questions to gather as much information as

possible. The conduct of these interviews with key

informants assisted to collect a varied and wide range of

open-ended, both qualitative and quantitative data

required to identify possibilities towards increasing milk

supply. Purposive sampling technique was considered to

conduct key informant interviews with milk transporters,

processor and supporters in the chain as mentioned in

Table 1.

2.2.3 Focus group discussion

One group discussion (focus group) was initiated

between the representatives of existing DFG having

similar characteristics or experiences. It was aimed to

discover in-depth information about how groups think

about expanding the milk value chain in the district and

triangulate on varying information gathered during the

survey and key informant interviews. Thus, focus group

discussion was organised using checklist questions after

the completion of the survey and interviews and shared

results of the survey and key informant interviews for

further triangulation.

2.3 Data Analysis

2.3.1 Quantitative data

The data collected from the survey was computed using

MS Microsoft Office Professional Excel 2016, and the

coded data were analysed using Statistical Package for

Social Sciences (SPSS) IBM statistics version 20.

Both descriptive (mean, proportion, crosstab)

and inferential (Chi-square) statistics were used to

analyse the data. Simple bar graph, pie charts and

contingency tables were used where appropriate to

interpret and present the survey findings.

2.3.2 Qualitative data

A method of grounded theory design was used to

analyse the qualitative data of interviews and focus

group discussion following five logical steps of

organising data in fragments, determining the relevance,

open coding, axial coding and selective coding (Baarda

2014). The findings of grounded theory were organised

around the key dimensions identified in the conceptual

framework.

2.3.3 Other analytical tools

This study had used simple value chain mapping to chart

existing and future milk value chain in the district.

Through this chain mapping, clear segmentation of the

various actors, supporters and facilitators involved in the

chain were mapped.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Analysis of existing milk value chain

The value chain in Punakha district has both formal and

non-formal milk marketing system (Figure 2). The

formal market is functioned mainly by organized DFGs

and links the market in a coordinated chain. The

informal market is primarily practiced by individualist

dairy farmers that are not registered in a group. The total

milk production in the district was 1261 MT in the year

2018 recording a growth every year (DoL 2019).

The statistics also indicated that 108 MT of milk

was sold as fresh milk through formal and informal milk

market. Similarly, the data maintained by District

Livestock Sector recorded a little over 86 MT of milk

collection by MPU in 2018 through the formal milk

market which is 79.63% of the total estimated fresh milk

marketed in the district.

Table 1: Overview of key informant interview

respondents

No/Code Function of

interviewee Current Address

KI1 Milk transporter Dzomi-Toedwang

area

KI2 Milk transporter Guma-Kabisa area

KI3 Processor MPU- Khuruthang

KI4 Livestock

Extension Officer Toedwang

KI5 Livestock

Extension Officer Kabisa

KI6 District Livestock

Officer Punakha

KI7 Head of Livestock

Regulatory Unit BAFRA, Punakha

KI8 Head of Feed &

Fodder Unit RLDC, Wangdue



3.2 Cost of producing milk

The maximum milk production expenses as illustrated in

Figure 3 were incurred in animal feeds (46.34%) and

minimum (12.80%) for the cost of other expenses that

includes depreciation and maintenance of dairy sheds,

and interest of herd value. The COP was estimated at

Nu.27.53 per litre milk in the study area. The variable

costs shared most of the total production costs and are

like the findings of Kaur et al. (2012) and Kumawat et

al. (2014). It is quite complex to compare the milk COP

and economic performance of the milk value chain.

There is variation in calculating the COP of milk from

one producer area to the next and mainly depends on

costs and availability of resources to manage the dairy

farming.

3.3 Economic performance of the milk value chain

Figure 4 illustrates the distribution of profit and added

value share among the chain actors in the milk value Figure 3: Distribution of milk production costs

Figure 2: Current milk marketing system in Punakha district



chain. This value chain is a typical chain in which the

milk producers lead the chain forward and the majority

(45.45%) of the added value of the chain is captured by

the milk producers. The result also shows that milk

producers receive the largest share (44.85%) of the

profit, while the milk transporters get the marginal profit

of only 1.83% of the total profit made in the chain.

Milk processor who has a constant risk of meeting

the consumer demands in terms of quality products

compounded by competition for the insubstantial market

from other districts for the same brand of dairy products

takes the second position in the profit share. It should

also be justified that milk processor has to bear fixed

costs (staff salaries, rental charge, interest, depreciation)

which constituted the maximum proportion of costs for

the milk processor. This contradicts the findings of Ishaq

Table 2: Stakeholders analysis for the milk value chain in Punakha district

Stakeholders Key Roles Supporting forces to expand the milk value chain

Hindering forces to expand the milk value chain

Dairy producers

Fresh milk production and delivery

Trained farmers on milk production and quality control. Strong Government support to DFGs

Limited landholding for feed and fodder development. Low yielding dairy cattle. Difficulty in land leasing.

Milk transporters

Milk collection and transportation

A reliable source of income

Insufficient milk collection particularly during winter Late delivery of milk at the collection point by dairy producers. Less profitable during winter because of high transportation costs and less milk collection. Difficulty in maintaining milk quality especially during the rainy season without the proper milk collection sheds.

Processor Milk bulking, processing, packaging and sales

Income and employment opportunities. Trade policy and regulation

Insufficient milk supply Inconsistent milk supply

District/Extension Officer (subdistrict)

Provide livestock extension, animal health services and capacity development

Clearly defined roles, functions and institutional setup (DoL, 2016) Aligned in 12th FYP documents at the district level.

Fewer linkages between the chain actors and supporters. Lack of technical expertise on the milk value chain and product diversification. Limited landholding for dairy farmers to facilitate improved fodder development.

RLDC Post-production and marketing activities

Clearly defined roles, functions and institutional setup (DoL, 2016). Aligned in 12th FYP documents at a regional level.

Limited approved budget to perform post-production activities in the region. Poor marketing system in place (congesting the already limited market place by competing on similar products between the DFGs in the region).

BAFRA

Quality control and food safety measures

Food rules and regulation of Bhutan 2017

Limited manpower to conduct the frequent regulatory check. Limited budget to conduct milk quality standards and educational program for the chain actors.

Figure 4: Distribution of profits and added value in

the formal milk marketing system



et al. (2016) who had reported that dairy processing in

the existing value chain plant has a larger share of profit

in the formal milk marketing system. It should be noted

that this unequal distribution of profit and added value

share proves the captive governance led by milk

producers and may raise concerns about the

sustainability of the formal milk market in particular. At

present, the procurement price of milk is determined

subjectively on quantity and market forces without

considering the COP. The result of this analysis is

important to recognise that the COP is considered as a

benchmark upon which to base their milk supply

decisions in the district. It is also important to note that

this information will justify the persistent perception and

claims by milk producers that milk price payment does

not cover milk COP on their farm. 3.4 Gap analysis of stakeholders in the formal milk

market

As shown in Table 2, the institutional framework of

different respondents was identified and analysed

according to chain functions and their supporting roles

in the functioning of the milk value chain in the district.

The study found that fresh milk supply and marketing

activity is new in the study area and there are

overlapping functions in carrying out milk value chain

activities. What was revealed from all key informant

interview respondents were that limited information and

coordination amongst stakeholders have contributed to

slow progression in the milk supply and marketing

chain. Poor stakeholder linkages were also raised during

FGD. Many respondents also agreed that there is limited

participation from local government in this chain

although they were instituted to support the active

participation of people in their own development. All the

key informants interviewed agreed on not having even a

single stakeholder meeting conducted regarding milk

value chain in the district.

Although milk producers, transporters and

processor are the core stakeholders in this formal value

chain, external supporters have an important role to play

in supporting the milk value chain in order to realise the

common benefit. It is only possible through greater

coordination and cooperation between the stakeholders.

The question now is about the changes that the milk

chains need to undergo to mainstream value chain

approach in the district. The District Livestock Sector

who is the main supporters of the chain has to become

effective chain facilitator between other supporters and

to even third sector partners. A similar conclusion was

reached by Nyokabi et al. (2018) who mentioned that

the government is the most powerful actor in the dairy

sector, as it designs and implements policies in

collaboration with stakeholders. The Local Government

of the area which has a limited role in the existing chain

requires attention as they are charged with both

administrative and financial role to bring development in

people. Thus, it is important to highlight that one of the

best models is through a co-governance system where

every stakeholder accepts and plays an important role in

mainstreaming milk value chain in the district.

3.5 Opportunities towards increased milk supply

3.5.1 The readiness of Non-DFGs in the formal milk

market

Contingency table showing the Non-DFGs respondents’

problem in selling fresh milk and their interest in joining

the formal milk market is shown in Table 3. Statistically,

the result showed a significant correlation between the

problem in selling fresh milk and their interest in joining

the formal milk market, χ2 (1) = 6.00, p = 0.01. Among

30 respondents; 25 respondents had reported having a

problem in selling fresh milk and the other 5

respondents mentioned having no problem in selling

fresh milk. When asked about respondents’ interest in

joining the formal milk market, 27 (90%) respondents

show interest in joining formal milk marketing with

Pungdzong DFGs, while 3 respondents have no interest

in joining formal milk marketing. The study showed that

the daily average morning milk available for supply by

each household was 4.41 ± 3.07 litres of milk. It is

almost impossible for smallholder Non-DFGs milk

producers to acquire a strong position in the dairy value

chain. By joining forces to supply milk in the formal

milk market, farmers can enjoy a range of benefits such

as transporting milk in bulk, gaining access to new

Table 3: Contingency table showing the interest and morning milk for supply by Non-DFGs

Particulars

Interest in joining the formal milk market (n = 30)

Yes No Total

The problem in selling fresh milk 24 1 25

No problem in selling fresh milk 3 2 5

Total 27 3 30

Morning milk available for supply (Litres)

Average milk supply Minimum Maximum Total

Morning milk 4.41 ± 3.07 0.50 15.00 119.00



technologies, financial loans and other dairy husbandry

inputs.

3.5.2 Readiness in supplying evening milk

The respondents from both DFGs and Non-DFGs were

asked how they were managing with evening milk and

their readiness to supply if MPU is willing to collect

from them. As indicated in Figure 5, the respondents

reported that 71% (n = 60) of the evening milk produced

is processed into butter and cheese, while 26% of

evening milk is being used for household consumption

as fresh milk and preparing butter tea, the other 3% is

being sold to their neighbour. Similarly, the respondents

from both DFGs and Non-DFGs were questioned if they

were willing to supply evening milk to MPU. The study

found that 50% of the respondents were interested in

supplying evening milk. The daily average evening milk

available for supply was 4.43 ± 2.25 litres from each

household. This result confirms that this is a good choice

for the milk processor to grab the opportunity to address

the current gap between milk demand and supply for

maximum utilisation of processing plant capacity. This

is one way of linking smallholder dairy farmers to

modern dairy value chains (Wouters and Lee 2010) and

will be a special feature in encouraging milk supplier to

increase their milk production and supply.

Figure 5: The proportion of evening milk usage

Figure 6: Recommended future of milk value chain in Punakha




The formal milk value chain concept is new in the

district, only a few producers’ groups and its members

actively participate now. The major share in the total

cost of milk production was of variable cost and is

important to recognise that the cost of milk production

should be taken into consideration as a benchmark upon

which to base their milk supply decisions. Many milk

producers prefer formal milk marketing instead of the

informal distribution system due to irregular consumer

demands and not being able to sell surplus milk. There

are overlapping functions in mainstreaming milk value

chain approach. The most significant findings are on the

distribution of the added value and profit share, where

milk producer is leading the chain with a maximum

share of profit. This study concludes that there is scope

for expanding the milk value chain in the district by

implementing the following applied recommendations

presented in Figure 6. Since the milk supply and

marketing business is multi-faceted involving multi-

stakeholder in the value chain processes, stakeholders’

relationship matters in the smooth transition of the

business venture. The District Livestock Sector which is

the main supporter in the chain should take a lead role in

nurturing chain coordination and information flow on

quality milk production, supply, processing and

marketing. The DFGs should consider entering into an

agreement with Non-DFGs for increased milk collection

as the overall goal of organising formal milk market is to

link milk producers to the market and increase the

income of the actors involved in the milk value chain.

The DFGs should consider the possibilities of collecting

evening milk. This could be done by developing a

simplified milk collection system which is suitable for

all the parties involved in the chain. In the absence of

milk collection sheds, the quality of milk collected is

being compromised during unfavourable weather

conditions. Therefore, the milk processor should initiate

the construction of milk collection sheds in strategic

locations with the support of key partners. Public-Private

Partnership (PPP) model is suitable for this program by

involving Local Government and other relevant

stakeholders to ensure necessary investment and

effective resource management. The concept of the dairy

value chain is gaining popularity in Bhutan particularly

in the execution of the 12th FYP. It is imperative that the

capacity of the staff on value chain development is

provided for appropriate dissemination of planned

activities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author would like to thank all the respondents of

field surveys, key informant interviews and focus group

discussion for providing all the valuable information

without any hesitations.

REFERENCES

Baarda B (2014). Guidelines on how to design, perform

and evaluate quantitative and qualitative research.

2nd ed. Groningen, The Netherlands: Noordhoff

Uitgevers.

Demeter RM, Meuwissen M, Lansink AO and Arendonk

J (2009). Scenarios for a future dairy chain in the

Netherlands. NJAS Wageningen Journal of Life

Sciences, 56(4):301-323.


2017, Department of Livestock, Thimphu.


2018, Thimphu: Department of Livestock.

Department of Livestock (2019). 12th FYP Write-up,

Department of Livestock, Thimphu, Bhutan:

Hemme T and Otte J (2010). Status and prospects for

smallholder milk production; A global perspective,

2010: Food and Agriculture Organisation.

Ishaq MN, Xia LC, Rasheed R and Nyuyen NB (2016).

Economic analysis of milk marketing channels in the

south region of Punjab, Pakistan; An empirical

estimation of marketing and profit efficiency.

Russian Journal of Agricultural and Socio-Economic

Sciences, 3(51):30-43.

Kaur I, Singh VP, Kaur H and Singh P (2012). Cost of

Milk Production in Punjab: A Pre-requisite for

Pricing Policy. Indian Research Journal of Extension

Education, vol.1:313-321.

Kumawat R, Singh N and Meena CL (2014). Economic

analysis of cost and returns of milk production, the

extent of adoption of recommended management

practices on sample dairy farms in Bikaner district of

Rajasthan. Global Journal Inc. (USA), 14(5).

Nyokabia S, Oostingb S, Bebec B, Pheland S, Bette B

Lindahlf J and Boer I (2018). The Kenyan sector:

stakeholder roles and relationships, and their impact

on milk quality. Chania, Greece, European IFSA

Symposium, pp. 1-12.

United Nation Development Program (2016). Value

Chain and Market Analysis of Renewable Natural

Resources Products Report, United Nation

Development Program, Thimphu, Bhutan.

Wouters B and Lee JVD (2010). Inclusion of small-scale

milk producers in modern dairy value chains, The

Netherlands: Wageningen UR.



68

Full length paper

EVALUATION OF A CAPTURE-NEUTER-VACCINATE-RELEASE (CNVR) PROGRAM:

INTERVENTION TO CONTROL THE DOG POPULATION AND RABIES IN BHUTAN

KARMA RINZIN*1 ID ROBERTSON2, YESHEY TSHERING 1, N DAHAL 1 and RK

PANDEY 2

1Department of Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, P.O. Box 155, Thimphu, Bhutan *College of Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University,

90 South Street Murdoch, Perth, WA, Australia 6150

* Author for correspondence: [email protected]

Copyright © 2020 Karma Rinzin. The original work must be properly cited to permit


ABSTRACT: Dog population survey was undertaken in the months of January and February

2012 in the main towns of six selected districts to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness and

progress of the CNVR programme in Bhutan. The field survey included counting male and

female dogs with and without ear notches, lactating females and puppies. The study also

assessed the body and skin condition of the neutered and un-neutered free-roaming dogs. The

population survey in the field indicated an overall CNVR coverage of 52% ranging from 32%

in Bumthang to 72% in Samdrup Jongkhar. Approximately 8% of the adult females were seen

lactating and 11% of the dogs were puppies in the survey areas. The body condition of neutered

dogs was found significantly better than entire dogs with 36% of un-notched dogs being

categorised as thin to very thin, compared with 26% of notched dogs. There was no significant

difference in the proportion of dogs with skin problems in the notched (19%) and un-notched

dogs (23%). Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended to carry out further rounds

of CNVR campaigns, and institute continuous follow-up programmes in all districts targeting

females, and extending the CNVR campaign to adjoining Indian towns to improve animal

welfare and to effectively control rabies. The indicator count should be repeated along the fixed

routes at least twice a year after the six weeks period of the peak whelping seasons i.e., July and

January to continuously monitor the CNVR programme.

Keywords: Animal welfare; capture-neuter-vaccinate-release; dogs; free-roaming; rabies.

1. INTRODUCTION

Dogs were the first species to be domesticated

sometimes 14000 to 15000 years ago (Clutton-Brock

1995; Savolainen 2007). Since then people have been

intimately involved in domesticating wild dogs for use

as pets and companions, for hunting, as guard dogs,

draught animals, or for commercial purposes

(Coppinger and Schneider 1995; Stafford 2006).

Currently, dogs are used for specialized works

including the detection of illegal goods, tracking

criminals, search and rescue work and in sporting

activities (Murray and Penridge 1992; Stafford 2006).

Dogs play an important role in society, enhancing the

psychological and physiological well-being of many

people (Blackshaw 1996; DiSalvo et al. 2005). Paul &

Serpell (1996) suggested association of keeping pets

with a higher level of self-esteem in children.

Although many dogs are confined and have

owners within communities, there are others that roam

freely in the neighborhood, which are designated as

free-roaming dogs. A free-roaming dog population can

rapidly increase in size due to a high reproductive

potential resulting in a hazard to animals, humans and

the environment. A diverse range of zoonotic

infections, including parasitic, bacterial, viral,

protozoal and fungal diseases, can be transmitted from

dogs to humans (Robertson and Thompson 2002;

Schlundt et al. 2004). The majority of cases of rabies in

humans are acquired from street dogs (Childs et al.

1997; Cleaveland et al. 2003; Hemachudha 2005;

Kayali et al. 2003; Kitala et al. 2001a; Matter et al.

2000b; Zinsstag et al. 2011) resulting in more than

55,000 deaths per year, mainly in Asia and Africa

(WHO 1987; 1988, 1996, 2004; WHO/WSPA 1990).

The impact of free-roaming dogs on the spread of rabies

and infectious diseases to wildlife is also of significant

concern (Butler et al. 2003; Cleaveland Sarah et al.

2007; Manor and Saltz 2003). In addition, free-roaming

dogs cause many other problems through dog bites, by

fouling public places with excreta, noise pollution,

causing road traffic accidents and putting pressure on

the road users (Feldman et al. 2004; Keuster et al. 2005;




Marsh et al. 2004; Overall and Love 2001; Robinson

1974 ; Tenzin et al. 2011c).

Rabies is endemic in the southern districts of

Bhutan sharing borders with India. Dogs are the main

reservoir of rabies and are responsible for spill-over

infection to other domestic species, especially cattle

(Rinzin et al. 2006; Tenzin et al. 2011a; Tenzin et al.

2011b; Tenzin et al. 2010). A survey conducted in three

hospital catchment areas reported an annual dog bite

incidence in humans of 869.8, 293.8 and 284.8 per

100,000 population in Gelephu, Phuentsholing and

Thimphu, respectively (Tenzin et al. 2011c). The

presence of large numbers of free-roaming dogs and the

associated barking at night also has an adverse effect on

tourism (TCB 2010 2011), which is an important

industry in Bhutan.

Several initiatives to control the free-roaming dog

population have been made by international

organizations (OIE, FAO, WHO), animal welfare

organizations (WSPA, HSI) and national authorities

(ICAMC 2007; OIE 2010; WHO/WSPA 1990). Mass

culling of dogs has historically been used in many

developing countries to control the dog population.

However, there is no direct evidence that removal of

dogs alone has a significant impact on the dog

population density or the spread of rabies (OIE 2010).

Animal birth control (ABC) through capture-neuter-

vaccinate-release (CNVR) programme is an alternative

means of population control pursued in many

developing countries, including Bhutan. The World

Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee on

Rabies in 2004 recommended that at least 70%

vaccination coverage was required to break the rabies

cycle and at least 70% of dogs sterilized to maintain a

stable dog population (WHO 2004).

The coverage of past CNVR campaigns was

inadequate to break the rabies cycle and stabilize the

dog population (NCAH 2006) in Bhutan. Thus, the

Department of Livestock, Royal Government of Bhutan

(RGOB) in collaboration with the Humane Society

International (HSI), USA commenced a CNVR

programme from February 2009 in Bhutan. As of

January 2012, a total of 32,276 dogs was neutered,

vaccinated and released back to their place of origin in

18 of the 20 districts in Bhutan.

Following a CNVR programme a field survey

was recommended to assess its success (Childs et al.

1997; Hiby 2005; Hiby et al. 2011; Kayali et al. 2003;

Kitala et al. 2001a; Matter et al. 2000a; Reece and

Chawla 2006). Therefore, the study was undertaken to

monitor and evaluate the effectiveness and progress of

the ongoing RGOB-HSI project on dog population

management and rabies control.


2.1 CNVR programme

The CNVR programme focused on sterilization and

vaccination of captured stray and owned dogs. Sexually

intact dogs older than 4 months of age were humanely

captured by trained dog catchers using nets. The owned

dogs were either brought to the clinics by their owners

or collected from a designated place. The dogs brought

to the CNVR clinics were administered xylazine

(1mg/kg) and atropine sulphate (0.05 to 1mg/kg) as pre-

anesthetic medications and anesthetized using

intramuscular ketamine at 15mg/kg body weight. All

dogs were given ivermectin (1% w/v) injectable for

parasite control. Benzathine penicillin (11000 to 22000

IU/kg) and meloxicam (0.2 mg/kg), were administered

to prevent secondary bacterial infection and to relieve

pain, respectively. Male dogs were castrated through a

single prescrotal incision, and female dogs were

sterilized by complete ovariohysterectomy through a

mid-ventral abdominal incision. The neutered dogs

were ear notched while anesthetized using a cautery

device for identification. After surgery the dogs were

observed in an enclosure and once fully recovered from

anesthesia were either returned to their owners or the

place where they were captured. All procedures

performed on the dogs were approved by the Murdoch

University Animal Ethics Committee. All the animal

handling and surgical procedures were performed by

Veterinarians and Para-veterinarians trained on the

standard HSI protocol for the CNVR programme.

2.2 Population surveys

A survey to monitor and evaluate the CNVR

programme was undertaken in January and February

2012 in the main towns of six districts (Bumthang,

Samtse, Samdrup Jongkha (SJ), Tashigang, Thimphu

and Tsirang). These districts were distributed in

different agro-ecological zones representing the

different regions of Bhutan. Before the surveys were

conducted the enumerators were trained on dog

population counting techniques and scoring of body

and skin conditions. The process included counting

male and female dogs with and without ear notches,

lactating females and puppies. A similar count was

undertaken in the border Indian towns within a 3 km

radius of SJ town, as CNVR had also been performed

in these places.

The health condition of both neutered and entire

dogs was scored in Thimphu through visual assessment

on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = very thin, 2 = thin, 3 = ideal, 4

= stout and 5 = overweight). The skin condition (mange

score) was assessed for each dog using a four point

scale (0 = normal, 1 = mild, 2 = moderate, 3 = severe).

Dogs were assessed in the street without physical

contact to maximize the examiners safety and to

minimize stress to the dogs.

2.3 Statistical analysis

Descriptive analyses of the proportion of neutered and

vaccinated dogs, lactating female among adult female

dogs and puppies were undertaken and expressed as a

percentage with 95% confidence intervals for each

district town. The Chi-square test of independence was

used to compare the difference in proportions of

neutered dogs (notched dogs) between gender and



districts. The proportion of puppies of all dogs sighted

and lactating females of adult females were also

compared using chi-square tests. To determine if there

was an association between the CNVR programme and

various health indices, the proportion of dogs in the

different assessment groups were also compared using

chi-square tests. A Pearson’s product-moment

correlation coefficient was computed to assess the

relationship between the proportion of dogs covered

under CNVR and the proportion of lactating bitches and

puppies. Statistical significance was assessed at the 5%

level. All analyses were carried out using the statistical

software package PASW Statistics v18 (SPSS Inc.,

Chicago, IL, USA).

3. RESULTS

3.1 CNVR programme

A total of 32,276 dogs, of which 15,217 (47.2; 95% CI

46.60, 47.69%) were females had been processed

through the CNVR programme by January 2012. More

than half (52.4%; 95% CI 51.89, 52.98) of the dogs

presented to the CNVR clinic were ownerless. The

team came across 526 (1.6%) cases of transmissible

venereal tumour (TVT), 1,112 (7.3%) cases of

pyometra and 1,607 (5.0%) cases of mange during the

CNVR programme. A total of 1,263 bitches (8.1%;

95% CI 7.65, 8.51%) brought to the CNVR clinic were

pregnant.

3.2 Population surveys

A total of 2,886 dogs (2,581 adults and 305 puppies)

were sighted during the survey period in the main towns

of six districts. All dogs found in public places were

classified as free-roaming dogs. For this study adult

dogs were classified as those older than approximately

four months which were eligible for sterilization. Of the

2,581 adults the neuter status of 70 dogs was not known

and 71 dogs had been sterilized in previous anti-rabies

campaigns but had not been ear notched. Consequently,

the final analyses were undertaken on 2,440 adult dogs.

Just over half (52%; 95% CI 50.3, 54.2%) of the adult

dogs sighted had been processed through the CNVR

program. Of these 56.1% were males and 43.9%

females. There were no significant differences in the

sterilization and vaccination coverage between male

(53%) and female dogs (52%) (χ² = 1.486, df = 1; p =

0.22).

The proportions of the CNVR coverage in the

different districts are presented in Table 1. The

coverage was lowest in Bumthang (44/137, 32%) and

highest in SJ (182/252, 72%). Overall, the coverage was

significantly different between the districts (χ² = 70.45,

df = 5; p <0.001). There was no significant difference

in the coverage in SJ town (107/139, 77%) compared

with the adjacent border town in India (49/65, 75%) (χ²

= 0.06, df = 1; p = 0.803).

In Table 2 data on sightings of lactating females

and puppies are presented. A total of 91 (8.3%)

lactating females and 305 (11.1%) puppies were

counted in the visited areas. The proportion of lactating

females of all adult female dogs was significantly

different between districts (χ² = 11.95, df = 5; p = 0.035)

with the highest percentage in Bumthang (9/54, 16.7%)

followed by Samtse (12/91, 13.2%) and Tsirang

(10/108, 9.3%). Similarly, the proportion of puppies

was significantly different between districts (χ² = 38.73,

df = 5; p <0.001) with the highest proportion in Tsirang

(38/187, 20.3%) followed by Samtse (43/234, 18.4) and

Bumthang (23/160, 14.4%). There was a negative

correlation between the proportion of dogs covered

under CNVR and the proportion of lactating bitches (r

= -0.739, n = 6, p = 0.093) and puppies (r = -0.606, n =

6; p = 0.202).

In total 1,835 adult dogs (857 notched and 978 un-

notched) from Thimphu were assessed for body and

skin condition. Approximately two-thirds (61%; 95%

CI 59.2 - 63.6) of the dogs had a body condition score

of 3 which is considered an ideal body condition, 32%

(95% CI 29.6 to 39.9) were thin to very thin (2 to 1) and

only 7% (95% CI 5.8 to 8.1) were categorized as stout

to overweight (4 to 5). Only 21% (95% CI 19.3 to 23.0)

of the sighted dogs had skin problems (skin condition

score 1 to 3).

The proportion of dogs in the five body condition

scores for notched and un-notched dogs in Thimphu

was assessed. Neutered dogs were found to be in

significantly better body condition than entire dogs (χ²

= 27.39, df = 4, p <0.001) with 36% of un-notched dogs

being categorised as thin to very thin compared with

26% of notched dogs. There was no significant

difference in the proportion of dogs with skin problems

in the notched (19%) and un-notched dogs (23%) (χ² =

6.63, df = 3, p = 0.085).

4. DISCUSSION

The counting of dogs with and without ear notches,

lactating bitches and puppies in the selected towns of

six districts was useful for determining the progress of

the CNVR programme in Bhutan. The CNVR coverage

varied from 32% in Bumthang to 73% in SJ (Table 1).

This finding is consistent with studies conducted in

other countries where the coverage differed widely

between locations (Hiby et al. 2011; Kayali et al. 2003;

Kitala et al. 2001a; Matter HC et al. 2000a). The

coverage in the districts was highly dependent on when

the CNVR was carried out, the number of CNVR

programmes conducted in that particular area and the

number of days spent in the area. Bumthang district had

the lowest coverage as the first round of CNVR was

completed in January 2010 and there had been no

subsequent follow-up campaigns. In contrast, SJ had

the highest coverage as the second round of CNVR

program was already completed. The coverage in five

out of six districts surveyed were lower than the

WHO/WSPA recommended minimum vaccination and

sterilization coverage of 70% to eliminate rabies in

dogs and to stabilize the dog population, respectively



(Cleaveland et al. 2003; Coleman and Dye 1996; WHO

1987, 2004; WHO/WSPA 1990).

A large reduction in the street dog population was

reported in two Indian cities following the

implementation of Animal Birth Control (ABC)

programme. Reece and Chawla (2006) reported a 28%

reduction in the street dog population in Jaipur city

following the ABC programme implemented between

1994 to 2002, as well as reduction of human rabies

cases to zero in the campaign area when compared with

a non-campaign area. Similarly a reduction in the street

dog population in three of the five areas surveyed was

reported in Jodhpur following the implementation of

ABC program between 2005 to 2007 (Totton et al.

2010). There may not be a sudden reduction of the street

dog population seen after implementation of a CNVR

programme in Bhutan owing to the longer lifespan of

dogs in Bhutan. Moreover, the CNVR programme in

Jaipur and Jodhpur were concentrated in one city over

a long period of time unlike the Bhutan programme

where the CNVR team was required to move from

district to district. Therefore, the CNVR programme

should be carried out in all districts until the population

stabilization threshold is achieved.

With the existing composition of the CNVR team

only three districts can be covered simultaneously at a

Table 1: Percentage of free-roaming dogs neutered and vaccinated in selected districts with 95% confidence intervals.

District Notched

dogs Un-notched

dogs CNVR Coverage

(95% CI) Remarks

Bumthang 44 93 32.12 (24.9 - 40.3) First round in October 2009 to Jan 2010

Samtse 100 91 52.36 (45.3 - 59.3) First round in Feb to May 2011.

Samdrup Jongkhar 182 70 72.22 (66.4 - 77.4) Second round completed in January 2012

Tashigang 55 38 59.14 (49.0 - 68.6) First round in May to Aug 2011

Thimphu 825 793 50.99 (48.6 - 53.4) Second round completed in November 2011

Tsirang 64 85 42.95 (35.3 - 51.0) First round ongoing Total 1270 1170 52.05 (50.1 - 54.0)

CNVR programme in SJ town and adjoining Indian border towns within 3 km of the international border

Bhutan side 107 32 77.0 (69.3 - 83.2) Second round completed in January 2012

Indian side 49 16 75.4 (63.7 - 84.2) Second round completed in January 2012

Table 2: Number and percentage of lactating bitches and puppies counted in the main towns of the six selected

districts.

District

Total

dogs

Matured

Female

No. of

Puppies

No. of

Lactating Puppies (%) Lactating (%) Bumthang 160 45 23 9 14.4 20.0 Tashigang 100 43 7 2 7.0 4.7 Tsirang 187 98 38 10 20.3 10.2 Samtse 234 79 43 12 18.4 15.2 SJ 274 101 22 7 8.0 6.9 Thimphu 1790 704 172 51 9.6 7.2 Overall 2745 1070 305 91 11.1 8.5

CNVR progamme along Indo-Bhutan border (SJ, Bhutan and Daranga, Assam, India)

Bhutan (SJ Town

to Char kilo) 135 4 11 150 3.0 7.3

India (from

Bhutan gate to

Mela Bazaar) 65 1 6 72 1.5 8.3



given time. In order to have sustainable dog population

control it is recommended to build a technical and

staffing capacity in every district to carry out ABC

programmes regularly, in addition to the existing

CNVR team. Since rabies is endemic only in a few

districts, annual dog rabies vaccination should be

carried out in these high-risk areas, in addition to the

ongoing CNVR programme.

In the current survey a higher number of male than

female free-roaming dogs was found in all study areas.

Similarly higher proportions of males have been

observed in studies conducted in other developing

countries (Acosta-Jamett et al. 2010; Brooks 1990;

Butler and Bingham 2000; Kitala et al. 2001b). The

CNVR coverage in male dogs was slightly higher than

female dogs, although ideally a higher proportion of

females should be neutered to have a greater impact on

the dog population. The ABC programme for the street

dog population in Jaipur in India covered only female

dogs to maximize the impact of that programme (Reece

and Chawla 2006; Reece et al. 2008).

In this study it was assumed that there was an

equal probability of detecting a notched and un-notched

dog during the field survey. However, dogs not caught

by the CNVR team are likely to be more sensitive and

the probability of missing those dogs by the

enumerators during the field surveys was high, leading

to overestimation of the number of dogs neutered in the

CNVR programme.

Approximately 75% of observed dogs on the

Indian side had been neutered and vaccinated (Table 1).

The programme had been successful due to the active

involvement of members of the Bhutan Indian

Friendship Association (BIFA) and local leaders on

both sides of the border (Dechen, K – Personal

Communication).

It is recommended that CNVR be extended to

other border towns of India in consultation with the

local Indian authorities. This effort will create a buffer

zone and significantly contribute towards the control of

rabies in humans and other animals in both India and

Bhutan. The number of lactating females and puppies

seen following the CNVR programme was a good

indicator of the success of the programme.

Similarly, it is anticipated that a successful

campaign will result in a change in the age structure of

the population with a greater proportion of adult dogs

in areas where a CNVR programme had been

conducted compared to those where the programme had

not been implemented. The proportion of lactating

females and puppies seen during the survey depended

on when the first round of CNVR had been carried out,

whether the team visited the area for the second time

and the stage of the first and the second round of CNVR

programme (Table 2). Bumthang had the highest

proportion of lactating bitches as the last CNVR

programme had been carried out from October 2009 to

January 2010. The proportion of puppies was highest in

Tsirang due to the fact that the first round of the CNVR

was ongoing during the survey period. A similar study

conducted by Totton et al. (2010) in the Indian city of

Jodhpur reported a higher proportion of adults in the

population (80 to 96%) when compared with sub-adults

(0-18%) and puppies (0-4%). Although there was a

negative correlation between the proportion of dogs

covered under CNVR and the proportion of lactating

females and puppies, the correlation was not

significant. This indicates that the current CNVR

coverage is not sufficient to stabilize the free-roaming

dog population and more dogs, especially females,

should be neutered and vaccinated.

Most of the free-roaming dogs in Bhutan were

found to be in good health condition as they are fed by

members of the local Buddhist communities. The health

condition of the neutered dogs was observed generally

better than that of entire dogs. A similar finding was

reported in a study conducted in Rajasthan in India

(Totton et al. 2011; Yoak et al. 2014). This is due to a

number of behavioral and health benefits arising from

the neutering of dogs (Reichler 2009). The repeated

pregnancies in female dogs can physically stress the

animals while the absence of pregnancy can improve

the health of dogs (Jackman and Rowan 2007). There is

a reduced risk of acquiring cancer or other diseases of

the reproductive organs, including TVT and pyometra,

after sterilization (Jackman and Rowan 2007, Michell

1998). Neutering has been identified as an important

risk factor for obesity in dogs due to increased food

consumption, decreased metabolic rate and reduced

physical activity (German 2005; Robertson 2003).

However, in this study only few obese dogs (1%) were

sighted. This could be due to the type of diet that free-

roaming dogs can access and their continuous physical

activity searching for food when compared to owned

and confined dogs or dogs in other nations.

Approximately 20% of the dogs had skin

problems with 17% having mild, 2% moderate and 1%

severe problems. There was no significant difference in

the skin condition scores between neutered and entire

dogs. Although neutered dogs would be expected to

have fewer skin problems as they were treated with

ivermectin in this study, the time of examination after

the single treatment was more than 3 months when the

antiparasitic effect of ivermectin would have gone or

been reduced (Campbell and Benz 1984, Scheidt et al.

1984). In contrast others have found a higher

prevalence of skin problems in sterilized dogs. This was

believed to be due to infections acquired during the

CNVR programmes and transfer of ticks to dogs

awaiting surgery (Totton et al. 2011; Yoak et al. 2014).

These contrasting findings may also be due to the

influence of external factors such as climate, breed, and

type of food available. It is likely that in the current

study the prevalence of skin problems was

underestimated as it is difficult to assess animals from

a distance, in contrast to caught or anesthetized dogs.

Through the ongoing CNVR programme 32,276

dogs were neutered and vaccinated, representing 65%

of the 2005 dog population (DOL 2006). In contrast,

based on more recent population surveys in six districts,



the coverage is estimated at 52%. The calculation of

coverage (neutered and vaccinated) based on the earlier

record may be an overestimate due to under estimation

of the population as the 2005 census did not include

stray dogs. It is important to estimate the population of

both owned and un-owned dogs using suitable

scientific methods. Cross-sectional household surveys

have been performed to estimate the owned dog

population (Butler and Bingham 2000; De Balogh et al.

1993; Kitala et al. 2001b; Matter et al. 2000a) while for

free-roaming dog populations, capture-mark-recapture

surveys have been used (Childs et al. 1998; De Balogh

et al. 1993; Hiby et al. 2011). In order to plan long term

dog population control, it is important to confirm the

proportion of owned dogs that are free-roaming.

Enumeration of dogs should be undertaken before the

start of any CNVR programme, and during and after its

implementation to allow effective planning of the

programme and monitoring of its success. In order to

continuously monitor and evaluate the success of the

CNVR programme, indicator counts should be

undertaken by selecting one or two routes across the

cities. Repeated indicator counts should be conducted

along the fixed routes at least twice a year

approximately six weeks after the peak whelping

season i.e. July and January in Bhutan.

5. CONCLUSION

The high tolerance of the Bhutanese society to free-

roaming dogs may lead to the dog population becoming

unmanageable, resulting in a threat to the welfare of

dogs and public health if appropriate interventions are

not taken. The CNVR programme undertaken by the

Royal Government of Bhutan and Humane Society

International provides a solution to address the

increasing dog population problem. This study

highlighted the status of the CNVR programme in

Bhutan, as well as various benefits to the welfare of the

dogs and the control of rabies. Dogs that were neutered

and vaccinated were found to be in better body

condition compared with un-neutered and un-

vaccinated dogs. The proportion of the lactating

females and puppies sighted were higher in those places

where the CNVR programme was carried out less

frequently. The overall CNVR coverage of 52% is

much lower than the WHO Expert Committee

recommended 70% vaccination and sterilization

coverage to break the rabies cycle and to maintain a

stable dog population. This indicates that there should

be continuous follow-up CNVR programmes in all

districts by specifically targeting females. The CNVR

programme should be continued and combined with

education on responsible dog ownership and habit

control (food, water and shelter) through a one health

approach. At the same time routine monitoring work

should be repeated at six monthly intervals to evaluate

the dog population control programme, as well as its

benefit to the welfare of the dogs.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank Department of

Livestock, Royal Government of Bhutan and Humane

Society International for supporting this research. We

would also like to thank the concerned officials from

NCAH, Dzongkhag Livestock Office and National Dog

Population Management and Rabies Control Project

team in Bhutan for their support during the field

surveys. We wish to thank Australian Postgraduate

Endeavour Award Team for funding the principal

author’s scholarship to undertake PhD programme at

Murdoch University.

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76

Full length paper

ASSESS MILK PRODUCTION OF CATTLE BREEDS IN DIFFERENT AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

OF WESTERN BHUTAN

DEKI CHODEN*, LOKEY THAPA AND NB TAMANG

National Dairy Research and Development Centre, Department of Livestock, Ministry of

Agriculture and Forests

*Author of correspondence: [email protected]

Copyright © 2020 Deki Choden. The original work must be properly cited to permit unrestricted


ABSTRACT: The study was conducted in seven functional Dairy Farmers Groups (DFGs) of

Thimphu and Chukha Dzongkhags from June 2017 to May 2018, to assess milk production level of

dairy cattle breeds with varying exotic inheritance level, lactation no, age and herd type in three

Agro-Ecological Zones (AEZ) of western Bhutan. The study also compared milk yield in different

seasons and AM-PM milking. Prevalent dairy cattle breeds in the study area were Jersey Cross (JX),

pure Holstein Friesian (HF) and HF cross. The overall mean daily milk yield (DMY) was 7.72 ±3.75

litres and days in milk (DIM) was 266.51±81.03 days. Mean DMY recorded in Cool temperate, Warm

temperate and Dry sub-tropical AEZs were 5.63±2.14, 6.30±1.94 and 9.07±4.28 litres respectively.

Mean DMY of HF pure, HF cross and JX cows were 12.41±3.7, 10.74±5.79 and 6.92±3.07 litres

respectively. Cows of exotic inheritance level of 50-75% produced higher mean DMY of 8.44±3.89

l/day than exotic inheritance level of above 75% (7.58±3.66 l/day) and below 50% (5.57±2.2 l/day).

Similarly among different herd size, mean DMY of medium herd size (6-10 cows) was highest

(11.81±4.79 l/day) as compared to very small (1-2), small (3-5),and large (>10 milking dairy cows)

herd sizes which yielded 6.58±2.94, 6.96±2.98, and 10.2±2.47 l/day, respectively. The aspects that

determined productivity were breed, exotic inheritance level and herd type which showed significant

differences (p<0.05) in DMY. The DMY increased from 1st (6.57±3.67) to 2nd (8.68±3.38) and highest

was observed in 3rd lactation (8.77±4.67). Thus, the findings suggest that cows above 11 years of

age, are not advisable to retain in farmers’ field because of its decreasing productivity with age.

Significant difference in milk yield between AM (4.74±2.19) and PM (3.16±1.59) milking was observed.

However, no significant difference was observed in DMY across seasons although yield in winter (7.42±4.16)

and autumn (7.60 ±3.93) were lower than summer (8.07 ±4.51) and spring (7.86±4.49) seasons. As the

study found higher productivity of cows in the lower altitudes, it can be deduced that dairy farming is more

suitable in such warmer areas. Nonetheless, further studies are needed to establish whether altitude or other

management practices affect milk production.

Keywords: Agro-ecological zones; cattle breeds; milk production.

1. INTRODUCTION

In Bhutan, cattle form an important element of farming

system, mainly reared for milk, manure and draught

power. So, it is inevitable to know about milk production

aspects because major chunk of farmers' income come

from milk, data from milk recording forms the basis to

control herd management and genetic improvement of

cows (Siddiky 2017). Cunha et al. (2010) reported that in

some countries, the established dairy farms use various

Lactation Curve Models designed by Brody et al. (1923);

Brody et al. (1924);Wood (1967); Cobby & LeDu (1978);

Wilmink (1987); Rook et al. (1993); Dijkstra et al. (1997)

and Pollott (2000) for estimating milk production.

Lactation curve models are useful in genetic breeding

programs, herd nutritional management, decision taking

on the culling of cows and milk production simulation

systems.

However, in Bhutanese context, data on livestock

population, milk production and its allied products are

obtained during livestock census conducted annually

through enumeration of households by the Extension staff

of the respective geog. These data sets are compiled,

validated and published annually by Department of

Livestock (DoL), Ministry of Agriculture and Forests.

According to livestock statistics 2017 there are 303,250


Choden et al. (2020) 77

heads of cattle out of which 88,257 are in milk including

10,521 milking yaks and 3,386 milking Zom and

produced 50250.504 MT of milk in the country. In order

to bring improvement in the livestock statistics, in 2014 a

pilot survey on estimation of milk production was first

implemented by DoL in Haa Dzongkhag followed by

another survey in Samdrup Jongkhar Dzongkhag in 2016

with more precise operational and technical details. Both

the surveys were in support towards “Implementation of

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Global

Strategy for Improving Agricultural and Rural Statistics”

funded by FAO. The survey although had reference

period of one year for reporting milk production livestock

census is conducted only once a year so the respondents

may not be able to recall the past production level which

may lead to under or over reporting of data. Moreover,

time series data of livestock census show variations in

livestock number as well as production in a number of

Gewogs. This may be due to missing data sets or other

factors like season, management practices, type of animal

etc. Therefore, this study attempts to find out milk

production trends in dairy cattle of different breeds, exotic

inheritance level and parity and compare milk yield of

different season and AM/PM milking in three agro-

ecological zones of Western Bhutan.


2.1 Location of the study

This study was carried out in Chukha and Thimphu

Dzongkhas representing three Agro-Ecological Zones

(AEZs); Cool temperate (2600-3600), Warm temperate

(1800-2600) and Dry sub-tropical (1200-1800) masl

(adapted from MoAF 9th FYP and BAP III).

2.2 Data collection method

Seven functional Dairy Farmers Groups (DFGs) of these

two Dzongkhags falling under 3 AEZs having dairy cattle

either milking or cows in advanced pregnancy stages

were purposively sampled and 50% of members were

randomly drawn from the list provided by the respective

livestock sector offices. Data were collected by recording

Daily Milk Yield (DMY) of dairy cows by the farmer of

the sampled households across all four seasons covering

a period of one year from June 2017 to May 2018.

Animals were categorized into three groups depending

upon exotic inheritance level (> 75%), (50-75%) and

(<50%) through phenotypic characteristics and owner’s

information. Herd size was clustered into four groups

namely very small (1-2), small (3-5), medium (6-10) and

large (>10) milking dairy cows according to

characteristics of dairy production system practiced in the

country. Seasons were Spring (March, April, May);

Summer (June, July, August); Autumn (September,

October, November) and Winter (December, January,

February).

2.3 Milk recording

For monthly milk recording, Owner-Sampler (O-S)

testing method used for Dairy Herd Improvement (DHI)

testing program adopted by United States Dairy

Association (USDA) was applied. Sampled households

were provided with a booklet to record the DMY of each

cow for both morning (AM) and evening PM) milking by

the owner. This booklet captured information such as

animal breed, exotic inheritance level, age, lactation

no/stage, parity and herd type. AM and PM milk yield

were recorded individually and the total daily yield was

obtained by summing up the two partial milk yields.

DMY was obtained by dividing the total daily yield by

total days-in-milk (DIM). Recordings through the study

period were validated by visiting herd/ household at

monthly interval. Records of those animals either died or

sold during the study period were discarded. Absence of

evening milking and milk production during dry days as

well as when animals were sick were coded as missing

data. After cleaning the data, out of 405 heads listed,

records of 372 animals belonging to 162 members were

considered for the study.

2.4 Data analysis

Statistical Package for Social Science- version 20 was

used to analyze both quantitative and qualitative data.

Mean, standard deviation and percentage were used to

describe the quantitative variables while qualitative data

were presented by ANOVA and paired sample T test.

Excel was used producing graph. Field observations and

impressions were described.

Table 1: Mean (±SD) milk yields and days in milk in different agro-ecological zones

Variables Cool temperate Warm temperate Dry Sub-Tropical Overall

No of DFG 2 2 3 7

No of members 22 69 71 162

No of cows(N) 53 115 204 372

Total milk yield (l) 1366.23 ± 820.76 1704.33 ± 735.69 2515.45 ± 115.75 2100.96 ± 1315.76*

AM milk yield (l) 929.39 ± 534.47 984.17 ± 409.63 1547.61 ± 877.47 1285.35 ± 772.61*

PM milk yield (l) 492.61 ± 328.00 720.15 ± 339.24 982.27 ± 652.69 835.83 ± 562.78*

Days in milk 236.19 ± 91.55 267.70 ± 80.42 273.71 ± 77.00 266.51 ± 81.03*

* The mean difference is significant at the .05 level




3.1 Milk Production Profile

Overall mean days in milk (DIM) for dairy cattle in the

study area was 266.51±81.03 days. With the lactation

length, total milk from 372 milking cows belonging to

162 farmers under three AEZ zones recorded daily (both

morning and evening) showed an overall mean milk yield

of 2100.96 ±1315.76 litres (AEZs), 1285.35±772.61

(AM) and 835.83±562.78 litres PM) (Table 1). This

finding is far above the South Asian average of 627.86

litres during 2011 (Siddiky 2017) indicating cows in

Bhutan are better producers than in other south Asian

countries.

3.2 Mean DMY in different agro-ecological zones

The overall average DMY in the study area was 7.72

(±3.75), ranging from 2.29 to 23.01 litres/day. Mean

DMY in dry sub-tropical zone (9.07±4.28) was

significantly higher than cool temperate zone (5.63±2.14)

and warm temperate zones (6.30±1.94) whereas DMY

between warm temperate and cool temperate zones were

not significantly different (Table 2). This could be

attributed to different environment conditions and

adoption of different management practices, particularly

the feeding and management practices (i.e. stall-feeding

verses open grazing) as reported by Rahman & Aleman

(2008). In this study, for instance, cows in dry sub-

tropical zones are completely stall-fed and presence of

Pasakha Brewery Industry within vicinity of the farms is

a boon to the farmers because industrial brewery by-

products (wet distiller grain) are available at a very cheap

price and is easily accessible to feed the milking cows.

Besides, broad leafed fodder trees are also found

bountifully in the farms of sampled farmers of this zone.

Moreover, cattle concentrate is also manufactured nearby

incurring less transportation cost, enables farmers to

provide as per requirement. In contrast, majority of the

farmers in cool and warm temperate zones practice

mostly semi or complete open grazing native pastures in

forest. Native pastures are often low in nutritive value

(Siddiky 2017). Although concentrate is fed to milking

animals but affordability vis-a-vis feeding of required

quantity by all sampled farmers of this zone is a question.

Another reason for difference in DMY in different AEZ

may be attributed to herd composition of different dairy

breeds because Holstein Friesian (HF) breed, which is

comparatively high yielder than Jersey (Rahman &

Aleman, 2008), was not found in Cool temperate zone

except few heads in Warm temperate zone as seen in Dry

sub-tropical zone during the study period. The overall

average DMY in the study was consistent with yields of

7.15 l/day among Indian exotic/crossbred cows (DoAH

2016).

3.3 Mean DMY of different dairy cattle breeds

Prevalent dairy cattle breeds in the study area were Jersey

and HF considered as exotic breeds. Jersey Cross (JX)

was found across all the AEZ while HF and its crosses

were found only in Dry sub-tropical zone. There were

significant differences in DMY among the breeds

(p<0.05). HF pure cows produced significantly higher

daily yield (12.41±3.7) than JX (6.92±3.07). However, no

significant difference in DMY was observed within HF

pure and its crosses (10.74±5.79) cows (Table 2).

Wangdi et al. (2014) accredited difference in DMY

to genetic potential of the different dairy cattle breeds in

producing milk beside management and environmental

factors (Wanjala & Njehia, 2014). Jersey is a temperate

breed; nonetheless, DMY of JX crossed with Bos indicus

gene increases with decrease in altitude, indicating JX can

perform better in warmer climate. This could be attributed

Table 2: Mean DMY by breed, exotic inheritance level and herd type in different AEZ

Variables/

Cool

temperate Warm temperate

Dry

sub-tropical Overall

p

value

Categories Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD N Mean SD AEZs 5.63 2.14 6.30 1.94 9.07 4.28 372 7.72 3.75 .000

Jersey Cross 5.63 2.14 6.30 1.95 7.87 3.72 315 6.92 3.07 .000

HF pure 0.00 0.00 6.91 0.00 12.53 3.64 48 12.41 3.70

HF cross 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.74 5.79 9 10.74 5.79

>75% 6.77 2.41 8.12 0.00 8.28 4.65 22 7.58 3.66 .000

50-75% 5.70 2.20 6.51 1.86 9.58 4.18 264 8.44 3.89

<50% 4.97 1.73 5.94 2.03 5.32 2.86 86 5.57 2.21

Very small 5.83 2.35 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 175 6.58 2.94 .000

Small herd 5.26 1.85 6.08 1.89 7.50 3.94 116 6.96 2.86

Medium herd 6.67 2.54 7.02 1.96 7.89 3.27 55 11.81 4.79

Large herd 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 12.19 4.12 26 10.20 2.47

The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level



to feeding and management practices adopted by farmers.

In cool temperate zone farmers were found to be relying

on less nutritive forages via forest grazing. Thus, under-

feeding in temperate zones might have not allowed cows

to express its full genetic potential in producing milk.

DMY of JX in this study is almost double of 3.57 ±0.04

litres that was reported in the country by Wangdi et al.

(2014) and at par with Jerseys under sub-temperate

conditions of Himachal Pradesh in India and tropical

Kenya for yields of 6.06 and 6.47 litres per day

respectively (Dinesh et al. 2014; Wanjala & Njehia 2014).

HF was ranked as highest milk yielder in India (Landes et

al. 2017).

3.4 Mean DMY of different exotic inheritance level

Majority of animals (70.9%) were in 50 – 75% exotic

inheritance level. Six and 23.3percent were above 75%

and below 50% exotic inheritance level respectively.

Result showed that across AEZs there was significant

differences in DMY among different exotic inheritance

level (p<0.05). Cows with exotic inheritance level of 50-

75% yielded significantly higher mean milk yield

(8.44±3.89) l/day than cows of other two categories,

above 75% (7.58±3.66) l/day or below 50%

(5.57±2.21)l/day (Table 2). This is indicative that most

suitable exotic inheritance level at the village level for

optimum production is between 50-75%. Higher yields

from cows of this group may be attributed to its

adaptability to local environment and ease in management

of animals. The result is in agreement with the earlier

findings of Choden and Tamang (2018) who reported that

exotic inheritance level of 50-75% was the most preferred

exotic inheritance slab by the farmers owing to ease in

management. However, exotic inheritance of 50% was

found to be ideal for both production and reproduction in

India (Landes et al. 2017).

3.5 Mean DMY of different herd size

Majority of farms (47%) were very small and were found

only in cool temperate zone while small (14.8%) and

medium (31.2%) farms were found across all zones of the

study area. Large size herds (7%) were found in sub-

tropical zone only. There were significant differences in

DMY across herd sizes at p<0.05. Medium herd size

(11.81±4.79) yielded highest milk yield followed by large

(10.2±2.47), small (6.96±2.98) and very small

(6.58±2.94) was lowest (Table 2). The result indicates

that medium herd size is better off in milk production than

other herd sizes. It also suggested that too big or too small

herd size is either difficult to manage or not cost-effective

owing to shortage of labor, feed and fodder resources

constraint and inadequate technical knowhow on dairy

husbandry aspects. Aujla & Hussain (2015) also

supplemented the view that feeding and labor cost are

most important variable cost in milk production, hence

any variation will impact productivity of the individual

animal. Thus, labor saving devices for the larger herds

such as milking machine and knowing economic

efficiency for smallholders may increase productivity of

the animals. However, in India herd size ranges from 1-6

cows with DMY of 7.02 litres from crossbred cows

during 2012-13 (Rajeshwaran 2016).

3.6 Mean DMY of different lactations

The study found that mean DMY increased from 1st

lactation (6.57±3.67) to 2nd (8.68±3.38) and recorded

peak in 3rd lactation (8.77±4.67). The production then

declined with increase in number of lactations (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Mean DMY in different lactations

There is slight deviation from earlier findings of Tamang

et al (2018), where milk production is reported to increase

till the fourth lactation in Government farm in Bhutan. In

current study the yield could not reach the maximum

point as expected, mainly because of improper

management of animals. Under-feeding of cows with

high genetic merit is reported to be one of the biggest

nutritionally induced problems being faced by many

smallholder farmers, as improvement in feeding systems

resulted in harnessing maximum productivity from cows

of high genetic potential (Siddiky 2017). Estimation of

total lactation yield of different exotic inheritance level

and breed indicated that lactation yield was highest for

exotic inheritance level of 50-75 % (2574 litres).

Similarly, lactation yield of HF Pure was highest with

3307 litres followed by HF cross 2862 litres and Jersey

cross 1844 litres. Corrected lactation yield (305 days)

however was higher than lactation yield with 3785 litres,

3275 and 2110 for pure HF, HF cross and Jersey cross

respectively (Table 3).

Table 3: Lactation yield and corrected lactation yield of different breed and exotic inheritance level Breed and exotic inheritance level

Lactation yield(litres)

Corrected 305 days lactation yield (litres)

HF pure HF cross Jersey cross >75%

3307 2862 1844 2020

3785 3275 2110 2312

50-75% 2249 2574 <50% 1484 1698 Lactation yield was calculated based on mean DMY and DIM 266.5days

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9M

ean

DM

Y (

l)

Lactations



3.7 Mean DMY of different age

This study found that milk yield increases as the cows

matures till eight years old with little exception at seven

years that corresponds to 3rd lactation with average age at

first calving of 3 years and inter-calving period of 14

months. Thereafter, production capacity gradually

declines (Figure 2). The result suggests that cows above

11 years of age corresponding to 6th lactation are not

advisable to retain in farmers’ field because production is

too low that it may not cover its cost of production.

Likewise, Fernando et al. (2016) claimed that when cows

become older the structure of udder change due to

deposition of fat resulting in reduced milk yield.

Figure 2: Mean DMY of cows at different age

3.8 Mean DMY in different season

Although milk yield in summer and spring was higher

than other seasons, seasonal variation in daily milk yield

was not significantly different (Table 4). This is in

divergent with the findings of other researchers who had

observed influence of season on milk production (Dorji &

Tamang 2016). This may be due to management aspects

especially housing and interaction between animal and its

surrounding environment. It was observed animals were

housed in thick walled shed in colder areas while in

warmer areas sheds just have roof to protect from rain and

heat allowing enough airflow. Bhutan is a temperate

country so animals do not suffer from heat induced stress

in summer. Similarly, cattle have mechanism making

thermal balance of body even in unfavorable cold

conditions and are adapted to conditions of low air

temperature than higher (Cerny et al. 2016). Accordingly,

animals may be adapted to cooler environment of the

country. This proves true as Singh et al. (2015) reported

milk production performance of dairy cattle under same

management conditions were markedly affected by

seasonal variation in sub-tropical country like India. Milk

yield was lowest in rainy season though green fodder was

abundant but of lower nutritive value due to high moisture

content but feed intake reduced as a result of high relative

humidity and air temperature.

Table 4: DMY in different season

Season N Mean SD SE p value Summer 334 8.07 4.51 0.25 0.231

Autumn 345 7.60 3.93 0.21

Winter 302 7.42 4.16 0.24

Spring 258 7.86 4.49 0.28

3.9 Mean DMY of AM and PM milking

A paired-samples t-test showed significant difference in

actual milk yield obtained during AM and PM milking

(Table 5). On an average, DMY in AM milking

(4.74±2.19) was 33.34% higher than PM milking

(3.16±1.59). The milk yield was reported to vary

considerably between the AM and PM milking because

there is usually a much shorter interval between the AM

and PM milking than between the PM and AM milking

and cows tend to produce more milk during AM than PM

milking (Cziszter et al. 2013). Factors influencing these

yields differ for different circumstances (Ouweltjesn

1998). In the present context this could be attributed to

management factors. It is because in some study area once

the AM milking is finished dams are either tied or let

loose nearby homestead while calves are retained in the

shed. Many other times due to absence or negligence of

owner, calf suckles accidentally, leaving no or less milk

for PM milking. Another reason could be due to common

practice of gradual drying off method, by reducing

milking of teats towards end of lactation or not milking

some cows in the evening. Finding of DIM for AM

(266.51±81.03) was significantly higher than PM

(254.08±85.24), which supports the view.

Table 4: Mean AM / PM milking and days in milk Variables N Mean SD Sig. (2-tailed) AM-DMY 372 4.74 2.19 .000 PM-DMY 362 3.16 1.59

AM- DIM 372 266.51 81.03 .000

PM-DIM 362 254.08 85.24


With thorough assessment of milk production in different

AEZs, the study concluded that overall average daily yield of

exotic cross cows is 7.72 litres. Cows tend to perform

comparatively better in dry sub-tropical zone both in terms of

milk yield as well as days in milk indicating lower/warmer

altitude is better for dairy farming. Nonetheless, further studies

are needed to establish whether altitude or other management

practices affect the milk production. Pure HF cows produced

significantly higher milk yield than that of JX. Jersey

breed though a temperate breed, its crosses (JX) with Bos

indicus (local cattle) with increased adaptability to

environment, are found to perform well even in warmer

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14

Mean

DM

Y (

l)

Age (years)



climate at lower altitude. Cows with exotic inheritance

level of 50-75% yielded highest average quantity of milk

suggesting the range of exotic inheritance most suitable

for optimum production at farmers’ field. All AEZs were

dominated by small and medium sized farm (3-10 cows)

which has better milk production than other farm sizes,

suggesting it as optimum herd size for Bhutanese farmers.

Milk yield increases as cows matures till eight years old

corresponding to 3rd lactation and thereafter production

capacity gradually declines, and it is not economical to

rear cows beyond 11 years of age corresponding to 6th

lactation. Milk yield in the evening is much lower than in

the morning owing to shorter interval between the AM

and PM milking. Optimizing milking frequency/ timing

of milking may improve milk production. The assessment

of probable factors that affect milk production provided

baseline information on productivity of dairy cattle which

can form important scientific basis for planning of dairy sector

development in Bhutan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to sincerely thank Dzongkhag

Livestock Officers and Livestock Extension Agents of

Chukha and Thimphu Dzongkhags and management

committee members of the sampled DFGs for their

unfailing logistic and other supports during the entire

field study. We are extremely grateful to the owners of

sampled animals for taking pain in measuring and

recording milk yield on daily basis without which the

study would not have been materialized. Our heartfelt

gratitude goes to our colleague Mr. Yuvraj Giri for being

active member in the team during the field work. Finally,

this study would not have been materialized without the

financial support, guidance and other logistic supports

from Program Director, NDRDC, Yusipang.

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83

Full length paper

PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS MACAQUE POPULATION ALONG THIMPHU-

PHUENTSHOLING HIGHWAY: IMMINENT PUBLIC HEALTH AND CONSERVATION THREATS

KARMA WANGDI1, SANGAY RINCHEN*2, SONAM JAMTSHO3, KARMA

WANGCHUK4, BINDHU PARAJULI4 AND BASANT SHARMA4

1Animal Health Division, Department of Livestock, Thimphu 2National Centre for Animal Health, Department of Livestock, Serbithang, Thimphu 3Thromde Veterinary Hospital and Satellite laboratory, Department of Livestock, Phuentsholing,

Chukha 4Regional Livestock Development Centre, Department of Livestock, Tsimasham, Chukha


Copyright © 2020 Karma Wangdi. The original work must be properly cited to permit


ABSTRACT: Currently, there are seven species of primate recorded in Bhutan. Two species of

primates namely the Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis) and the Hanuman langur

(Semnopithecus entellus) are commonly sighted in the western region of the country. There are

reports of increasing macaque population along the Thimphu-Phuentsholing highway, with few

stray reports on interaction between humans and monkeys. Given the similarity in genetical,

physiological and behavioural characteristics, interactions between monkeys and humans can

facilitate cross-transmission of pathogens. Pathogen swapping can not only threaten the public

health but also pose a potential conservation threat. This study was conducted as an approach to

understand the perception of the people on the macaque population along the highway, geo-locate

the areas where macaques are commonly sighted, and review the zoonotic pathogens that can be

cross transmitted between humans and macaques. The study interviewed 129 participants along the

highway using a questionnaire to understand their perception. For reviewing the zoonotic diseases,

literatures were collated from google scholar using search terms “macaque” and “zoonosis”. More

resources were acquired by checking the references of literature obtained from the google scholar

search. Majority of the participants had high tolerance towards macaque in their community. Of the

participants who have seen monkey in their locality (n=71), 17 (14%) could recall seeing some form

of interactions (people killing monkeys, monkeys biting people) between humans and monkeys

while 45 (36%) of them have seen interaction between dogs and monkeys. Hundred and fourteen

participants reported that the monkey population is increasing along the highway and 99 (89%) of

the participants thought it was due to people feeding food. The study recorded 19 geo-coordinates

along the Thimphu-Phuentsholing highway where the macaques were commonly sighted. The

literatures review recorded 14 viral diseases, 8 bacterial diseases, 11 parasitic diseases and a fungal

disease that are of concern when considering the human macaque interaction. This study provides a

preliminary evidence of the people’s perception towards monkey population along the Thimphu-

Phuentsholing highway and their level of knowledge about the zoonosis associated with macaques.

This study also provides geo-location of the common areas where the macaques are commonly

sighted which can be useful in displaying public notices for garnering compliances. Furthermore,

this study provides an overview of the common zoonoses that are of concern when considering the

human macaque interaction.

Keywords: Human-wildlife-interaction; Macaca assamensis; monkeys; zoonoses.

1. INTRODUCTION

Interaction between human and macaques occur for

various reasons. While they play a significant socio-

cultural and religious role in certain parts of the world

such as India and Nepal (Jones-Engel et al. 2006;

Pragatheesh 2011), they are often sought as a source of

food and their meat for medicinal values in other parts of



the world (Walker 2010; Muehlenbein 2017).

Furthermore, interactions occur when they are kept as

companion animal and displayed for tourist attraction

(Muehlenbein 2017). Such interactions can facilitate

cross-transmission of diseases between human and

primate population posing public health and conservation

threats. Furthermore, uncontrolled monkey population

can be a reason for serious social nuisance as reported

from India and south east Asia (Kreston 2014; Tapper

2014). A total of 1415 species of infectious agents in 472

genera have been reported to cause disease in humans. Of

these 868 (61%) from 313 genera are known to be

zoonotic. A total of 175 species of infectious agents from

96 genera are associated with emerging disease (Taylor et

al. 2001).

Most of the microbes that have evolved to infect

humans have its origin from the animal species

(Cleaveland et al. 2001). Several factors can be attributed

to the infectious agents’ ability to cross species barrier

which include those related to the host, the infectious

agents and the environment. Owing to the similarity

between humans and non-human primates in terms of

genetic, physiological and behavioural characteristics, the

non-human primates are considered high-risk sources of

infectious agents with the capacity to infect humans.

Recent incidences of epidemics in humans because of on-

human primate origin infections are Ebola and zika virus.

With around 60% of the country under forest

coverage, Bhutan is considered as one of the bio-diversity

hotspots in the world. There are seven recorded primate

species in Bhutan namely, the slow loris (Nycticebus

bengalensis), Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis),

Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), Hanuman langur

(Semnopithecus entellus), golden langur (Trachypithecus

geei), and capped langur (Trachypithecus pileatus)

(Choudhury 2008). In the western parts of the country the

Assamese macaque and the Hanuman langur are

commonly sighted. While there have been home range

studies carried out for the Assamese macaque in the

western region, no studies have been conducted to detect

any infectious agents of zoonotic concern.

Furthermore, despite the informal reports of

growing macaque population along the western highway,

no studies have been conducted to understand people’s

perception toward macaque along the highway and their

knowledge about diseases that can be cross transmitted

between humans and the macaques.

Therefore, the objectives of this study are to and to

1) understand public perception on the monkey

population between Thimphu and Phuentsholing national

highway 2) geo-locate places where monkeys are sighted

along the highway and 3) review some of the important

zoonotic diseases that are cross-transmitted between

humans and macaques.


2.1 Study area

Western region has five client Dzongkhags under its

technical jurisdiction namely, Thimphu, Paro, Haa,

Chukha, Samtse. Both the capital city of Bhutan,

Thimphu and the major commercial hub, Phuentsholing

under Chukha Dzongkhag lies under the Western region.

These places are connected by a national highway.

Assamese macaques are present along this highway.

Therefore, people residing along this highway was

included for the interview.

2.2 Survey questionnaire

A questionnaire comprising four different sections

was prepared and used for data collection. Section one

comprised questions regarding the participants’

information while the section two comprised questions

relating to interactions between humans and macaques.

Section three comprised questions related to participants

knowledge about disease transmission between macaques

and humans and the fourth section comprised question

relating to the participants perception and practices. Both

open ended and close ended questions were used in the

questionnaire.

Four livestock personnel working in Regional

Livestock Development Centre (RLDC), Tsimasham

were recruited and trained as enumerators. The

questionnaire was pretested during mock interviews and

modified accordingly to improve clarity. The

questionnaire was enumerated during the month of March

2019 by visiting only the accessible household along the

highway. One of the adult members in households who

were 18 years and above were included for the interview.

Prior to start of the interviews, the objectives of the study

were explained to the participant and subsequently an oral

consent was sought.

2.3 Review of zoonosis

The zoonotic diseases that are transmissible between non-

human primates, especially between macaques and the

humans were reviewed and information relevant to this

study were referred.


The researchers drove thrice along the Thimphu -

Phuentsholing highway to map geo-coordinates of

locations where monkeys were spotted. During each visit,

the coordinates where the monkeys were spotted were

recorded using google maps app in Samsung s-6 cellular

phone.

The coordinates were then managed in the MS Excel

worksheet (Microsoft excel 2013, Redmond, USA) and

projected on the western region shapefile and a map was

generated using Quantum GIS software (QGIS



Development Team 2017) (Figure 2). The Thimphu-

Phuentsholing stretch is around 151 kms.

The data gathered during the survey were

descriptively analysed.

3. RESULTS

3.1 Socio-demographic characteristics

In total, 129 participants were interviewed in the study

area. One-hundred and three (80%) were females and 26

(20%) were males. The mean age of the participants was

38 years. Ninety-three (74%) were engaged in some form

of business, 31 (24%) farmers, 1 govt employee and 1

student. Seventy-one (55%) of them had not attained any

formal education. 96 (74%) of the participants owned

animals of which 42 owned pet and rest livestock for

production purpose.

3.2 Interactions with macaques and knowledge about

disease transmission

In total 125 (97%) participants have seen monkeys near

their residence. Majority of the participants, 71 (57%)

have seen monkey in their locality since more than 10

years and the rest for 10 years (Figure 1). Of these, 17

(14%) could recall some form of interactions (people

killing monkeys, monkeys biting people) between

humans and monkeys while 45 (36%) of them have seen

interaction between dogs and monkeys. Fifty (42%)

participants reported that humans can contract diseases

from monkeys while 51(40%) were not sure if humans

could contract disease. Twenty participants reported that

humans cannot contract disease from the monkeys.

Figure 2: Number of years people have been seeing

macaques in their locality

3.3 Participants’ practices and perception

In total, 29 participants reported that they had a very high

level of tolerance towards monkeys’ presence in their

locality while 86 said they had a high level of tolerance.

Only 14 of them reported to have low tolerance on seeing

monkeys in their locality. Of the total participants, only

16 of them reported feeding monkeys while 93 (72%)

participants reported seeing people feeding monkeys

along highway. The participants reported that 91 (98%)

of the people who they saw feeding monkey were

Bhutanese travellers while one was tourist and the other

one roadside vegetable vendor. Hundred and fourteen

participants reported that the monkey population is

increasing along the highway while 8 of them said that

there is no increase in the population. Five of the

participants were not sure about the population status of

the monkey. Of the two reasons that were provided to be

chosen as the most relevant reason for the increasing

monkey population, 99 (89%) chose “people feeding”

while 4 chose “deforestation”. Rest of the participants

were not sure of a reason for the growing monkey

population. Of the 127 participants (2 missing), 120

participants felt that the growing monkey population

along the highway was a problem while 7 reported it was

not. Most of the participants think that the community

Figure 1: Map of Chukha showing the

Phuentsholing-Thimphu highway (grey coloured),

households surveyed along the highway (blue dots),

and locations of monkey sighting (red dots)



should come forward and take responsibilities in

controlling the growing monkey population while almost

equally, participants think it is the government’s

responsibility.

3.4 Geo-coordinates of the areas where monkeys were

sighted, and interview conducted

Monkeys were sighted at 20 locations along the Thimphu-

Phuentsholing highway (Figure 1). Between Chukha and

Thimphu stretch, monkeys were sighted only in one

location before reaching to Chuzom (confluence);

whereas, the sighting increased between the Chukha and

Phuentsholing stretch. The sightings located were the

aggregate of the three times travel along this highway.

Monkeys were not sighted in all locations during a single

travel. The study also observed people feeding monkeys,

roadkill of an adult macaque, and free-roaming dogs

feeding on monkey carcass along the highway.

3.5 Review of important zoonosis associated with

macaques

A total of 20 papers were reviewed in addition to

collecting information from four other webpages

regarding the zoonoses of non-human primates. It is

critical to understand that not only can the non-human

primates be the source of diseases to humans, equally

humans can transmit diseases that non-human primates

are susceptible and can pose potential conservation

threats (zooanthroponosis). There are currently about 376

species of non-human primates (OIE terrestrial Animal

Health Code 2018). While there are so many diseases that

can be cross transmitted between non-human primates

and humans, the study listed diseases that are relevant to

the macaques. Table 2 presents some of the important

viral pathogens that can be transmitted from macaques to

the humans such as rabies, herpes simiae, simian virus 40,

simian type D retrovirus, Simian T-cell lymphotropic

virus type 1 (STLV-1), Simian hemorrhagic fever, Rota

virus, Monkey pox virus, Hepatitis A, and Measles

(Emerging Infectious Diseases 1998; Engel et al. 2002;

Huff and Barry 2003; Switzer et al. 2004; Jones-Engel et

al. 2005; Conly and Johnston 2008; Brinton et al. 2015;

OIE terrestrial Manual 2018). While some of the

significant bacterial pathogens reported (Table 1) are

Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella sp., Shigella sp.,

Leptospira interrogans, Streptococcus pnuemoniae,

Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Haemophilus influenzae

(Nath et al. 2012; OIE terrestrial Manual 2018). In

addition, there are also some ecto and endo parasites such

as Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Plasmodium sp.,

Entamoeba sp., Giardia sp., Chilomastix sp., Ascaris sp.,

Strongyloides sp., Ancylostoma sp., Trichuris sp.,

Oesophagostomus sp., Enterobius sp., and Hymenolepis

sp., that can be transmitted between macaques and

humans (Nakayima et al. 2014; Faust and Dobson 2015;

Li et al. 2015; Maharajan 2015; Begum et al. 2018; Dixit

et al. 2018).

4. DISCUSSION

The study was conducted to assess the public perception

towards macaque population and review some of the

Table 1: Some of the important bacterial diseases that can be transmitted to human / swapped between humans and macaques Pathogen Transmission mode Remarks

Campylobacter jejuni Contaminated food and water Salmonella sp. Contaminated food and water

Shigella sp. Contaminated food and water Leptospira interrogans Skin abrasion and visible mucous membranes Streptococcus pnuemoniae Aerosolized droplets, close contact Mycobacterium tuberculosis Aerosolized droplets Haemophilus influenzae Aerosolized droplets Plasmodium sp. Mosquito bites (Maharajan

2015) Entamoeba sp. Contaminated food and water Giardia sp. Contaminated food and water Chilomastix sp. Ingestion of cysts in contaminated water, food, or by the

fecal-oral route

Ascaris sp. Ingestion of eggs in contaminated water, food, or by the fecal-oral route

Strongyloides sp. larvae enter the body through exposed skin, such as bare feet Ancylostoma sp. larvae enter the body through exposed skin, such as bare feet Trichuris sp. Ingestion of eggs in contaminated water, food, or by the fecal-

oral route

Oesophagostomus sp. Ingesting infective larva Enterobius sp. Faeco-oral route Hymenolepis sp. Ingestion of eggs in contaminated water, food, or by the fecal-

oral route

Trichophyton Direct and indirect contact (fomites)



potential public health consequences that would result

from the increasing interactions between macaques and

human. Several informal reports of people feeding

macaques, macaque attacks and increasing population

along Thimphu-Phuentsholing highway have been made

on the social media such as Facebook. While there are no

past records to compare and assess the absolute growth in

monkey population, majority of the participants reported

that macaque population along the highway is increasing.

Supporting to the common observation during the one-

month study period, participants reported people feeding

the monkeys as one of the common reasons for the

population growth. This may not be an absolute increase

in the macaque population per se but an increase in the

population that have now started residing by the highway

due to easy access to food. Assamese macaques are

omnivorous, and plants form the major part of their diet

(Zhou et al. 2011; Norbu et al. 2016; Koirala et al. 2017).

However, humans feeding monkeys can alter the feeding

behaviour and activity budget of the macaques (Koirala et

al. 2017)). As they don’t have to move around in search

for food, they spend more time along the highways which

in turn provides opportunity for close interactions with

humans. This could be the reason why they are frequently

spotted along the highway compared to the past when

vehicle plying along highway was relatively less and so

was the number of humans providing food to the

monkeys.

Participants reported observing some form of

interactions between humans and macaques and

macaques and dogs. However, it was observed that most

of the participants didn’t know that humans can contract

diseases from macaques. Close interactions between

humans and macaques can facilitate exchange of a wide

range of pathogens and have detrimental consequences on

the health of both species (Koirala et al. 2017).

Furthermore, interactions between macaques and dogs

can lead to spread of rabies, which is a commonly

reported notifiable zoonotic disease in dogs, in the

macaque population. Although macaques are not a known

reservoir for rabies and cannot transmit rabies to other

species, their social behaviour of grooming and

dominance demonstration through fights can facilitate

rabies transmission within the macaque population posing

a potential conservation threat.

Participants report of a high tolerance towards

monkey and observing Bhutanese travellers as the most

common food provider for the macaques can be attributed

Table 2: Important virus (diseases) that can be transmitted to human / swapped between humans and macaques

Pathogen Transmission mode Remarks

Rabies Bite, scratches

Herpesvirus simiae Bites and scratches (Huff and Barry 2003) Simian virus 40 Contact with urine and body fluids (Jones-

Engel et al. 2006) Associated with cancer formation

Simian type D retrovirus Through direct contact between infected and susceptible animals, or indirectly through contact with contaminated instruments or equipment (e.g. tattoo needles, transfer boxes, dental instruments, or gavage tubes)

Virus is shed in saliva hence mutual grooming or aggressive interactions involving biting and scratching

Simian T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (STLV-1)

bites, scratches and mucosal splashes (Conly and Johnston 2008)

Simian Foamy Virus (SFV)

bites, scratches and mucosal splashes (Conly and Johnston 2008)

Rhesus Cytomegalovirus Growth of RhCMV in human cells has been demonstrated in vitro however no human infection with RhCMV has been reported (OIE terrestrial Manual 2019).

Simian hemorrhagic fever Bites, direct and indirect contacts

KFD virus Ticks

Rota virus Fecal-oral route

Monkey pox virus Contact with the virus from an animal, human, or materials contaminated with the virus

Hepatitis A fecal-oral route or consumption of contaminated food or water

Measles Aerosolized droplets

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/equipment

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/tattoo

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/feeding

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/grooming



to mythological association of monkey to the Buddhist

and Hindu religion. Majority of the Bhutanese population

are Buddhist followed by Hindu. Therefore, this finding

underscores the need for awareness education among the

travellers (Bhutanese and tourist) regarding the potential

consequences to the health of humans and macaques that

would result from feeding the macaques. Awareness

education should also be designed to the public transport

drivers as they are the ones who ply most along the

highway.

Most of the participants reporting that the

communities should be taking lead in applying mitigation

measures to control the growing monkey population

along the highway indicates the willingness to share

responsibilities with the relevant government agencies

and take ownership. Therefore, initiatives should be

undertaken to engage communities and give ownerships

to the communities to apply measures that can discourage

anthropological activities leading to growing macaque

population along the highways. Implementing strict

measures will require commitment and support from

different sectors such as the National Environment

Commission, local community, Department of Forest and

Park Services, Department of Livestock, and municipal

corporations.

The study recorded the coordinates of the areas

where the monkeys were spotted along the highway.

However, monkeys are not spotted in all the locations

recorded during the visit. This could be because the

monkeys must be staying in different areas along the

stretch depending on the time of the day and food

availability. (Norbu et al. 2016) reported rather a large

home range group of the macaques that were tagged with

radio-collars. The coordinates recorded during the study

would however be of great value to display notices and

share information for the travellers to comply with,

especially requesting them not to feed macaques and

other wildlife.

Convenience sampling was administered for

interviewing people along the highway. As the

participants of this study doesn’t represent the whole

population along the highway, caution needs to be placed

in generalizing the findings of the study. Due to

inaccessibility to published articles, we could only review

papers that were accessible. Furthermore, the search

method the study adopted was not robust and must have

missed articles that were accessible. In this process, the

study might have also missed out important diseases that

are of relevance in the pretext of macaque and human

interaction. Although the study presents a list of zoonotic

pathogens that can be swapped between humans and

Macaques (Table 2); currently, there is no data on the

pathogens that macaques harbour along the highway. To

ensure targeted awareness, intervention and contingency

plans are developed, it is essential to know the prevalence

of zoonotic pathogens in the macaque population. Such

researches can be clubbed with studies that are being

conducted by Department of Forests and Park Services

(DoFPS) to understand the home range, feeding

behaviours, morphological and genetic characteristics of

the Assamese macaque (Norbu et al. 2016).

5. CONCLUSION

This study shows that there is interaction between the

human population and the macaques along the Thimphu-

Phuentsholing highway. Furthermore, from the interview,

it has been determined that people think there is increase

in the population of macaques along the highway. The

increasing presence of macaques can be associated with

the human behaviours and thus there is need to design

strategies to control growing macaque population along

the highways targeting the change in current practices of

travellers. Implementing effective measures to reduce the

presence of macaques along the highway has the benefit

of enhancing conservation of the macaque population as

well as averting risk that can result from cross

transmission of pathogens between humans and

macaques.

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90

Full Length paper

BREED IMPROVEMENT, MILK PRODUCTION AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFIT OF CONTRACT

HEIFER AND BULL PRODUCTION PROGRAM IN WEST AND WEST-CENTRAL REGION OF

BHUTAN

DHAN B RAI*, NAR B TAMANG, LOKAY THAPA AND ABI N KOIRALA


Agriculture and Forests, Yusipang


Copyright © 2020 DHAN B RAI. The original work must be properly cited to permit unrestricted


ABSTRACT: The study assessed breed improvement of cattle, milk production and socio-

economic benefit of Contract Heifer and Bull Production Program (CHBPP) in west and west-

central region of Bhutan. The data were gathered using semi-structure survey questionnaire in May

and June 2019. A total of 471 households were visited and interviewed. Jersey cross (JX) population

and animals registered under CHBPP increased by two and three folds, respectively. The study

found that with the initiation of CHBPP (2007-2012) the Artificial Insemination (AI) services

through adoption of progeny tested semen had contributed significantly in breed improvement

(p=0.000) of the herd. Most animals in the CHBPP herds are farm born (96%) indicating adequate

replacement heifers for the herd. With breed improvement over the period the average daily milk

production had increased significantly (p=000) from 5.9±2.3 l (inception) to 7.8±3.0 l in 2019. The

productivity of JX cows of blood level 50%, 62.5%, 75%, 87.5% and 93.75% was 5.8±1.7, 6.5±2.2,

8.4±2.3, 10.7±3.2 and 13.5±4.0 l/day respectively, differing significantly (p=0.000) in every blood

level. Gross income generation by the CHBPP members through sale of milk in 2019 was four times

higher than at inception. Besides, the members sold excess animals to generate added income. Thus,

dairy farming with improved breed holds promise for the future as it was major source of income

for 72% of farmers interviewed. Additionally, initiation of CHBPP triggered formation of dairy

groups/cooperatives in the country, promoting a harmonious society and social cohesiveness. The

government livestock staffs though provided adequate AI services, follow up on progeny recording

remained inadequate at the moment. Further difficulty in disposal of bull calves born in the herds,

irregular AI services/repeat breeding of cows remain a challenge in dairy sector development. Some

critical area of interventions is timely supply of vital AI inputs adopting wider use of sex sorted

semen, intensify and incentivize Community AI Technicians, upgrade skills of existing AI

Technicians, and ensure effective recording system and reproductive waste management services.

Keywords: Breed improvement; contract production; jersey; productivity; socio-economic benefit.

1. INTRODUCTION

Artificial Insemination (AI) and supply of breeding bulls

are the main cattle breeding services provided in Bhutan.

AI is provided in accessible areas, whereas breeding bulls

are supplied to inaccessible areas. The average AI

coverage recorded was 17% in 11th five-year plan

(NDRDC 2018) and as result the annual breeding bulls

demand, particularly for Jersey exceeded far more than

the production capacity of the government nucleus farms.

To complement the government nucleus farms in

production and supply of breeding bulls the Contract

Heifer and Bull Production Program (CHBPP) was

initiated as multiplier herds for Jersey. However, the areas

selected to implement the CHBPP have to be accessible

to AI facility, minimum of 10 members interested on it

and each member should have at least one breedable

Jersey cow/heifer with minimum 50% Jersey inheritance.

The farmers meeting said criteria become member

upon signing a contract agreement with the Government

for compliance on Do's and Don'ts of the Program. The

registered farmers are provided with progeny tested

imported frozen semen for faster genetic progress and

productivity enhancement in their herd. As of 2019, there

are 55 CHBPPs established across the country covering

20 Dzongkhags (districts) (NDRDC 2018). Arrangement


Rai et al. (2020) 91

is made to procure breeding bulls from CHBPP by

National Jersey Breeding Centre (NJBC), Samtse, for

further distribution to Dzongkhags while members

themselves sell excess heifers to other farmers. CHBPP

program has been initiated for little over a decade, but no

comprehensive assessment was made so far. Hence,

performance of CHBPP in West and West-central region

was assessed with the objectives to ascertain breed

improvement progress and milk production by blood

level, socio-economic benefit to the CHBPP members

and their compliance to CHBPP norms, services provided

by the govt. and hindrances if any in pursuit to find a way

forward to improve dairy breeding program.


2.1 Data Collection

The data were collected from 471 registered CHBPP

members (H/h) selected randomly from west and west-

central regions using semi-structured survey

questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed to capture

relevant information on CHBPP management, milk

production, socio- economic benefits being part of the

program, and challenges faced in the implementation of

the program. Survey was conducted in three Dzongkhags;

Chukha, Samtse and Paro with seven CHBPPs and in

Western region and four Dzongkhags; Punakha,

Wangdue, Dagana and Tsirang, with eight CHBPPs in

West-central region (Table 1) from May to June 2019.

The quantitative data on breed improvement was

collected from herd book and milk production from

individual bovine register maintained for animals by the

rmers. A total of 1793 milk records of 718 milking cows

were compiled. The milking cows were segregated into

two groups based on exotic inheritance of 50-75% jersey

as baseline (available at the inception of CHBPP) and

>87.5% as progress in breed improvement in 2019 (Table

2). Data pertaining to annual breeding bull procurement

and supply from CHBPP were collected from NJBC,

Samtse.

2.2Data analysis

The data were analyzed using student t-test, Chi-square

test and ANOVA in Statistical Package for Social Science

(SPSS) version 23. Field observations and impressions

were described.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Households and animals at inception and review

The increase in Jersey cattle population and CHBPP

members at review in 2019 was significant (p=0.000)

than at inception year. The increase was three folds for

members, particularly in west central (Table 1) and two

folds for animals. The higher increase in membership

could be attributed to advantages of joining the program

such as imported progeny-tested semen, ear-tagging of

animals which fetched higher price and better health care

services members can receive, whereas only two folds

increase in no. of animals could be attributed to limited

land holdings of the farmers. The comparison of no. of

animals between the two regions both at inception and

review revealed significantly higher no. in west than in

west-central region (Table 3). According to FAO (2018),

the benefits farmers can derive through ownership of

improved dairy cattle is positive indication of pathways

to poverty reduction.

Table 1: CHBPP areas, households and survey coverage

Region Dzongkhag CHBPP Inception year H/h at inception Existing H/h Coverage (H/h)

(nos) (nos) (Nos) (%)

West

Chukha Darla 2012 99 150 45 30

Sampleling 2011 25 74 29 39

Samtse Ugyentse 2007 26 55 29 53

Yoseltse 2007 20 68 42 62

Paro Shari 2011 45 105 36 34

Wangchang 2011 40 86 34 40

Shaba 2011 13 40 20 50

Sub-total

268 578 235 41

West-

central

Punakha Guma 2012 30 82 30 37

Wangdue Tshogom 2010 25 60 26 43

Dagana Goshi 2011 20 50 28 56

Tsendagang 2011 25 64 39 61

Tashiding 2011 17 42 18 43

Tsirang Kikhorthang 2008 16 89 42 47

Rangthaling 2010 25 75 24 32

Gosarling 2008 16 89 29 33

Sub-total

174 551 236 43

Total 15/32 442 1129 471 42


Rai et al. (2020) 92

3.2 Contribution to breed improvement

Assessment of breed improvement program by way of

breeding bull procurement/supply (from CHBPP vis-a-vis

NJBC, Samtse) for 10 years revealed that the CHBPP

supplemented 69.8% breeding bull demand, which was a

noteworthy in term of contribution it made for

propagation of Jersey germ-plasm to wider beneficiaries.

Similarly, the increase in population of Jersey cattle

(>87.5% blood level) is significantly higher at the time of

review compared to inception (p=0.000), indicating

substantial contribution of the CHBPP in breed

improvement program in the targeted herds. The analysis

of progress in breed improvement by blood level revealed

that animals in both categories were significantly higher

in West than in West central region, which indicates that

western region is ahead in dairy breed improvement front

(Table 4)

3 Production of replacement heifers from own herd to

curtail import

The study revealed that 95.2% (n=471) of the CHBPP

members interviewed did not import animals in their herd

in the past for a decade because members could produce

replacement stock from their own herd. According to

Pennsylvania State Extension (2011), replacement

heifers are the source of new genetics for the herd and

are a long-term investment. Thus, production of

sufficient heifers in the own herd is an approach to

sustainable breed improvement program whereby

Table 2: CHBPP cattle population and milking cows by exotic blood level in surveyed areas

Region Dzongkhag CHBPP Cattle registered with CHBPP during the inception period

Cattle registered with CHBPP in 2019

No. of milking cows owned by the respondents

50 - 75% >87.5% 50 - 75% >87.5% 50 - 75% >87.5%

West Chukha Drala 83 0 140 42 65 8

Sampheling 87 0 97 68 42 31

Samtse Ugyentse 48 0 91 46 38 5

Yoseltse 80 0 172 74 72 7

Paro Dopshari 100 0 113 33 51 8

Wangchang 71 1 83 20 43 6

Shaba, Paro 45 0 64 10 30 4

Sub-total 514 1 760 293 341 69

West-central

Punakha Guma 73 0 82 12 33 7

Wangdue Tshogom 52 0 77 18 30 2

Dagana Gozhi 47 0 63 20 31 5

Tsendagang 52 0 80 8 44 2

Tashiding 25 0 31 17 16 3

Tsirang Kilkhorthang 77 0 138 31 56 8

Rangthangling 36 0 65 13 23 5

Gosarling 43 0 69 41 27 16

Sub-total 405 0 605 159 260 67

Total 919 1 1365 452 601 117

Table 3: Animals in the CHBPP at inception and

review (2019)

Region

HH Animals

at

inception

Animals at

review (2019)

West 235 2.187 4.481

West-

central

236 1.716 3.237

p value 0.001 0.000

Table 4: CHBPP members and animals by blood level in two regions

Parameters Blood level West (n=235) West-central (n=236) P value

Animals selected

initially

Mean Std. dev. Mean Std. dev.

50-75% 2.187 1.8648 1.716 1.0478 0.001

87.5% and above 000 000 000 000

Animals at review

(2019)

50-75% 3.234 2.2285 2.564 1..7577 0.000

87.5% and above 1.247 2.0669 0.674 0.9405 0.000


Rai et al. (2020) 93

members need not import animals in future to avoid

implications such as poor adaptability of imported

animals, high mortality and incursion of exotic diseases.

3.4 Productivity by blood level and lactation number

The assessment of productivity of CHBPP cows revealed

steady increase in average daily milk yield in every blood

level with increasing exotic inheritance (Table 5).

The overall mean daily milk yield at the time of

review was 7.8+3.04 l, which is a significant increase

(p<0.000) from the inception of the program (5.9+2.31 l),

indicating considerable improvement in breed and

productivity. The current finding is almost at par with the

findings of Periyasamy et al. (2019) who reported average

yield of 8.06 l/day for crossbred Jersey cattle maintained

at Veterinary College and Research Institute, Orathanadu,

Tamil Nadu, India. Similarly, analysis of daily milk yield by lactation

number reveled that production increased steadily from 6.8+2.72 l in 1st lactation to 9.1+3.2 l in 3rd lactation and then production declined thereafter (Table 5). This finding is coherent with the findings of Tamang et al. (2019) for Karan Fries breed but deviates for Jersey pure

breed where peak production was observed in 4th lactation.

However, the analysis of difference in daily milk

yield by blood level revealed significant difference

(p<0.000) in every blood level (Table 6). Similarly,

varying degree of differences in production were

observed between lactation numbers (Table 7).

Milking cows were mostly reared until 4th lactations, and

members cull off as productivity declines after 5th

lactation. Farmer’s improved awareness on maintaining

productive herds, disposing off less productive animals

by 6th lactation is eminent. 3.5 Income generated by CHBPP members

In the study area 920 animals were registered to CHBPP

(at the inception) and total estimated milk production was

about 6,348 l/day earning a gross income of Nu.222,180

daily (@ Nu.35/l).

Over the years, animal registered increased to 1817

heads with increase in no. of animals with exotic

inheritance level as well as productivity. Estimated milk

production during the time of review (2019) was 22,167

Table 5: Milking cows and daily milk yield (l) of CHBPP animals by blood level and lactation number in 2019

Lactation number (n)

Blood level Avg.

50% (550) 62.5% (271) 75% (689) 87.5% (223) >93.75% (59)

L-I (653) 4.9±1.33 (191) 5.5±1.76 (92) 7.1±1.73 (259) 9.4±2.99 (82) 12.5±3.42 (29) 6.8±2.72

L-II (452) 6.0±1.46 (136) 6.7±2.11 (65) 8.9±2.19 (181) 11.4±3.19 (52) 14.7±4.12 (18) 8.24±3.1

L-III (306) 6.6±1.58 (97) 7.9±2.25 (47) 10.1±2.3(119) 12.5±2.81 (36) 15.8±4.84 (7) 9.1±3.2

L-IV (186) 6.5±1.68 (63) 7.7±2.34 (34) 9.5±2.05 (64) 11.9±3.01 (22) 14.0±4.58 (3) 8.5±2.9

L-V (91) 6.0±1.41 (27) 7.1±2.13 (15) 9.0±1.76 (33) 11.0±2.53 (15) 12.0±0 (1) 8.2±2.6

L-VI (50) 5.9±1.67 (15) 5.8±1.29 (7) 8.3±1.94 (19) 10±2.43(9) - 7.6±2.4

L-VII (21) 5.4±1.01 (7) 4.7±0.87 (4) 7.4±1.20 (6) 8.5±3.0(4) - 6.4±2.1

L-VIII (17) 5.4±0.89 (5) 4.5±1.50 (3) 6.3±1.21 (6) 8.3±2.89 (3) - 6.1±1.9

L-IX (9) 4.9±1.36(6) 5.0±1.41 (2) 6.0±0 (1) 5.1±12

L-X (7) 4.7±0.58 (3) 4.5±2.12 (2) 4.0±0 (1) - 7.0±0 (1) 4.9±1.3

Avg. (l/day) 5.8±1.69 6.5±2.23 8.4±2.32 10.7±3.18 13.5±4.01 7.8±3.04

Table 6: Mean difference of daily milk yield (l/day) by blood level

Blood level Milk Yield 50% 62.5% 75% 87.5% 93.75%

50% Mean difference -0.784* -2.683* -4.990* -7.790*

p value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

62.5% Mean difference 0.784* -1.899* -4.206* -7.005*

p value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

75% Mean difference 2.683* 1.899* -2.307* -5.107*

p value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

87.5% Mean difference 4.990* 4.206* 2.307* -2.799*

p value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

93.75% Mean difference 7.790* 7.005* 5.107* 2.799*

p value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level


Rai et al. (2020) 94

l/day earning an income of Nu.886,680 daily (@ Nu. 40/l)

or four times higher than at inception.

Besides excess animals sold from CHBPP to other

members in the neighborhood as well as outside the

program generated additional income of Nu. 944,000.00

for the CHBPP members. Thus, the Government support

to Bhutanese dairy farmers is steadily bearing fruits.

Similar studies on public and industry funding by Dairy

Australia on program called “Dairy Moving Forward

(DMF)” (Melcolm and Paine 2005) found that investment

in DMF to build expertise of dairy farmers had earned a

return on capital that justifies the investment.

Dairying is reported to be major source of income

for 72% of farmers interviewed, followed by horticulture

(17.8%) and vegetable/ agriculture production (9.1%)

(Figure 1). Present finding is higher than findings by

Bhujel & Sonam (2014) who reported that smallholder

Table 7: Mean difference of daily milk production(l) by lactation number

Lactation no.

Lactation Number Milk prodn.

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

I

Mean diff.

-1.473*

-2.288*

-1.756*

-1.396*

-0.80 0.34 0.68 1.71 1.91

p-value

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.21 1.00 0.95 0.30 0.32

II

Mean diff.

1.473* -0.815*

-0.28 0.08 0.67 1.814* 2.154* 3.187* 3.385*

p-value

0.00 0.00 0.87 1.00 0.49 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

III

Mean diff.

2.288* 0.815* 0.53 0.892* 1.485* 2.629* 2.969* 4.002* 4.200*

p-value

0.00 0.00 0.16 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

IV

Mean diff.

1.756* 0.28 -0.53 0.36 0.95 2.096* 2.436* 3.469* 3.668*

p-value

0.00 0.87 0.16 0.94 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

V

Mean diff.

1.396* 0.08 -0.892*

-0.36 0.59 1.736* 2.077* 3.109* 3.308*

p-value

0.00 1.00 0.01 0.94 0.84 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00

VI

Mean diff.

0.80 0.67 -1.485*

-0.95 -0.59 1.14 1.48 2.516* 2.715*

p-value

0.21 0.49 0.00 0.12 0.84 0.53 0.26 0.03 0.04

VII

Mean diff.

-0.34 1.814* -2.629*

-2.096*

-1.736*

-1.14 0.34 1.37 1.57

p-value

1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.53 1.00 0.83 0.78

VIII

Mean diff.

-0.68 2.154* -2.969*

-2.436*

-2.077*

-1.48 -0.34 1.03 1.23

p-value

0.95 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.26 1.00 0.97 0.95

IX

Mean diff.

-1.71 3.187* -4.002*

-3.469*

-3.109*

-2.516*

-1.37 -1.03 0.20

p-value

0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.83 0.97 1.00

X

Mean diff.

-1.91 3.385* -4.200*

-3.668*

-3.31 -2.715*

-1.57 -1.23 -0.20

p-value

0.99 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.78 0.95 1.00

* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level

43.1%

6.4%

0.40%

29.9%

11.5%

8.70%

Dairy Horticulture Veg/Agriculture

West West-central

Figure 1: Major income sources of CHBPP member by

region


Rai et al. (2020) 95

dairy farming in three agro-ecological zone of Bhutan

contributes to 18% of the household annual income (of

which 14% is through milk and dairy product sales, and

4% from live animal sales). Wide difference could be

because present study purposively focused on CHBPP

members with good sample size whereas later studies had

only 90 random samples which could have affected the

results. Similarly, in Nepal dairy contributes 52% and

45% of total household income for small and medium

livestock-holders and in India, milk constitutes the major

share (67%) and is the single largest commodity

contributing from agriculture (Payal et al. 2018). Dairy

farming therefore contributes to large share of household

income in other countries too.

3.6 Economic benefits

Income generated from improved dairy farming/milk

production enabled farmers to repair house or built new

houses, meet expenditure of school going children, buy

daily household needs including purchase of food items

and household appliances. Thus, CHBPP has provided

multiple benefits to improve their living. Studies

elsewhere also provide strong evidence that dairy has the

power to provide individuals, families, and communities

basic necessities of life: food, water, shelter and clothing

and accessible pathway to come out of poverty (FAO

2018). While other authors suggest that milk production

and expenditure is better measure of household welfare

than income (Chuveret 2011).

3.7 Socio-economic benefit derived from CHBPP

With the initiation of CHBPP there had been social

benefits too. Every location where CHBPP was initiated

triggered formation of dairy groups/cooperatives

whereby farmers solve the challenges they encounter on

the farm collectively, working in group for a common

cause. This enhanced social cohesiveness for a

harmonious society. Besides, on-farm employment

generation through dairy farming for livelihoods and

income are other benefits. U.S. African Development

Foundation [USADF] (2018) supported the view that

dairy cooperatives increase food security, nutrition and

incomes of farming families and empowers women in

particular to be bread winners for their families.

Figure 2: CHBPP members' compliance to norms and services

13

3

4

42

15

6

23

14

3

36

13

9

17 2339

13

22

0

10

8 16

4 22

6

46 8

0

15

4

38

050

100150200250

AI

Bu

ll

Bo

th (

AI

+ b

ull

)

Yes No

Yes No

Per

man

ent

Sem

i-p

erm

anen

t

Tem

pora

ry

Breeding of animals Maintain monthly

milk records

Feeding of

commercial

concentrate

Housing of animals

Fully Partially

42%

44%

49%

48%

28%

31% 37%

36% 50%

50%

8%

6%

1% 2%

22

%

19

%

13

%

14

%

0%

0%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Wes

t

Wes

t-ce

ntr

al

Wes

t

Wes

t-ce

ntr

al

Wes

t

Wes

t-ce

ntr

al

Wes

t

Wes

t-ce

ntr

al

Wes

t

Wes

t-ce

ntr

al

Awareness on CHBPP

provided

Breeding records

updated after AI

Progeny born ear

tagged

IBR issued for tagged

animals

Health care services

provided

Yes

No

Figure 3: Services provided as per CHBPP contract agreement


Rai et al. (2020) 96

3.8 Compliance to CHBPP norms and Services

delivery and Hindrances

3.8.1 Compliance of CHBPP members to the contract

agreement

The CHBPP members as expected to comply with

contract agreement: to avail AI services at all times

avoiding use of breeding bull, maintain monthly milk

records and ensure proper feeding and management of

animals registered. Chi Square (χ2) test revealed

significant compliance (p=0.000) for all activities, except

for feeding concentrate (Figure 2) which could be because

feeding commercial concentrate was not affordable or

commercial feeds supplier may be absent in some of the

study areas.

3.8.2 Services provided to CHBPP members

When the services provided were compared between the

region, Chi-Square (χ2) test confirmed no significant

association (p>0.05), hinting that the services provided

were uniform in both the regions (Figure 3).

The services provision from Government to

members as per CHBPP contract agreement included

keeping proper records after AI, ear-tagging of progeny

born, issuance of Individual Bovine Register (IBR) for

tagged animals and health care facilities.

3.8.3 Hindrance to CHBPP implementation

Study found that 73.3% farmers expressed no hindrances

while 26.7% expressed some hindrances existed while

implementing the program.

Difficulty in disposal of bull born from the CHBPP

is reported to be a major constraint though irregular AI

services, repeat breeding AI and infertility cases were also

reported. The problem of bull disposal could be attributed

to saturation of bull demand or no demand for bulls of

lower blood level < 75% Jersey. Irregular AI services are

attributed to shortage of AI technician with current

staffing policy of one extension staff per gewog, and

requiring to deliver multiple animal extension services.

4. CONCLUSION

The CHBPP since its inception has gained momentum as

more farmers have joined the program with added number

of quality animals in their herd. Thus, the program met

the intended purpose to facilitate and create awareness

among farmers on uptake of AI technology through use

of progeny tested semen. CHBPP with the capacity to

meet about 70% of bull requirement in the country

annually has immensely contributed to breed

improvement program nation-wide and is supplementing

Jersey bull demand of NJBC. There had been significant

increase in Jersey cattle population above F3 generation

(>87.5% Jersey blood) during study/assessment period in

2019 especially in western region, confirming that breed

improvement milestones have been met through this

intervention. This can provide platform for identification

of high yielding cows nearing pure-line blood level as

“Bull Dam” for selection of young bulls intended for

frozen semen production in the near future.

Genetic progress made in CHBPP herd has

invariably improved productivity of the dairy herds.

Dairy thus has emerged as the primary source of income

to 72% of CHBPP members in the study area. Members

generated household income through sale of milk, milk

products and excess animals and helped to be

economically better off for a decent living.

Disposal of bull progeny born is one of the major

hindrances. Thus, wider use of sex-sorted semen having

assurance of about 90% female calf birth is recommended

in CHBPPs. Issue pertaining to irregular AI services and

repeat breeding can be overcome through training and

deployment of Community based AI Technicians and

regular refresher courses to field AI Technicians. Besides,

provision of adequate input generation and transportation

facilities including effective reproductive waste

management services can strengthen breed intensification

and overall dairy production initiatives.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors highly acknowledge the support and

cooperation of the Farm Manager, NJBC Samtse, DLOs,

field staffs and CHBPP farmers of the study area in field

data collection without which this review would have

been impossible.

REFERENCES

Asaminew T and Seifu E (2009). Smallholder dairy

system and emergency of dairy cooperatives in

BahirdarZuria and Mecha Woredas, northern,

Ethiopia. World J. Dairy and Food Sci. 4: 185-192.

Bhujel A and Sonam T (2014). Smallholder Dairy

Farming as a Source of Livelihood: A Case Study

from Three Agro-Ecological Zones of Bhutan,

Bhutan Journal of Natural Resources

&Development, 1(1): 11-17.

Chuvert J (2011). Dairy farmers reap the benefits of

working together in a co-operative society, Package

94: Participatory Radio Campaigns and agricultural

co-operatives, Africa

FAO (2008). Asia Smallholder Dairy Development

Strategy and Outline Investment Plan. Common

Fund for Commodities Animal Production & Health

Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok

FAO (2018). Dairy Development’s Impact on Poverty

Reduction. Food and Agriculture Organization of

the United Nations, the Global Dairy Platform and

IFCN Dairy Research Network, Chicago

http://scripts.farmradio.fm/author/john-cheburet/

http://scripts.farmradio.fm/radio-resource-packs/package-94-african-farm-radio-research-initiative-afrri/dairy-farmers-reap-the-benefits-of-working-together-in-a-co-operative-society/

http://scripts.farmradio.fm/radio-resource-packs/package-94-african-farm-radio-research-initiative-afrri/dairy-farmers-reap-the-benefits-of-working-together-in-a-co-operative-society/

http://scripts.farmradio.fm/radio-resource-packs/package-94-african-farm-radio-research-initiative-afrri/




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Malcolm B and Paine M (2005). Dairy Moving

Forward. Charles Sturt University and University of

Melbourne. Australia

NDRDC (2018). Annual Centre Report. National Dairy

Research and Development Centre (NDRDC),

Yusipang, Thimphu

Payal J, Hemkant C and Ashulata N (2018).

Contribution of dairy farming in employment and

household nutrition in India.International Journal of

Avian and Wild life Biology, 3(1):78-79.

Periyasamy VK, Arunasalam S, Paramasivan S,

Masilamani R and Richard C (2019). Production

and Reproduction Performances of Crossbred

Jersey Cows. Veterinary Research International,

7(2): 56-59.

PSE (2011). Replacement Heifers Selection, Penn

State Extension, The Pennsylvania State

University, USA.

Singh M and Maharajan KL (2005). Dairy production

and its implication in household income in the Tarai

Region of Nepal: A case study of Chitwan district,

Nepal. CNAS Journal, 32 (2): 213-231

Tamang NB, Rai DB, Dhendup T, Koirala AN,

Tshering L, Wangchuk P and Timsina, MP (2019).

Karan Fries vs. Jersey Cattle in Southern Foothills

of Bhutan. Bhutan Journal of Animal Science, 3 (1):

27-32.

USADF (2017). Three reasons why dairy farming is

empowering, U.S. African Development

Foundation (USADF) Africa.

https://www.usadf.gov/blog/2017/6/3-reasons-why-dairy-farming-is-empowering

https://www.usadf.gov/blog/2017/6/3-reasons-why-dairy-farming-is-empowering

http://www.usadf.gov/

http://www.usadf.gov/



98

Full length paper

COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE OF COMMERCIAL BROILER HYBRIDS IN SUB-TROPICAL

ZONE OF BHUTAN

SURYA B CHAMLING RAI*, TASHI JAMTSHO AND KINLEY DEMA

National Poultry Research and Development Centre, Department of Livestock, Ministry of

Agriculture and Forests, Sarpang, Bhutan


Copyright © 2020 Surya B Chamling Rai. The original work must be properly cited to permit


ABSTRACT: The study was conducted to evaluate the growth rate and feed conversion ratio

of two commercial broiler hybrids namely Vencobb 400Y and Ross 308. A total of 330 unsexed

day-old chicks comprising of 165 numbers each of Vencobb 400Y and Ross 308 were used for

the study. Each experimental group was randomly allocated with 55 numbers of birds with three

replicates and were reared in an open sided poultry shed. The performance data were collected

for 42 days and, analyzed using sample independent t-test. There was significant difference

(p=0.00) between two broiler hybrids in terms of final body weight. Initial body weight of Ross

308 was found higher than the Vencobb 400Y hybrid. However, at the end trial (42 days), the

final live body weight of Vencobb 400Y was observed higher than Ross 308. The final live

body weights recorded for Ross 308 and Vencobb 400Y were 2280.24 ± 37.75 gm and 2636.20

± 31.13 gm respectively. The final FCR of 2.02 for Ross 308 and 1.78 for Vencobb 400Y were

recorded. There was no significant difference (p=0.06) between the two broiler hybrids for feed

conversion ratio and mortality. In overall, the performance of these two commercial broiler

hybrids was found comparable in sub-tropical zone during spring.

Keywords: Broiler hybrids; body weight; day old chick; feed conversion ratio.

1. INTRODUCTION

Broiler production is one of the ways to supply quality

animal protein at relatively low cost (Vasanth et al.

2015). Broiler chicken is the cheapest and safest animal

protein that can rapidly and efficiently fulfill the protein

shortage (Rahman 2014). The commercial broiler

hybrid is one of the fastest growing birds. Thus, with a

short production cycle, the economic returns are quick.

Investment in broiler farming has been found most

profitable on large farms, followed by medium and

small farms (Balamurugan & Manoharan 2014). The

modern intensive poultry production system produces

marketable size birds at six weeks of age (Shankar et al.

2017). The poultry industry worldwide, is rapidly

shaping-up into an attractive enterprise in response to

increasing demand for animal protein (Hossain et al.

2011).

Poultry industry plays a vital role in supplying

premium quality meat. Protein deficiency has been the

major contributory factor in malnutrition

(Rokonuzzaman et al. 2015). In many parts of the

world, the poultry sector is expected to grow with

increasing demand for protein as a result of rising

incomes, urbanization and population growth (Mottet et

al. 2017). In 2017, Brazil produced 13,250 million tons

of chicken followed by the European Union and China

with 11,700 and 11,600 million tons of chicken

respectively (United States Department of Agriculture

[USDA] 2017). In the same year, Brazil exported 4000

million tons of chicken while Japan imported 995

million tons followed by Saudi Arabia and Mexico with

780 and 750 million tons respectively. Among South

East Asia countries, poultry is the largest livestock

sector in Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia (Iowa

Economic Development Authority [IEDA] 2017).

According to Hashim (2015), Malaysian poultry meat

production increased from 1.30 million MT in 2010 to

1.5 million MT in 2013, with a growth rate of 12.5%

per annum. According to Chatterjee & Rajkumar

(2015), India and China are the largest and second

largest poultry meat producers in Asia. India produced

about 3.8 million tons of poultry meat from 3000

million broilers per annum contributing Rs.70,000

crores to\the national GDP (Chatterjee & Rajkumar

2015). In Bangladesh, poultry meat alone contributes

37 % of the total meat production. Throughout the

world, poultry meat has become a mass consumer

product, in every region with different developments

and, in diverse forms (Magdelaine et al. 2008). On an

average in 2014, the world consumed poultry meat at

the rate of 13.2 kg/capita/year. The highest poultry

meat consumption was recorded in the US with 44.1

kg/capita/year, followed by Saudi Arabia and Malaysia


Rai et al. (2020) 99

with 43.6 and 40.6 kg/capita/year respectively

(OECD/FAO 2015). According to Dawa (2014), about

21.6% of the Bhutanese consume chicken.

Prior to the earliest livestock regulations, the per

capita poultry meat consumption for Bhutan was

recorded at only 0.2 kg (Tobias & Morrison 2009).

There has been a remarkable increase in poultry

production in the country with a production figure of

1349 MT in 2017 (Bhutan RNR Statistics 2017).

Chicken import too has proportionately increased with

an import figure of 1583.97 MT (Bhutan RNR Statistics

2017). Thus, the per capita consumption of poultry

meat has increased to3.99 kgs in 2017.

Given the current chicken import trend, it will

continue to increase in coming years. Thus, Bhutan has

great potential to expand commercial broiler production

to substitute import. In-country produce ensures better

quality assurance.

Broiler farming is undertaken by both the small

scale and large-scale commercial entrepreneurs under

different farming conditions. In Bhutan, two

commercial broiler hybrids (Ross 308 and Vencobb

400Y) are reared. However, no comparative studies had

been undertaken so far to find the breed/s that is more

suitable to Bhutanese context and seasons.

The parent breeder of Ross 308 is imported from

India by the National Poultry Research and

Development Centre (NPRDC), Sarpang. The

commercial broiler Day-Old Chicks (DoC) of Vencobb

400Y is imported by private entrepreneurs. Therefore,

this research was designed to compare the production

performance of two renowned broiler commercial

hybrids. Such assessment of the fast-growing broiler

hybrids will help increase in-country chicken

production, thereby reducing the import.


2.1 Experimental site

The experiment was conducted in the premises of

NPRDC (26° 52' 35" N 90° 15' 2" E, 346 meters above

sea level), Sarpang Dzongkhag (District) between 28th

February 2018 to 11th April 2018.

The experiment site has warm sub-tropical

characterized by hot summer and moderately cool

winter. The average temperature is 22°C and the

average annual rainfall ranges from 1200 mm to 2500

mm (Dzongkhag 2018).

2.2 Experimental design and birds

A total of 330 unsexed chicks comprising of 165 chicks

each of Ross 308 and Vencobb 400Y were used in this

study. The Ross 308 DoCs were hatched at NPRDC,

whereas Vencobb 400Y DoCs were imported from M/S

Eastern Hatcheries Pvt. Ltd., West Bengal, India. These

two broiler hybrids were considered as treatment birds.

55 DoCs of each hybrid were in each treatment group.

There were three replicates of each treatment group.

2.3 Management of experimental birds

All chicks were reared up to six weeks of age in an

open-sided house under deep litter system. The chicks

in all replicates were provided uniform stocking

density, feed, and water. They were reared under

identical standard management conditions throughout

the experimental period. Brooding preparation was

made prior to the arrival of chicks. Chicks were

provided uniform lighting facilities of 15-watt compact

florescent light (CFL) bulbs. For the first three days, 24

hours of lighting was provided followed by 23 hours of

lighting until chicks attained one week. Fresh, clean and

sun-dried sawdust was used as bedding materials.

Liquid petroleum gas and electric brooders were used

for brooding. Chicks were vaccinated as per the

standard vaccination schedule as in Table 1.

2.4 Feeding regime

At day zero, chicks were fed ad libitum. From day 1 to

23, birds were provided chick starter in accordance with

standard management guidelines of Ross 308 and

Vencobb 400Y (Aviagen 2009 & Cobb 2013). On the

24th day, broiler starter (crumble) and broiler finisher

(mash) were mixed and fed at 70:30 ratio. On day 25,

birds were provided starter and finisher at 50 % each.

On the 26th day, birds were fed starter and finisher at

30 % and 70 % respectively. From 27th day, the birds

were provided broiler finisher till 42 days of age.

2.5 Data collection

The data was collected for 42 days of rearing from 28th

February to 11th May, 2018. The body weights were

measured (Phoenix, with 0.001g precision) at weekly

intervals and mortality recorded on a daily basis. FCR,

mortality and Average Daily Gain (ADG) were

determined on a weekly basis by using the following

formulae:

ADG = Final weight−Initial weight (g)

Age of Birds (days)

FCR =Total feed Intake (g)

final weight gain (g)

Mortality =No.of dead birds

No.of initial birds x 100

Table 1: Vaccination schedule adopted

Age Vaccine Route

0 day Marek disease Sub-Coetaneous Muscular

3rd Day Infectious Bursal Disease Intra ocular

7th Day Newcastle Disease(B1) Intra ocular

14th Day Infectious Bursal Disease Intraocular

28th Day Infectious Bursal Disease Intraocular


Rai et al. (2020) 100

2.6 Data Analysis

The data were entered in Microsoft Excel 2010. The

normality of data was tested with the Shapiro Wilk test

and homogeneity of variance by Levene’s test. The

growth performance and FCR of two commercial

hybrid broilers were tested with sample independent t-

test. The two broiler breeds were the independent

variables while FCR and body weight were the

dependent variables. Differences in dependent

variables were considered significant when p values

were less than 0.05. The statistical software Statistical

Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 23 was used

to analyze the data (IBM n.d.).


3.1 Body weight

The initial body weights of Ross 308 and Vencobb

400Y were 47.20 ± 0.42 g and 43±0.35 gm respectively.

Though the initial body weight of Ross 308 was

comparatively higher than Vencobb 400Y, the final

average live body weight of later was higher under the

same environmental and management conditions. The

final average live body weights were recorded at

2280.24 ± 37.75 gm and 2636.20 ± 31.13 gm for Ross

308 and Vencobb 400Y respectively (Figure 1). A

highly significant difference (p = 0.001) was observed

between two commercial broiler hybrids’ body weight

at 42 days of age. At the end of the experiment,

Vencobb 400y broilers attained higher average live

weight than Ross 308 birds by 15.61%. The results of

this study are supported by Hristakieva et al. (2014)

where a significant difference was observed between

two hybrids. Similarly, Torshizi, (2006) in their study

revealed numerically higher body weight of Vencobb

compared to Ross. Another study by Pascalau et al.

(2017) observed slightly superior final body weight for

Vencobb 500 hybrid by 3.42% compared to Ross 308

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

1 2 3 4 5 6

Bo

dy w

eight

(g)

Age (week)

Ross 308

Cobb 400y

Figure 1: Average live body weight of two commercial broiler hybrids

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 2 3 4 5 6

Aver

age

Dai

ly G

ain (

g)

Age (Weeks)

Ross 308

Cobb 400y

Figure 2: Average daily weight gain of two commercial broiler hybrids


Rai et al. (2020) 101

hybrid. On contrary, Hascik et al. (2010) showed high

numerical average body weight for Ross 308 compared

to Vencobb at slaughtering age of 35 days. However,

no significant difference was observed. Ciurescu &

Grosu (2011) demonstrated a slightly lower final body

weight for Vencobb 500 broilers than Ross 308, but

difference was not significant (p > 0.05). Amao et al.

(2015) found the final body weight of 1423g in eight

weeks for Vencobb hybrid which is much lower than

the current study findings. The relatively higher initial

body weight for Ross chicks may be attributed to the

fact that they are hatched on station while the Vencobb

400Y DoCs were imported from India because of which

chicks are expected to undergo transit weight loss. The

differences in the performances of broiler hybrids may

be affected by various factors like breeding,

management, nutrition, disease control, weather

conditions and so on.

3.2 Average Daily Gain

At the first week, an average daily weight gain for Ross

308 was 10.35 ± 0.08 g and 12.39 ± 0.21 g for Vencobb

400Y (Figure 2). There was a significant difference (p

> 0.05) between two broiler hybrids’ ADG except on

week three and five. The result is supported by

Namakparvar et al. (2014) where a significant

difference was observed in body weight gain among

three hybrids of Ross 308, Vencobb 500 and Arian.

They observed Vencobb hybrid had the highest daily

weight gain compared to Ross 308 and Arian. In the

current study, an average daily weight gain of 53.15 ±

2.88 g and 60.07 ± 3.19 g was observed for Ross 308

and Vencobb 400Y, respectively for 42 days. A study

by Amao et al. (2015) revealed 66 g daily weight gain

in Vencobb hybrid which was slightly greater than the

current result. This result contradicts the study by

Ciurescu & Grosu (2011) where Ross 308 had higher

average daily weight gain of 58.05 g as compared to

56.55 g for Vencobb 500. Namakparvar et al. (2014)

observed average daily weight gain of 46.1 ± 0.6 g for

Ross 308 and 50.7 ± 1 g for Vencobb 500 which are

lower than the current study results. Pascalau et al.

(2017) observed a slightly higher average daily weight

gain in Vencobb 500 (53.69g) as compared to Ross 308

at 51.83g.

3.3 Feed Conversion Ratio

The final FCR of 2.02 and 1.78 was observed for Ross

308 and Vencobb 400Y, respectively (Figure 3). There

was no significant difference in FCR between Ross 308

and Vencobb 400y (p ˃0.05). This result is supported

by Ciurescu & Grosu, (2011) who observed no

significant difference among three broiler hybrids of

Ross 308, Vencobb 500 and Arbor Acres. The FCR of

Vencobb 400Y chicken is slightly better than Ross 308.

In contrast, Pascalau et al. (2017) demonstrated a

slightly better FCR value of 1.88 for Ross 308. A study

by Iqbal (2012) revealed FCR of 2.17 for Ross 308 in

seven weeks of age in Pakistan. In the present study,

Ross 308 chicken exhibited slightly higher FCR value

compared to Vencobb 400Y. This indicates that

Vencobb 400Y performed better than Ross 308 during

the experiment. In contrast, Hascik et al. (2010)

revealed 1.644 as FCR value of Ross 308 which is

slightly lower than 1.7 of Vencobb 500 at the age of 35

days. Pathak et al. (2016) recorded FCR value of 1.85

in Vencobb 400Y which is slightly higher than 1.78 for

Vencobb 400Y in this study. This difference could be

attributed to the independent variables, breed and

season.

3.4 Mortality

Statistically, the result demonstrated no significant

difference (p > 0.05) between two broiler hybrids in

terms of mortality. At the end of the experiment, 7.87

% and 6.06 % of mortality were recorded for Ross 308

and Vencobb 400Y respectively. Similar result was

obtained by Rokonuzzaman et. al (2015) where no

significant difference was observed between three

improved breeds of Vencobb-500, Hubbard Classic,

and Arbor Acres.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

1 2 3 4 5 6

FC

R

Age (weeks)

Ross 308

Cobb 400y

Figure 2: Comparison of FCR between two commercial broiler hybrids


Rai et al. (2020) 102

4. CONCLUSION

The performance of Vencobb 400Y and Ross 308

broiler hybrids were found comparable in the sub-

tropical zone during spring. There was no significance

difference in FCR, the main criterion for evaluation of

performance and profitability. But, the contribution of

season to this result need to be further authenticated.

The trial needs to be conducted for repeatability in other

agro-ecological zones. In addition, faster growing

Vencobb 400Y has its own share of animal welfare

issues. Thus, choice of hybrid must be made with care

and further scientific evidences.

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103

Full length paper

ASSESSMENT OF MILK PRODUCTION AND INCOME FROM TRADITIONAL AND IMPROVED

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF SMALL DAIRY FARMERS IN BHUTAN

LOKEY THAPA*, DEKI CHODEN AND NAR B TAMANG


Agriculture and Forests, Yusipang


Copyright © 2020 Lokey Thapa. The original work must be properly cited to permit unrestricted


ABSTRACT: The study was conducted to compare and assess the productivity of dairy cattle

and corresponding household income from traditional and improved dairy management system.

The study area falling under four regions were randomly selected by selecting one Dzongkhag

from each region. The study also documented major challenges encountered in enhancing

productivity of dairy animals. The average daily milk yield and monthly household income for

traditional and improved management system under small holder dairy farming were 1.63 l and

7.37 land Nu. 4,167.50/month and Nu. 19,586/month respectively. The average daily milk yield

and corresponding household income adopting improve management system was significantly

higher (p<0.001) than traditional system. The study also found that about 75 percent of the

respondents adopting improved dairy management system meet their household expenses from

income generated from dairy farming whereas only 35 percent of the respondents practicing

traditional management system meet their household expenses through the sale of milk and milk

products. The major challenges encountered in small holder system were lack of technology

adoption such as AI services for breeding and fodder conservation, and marketing support. The

study concluded that the dairy farming has contributed immensely in improving livelihoods of

rural farming communities. Further, the improved dairy farming has enabled the farmers to earn

income by four times higher than traditional dairy farming. Therefore, any form of support

provided to the farmers in modernizing dairy farming and adopting better technologies will have

positive impact on livelihoods of the farmers.

Keywords: Dairy farming; household income; improved farming; small holder; traditional

farming.

1. INTRODUCTION

Bhutan is an agrarian country with more than 60

percent of the population depending on subsistence

agriculture and livestock farming for their livelihood

(Wangmo and Dorji 2017). Small holder dairy farming

is widely practiced by Bhutanese farmers and is mainly

reared for milk and milk products, draught power and

manure. Sale of milk products is increasingly a main

source of income to farming community.

About 48 percent of the household in the country

rear 3,04,178 heads of cattle out of which 65.4% are

local cattle and remaining 34.6% are exotic cross

breeds (Livestock statictics 2017). Crossbreeding of

local cattle with exotic dairy breeds started from 1985.

Improved crossbred cows are stall-fed for increased

milk production (Samdup et al. 2010). Milk production

varies with the breed type, age, stage of lactation,

nutritional status, pregnancy and water availability.

High milk yield is the most important for higher

economic returns. However, without proper nutrition

and management, milk production of the dairy animals

cannot be improved. Studies have proven that stall-fed

cattle showed a significantly higher milk yield and

better reproductive performance than the free range

animals (Sultana et al. 2001). The regular earnings from

the sale of milk and milk products have favorable

effects on the cash flow to rural households and

improve their livelihoods.

Despite potential contribution of dairy farming

towards improved household livelihoods, farmers are

yet to realize benefit of optimizing production. Majority

of farmers failed to understand the connection between

improved management practices and income.

Therefore, the practice of feeding and management on

milk production and income was carried out to assess

productivity and household income from traditional and

improved dairy management systems as well as identify

major challenges under traditional and improved

management systems.


Thapa et al. (2020) 104


2.1Study area

The study covered four Dzongkhags (districts); Samtse,

Dagana, Trongsa & Samdrup Jongkhar (one

Dzongkhag from each region). Within the dzongkhag,

two gewogs (sub-district) were selected; Tashichholing

and Dumtoed Geogs in Samtse (western region); Goshi

and Dorona Geogs in Dagana (West Central);

Tangsebji & Langthel in Trongsa (East Central

Region); and Deothang and Langchenphu in Samdrup

Jongkhar (Eastern Region) (Figure 1)

2.2 Sampling design and sampling

Two gewogs from each dzongkhag were purposively

selected; one for the traditional dairy farmers and

another for improved dairy farmers based on the

Livestock Statistics 2017. Farmers rearing indigenous

breed (local cattle) managed under free-range system

with forest grazing was defined as traditional dairy

management/ traditional farming whereas farmers with

cross-bred cattle of above 50 percent exotic blood level,

reared under stall-feeding with minimal to zero forest

grazing was considered as improved management

system. Thirty percent of the villages in traditional

dairy management system and 50 percent of the villages

under improved dairy management system were

selected in consultation with concerned Livestock

officers of the selected Dzongkhags. From the selected

Geogs, 43 households (20 household from traditional

system and 23 from improved system) were selected for

the study.

2.3 Questionnaire design

The study was administered through field surveys,

using the semi-structured questionnaires with open and

closed-ended questions. The questionnaires were pre-

tested during the mock interview prior to the actual

survey and necessary changes were made to improve

the questionnaire clarity. The questionnaire consisted

of eight sections; socio- demographic characteristics,

dairy housing types, milk production, dairy husbandry,

technology management, feeding and breeding

practices, and constraints in the farming.

2.4 Data collection

Data were collected from December 2018 to February

2019 by visiting households in the selected villages

having at least one milking cow during the interview

time. Head of the family or person above 18 years of

age actively involved with day to day dairy activity was

interviewed.

2.5 Data Analysis

Data coding, entry size and cleaning were carried out

using Microsoft Excel and exported to SPSS.

The statistical software SPSS version 21 (IBM

Corporation, 2015) was used to analyze the data. A

nonparametric chi-square (χ2) test was performed to

test significant difference between traditional dairy

farming and improved dairy farming. The 95%

confidence level (p<0.05) was applied for statistical

decision.


3.1. Socio demographic characteristics

3.1.1 Gender, age and size of family member

The socio-demographic characteristics of respondent

were 58 percent male and 42 percent female. Although

sex ratio in the country was 47 male to 53 female (NSB

2017) the finding indicates the females are less forth-

Figure 1: Map of Bhutan showing the study sites


Thapa et al. (2020) 105

coming in dairy activities. Fifty four percent of the

respondents were in the middle age group (36 to 56

years), 27 percent old age above 56 years and 19

percent were young age group below 35 years,

indicating that not many youths are taking up dairy

farming activity. Almost 70 percent of the households

in the study area has less than 6 members in the family

living in village. This could be because of more

educated people are moving in the urban town and

some serving in government offices elsewhere.

However, in socio-demographic characteristics

significant difference (p<0.05) was observed only in

education level; Secondary and higher secondary and

above and land holdings that propelled farmers in

traditional and improved farming system (Table 1).

3.1.2 Literacy

Majority (71.5%) of respondents in this study were

illiterate though the literacy rate is 71 percent literacy

rate (PHCB, 2018). Majority of dairy farmers in rural

areas who practice traditional dairy farming are mostly

illiterate and not aware of improved dairy farming. The

findings from the study revealed that more educated

respondents in the study area are taking up the

improved dairy farming and earn better income (Table

2).

3.2 Average land holdings & Pasture development

The overall average land holding in the study area was

3.69 acres with 3.3 acres for households in traditional

management system and 4.03 acres in improved

management system. The average household

landholding in study area was higher than the national

average land holdings of 2.16 (PHCB 2018). Study also

found that 93 percent of households with improved

management system and 73.6 percent of household

with traditional management system have improved

pasture land with average of 0.62 acres.

Table 1: Socio demographic characteristics for traditional and improved dairy farming

Variables Categories Traditional farming

(n=80)

Improved

farming(n=92) Total p value

Gender Male 45 (56) 55 (60) 100 (58)

0.64 Female 35 (44) 37 (40) 72 (42)

Age 18 - 35 years 16 (20) 17 (18) 33 (19)

0.96 35 - 55 years 42 (53) 50 (54) 92 (54)

Above 56 years 22 (27) 25 (27) 47 (27)

Education No Education 62 (77) 61 (66) 123 (71.5)

Primary 15 (19) 15 (17) 30 (17.4)

0.043 Secondary 2 (2.5) 12 (13) 14 (8.1)

Higher Secondary

above 1 (1.3) 4 (4) 5 (2.9)

Total land 0 - 2 acres 26 (32.5) 35 (38) 61 (35.5)

0.03 2.1- 5 acres 49 (61.3) 41 (44.6) 90 (52.3)

Above 5 acres 5 (6.3) 16 (17.4) 21 (12.2)

Pasture Land Improved pasture (Yes) 59 (73.6) 84 (93) 143 (83) 0

Improved pasture (No) 21 (26.3) 6 (6.5) 27 (16)

Herd Size Till 4 animals 17 (21) 18 (20) 35 (20) 0.85

Above 4 animals 63 (79) 74 (80.4) 137 (80)

Family

member Less than 6 44 (55) 74 (80) 118 (69)

0

6 and above 6 36 (45) 18 (20) 54 (31) Note: The figure in the bracket represent percentage, Chi Square p value test, Family members (mean = 5.86) categorized less than 6

and 6 and above. Livestock herd size (mean 5.16) categorized less than 6 and above 6

Table 2: Milk production and income under traditional and improved management system Parameters Improved cattle Local Cattle p-value

Average milk yield (litres/day) 7.00 ± 3.60 1.63 ± 0.69 0.00 ✓ Trongsa 7.37 ± 3.22 1.33 ± 0.68 0.01

✓ Samtse 5.46 ± 2.60 1.49 ± 0.87 0.01

✓ SamdrupJongkhar 7.06 ± 3.18 1.62 ± 0.32 0.01

✓ Dagana 8.10 ± 4.74 2.07 ± 0.59 0.01

Average milking animal (no) 2.03 ±1.043 1.79 ±0.931 NS

Lactation length (months) 9.92 ± 2.50 9.34 ± 3.34 NS

Monthly Income (Nu) 19,586.96 ±10457.30 4,167.50 ±2248.87 0.00 Milk production reduction in summer and winter (%) 27.29 ± 6.60 24.50 ± 4.47 NS Note: The figure in the bracket represent percentage, Chi Square p value test


Thapa et al. (2020) 106

The average improved pasture with traditional

management system and improved management system

was 0.23 acre and 0.95 acres respectively. Owing to

small land holdings, only small portion of the

agriculture land is devoted for pasture development and

rest are used for agriculture purpose. The finding is

consistent with Maleko et al. (2018), who reported that

farmers devote about 87 percent of the land to grow

crops and only small portion is reserved for pasture

development.

3.3 Herd Size

Average milking animals reared by traditional farmers

was 1.79 heads and improved farmers was 2.03 heads.

Majority (80%) of the respondents kept more than four

animals and rest had a herd size of less than 4 animals

(Table 1). There was no difference between traditional

dairy farmers and improved dairy farmers on herd size.

3.4 Milk production, household income and

contribution

3.4.1 Milk production

Recall and milk record data were used to record daily

milk yield of dairy cattle managed under traditional and

improved management systems. Average daily milk

yield was 1.6 litres and 7.0 litres for the traditional and

improved management systems respectively. The

average daily milk yield under improve management

system was found significantly higher (p<0.001) than

those reared under traditional management system,

which could be due to low genetic potential of local

breed, poor feeding and husbandry practices, compared

to higher exotic blood level cows under improved

management system with better feeding and

management. The result is consistent with Samdup et

al. (2010) who reported milk yield of 2.4 - 4.6 times

higher for crossbred/ improved cattle than in local

cattle.

Milk production in winter was reduced by more

than 27 percent in improved management compared to

about 25 percent in traditional management. The

reduction in milk production in winter was attributed

mainly to fodder shortage and was substantiated by the

findings of Wangchuk et al. (2019) that fodder shortage

as an impediments to increasing milk production.

The average monthly household income of dairy

cattle reared under traditional and improved

management systems were Nu. 4,167.50 (range

Nu.1000 – 12000) and Nu 19,586.96 (range Nu. 4500 –

45000) respectively. The average household income

was highly significant (p<0.001) to improved

management system for higher milk yield owing to

feeding of concentrate feeds, more improved pasture

and engagement of more educated people in it

compared to traditional management system (Table 2).

Hence, if the traditional farmers take up improved dairy

management system, the average income is likely to

multiply by more than four times.

3.4.2 Contribution from dairy farming to household

income

The study found that about 75 percent of the

respondents adopting improved dairy cattle

management system meet their household expenses

from sale of milk and milk products whereas only 35

percent of the respondent under traditional management

system meet their expenses through sale of milk and

milk products, and rest from sale of cash crops and

other activities (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Source of income by traditional and

improved dairy farming

Findings from this study suggest that irrespective of

management types, dairy has contributed immensely

(above 95 %) in meeting the household expenditure,

Schooling of their children and grandchildren, buying

feed and household food items thereby improving

livelihoods of farming community (Table 3).

3.4.2 Milk marketing

Milk marketing due to lack of adequate infrastructure

and road connectivity among rural farmers was a major

problem. About 75 percent of respondents of the

traditional and 64 percent of respondent of the

improved dairy farmer respondent process daily

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Dairy

farming

Cardamom Betel nut Crop and

vegetable

Others

Inco

me

sou

rce

(%)

Improved farmingTraditional farming

Table 3: Contribution of household income from traditional and improved farming

Variables Categories Traditional farming

(n=80) Improved farming

(n=92) Total

Household expenses Yes 80 (100) 92 (100) 172 (100)

No 0 0 0 Schooling Yes 77 (96) 91 (98.9) 168 (98)

No 1 (1.3) 1 (1.1) 2 (1.2) Feed purchase Yes 2(2.2) 91 (99) 93 (54)

No 72 (90) 1 (1.1) 73 (42.4) The figure in the bracket represents percentage, Chi Square p value test


Thapa et al. (2020) 107

produced milk into butter and cheese. However, it is

reported to be labour intensive and time

consuming. Therefore, the need to adopt improved

technology for product processing is warranted to ease

the problem.

3.5 Dairy management system

Housing is important to ensure proper and easy

management of dairy cows. The study recorded about

85 percent of farmers rearing improved cattle

constructed permanent dairy shed, followed by 13

percent and 2 percent with semi-permanent/temporary

sheds respectively (Figure 3).

On the contrary, only 29 percent of traditional

dairy farmers had permanent shed followed by 11

percent and 60 percent in semi-permanent and

temporary shed respectively. The type of dairy shed and

shed floor significantly affect the milk production in

traditional and improved dairy farming (p<0.001). The

result shows that the current types of sheds are

influenced by the availability of financial resources. In

many places cattle were kept in confined area and floor

was made from mud without drainage system to protect

from cold. Most of the traditional system do not have

dairy sheds as their animals are migrated to their

orchards for manuring purpose and also in search of

green grass in different seasons. Clean milking practice

such as washing of hands, udder and milking utensil

before milking were practiced by both traditional and

improved dairy farming equally.

3.6 Feeding management

3.6.1 Traditional management system

Adequate/ balanced feeding is considered as one of the

important components for optimum production.

Finding from the study indicates that 100 percent of the

traditional management system feed crop residue as

primary feed to their milking animals which ranged

from 2 to 25 kg per day (Table 4).

The finding from the present study indicated that

about 30 percent of the traditional dairy farmers feed 5

– 10 kg of paddy straw as an alternative feeding during

winter owing to non-availability of green fodders.

However, no concentrate feeds were given under

traditional management system due to non-availability

of feed agent and high feed price in the area (Table 5).

More than 97 percent of the traditional management

system tethered their dairy cows in their private land or

near the forest which is the main source of fodder.

3.6.2 Improved management system

Finding from the study indicates that 100 percent of the

improved management system feed crop residue as one

the major feed component to their milking animals and

were given in the range of 5 to 30 kg daily (Table 4).

Crop residue ingredients include paddy straw,

leftover vegetables, sorghum, pumpkin, banana stem,

mustard cake etc. Beside this, fodder grasses were also

fed to the dairy animals in the range of 5 – 20 kg. More

than 95 percent of the improved management system

feed commercial feeds to their milking cows during

morning and evening before milking and were given in

the range of 2 to 3 kg (Table 4 & 5). The findings from

the present study indicated that about 69.5 percent of

the improved dairy farmers fed paddy straw as an

alternative feed during winter owing to non-availability

of green fodders.

Figure 3: Dairy Sheds in traditional and improved

dairy farmers

Table 5: Different feeding and fodder availability in traditional & improved dairy farming

Variables Categories Traditional dairy farming Improved dairy farming Total

(n=80) (n=92) p value

Feeding Concentrates to the

milking cows

Yes 4 (4.7) 82 (95.3) 86 (50) 0.00

No 76 (88.4) 10 (11.6) 86 (50)

Tether milking cow in field

for grazing

Yes 78 (97.5) 41 (44.6) 119 (69.2) 0.00

No 2 (2.5) 51 (55.4) 53 (30.8)

Feed crop residue Yes 80 (100) 92 (100) 172 (100))

NS No 0 0 0

Feed paddy straw Yes 24 (30) 63 (68.5) 87 (50.6)

0.00 No 56 (70) 29 (31.5) 85 (49.4)

Have feed agent to buy Yes 0 82 (89) 82 (48)

0.00 No 80 (100) 10 (11) 90 (52)

The figure in the bracket represent percentage. Chi Square p value test

Table 4: Feeds and feeding trend

Cattle type

Improved(N=9) Local(N=80) Crop residue (kg) 5-30 2-25 Concentrate (kg) 2-3 0 Fodder (kg) 5-18 5 - 10 Water (l) 20–30 15–20

60

11

29

85

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Temporary Shed Semi permanent

Shed

Permanent shed

Nu

mb

er o

f re

spon

den

t (%

) Traditional dairy farming

Improved dairy farming


Thapa et al. (2020) 108

These crop residues and fodder fed to milking

cows have low level of nutrients and can meet only 35

to 45 percent of the feed demand of the ruminant

(Maleko et al. 2018). Crop residue have low palatability

and digestibility due to high fibre contents which is less

than 18 percent. Thus, treatment with urea molasses of

high fibre crops was recommended for better

performance and more milk production. Efforts to

reduce the problem of dry season over fodder shortage

by hay making technologies were introduced. However,

the technology did not pick up in the farmer’s field

although it was effective and successful elsewhere.

Low adoption of this technology could be due to limited

practice of fodder conservation, low level of awareness/

extension support, and labour and land shortages as the

similar situation was reported by Maleko et al. (2018).

Findings from the study area revealed that concentrate

feeding among improved management system was 2 to

3 kg and no concentrate was fed in traditional

management system.

3.7 Water

The result from the study revealed that farmers

provided 15 to 20 litters of water/day to local cattle

compared to 20 to 30 litters of water per day to

improved cattle (Table 4). The finding is in consistent

to the findings of Smith et al. (2017) which provided

20 to 40 litters of water daily to crossbred milking

cows. However, water consumption is found to be

proportionate to milk production and different

seasons of the year.

3.8 Breeding

About 70 percent of the traditional dairy farmer

respondents use local breeding bull to breed their

cows compared to one percent by the improved dairy

farmer respondents (Figure 4).

Similarly, 23.8 percent of the farmers in traditional

system use community Jersey bull to breed their cattle

compared to 33.7 percent of the farmers in improved

system, indicating that the farmers in improved system

have preference for sires with higher exotic blood level

than those in traditional system. There was significant

difference in milk production (p<0.001) resulting from

different breeding types; artificial insemination (AI)

and different breed of breeding bulls. None of the

traditional dairy farmer used AI to breed their dairy

cows compared to 56.5 percent of the farmers in

improved farming. Ninety nine percent of the

traditional farmers did not avail AI services due to lack

of facility compared to 98 percent of improved dairy

farmers who availed AI facility as available in the

Geog. More awareness on benefit of AI over natural

service and AI facilities need to be provided with

adequate logistic support in villages to encourage breed

improvement for higher milk production and income.

Figure 5: Challenges faced by farmers in traditional & improved management system

Figure 4: Different types of breeding practiced by

traditional and improved dairy farming

0 20 40 60 80 100

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Can

yo

u s

ale

fres

h m

ilk

Rep

eat

case

No i

rrig

atio

n

to p

astu

re

du

rin

g

win

ter

Hig

h f

eed

pri

ce

Improved Farming Traditional Farming

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Local

breeding

bull

Community

Jersey bull

Government

jersey bull

Government

AI

Res

po

nd

ent

(No

.)

Traditional dairy farming

Improved dairy farming


Thapa et al. (2020) 109

3.9 Animal Health

All respondents (100 percent) vaccinated their cattle

against Foot & Mouth Disease (FMD) under improved

management system compared to 90 percent under the

traditional system. Similarly, 95 percent of the farmers

in traditional management and 91 percent of the farmers

in improved dairy management have not encountered

management related disease such as Mastitis. About 9

percent and 5 percent management related disease

especially mastitis was reported by improved and

traditional management system respectively.

3.10 Constraints

Dairy management skills particularly for breeding and

artificial insemination technology were lacking in

farmers of both traditional and improved dairy

management systems. The cases of repeat breeding

were eminent in both the management systems. About

26 percent of farmers in traditional farmers reported

wildlife depredation as other constraint compared to 5

percent in improved system. The reason for higher

depredation under traditional management system

could be attributed to animals being left in forest for

open grazing most of the time.

Besides, the study revealed lack of irrigation

facility for pasture development particularly in winter

as another constraint in dairy farming system (Figure 5)

4. CONCLUSIONS

Improved dairy management system contributed four

times higher household income as compared to

traditional dairy farming system in the study area. More

educated people are taking up improved dairy farming

as a regular and attractive source of income adopting

improved management technology. With farmers

adopting improved dairy management system the milk

production had increased and adverse impact on

environment had reduced. The study revealed that the

milk production in winter is reduced by more than 25

percent due to limited landholding for fodder

production. The fodder shortage was further

compounded by farmers’ inability to conserve hay and

silage when available in abundance during the summer

season. Since little can be done on land scarcity,

building farmers’ capacity on fodder production and

conservation technologies need to be emphasized.

Given different agro- ecological zones and

climatic conditions in the country the farmers should

adopt suitable dairy shed design for better health and

production. Government should also provide more

supports on capacity building to adopt improve

management practices and technology to enhance milk

production, household income and improve rural

livelihood henceforth. More awareness on benefit of AI

over natural service and AI facilities need to be

provided with adequate logistic support in villages to

encourage breed improvement.

REFERENCES

Maleko D, George M, Angello M, Liliane P and Kelvin

M (2018). “Smallholder Dairy Cattle Feeding

Technologies and Practices in Tanzania: Failures,

Successes, Challenges and Prospects for

Sustainability.” International Journal of

Agricultural Sustainability, 16 (2): 201–13.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2018.144047.

N Sultana, Rashid MM and Hossain SMJ (2001).

“Comparative Study on Productive and

Reproductive Performance of Different Crossbred

and Indiginious Breeds.Pdf.” Pakisthan Journal of

Biological Science, 4 (8): 1036–37.

NSB (2017). Bhutan standards living survey report.

National Statistics Bureau, Thimphu.

NSB (2018). Population and Housing Census of

Bhutan. 2018. National Statistic Bureaue, Thimphu.

Samdup T, Udo HMJ, Eilers CHAM, Ibrahim MNM

and AJ van der Zijpp (2010). “Crossbreeding and

Intensification of Smallholder Crop-Cattle Farming

Systems in Bhutan.” Livestock Science 132 (1–3):

126–34.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2010.05.014.

Samdup T and Dorji N (2017). “Livestock Statistics

2017, 12th Series.” Livestock Statistics, 2017 1.

Moaf.gov.bt/livestock statictics.

Smith JF, Joseph PH, SR DeFrain and Michael JB

(2017). “Drinking Water Requirements for

Lactating Dairy Cows.” Kansas Agricultural

Experiment Station Research Reports, no. 2: 35–39.

https://doi.org/10.4148/2378-5977.3227.

Wangchuk K, Dorji T, Wangdi J, Wurzinger M and

Zollitsch W (2019). “Caught in the Middle :

Reasons for Hindered Growth Among Dairy

Groups of Haa District in Western Bhutan.” Advances in Dairy Research Vol. 7(3).

Wangmo S, and Dorji P (2017). “Effect of Feeding

Dolichousnea Longissima (Ach.) Articus as

Supplement during Winter on Milk Yield and Its

Composition in Yaks.” Bjnrd, 4 (2): 39–45.

https://doi.org/10.17102/cnr.2017.08.



110

Full length paper

COMPOSITIONAL ANALYSIS OF MARKET MILK IN THIMPHU & PARO DISTRICTS

PHUNTSHO T NORBU1*, KINLEY CHOKI1 AND SONAM YANGCHEN2

1National Dairy Research and Development Centre, Department of Livestock, Yusipang 2Department of Livestock, MoAF, Thimphu


Copyright © 2020 Phuntsho T Norbu. The original work must be properly cited to permit


ABSTRACT: Milk available in the market is not subject to systematic regulations or monitoring

for control of quality. The compositional quality of milk is not maintained due to lack of regulations

leading to adulteration of milk and supply of poor-quality milk to consumers. The study on

compositional quality of milk available in the market of Thimphu and Paro revealed deviation and

variation in all milk components from expected constituents as well as consistent adulteration with

water. Milk available in the market of Thimphu and Paro is found to be of poor quality with unfair

trade practices and deception of consumers through sale of inferior quality milk. Besides, the study

also found that the Lactoscan MCCW has a higher precision than Portable milk analyzer for

detecting added water in milk as adulterant. The Centre will continue to undertake studies on milk

composition throughout the country and will also undertake to identify the source of adulteration

(producers – middlemen – retail outlets) for corrective action to be taken for improving the quality

of milk and formulation of standards for milk.

Keywords: Adulteration; equipment specificity; milk composition; raw milk.

1. INTRODUCTION

Milk is defined as the secretion from the lacteal glands of

one or more cows and serves as a source of essential

nutrients. The composition of milk varies according to

species, breed, age, diet etc. Normal cow milk is generally

composed of fat within the 3 – 6% variation, protein

content of about 3.5%, lactose of 4.8% and

minerals/salts/vitamins in the range of 0.7 – 0.8% (Fox

2011). These components are known as the solids

component and comprises of about 13.4% of the milk

content with the remaining 86.6% being the water content

of milk on average.

Additionally, normal milk has a titratable acidity of 0.14

- 0.16%, pH of 6.5 – 6.7, specific gravity of 1.030 - 1.035,

and freezing point of -0.512 to -0.550 ºC (McCarthy

2002). The depression of freezing point is used as the

basis for the detection of milk adulterated with water

(Henno et al. 2008). Wangdi et al (2014) in his study

recorded an overall mean composition of milk in the

country as being constituted of 4.99% fat, 3.25% protein,

5.48% lactose and 0.67% salts. The study also recorded

the density of milk as 1.028 kg/liter and a freezing point

of -0.571ºC. Similarly, the milk composition obtained

from the farm of National Dairy Research and

Development Centre (NDRDC), Yusipang was 4.7% fat,

3.4% protein, 4.6% lactose, 0.7% salts and a freezing

point of -0.550.

Dairy farmers groups of Thimphu, Paro and Haa

market their milk and milk products in their respective

areas as well as in Thimphu that has a higher buying

potential for dairy products. Most of the milk and milk

products from Paro and Haa are also available in Thimphu

through the various dairy outlets set up in the capital city.

All of the milk available is raw milk directly sourced from

the dairy farmers groups and sold unprocessed in plastic

bottles. The price for 1 liter milk is sold at the market rate

of Nu. 60 – 65 per liter in the outlets. The outlets procure

the milk from the dairy groups in bulk and packaging is

done at the respective outlets in either new or re-used

mineral water bottles. Some outlets sell the milk directly

from the bulk containers in containers bought by the

customers. A common feature in the supply of milk from

the dairy groups is the use of middlemen for

transportation and sale of milk from the point of

production to the marketing outlets.

As there is no systematic regulation or monitoring

mechanism in place for the sale of raw liquid milk, the

compositional quality of milk is not maintained for the

consumers with variations in compositional quality and

adulteration with water being common practice. The use

of water as an adulterant to increase the volume of milk


Norbu et al. (2020) 111

sold can pose a risk to human health through the use of

contaminated and unclean water leading to the rapid

deterioration of milk quality as well as the reduction of

milk solids (Handford et al. 2016).

No study to determine the compositional quality of

raw milk available in the market has been carried out and

this study aims to address the lack of information and

quantitative data. Through this study, initial information

on the compositional quality of milk will be made

available for future reference and corrective measures to

be implemented in case of adulteration.


The study is carried out to investigate the compositional

quality of raw milk and incidences of water adulteration

in milk available through the various milk sales outlets in

Thimphu and Paro town areas. About 20 random samples

each were collected from four different milk outlets (T1,

T2, T3 and T4) in Thimphu and two different outlets (P1

and P2) in Paro for compositional analysis. Physical

examination of all samples was made for appearance,

odor, color and packaging material used. Compositional

analysis of the samples was carried out using ultrasonic

milk analyzer, Lactoscan MCCW, Milktronics Ltd.

(Bulgaria) and the portable milk analyzer Master Eco

used in various Milk Collection Centers and Milk

Processing Units. All samples were measured in triplicate

for fat, protein, lactose, salts, density, SNF and added

water. The milk composition obtained from the farm of

the NDRDC, Yusipang was used as reference for

analysis.


3.1 Physical appearance

Majority of the samples had acceptable appearance, odor

and color. All samples from one outlet in Paro had the

distinctive odor of areca nut and an odor of unknown

origin in one instance. The origin of the areca nut odor

was from the storage of bottled milk in the same

refrigerator as the areca nut and also due to simultaneous

handling of the products. One sample from the same

outlet was also found to be tainted due to improper

washing of the reused bottle as it was reported in the study

of Shaikh et al. (2013).

All the samples procured were packaged in plastic

mineral water containers. The packaging material used in

four of the six outlets were predominantly recycled

mineral water bottles with one outlet also using plastic

fruit juice bottles. Two outlets in Thimphu claimed to be

using fresh new bottles for packaging the milk.

Samples from outlets in Thimphu analyzed with the

Lactoscan MCCW showed fat content ranging from 3.17

– 4.89%, protein ranging from 1.99 – 2.72%, lactose 2.99

– 4.00% and SNF content of 5.44 – 7.51% (Figure 1).

On average all samples were adulterated with water

ranging from 10.09 – 35.52% added water (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Composition of milk for Thimphu outlets

analyzed using Lactoscan MCCW

The freezing point of the samples was detected in

the range of -0.335ºC to -0.468ºC.

The same samples were also analyzed using the

portable Master Eco available in most MCCs and MPUs.

Figure 2: Milk composition for Thimphu outlets

analyzed using portable milk analyzer Master Eco

Results obtained from the samples showed fat range from

3.03 – 4.60%, protein 2.26 – 3.10%, lactose 3.06 – 4.10%

and SNF 6.15 – 8.56%. Samples were also found to be

adulterated with water ranging from 2.80 – 26.79% added

water and freezing point range of -0.350ºC to -0.488ºC

(Figure 2).

Similarly, samples from outlets in Paro analyzed

with the Lactoscan MCCW showed a fat content in the

range of 3.61 – 4.06%, protein content of 2.69 – 2.83%,

lactose 4.04 – 4.25% and SNF content of 7.35 – 7.72%

(Figure 3).

-

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

T1 T2 T3 T4

%

Fat

Protein

Added Water

-

5

10

15

20

25

30

T1 T2 T3 T4

%

FatProteinAdded Water


Norbu et al. (2020) 112

Adulteration with water was found to range between

5.42 – 10.90% added water with freezing point range of -

0.464ºC to -0.491ºC (Figure 3).

The samples were also analyzed using the portable

Master Eco with results of fat content ranging from 3.42

– 3.81%, protein content 3.15 – 3.31, lactose from 4.23 –

4.42 and SNF content of 8.35 – 8.82% (Figure 4).

The samples analyzed with the portable milk

analyzer detected adulteration with water at a range of

only 0.13 – 0.29% added water while the freezing point

was found to be in the range of -0.495ºC to -0.523ºC.

3.2 Milk fat content

Milk analyzed using the Lactoscan MCCW produced fat

content of milk in Thimphu in the range of 3.17 – 4.89%

and 3.61 – 4.06% in Paro. Analysis with the Portable Milk

Analyzer produced a range of 3.03 – 4.60% fat for

Thimphu market milk. However, some samples produced

milk fat measurement below the 3% level which is

considerably lower than the reference milk fat content of

4.7%. It is expected that as majority of cows present in

the Thimphu and Paro region constitutes a mixture of

Jersey Cross and local cattle, both of which are known to

produce high fat milk, the fat content should have been

higher than the average of 3.72%. It is possible that either

the producers or retail outlets are practicing skimming of

milk for the sale of cream or manufacture of butter in

addition to adulteration with water.

3.3 Protein content of milk

The protein content analyzed using the Lactoscan MCCW

for Thimphu and Paro was found in the range of 1.99 –

2.72% and 2.69 – 2.83% respectively. Analysis with the

portable milk analyzer produced results in the range of

2.26 – 3.10% for Thimphu and 3.15 – 3.31% for Paro.

Overall, majority of the samples analyzed had low protein

content in comparison to the reference value of 3.4%

which could be attributed to the adulteration of milk with

water. The significance of feed intake also needs to be

taken into consideration for the low overall protein

content of milk.

3.4 Lactose content of milk

The lactose content was analyzed in the range of 2.99 –

4.00% for Thimphu market milk and 4.04 – 4.25% for

Paro market milk with the Lactoscan MCCW. The

portable milk analyzer produced results in the range of

3.06 – 4.10% in Thimphu milk and 4.23 – 4.42% in Paro

milk. The lactose content is generally considered to be the

least variable milk component but variation in lactose

content is evident in samples analyzed and is also lower

than the reference value of 4.6%. This variation could be

attributed to the adulteration of milk with water.

3.5 Freezing Point of milk

The freezing point of the samples was also analyzed with

the two machines with large variations found through the

analysis. Market milk in Thimphu was found to have

freezing point in the range of -0.335 to -0.468ºC while

Paro market milk had -0.464 to -0.491ºC using the

Lactoscan MCCW. Analysis with the portable milk

analyzer produced a freezing point of -0.350 to -0.488ºC

for Thimphu and -0.495 to -0.523ºC for Paro. Paro milk

had a freezing point closer to the freezing point of the

reference value but variation in freezing point exists in

milk samples from both districts. The depression of

freezing point is used as a measure of adulteration of milk

with water (Henno et al. 2008), and with the variation that

exists in the samples, adulteration with water is a common

occurrence in market milk available in Thimphu and Paro.

3.6 Added Water in milk

The Lactoscan MCCW and the portable milk analyzer

also measures the amount of water added as an adulterant

-

2

4

6

8

10

12

P1 P2

%

Added Water Fat Protein

-

1

2

3

4

5

P1 P2

%

Added Water Fat Protein

Figure 3: Composition of milk for Paro outlets

analyzed using Lactoscan MCCW

Figure 4: Milk composition for Paro outlets analyzed

using portable milk analyzer Master Eco


Norbu et al. (2020) 113

in milk. The Lactoscan MCCW showed an added water

range of 10.09 – 35.52% water addition in Thimphu

market milk and 5.42 – 10.09% added water for Paro

market milk. The portable milk analyzer showed a lower

added water content in milk with a range of 2.80 – 26.79%

added water for Thimphu market milk and 0.13 – 0.29%

added water for Paro market milk.

3.7 Lactoscan MCCW and Portable Milk Analyzer

An ANOVA analysis was made between the equipment

with findings revealing significant difference for

measured parameters of lactose, protein, freezing point,

density, and added water. No significant difference was

observed for the measurement of fat content. Further

investigation into the discrepancy on the amount of added

water between the equipment was carried out with the

results indicating that the portable milk analyzer does not

detect added water up to 10%. The Lactoscan MCCW has

a higher precision for detecting added water but the

equipment is more expensive to procure and is suitable

for laboratory purposes and not for field use.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Milk available in the markets of Thimphu and Paro was

found to show variation in all milk components and also

found to be consistently adulterated with water. This

adulteration with water is the primary cause in the

variations of milk components from the normal expected

milk composition leading to inferior quality milk.

Adulteration with water further reduces the nutritional

value of milk in addition to introducing microbes through

use of poor-quality water as an adulterant. Unfair trade

practices and deception of consumer through the sale of

adulterated milk at high prices is also an area of major

concern as consumers should receive good quality milk.

Further study is required to identify whether the source of

adulteration arises from the producers, the middlemen or

the retail outlets so that corrective action can be taken and

the market quality of milk improved. Additionally, the

use of recycled mineral water containers and in particular

fruit juice containers or other bottles needs to be

discouraged as these are also potential sources of

contamination.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions

of Dr. NB Tamang, Specialist Head of the National Dairy

Research and Development Centre and Mr. Jigme

Wangdi, Specialist, Department of Livestock for their

contributions in the development of this paper.

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Handford CE, Campbell K and Elliott C (2016). Impacts

of Milk Fraud on Food Safety and Nutrition with

Special Emphasis on Developing Countries,

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Safety, Vol. 15.

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114

Full length paper

PERCEPTION OF BHUTANESE FARMER TOWARDS PIG FARMING IN BHUTAN

GYEMBO TSHETEN1*, TENZIN PENJOR1, PEMA SHERAB1 AND TASHI

DORJI2

1National Piggery Research and Development Centre, Department of Livestock, Ministry

of Agriculture & Forests, Gelephu, Bhutan 2International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Katmandu, Nepal


Copyright © 2020 Gyembo Tsheten. The original work must be properly cited to permit


ABSTRACT: The study was conducted to understand attitude and perceptions of pig

rearing farmers towards the future of piggery development. Data were collected from 420

respondents through face-to-face interview using semi-structured questionnaire between

October 2018 and April 2019. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Majority

of pig farmers were found to practice backyard pig production, and most of them are either

illiterate (51%) or with non-formal education (32%). Pigs are reared mainly for income

generation and household consumption. The study recoded only 6.2% of the respondents

against 93.8% involved in breeding and fattening of pig, respectively. Majority of the

respondents reported that the pig farming is profitable, and prefers to rear exotic pig breeds

due to faster growth rate. Despite many challenges such as religious disapproval,

inadequate and high commercial feeds costs and labour shortage hindering pig

development in the country, more than 73% of the respondents reported to continue pig

farming as a source of livelihood. Nonetheless, if appropriate policy interventions are not

made, the pig farming is likely to decline and local pigs might extinct over the period.

Keywords: Attitudes; farmers’ perceptions; pig farming; subsidy; sustainable.

1. INTRODUCTION

Livestock production is operated either on small or large

scale (Walugembe et al. 2014) that alleviate poverty

(FAO 2014) through improving access to food

particularly as a source of protein (FAO 2012), fibre,

income, employment, draught power and fertilizers

(Chauhan et al. 2016; Upton 2004). Pigs compete for food

with people, but they utilize household wastes and

agricultural by-products (Obayelu et al. 2017) and

provide food to humans. Thus, pig production plays a

vital role beyond pork production and income generation

(Ogunniyi and Omoteso 2011). In Bhutan, the piggery

sector development started since inception of the first

five-year plan in 1960s, yet the growth remained slow

despite enabling government policy interventions with

introduction of exotic pig breeds. The indigenous pig

population has declined at alarming rate with decrease in

local pig rearing household from 36.1% (PHCB 2005) to

3.2% (PHCB 2017) over the past decades. The overall pig

population has declined at the rate of 2.5% annually over

the last decade (DoL 2007-2017). This decrease in pig

population was attributed to increasing religious

disapprovals (Nidup et al. 2011). The pig population

recorded was 18815 head, with annual domestic pork

production of about 1000 metric tons (MT) (DoL 2017)

in 2017. This has resulted to huge import of pork at 2127

MT equivalent to Nu. 283 million in term of value (MoAF

2015).

Today, the number of pig rearing households are

declining, while on the other hand the demand for pork

have had increased due to increase in income, growing

population and urbanization in the country. Thus, it was

felt necessary to investigate and understand the

perceptions of current pig farmers towards piggery

development so that the government could make

informed policy decisions.

2. METHODS AND MATERIALS

2.1. Study area

The study was conducted in fourteen dzongkhags

(districts) covering 46 gewogs (sub-districts) which are


Tsheten et al. (2020) 115

purposively selected based on existing pig farming

households recorded in 2018.

2.2 Sample size and respondents

The sample size was calculated using Yamane’s formula,

with 95% confidence level and ±5% precision level as per

the equation 1 below:

Equation 1: 𝑛 =𝑁

1+𝑁 (𝑒2)

Wherein, n stands for sample size, N is equal to

population size and e is equal to level of precision

In total 420 pig rearing households were identified from

different pig rearing Dzongkhags in consultation with

respective livestock officials working in the dzongkhag

and gewog livestock Sector.

2.3 Pig farm classifications

The pig farming in this study was classified according to

farm size and type as backyard (5 fattening pigs),

breeding farm (female breeding pigs irrespective of size)

and fattening farm (> 5 fattening pigs) to comprehend the

type of pig production.

2.4 Data collection

The data was gathered from October 2018 to April 2019

through face-to-face interview of 420 respondents in total

using semi-structured questionnaire. The questionnaire

consisted of three parts: i) respondent details, ii) socio-

economic background and iii) other information related

to pig farming to generate information pertaining to pig

farmers’ attitude and perception towards piggery farming

and development.

2.5 Data Analysis

The survey data were compiled in Microsoft Excel sheet

with coding of questions and responses. The data were

descriptively analysed using SPSS version 23.0. Cross

tabulation was carried out to determine farm type and

educational level of the participating respondents.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Characteristics of respondents

The gender ratio of the participating respondents was

almost equal with 52% male and 48% female. Similarly,

about 50% of the respondents were head of households

and the remaining 50% were other household members.

The average household member size recorded was five,

and more that 50 % of the respondent had family

members size more than five in this study. The study

recorded five ethnic groups – sharchop (27.86), lhotsham

(52.38%), Ngalop (9.76%), Khengpa (9.52%) and doyap

(.48%) from various religious background such as

Buddhism (73.81%), Hindu (16.91%) and others (9.29%)

were found rearing pigs.

The age, education level and farming experiences

are the internal factor which can affect pig farming effort

(Suratiyah 2006 cited in Katagame et al. 2017). The age

of majority of the respondents (94%) were between 17-64

years and 6% were 65 years and above. In accordance

with PHCB (2017), population between 15-64 years of

age are considered to be of productive age while

population ages of 65 years and above fall under elderly

age group. In this study, about 52% of the respondents

were between 17-45 years of age, and more than 79%

within this age range were involved in pig farming

indicating younger generation preference in pig farming.

This is in contrast to Brooks et al. (2013) findings, where

they reported younger generation would rather migrate to

urban areas in search of salaried jobs not showing interest

in farming. The study recorded that people interested to

rear pigs are mostly from low income earning group such

as people working as national work force (NWF),

caretakers for landlords, security guards and cooks in

schools/institutions and projects. Interestingly this group

of people are actually deprived of subsidy and normal

inputs supply supports provided by government.

The policy support on providing subsidy package to

these low earning section, mass awareness & motivation

through establishment of model farm in their vicinity,

sensitizing local leaders & community on import

substitution & food security and leasing out government

land to educated youths for pig farming would help boost

domestic pork production. The pig farming in general are

dominated by back yard faming; yet there are few farmers

taking up commercial pig farming in the southern belts of

the country. The study recorded 51% and 32% of the

small pig farmers are illiterate and had either primary or

non-formal education, respectively. The average

experiences of respondent in pig farming was six years,

with about 50 % having involved in pig farming for more

than six years.

2.2. Pig farm type

The pig farming was mainly oriented towards the pork

production with only 6.2% of the farms operating

exclusively for breeding and production of piglets. The

study found that about 72.9% of respondents are involved

in backyard pig farming for fattening. Others 13.8 % and

13.3 % of respondents were found rearing pigs either for

breeding or both breeding and fattening. The study

recorded that only about 14% of the fattening farm rears

more than five pigs, while the remaining fattening farm

rears less than pig pigs for household consumption and to

meet various household expenses. The farm rearing 1- 5

pigs is considered back yard in Bhutanese context. The

study recorded most back yard farm maintaining two pigs

in average. This might be because of involvement of

eople with low-income in pig farming and also small



farms involve minimum amount of inputs, and needed

little time and investment (Muys and Westenbrink 2004).

It was reported that to develop small and traditional farms

into large scale farms would require diligence and special

guidance either from livestock extension officer or

relevant agencies (Katagame et al. 2017). However, small

holdings of few pigs with low inputs and poor bio-

security translates into low output and productivity

(Beltran-Alcrudo et al. 2018). It is reported that the

backyard farms may not necessarily contribute to national

pork self-sufficiency but may help to increase rural

livelihood and availability of local protein (Oosting et al.

2014). Small holder farming systems improve livelihood

and food security for the poorest people (Dixon et al.

2001; Kumaresan et al. 2009). The policy intervention to

these group of pig farmers with supports on subsidy

package, government land lease, promoting youth

engagement through employment schemes, ensuring

access to low interest rate loan and facilitating marketing

chains and outlets would help commercialization of pig

farming in the country.

2.3. Preference for pig breeds

Figure 1 presents the respondents’ preference for pig

breeds between local and improved. The study recorded

that 76% of the respondents preferred to rear exotic pig

breeds, while 16.4% of the respondent preferred to rear

local pig breeds given various reasons. Similarly, Tenzin

et al. (2018) in their recent study reported that 77% of the

pig farmers rear exotic pig breeds in Bhutan.

The major reasons reported for the preference of exotic

breeds were faster growth rate, higher income and non-

availability of local piglets.

With improved management, exotic pigs are

marketed as early as six months of age (Mutua et al.

2010). FAO (2011a) reported preference for exotic pig

breeds are due to higher carcass output and shorter

fattening duration. Similar to the findings in this study

Ayizanga et al. (2018) reported that the farmers will resort

to rearing other pig breeds if preferred breeds are not

available. However, the exotic pig breeds are resource

demanding and difficult to rear. Thus, remaining

respondent preferred to rear local pig breeds owing to

limited resources and better adaptability of local pigs to

varying rearing systems and high demand for local meat.

Although the local pigs are comparatively inferior to

exotic pigs in terms of performance (Ayizanga et al.

2018), it is well adapted to low input and harsh production

systems (Livingston and Fowler 1984). Nonetheless, the

population of local pigs is declining at alarming rate, and

not much has been done beside conservation efforts to

protect our local genetic resources. There are few farmers

groups undertaking local pig (Sapha) farming in eastern

region supported by National Biodiversity Centre to

promote conservation and sustainable utilization.

2.4 Reasons for rearing pigs

Pigs as reported by the respondents are reared mainly for

income generation and household consumption. The

other reasons for pig rearing as reported are to meet

expenses for school going children and ritual purpose,

loan repayment, conservation, easy market and source of

income to invest on other businesses. Majority (87.1%)

indicated that the pig farming is a profitable business and

could generate reasonable income for their family. They

mentioned pigs to provide faster return with low

investment particularly under back yard conditions. Pigs

are fed with household leftovers and agricultural crop by-

products which cannot be consumed by the household

members. In olden days, pigs were found to play an

important role even in ritual offerings to local deities

across many parts of Bhutan (Nidup et al. 2011).

However, this practice seemed to have declined as only

1% (n=3) of respondents from across the study area kept

pigs for ritual purpose.

4.5. Perception on future of pig farming in Bhutan

The study recorded little less than 30% of the respondents

perceived that the pig farming is profitable while 1.7%

indicated that the pig farming is not profitable. Likewise,

5.7% and 2.4% stated that the pig farming is sinful and

difficult to manage, respectively. Other remaining

respondents have mixed perceptions about the pig

farming such as profitable but difficult to manage (2.9%),

profitable but sinful (13.1%), profitable but difficult to

manage and sinful as well (37.4%).

The study recorded that 73.6 % of respondent will

continue with pig farming as a source of livelihood, while

the remaining 26.4% reported to discontinue pig farming.

The reasons to discontinue pig farming were religious

disapproval, inadequate and high cost of commercial feed

and lack of labour, inadequate land, not interested

anymore and availability of alternative farming options

among others. Few respondents indicated that they would

discontinue pig farming once their bank loans are

liquidated and school going children completes their

education.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Exotic pigs Local pigs Both localand exotic

Don’t Know

Res

po

nd

ent

(No

)

Figure 1: Preference for pig breeds



4.5.1 Problems and risks of pig farming in Bhutan

Majority (72.4%) of respondent reported that they faced

problem and encounter risks in pig farming. One of the

main problems was religious disapproval that if not

adhered might result to communal criticism and

ultimately outcast from the community. Other problems

reported, inadequate and non-availability of commercial

feeds at affordable price, and labour shortage. In addition,

no availability of piglets from government farms on time

and supply of low-quality piglets from private firms were

raised impacting pig farming.

4.5.2 Priority support for piggery development

Majority (74.1%) of the farmers reported that the subsidy

support provided by the government should continue. In

addition, the farmers expect to include subsidy support on

commercial feed at least for one production cycle or

government should control price of commercial feed,

piglet buyback subsidy to encourage private breeders, fast

track government land leasing processes, and access to

low rate interest loan. One farmer even suggested

government to support on production of cost-effective

feed through feed formulation using local feed resources.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Pig is reared by different ethnic groups in southern

Bhutan despite religious disapproval. Religious

sentiments, inadequate feed and labour shortage were

perceived as the key drivers for unsuccessful pig farming

in the country. Despite various challenges faced in

piggery development, many farmers interviewed were

interested to continue piggery farming as a source of

livelihood. The government policy interventions should

focus on providing additional subsidy supports on feed,

piglet buyback, transportation and creating access to low

interest rate loans to encourage farmers continue and

sustain pig farming in Bhutan. Other supports the

government could provide to develop pig sector are

educational and capacity development programs focusing

on local feed formulation, health, clean pig production

and market assurance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are thankful to all the pig farmers accepting

to participate in the study and provide information. We

would also like to thank the Dzongkhag Livestock

Officers and Geog Livestock Officers of the study areas

for providing necessary logistic supports. The authors

remain thankful to Dr. Kesang Wangchuk (PhD),

Principal Research Officer, Department Livestock and

Dr. Vijay Raika (PhD), Programme Director, National

Highland Research and Development Centre, Bumthang

for providing necessary technical guidance in particular

to reviewing the questionnaire and data analysis.

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Dijkman, U. Pica-Ciamarra, T. Robinson, V. Ahuja,

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Katagame A, Fanani Z and Nugroho BA (2017). Income

Contribution of Pig Livestock toward Poverty

Reduction and Factors Influencing Pig Farming in

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Livingston RM and Fowler VR (1984). Pig feeding, the

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119

Full length paper

ASSESSMENT OF POULTRY FARM BIO-SECURITY MEASURES IN SOUTHERN BHUTAN

TASHI JAMTSHO*1, SB CHAMLING RAI1, KINLEY DEMA1 AND CHENCHO

TSHERING2

1National Poultry Research and Development Centre, Department of Livestock, Sarpang,

Bhutan. 2Regional Poultry Breeding Centre, Department of Livestock, Khangkhu, Paro, Bhutan


Copyright © 2020 Tashi Jamtsho. The original work must be properly cited to permit


ABSTRACT: The farm biosecurity measures adopted by poultry rearing farmers in five

southern districts of Bhutan was assessed. The data were gathered from 96 respondents

purposively selected, through face-to-face interview using semi-structured questionnaire.

The data gathered were descriptively analyzed and association amongst variables were

measured using Chi-square and Pearson’s correlation. The study recorded majority (74 %)

of the poultry sheds being constructed within 50 meters distance from the residential area,

and 66.8 % of respondents did not have any biosecurity fencing. The study recorded use of

foot dip at the entrance of the poultry shed as the main biosecurity measures, and about

90% of the respondents interviewed did not maintained visitors record. There was no

significant association between the education level and biosecurity measures being adopted

(p = 0.98). However, a significant difference was observed on the use of personal protective

equipment (p < .05) among the five districts. The study concludes that the majority of the

respondents are not aware on the importance of poultry farm biosecurity measures. The

study recommends creating adequate awareness on the importance of maintaining farm

biosecurity measures to minimize diseases outbreak and enhance production.

Keywords: Biosecurity; disinfectants; education level; personal protective equipment.

1. INTRODUCTION

Infectious agent significantly reduces the productivity,

profitability and financial viability of the farm in long

term. Therefore, farm biosecurity measures are

implemented.to reduces the risk of introducing and

transmitting disease agents (Mahmoud et al. 2014) or

organisms into a flock or herd (Dorea et al. 2010). Bio-

security encompasses a range of measures when properly

implemented serves to protect the health of poultry from

diseases, pests and pathogens. Noremark et al. (2014)

reported a role in spreading both endemic and exotic

diseases through indirect contacts from visitors.

Biosecurity is achieved by maintaining minimum entry of

pathogenic organisms such as bacteria, viruses and

rodents in the farms (Wijesinghe et al. 2017).

Implementation of biosecurity measures will not only

significantly reduce the introduction of diseases but will

enhance the financial strength (Dorea et al. 2010) and

increase competitive edge of the farms. Today about 1078

households’ rear improve poultry ranging between 200 to

10,000 bird in Bhutan, and had achieved 100 % egg self-

sufficiency since 2012, with no import of eggs. The

poultry population recorded in Bhutan was 1.067 million

numbers, with native poultry accounting to about 11.83

% (RNR Statistics 2017). Majority of the country’s

poultry population (68.67 %) and the larger poultry

farmers are concentrated in five southern dzongkhags

(districts). Many farmers had venture into commercial

poultry farming since 2010 after the ban imposed on

import of eggs after the outbreak of Highly Pathogenic

Avian Influenza. The growth of commercial poultry

sector was much faster than other livestock commodities;

and in parallel if adequate bio-security measure are not

put in place the risk of disease incursion and outbreaks are

expected to increase by manifolds. Such disaster if

occurred might impact the growth of poultry sector in the

country. Thus, to reduce and prevent the risks of

introducing poultry diseases and outbreaks necessitate

having good biosecurity. Currently there is no empirical

information on adoption of biosecurity measures by the

poultry farmers and different farm sizes in Bhutan.


Jamtsho et al. (2020) 120

Therefore, this study was planned to assess the existing

biosecurity measures adopted by farmers and different

sizes of poultry farm in five southern districts of Bhutan.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Study sites and respondents

The study sites Gelephu, Dekiling, Samtenling and

Sompangkha gewogs (sub-districts) under Sarpang

dzongkhag (district); Goserling, Tsholingkhar,

Kilkhorthang and Dunglagang gewogs under Tsirang

dzongkhag; Tashiding and Dagapela under Dagana;

Phuentsholing and Samphelling gewog under Chukha

dzongkhag and Norbugang and Samtse gewogs under

Samtse dzongkhag were purposively selected based on

existence of high number of poultry rearing farmers and

farms. Further, amongst the existing poultry farms, a total

of 96 households rearing more than 200 poultry birds

were again purposively selected for the study. The

climatic condition of study sites ranges from warm sub-

tropical to warm temperate.


The data were collected from identified poultry rearing

farmers through face to face interview using a semi-

structured questionnaire from November to December

2018. The data gathered were descriptively analyzed and

association amongst variables were measured using Chi-

square and Pearson’s correlation in Statistical Package for

the Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 23 (IBM n.d.).


3.1 Profile of respondents

The study recorded 65.6 % male and 34.4 % female

respondents. Majority of respondents were literate against

28.1 % illiterate respondent recorded. It was observed that

about 71.9 % of the respondents had education level

higher than primary education or had attended non-formal

education (NFE). The respondents with primary and

secondary level qualification comprises of 35.4% and

24%, respectively.

3.2 Poultry farming and farm type

Figure 1 presents different poultry farm types owned by

the respondents in this study. The study recorded 71.9 %

and 18.8 % of the respondents involved in commercial

layer and broiler farming for egg and chicken production,

respectively. About 9.4 % of the respondents were found

rearing both layer and broiler. Similarly, Maduka et al.

(2016) reported more layer farms than broiler in their

study.

There was no significant association between the

education level of respondents and farm type (p = 0.79)

owned in this study.

Farm with flock size of 500-1000 birds (39.6 %)

were the most common enterprise, followed by 1001-

5000 (32.3 %), less than 499 (19.8 %) and 5001-10,000

(8.3 %) birds. This finding indicates that majority of the

respondents are into either semi-commercial or

commercials poultry farming. In the Bhutanese context,

poultry farm with birds between 500-1000 numbers and

above 1001 birds are considered a semi-commercial and

commercial farm, respectively. All respondents in this

study had an open-sided house of deep litter system. The

Day-Old-Chicks (DoCs) demand for the layer farms were

met from the government farms. Whereas, the majority of

broiler DoCs were supplied to interested farmers by

private entrepreneur through import from neighbouring

states of India. The government farm also produces and

supply small numbers of broiler DoCs.

Figure 1: Poultry farm types owned by farmers

The study recorded that about 74% of respondents have

constructed poultry sheds within 50 m distance from the

residential areas. Whereas, about 12.5 % and 7.3 % of

respondents have constructed poultry sheds beyond 100

m and between 51- 60 m, respectively. Alabi et al. (2014)

and Martindah et al. (2014) also found that majority of the

poultry sheds in Nigeria and Indonesia are constructed

within 100m owing to ease of the management.

The biosecurity guidelines requires the commercial

poultry farms to be constructed away from the residential

areas and public roads to avoid direct contact for

biosecurity reasons in Bhutan (BAFRA 2015); however,

the actual distance requirement is not specified. With

most farms constructed within proximity to residential

areas in the study sites, there’s a very high possibility of

disease occurrence and transmission during outbreaks.

Biosecurity fencing, as a physical barrier, plays a

crucial role in preventing entry of unwanted visitors and

spreading of pests and diseases. However, the study

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Layer Broiler Layer and Broiler

No

. o

f F

arm

s



recorded only 31.2 % of the farms with established

biosecurity fencing (Table 1).

Most poultry farms in Sarpang district had the bio-

security fencing and it could be mainly because of

respondents having adequate experiences and knowledge

on poultry farming.

3.3 Disinfectant programs and downtime period

The study revealed that the majority 87(90.6 %) of the

poultry farms had foot dip at the entrance of the shed

against 9.4 % respondents without foot dip facility. The

majority of the respondents used lime (CaCO3) as a main

disinfectant in the sheds while potassium permanganate

and Kohrsolin-Th (Glutaraldehyde) are also used at the

entrance of the sheds. In contrast, Negro-calduch et al.

(2012) revealed that phenol-based products were mostly

used as a disinfectant, followed by lime.

Also, 65 % of the respondents did not use hand

sprayer for disinfection at the farm. A similar result was

also observed by Tenzin et al. (2017) where the majority

of the respondents did not use hand sprayer rather they

use soap and water.

The current study did not find any significant

association between education level and disinfectant

program (p = 0.98). It was revealed that 77 (80 %) of the

respondents use disinfectants in the farm. Whereas, in

Libya only 20 % of the farms use disinfectant at the entry

with likely increase risk of poultry farm exposure to the

pathogen (Kammon et al. 2017).

In the study areas, all respondents reported having

kept the downtime of different durations (Table 2). It was

recorded that 57.3 % (55) of the respondents had kept the

downtime of more than one month, followed by 17.7%

downtime of 21-30 days, 13.5% for 10-15 days, 7.3% for

less than 10 days and 4.2% for 16-20 days. Mohammed

et al. (2016) observed that rest period between production

cycles was found to be kept at 4-7 days. In normal

circumstances, a minimum downtime duration of two

weeks is recommended (Hy-line International 2018).

Table 2: Duration of downtime by respondents

Duration downtime Number of Respondent

Percent of respondent

Less than 10 days 7 7.3 10-15 days 13 13.5 16-20 days 4 4.2 21-30 days 17 17.7 More than 30 days 55 57.3

Total 96 100

3.4 Cleaning of sheds and equipment;

In the study areas, it was revealed that 74 (77.1 %) of the

respondents cleaned the poultry sheds once in a cycle,

followed by two and four times with 9 (9.4 %) each.

Tenzin et al. (2017) reported that the cleaning of poultry

shed was done daily, weekly and monthly basis. The

cleaning and disinfection are key components of routine

farm biosecurity and decontamination that is expected to

kill all pathogenic organisms that are present in the farm.

The study recorded that about 64 respondents clean

the water drinkers on daily basis. Whereas, about 17 and

11 respondents claim to clean the water drinkers on a

weekly and monthly basis, respectively. The study also

recorded 49 (51 %) of the respondents cleaning the

poultry feeders every month, while 25 (26%) and 22

(22.9%) of the respondents have reported cleaning the

feeders on daily and weekly basis, respectively (Figure 2).

Negro-calduch et al. (2012) in their findings also revealed

that cleanliness of water drinkers and other equipment

was poorly managed in Egyptian farms.

Figure 2: Percent respondent cleaning of drinkers and

feeders

3.5 Feed and Feeding

The study observed that all respondents used commercial

poultry feed from different feed company such as Karma

feed, MAHA, Samrat feed and BMG. The study found

that about 80.2 % (77) of the respondents purchased the

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Daily Weekly Monthly

No

. o

f R

esp

ond

ent

Cleaning of poultry equipment

Feeder Drinker

Table 1: Adoption of bio-security fencing at Farms

Dzongkhag Bio-security fencing

(No.)

Total

Yes No

Tsirang 2 20 22

Dagana 0 6 6

Sarpang 23 33 56

Chukha 3 2 5

Samtse 2 5 7

Total 30 66 96



feed on weekly basis as to avoid feed contamination or

spoilage. It was also recorded that about 10.4 % of the

respondent purchased feed on monthly basis and feeds are

stored in a separate feed store by about 80.2 % of the

respondents in the study areas.

3.6 Workers hygiene and visitor records

The study revealed that about 47.9 % (46) of the farms

provide clothing for the workers, and the remaining farms

did not provide working dresses. It was also observed that

the workers in 33.3 % (32) of the farms studied use

footwears, while remaining 64.6 % (62) farms did not use

footwears while working in the farms. Wearing different

clothes and footwear while working in the farm will

reduce the spread of pests and diseases. The significant

difference on the use of Personal Protective Equipment

(PPE) amongst the farms in five districts was observed (p

<0.05), which contradicts the finding of Dorea et al.

(2010). About 96 % of the respondents revealed that in a

day, about 1-3 workers are allowed to enter the farms.

About 75 % of the respondents in this study reported that

the farm attendants visit first from young to old flock

while 25 % visited from old to the young flock (Table 3).

The study found that 92.7 % of the respondents did

not maintain visitor records at the farm. It was recorded

that only seven respondents six from Sarpang and one

from Samtse districts had maintained visitor records. This

indicates that poultry farmers are unaware of the

importance of keeping the visitor logbook. If such records

are maintained would help poultry farmers to conduct a

risk assessment during disease outbreak in the farm. It

also indicates that the visitors are allowed to visit the farm

without any restrictions unlike implementation of entry

restriction to poultry farms. Whereas, Kammon et al.

(2017) reported 81 % of the farms in Libya region have

entry restriction records to poultry farms. Scott et al.

(2018) in their study reported that visitor recording books

are used by the majority of the poultry farms in Australia.

Table 3: Sequence of visiting flock

Dzongkhag Visiting of flock Total

Young first Old first

Tsirang 15 7 22

Dagana 5 1 6

Sarpang 43 13 56

Chukha 4 1 5

Samtse 5 2 7

Total 72 24 96

3.7 Brooding and isolation pen facilities

Figure 3 presents the brooding and isolation of pen

facilities. Brooding of chicks is important to provide extra

care after hatching. The study recorded that 51(53 %) of

the respondent did not have separate brooding pen in the

farm, while about 63.5% (61) of the respondent had

maintained an isolation pen to keep sick birds. The sick

birds are separated and kept in the same shed after

partitioning in farms without isolation pen. Furthermore,

the study revealed that 82.3% (79) of respondents had

different sheds for the different age group of birds, and

the remaining respondent stock the birds of different age

groups in the same shed.

Figure 3: No. of respondents with isolation pen

4. CONCLUSION

Majority of the poultry farmers are more concerned on

production aspect and have neglected the minimum

biosecurity requirements which plays a vital role in

overall farm performance. The possibility of diseases

occurrence and transmission during outbreaks within and

amongst the poultry farm is very high. Further, the poultry

farmers do not have adequate knowledge on biosecurity

measures, flock health management and personal

hygiene. It is imperative that awareness and education

programs on need for an effective farm bio-security

measures are imparted amongst poultry farmers in the

country to reduce pests incursion, diseases outbreak and

transmissions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors would like to thank the Director General,

Department of Livestock for fund supports and Dr.

Kesang Wangchuk, Principal Research Officer for

continuous advice and collaboration. We would also like

to thank all the staffs of NPRDC, Sarpang for their

assistance in data collection.

REFERENCES

Alabi RA, Aghimien CI, Osasogie DI & Erie OG (2014).

Environmental Effects of Poultry Production In Edo

State, Nigeria Environmental Effects of Poultry

Production In Edo State, Nigeria, (August).

https://doi.org/10.9734/AJEA/2014/11958

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Tsirang Dagana Sarpang Chukha Samtse

No

. o

f R

esp

ond

ents

Dzongkhag

Yes No



Bhutan Agriculture and Food Regulatory Authority.

(2015). In-Country Livetsock Biosecurity (No.

Version 1). Thimphu.

Dorea FC, Berghaus R, Hofacre C & Cole DJ (2010).

Survey of Biosecurity Protocols and Practices

Adopted by Growers on Commercial Poultry Farms

in Georgia, U.S.A. Avian Diseases, 54(3):1007–1015.

https://doi.org/10.1637/9233-011210-Reg.1

Hy-line International (2018). Management Guide for

Hyline Commercial Layers. Hy-Line International.

Retrieved from www.hyline.com

IBM. (n.d.). IBM SPSS Statistics 23 Brief Guide.

Kammon A, Mulatti P, Lorenzetto M, Ferre N, Sharif M

& Eldaghayes I (2017). Biosecurity and geospatial

analysis of mycoplasma infections in poultry farms at

Al-Jabal Al-Gharbi region of Libya, 7:81–85.

Maduka CV, Igbokwe IO & Atsanda NN (2016).

Appraisal of Chicken Production with Associated

Biosecurity Practices in Commercial Poultry Farms

Located in Jos, Nigeria, 2016.

Mahmoud MA, Atif EA & Hayfa MI (2014). Evaluation

of biosecurity measures on broiler farms in

Khartoum, Sudan. Journal of Veterinary Medicine

and Animal Health, 6(5):138–144.

https://doi.org/10.5897/JVMAH2014.0276

Martindah E, Ilham N & Basuno E (2014). Biosecurity

Level of Poultry Production Cluster ( PPC ) in West

Java, Indonesia. International Journal of Poultry

Science, 13(30):408–415.

Mohammed AN, El H & Helal S (2016). Current situation

assessment of biosecurity measures of some poultry

sectors and hatcheries in Egypt, 23(2):143–154.

Negro-calduch E, Elfadaly S, Tibbo M, Ankers P &

Bailey E (2012). Assessment of biosecurity practices

of small-scale broiler producers in central

Assessment of biosecurity practices of small-scale

broiler producers in central Egypt. Preventive

Veterinary Medicine, 110(2):253–262.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2012.11.014

Nöremark M & Sternberg-Lewerin S (2014). On-farm

biosecurity as perceived by professionals visiting

Swedish farms. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica, 56,

28. https://doi.org/10.1186/1751-0147-56-28

RNR Statistics (2017). Livestock statistics. Ministry of

Agriculture and Forests, 1(1):1–23.

Scott AB, Sinh M, Groves P, Hernandez-jover M, Barnes

B, Glass K and Toribio J (2018). Biosecurity practices

on Australian commercial layer and meat chicken

farms : Performance and perceptions of farmers, 1–

17.

Tenzin T, Wandi C & Rai PB (2017). Biosecurity survey

in relation to the risk of HPAI outbreaks in backyard

poultry holdings in Thimphu city area , Bhutan, 1–9.

https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-017-1033-4

Wijesinghe WJB, Silva PGJC De & Gunaratne SP (2017).

Evaluation of Biosecurity Status in Commercial

Broiler Farms in Sri Lanka, 7(4):114–119



124

Short Communication

SWINE-FISH INTEGRATION: EFFECT ON CULTURE PERFORMANCE OF

CTENOPHARYNGODON IDELLA AND CYPRINUS CARPIO

PEMA THINLEY*, NAMGAY DORJI AND DRUKPOLA

National Research & Development Centre for Aquaculture, Department of Livestock,

Gelephu, Bhutan.


Copyright © 2020 Pema Thinley. The original work must be properly cited to permit

unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction of this article in any medium.

ABSTRACT: The study compared the growth performance of Ctenopharyngodon Idella and

Cyprinus carpio cultured under conventional management and integration of fish swine farming

intended to optimize the biomass production from unit land in subtropical agro-ecosystem. The

carp culture was integrated with swine production, where swine excreta was drained directly to

the pond. The fishes in both treatments were fed thrice a day with locally formulated feed as a

supplement at the rate of 2% wet body weight of fish fingerlings during the study period. The

growth performance of carp fish in T1 (111.80 ± 10.07 g) was higher than T2 of 74.48 ± 6.29

g, and found significantly different (p < 0.05). In addition, this study although not significantly

different the survival rate was found comparatively higher in fish swine integrated pond. The

total fish production recorded was 3155.79 and 2076.42 kg/ha in fish swine integration system

and conventional management, respectively. This study concludes that swine fish integration is

feasible in subtropical area and there are possibilities to enhanced unit fish production.

Keywords: Ctenopharyngodon idella; Cyprinus carpio; culture performance; swine-fish

integration.

1. INTRODUCTION

An integration of agriculture and aquaculture are

mostly practiced at subsistence level in African

countries such as Nigeria, Benin, Madagascar, Zambia,

Cameroon and Malawi (Gabriel et al. 2007). In Asia,

integrated agriculture and aquaculture dates back to

more than 1500 years in India (Coche 1967) and more

than 2400 years in China (Willman et al. 1998). While

a wide range of integrated agriculture and aquaculture

systems are practiced in Bangladesh, Indonesia,

Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam integrated fish

farming with duck, chickens and swine is adopted in

India and China (Majhi 2016). The author reported that

such practices will minimize waste from various

subsystems on the farm to increase yields with low

inputs. Similarly, Zira et al. (2015) reported that wastes

or by-products from swine farming are used as inputs

in aquaculture to improve the productivity at lower cost.

Integrated livestock fish systems were reported to have

practiced since the Ming dynasty (14-17th century) to

alleviate the pressure of high population densities and

limited resources in China (Mani 2015). Henriksson et

al. (2015) claims extension of integration practices in

China as a result of their contribution to world’s total

aquaculture production of more than 60%. Fish farming

is a lucrative business for the farmers in southern

Bhutan. There are more than 500 fish farmers in

Bhutan, and many of them practices fish farming along

with other livestock such as pig, poultry and duck.

Integration of fish farming with other livestock is

practiced in some areas of Bhutan but it is not very

popular at the moment, which might be due to lack of

knowledge on the technology. Thus, this on-farm

experiment was carried out to assess effect of swine fish

farming integration to culture performance of Cyprinus

carpio (CC) and Ctenopharyngodon idella (CI).

2. METHODS AND MATERIALS

2.1 Study Site

The on-farm experiment of integrated swine fish culture

was conducted at NR&DCA, Gelephu located at

26°51.790’ N and 090°31.961’ E at an elevation of 252

masl. The area falls under sub-tropical climatic

condition ranging from warm and dry winter, wet and

hot summer with mean rainfall ranging between 1500-

to 500 mm per annum. The temperature ranges from 16-

30° C.

The experiment was conducted for a duration of

nine months starting from 30th September 2018 to 30th

June 2019.


Thinley et al. (2020) 125

2.2 Fish species selection and stocking of

Two fish species namely Cyprinus carpio and

Ctenopharyngodon idella were selected for the

experiment based on the preference of fish farmers

attributed to fast growth rate and high FCR. In total,

2160 numbers of fishes were stocked in two ponds of

270 m2 in area each. The first pond integrated with

swine is allotted as treatment 1 (T1) and second pond

was allotted as treatment 2 (T2). Both ponds were

stocked with 50% Cyprinus carpio and 50 %

Ctenopharyngodon idella @ 4 fishes/m2 area. During

initially stocking, the mean weight recorded was 6.81 g

and 3.86 g for Cyprinus carpio and Ctenopharyngodon

Idella, respectively.

2.5 Fish feeding

Research ponds were fed with crude feed formulated

from rice bran (RB) and mustard oil cake (MoC) in 2:3

ratios (Thinley et al. 2018). Feeding rate of 3% body

weight per day was adopted for this research (Jenaet al.

2001). The total biomass increment of the research

ponds was estimated every bi-monthly based on

sampling data (Thinley et al. 2018). Fishes during the

experiment were fed thrice a day i.e once in morning at

8 AM, once in afternoon at 12:00 PM and then once in

evening at 4 PM.

2.6 Swine feeding

During the experiment, the pigs were fed adequately

with crude feed twice a day i.e. once in morning at 8.00

am and once in evening at 4.00 pm) following the

recommeded feeding rate for swine (FAO 2009) during

entire research period.


Data for culture performance of Cyprinus carpio and

Ctenopharyngodon Idella was recorded bi-monthly

through random sampling. Forty numbers of each fish

species were sampled every fortnightly and their body

weight and body length were measured using digital

weighing balance and length measuring board,

respectively. The sampling process accounted animal

welfare through application of standard operating

procedure (SOP) of NR&DCA to record culture

performance fortnightly. Mortality of fishes was also

recorded during the research period to derive survival

inferences.

The performance data collected for the study were

administered independent t-test using SPSS version

23.0 and other culture performance parameters such as

mean gain in length and weight, Specific Growth Rate

(SGR (% per day)), survival rate (%), feed conversion

ratio (FCR) and production were calculated using

following formulae:

Equation 1: Mean gain in length (cm)

= Mean final length (cm) – Mean initial

length (cm)

Equation 2: Mean gain in weight (g)

= Mean final weight (g) – Mean initial

weight (g)

Equation 3: Specific growth rate (SGR) (% per day)

= ((logW2 –logW1)/ T)) X 100

Where, W2 = mean final weight (g), W1 =

mean initial weight (g), T is culture period

(days)

Equation 4: Survival rate (%)

= (No. of fishes harvested/ No. of fishes

stocked) x 100

Equation 5: Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR)

= ((Total feed consumed (Kg)/ Total weight

gained (Kg)) X 100

Equation 6: Production (kg/ha/9 months)

= No. of fish harvested X average weight at

harvest (Kg)

Figure 1: ADG of C. carpio and C. idella across

different treatments

3.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Mean body weight and length of fish

The final body length and weight of the experiment fish

species are illustrated in Figure 2 and 3. The mean final

body weight recorded for Cyprinus carpio and

Ctenopharyngodon idella cultured under fish swine

farming integration was 93.85 ± 6.24 g and 129.75 ±

18.85 g respectively. Whereas, the mean final body

length recorded was 18.55 ± 0.48 cm and 20.46 ± 0.78

cm for Cyprinus carpio and Ctenopharyngodon idella,

respectively, under similar condition. The mean final

body weight recorded was 79.01 ± 4.50 g and 69.95 ±

11.79 g for Cyprinus carpio and Ctenopharyngodon

idella cultured without integration. Under same



treatment, the mean final length recorded was 17.12 ±

0.49 cm and 15.84 ± 0.83 cm for Cyprinus carpio and

Ctenopharyngodon idella which was not statistically

significant (p>0.05). Similar range of growth

performance of Cyprinus carpio and

Ctenopharyngodon idella was recorded in mid-altitude

area of Punakha district in Bhutan (Thinley 2018).

However, this result contradicts with the findings of

Molnar et al. (2010) who reported relatively higher

mean growth indices which could have resulted due to

incorporation of fodder additives.

A significant difference (p<.05) was observed in

the overall mean final body weight of fish in T1 and T2.

The overall mean of final body weight recorded was

111.80 ± 10.07 g with length reaching about 19.51 ±

0.47 cm); whereas, in T2 the overall mean of final body

weight of fish observed was 74.48 ± 6.29 g with length

reaching about 16.48 ± 0.48 cm (Figure 1). T-test

results depicted higher growth rate in integrated pond

which is an indicative of positive effect of integration

having improved natural productivity sustaining pond

ecosystem.

3.2 Specific growth rate

The percent SGR recorded for Cyprinus carpio was

0.42 and 0.39 in T1 and in T2, respectively. Whereas, the

percent SGR recorded for Ctenopharyngodon idella

was 0.57 and 0.47 in T1 and T2, respectively.

Therefore, it is clear that fishes cultured with swine

integration exhibits high SGR (% per day) than culture

without integration. The reason for high SGR in T1 than

T2 could be due to optimum natural productivity from

day to day organic manure contributed directly from sty

into T1 fish pond.

3.3 Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR)

Concurrent with growth performance, feed conversion

ratio of locally formulated feed was evaluated after

nineth month of culture period for Cyprinus carpio and

Ctenopharyngodon idella. The highest FCR of 9.79 and

5.68 was recorded for Cyprinus carpio and

Ctenopharyngodon idella in ninth and eighth month of

culture period, respectively.

The FCR value provides basic understanding on

the overall efficiency of locally formulated feed and its

interaction effect under integrated swine fish farming.

Thus, the growth rate and FCR of two species in this

study clearly indicates poor efficacy of locally

formulated feed which contradicts the FCR value of

1.59 reported for local feed in Pakistan (Soom et al

2009).

3.4 Survival rate (%)

The overall survival rate recorded during the entire

culture period was 74.07% and 69.26% for T1 and T2

respectively (Table 4). This finding clearly revealed

that fishes cultured with swine recorded higher survival

rate which could be attributed to favorable natural

productivity supplements derived from exogenous

feeding.

Molnar et al. (2010) reported a high survival rates

during their experiment on influence of fodder additives

on the growth indices and survival rate of Cyprinus

carpio and Ctenopharyngodon idella.

3.5 Fish production

At the end of empirical investigation of swine fish

integration farming, net production from T1 and T2 were

85.21 kg and 56.06 kg respectively. The fish production

per unit area recorded was 0.32 and 0.21 kg, with total

production estimation of approximately 3155.79 and

2076.42 kg/ha from T1 and T2, respectively. This

finding indicates that fish farmers can derive

substantially more fish products when integrated with

swine that manures fish pond for natural productivity

on daily basis.

Figure 2: Final body length of two fish species

Figure 3: Final mean body weight of fish species



4. CONCLUSION

The production efficiency of cultured C. carpio and C.

idella was found better in swine fish integration system

as compared to conventional fish farming. Thus, it

concludes that swine-fish integration can be promoted

for higher fish production and maximization of

resources use in the subtropical region of Bhutan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors greatly acknowledge the support and

coordination of NR&DCA management and farm

attendants especially Mrs. Nidup Zangmo and Mrs.

Sangay Choden for their valuable contribution towards

fish feeding.

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Frequency on Growth and Survival of Labeo rohita

(Hamilton, 1822): Fingerlings under Intensive

Rearing. The Journal of Animal & Plant Sciences.

111-113.

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Kolkata, India: Central Institude of Fisheries

Education.

Bora J and Das AK (2013). Costs and Returns of

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Chandan D, Gulab SY, Lopamudra S, and Mrinmoy D

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(2001). Comparative Evaluation of Growth,

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Different Stocking Densities under Polyculture.

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128

Short Communication

A PRELIMINARY FINDING ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FISHWAYS AT KURICHHU DAM IN

BHUTAN

CHANGLU*, GOPAL PRASAD KHANAL, SANGAY NORBU AND SINGYE TSHERING

National Research and Development Centre for Riverine and Lake Fisheries, Department of

Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Haa, Bhutan.


Copy right ©2020 Changlu. The original work must be properly cited to permit unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction of this article in any medium.

ABSTRACT: Fishways are constructed at Kurichhu and Dagachhu hydropower projects to mitigate

the impact of hydropower projects on migratory fishes. But none of the agencies has made attempts

to evaluate the efficiency of the existing fishways until today. Thus, the study was undertaken to

collect preliminary data on fish species diversity and size span that ascends through fishway of

Kurichhu dam. Fish species composition and diversity varied among the sampling period. The

preliminary findings recorded nine fish species within the vicinity of the project area, of which eight

fish species irrespective of their sizes were found utilizing the fishway facility.

Keywords: Fishway; size span; species diversity.

1.INTRODUCTION

Bhutan is endowed with rich perennial water resources

with estimated hydropower generation potential of

30,000 megawatts (MW) reported the technical feasibility

of generating about 23,503 MW of hydropower from 72

projects (NORAD 2017). At present, only 1606 MW has

been harnessed from six Hydropower Plants (HPP’s)

(NSB 2016). Besides, four Hydroelectricity projects

namely Punatshangchhu Hydro Power Authority-I & II,

Tangsibji Hydro Energy Limited and Mangdechhu Hydro

Power Authority are currently under various stages of

construction that is capable of producing 3058 MW in

total.

The construction of the hydropower plant is

expected to disturb the fish diversity and aquatic

ecosystem for which the World Bank (2016) had

recommended to evaluate the impacts of hydropower

development on aquatic ecosystems before

implementation. A lack of comprehensive baseline data

on fish species diversity makes difficult to assess the

impacts of aquatic fragmentation in Bhutan. The World

Bank (2017) had reviewed and identified 123 fish species

of which 111 are indigenous and 12 exotics. The latest

review indicated presence of 130 fish species in water

bodies of Bhutan (Thoni & Gurung 2018; NBC 2019).

The Water Regulation of Bhutan (2014) identified and

recommended measures to mitigate impacts on aquatic

biodiversity by establishing minimum environmental

flows (e-flows) for hydroelectric projects as per

Environment Impact Assessment (EIA). The other

recommendations are to construct fishways to facilitate

upstream movements of fishes or to compensate through

investment on on-site hatchery facilities to produce and

release native fish fingerlings.

Currently, fishways intended to mitigate the impact

on migratory fishes are only available on the Kurichhu

and Dagachhu HPPs. While those structures are in place

the effectiveness was not evaluated at this juncture and

the effectiveness of fishway at Kurichhu HPP was

questioned (Virdi & Theophilus 2014). Thus, this study

was planned to generate preliminary empirical

information on the effectiveness of fishway at Kurichhu

HPP dam.

2.MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Study area

The study was conducted within the vicinity of Kurichhu

Hydroelectric Project (KHEP). The data on fish species

diversity were gathered from Morichhu, an upstream

tributary flowing along Lingmethang that joins the right

bank of Kurichhu, approximately six kilometers (km)



Changlu et al. (2020) 129

above the dam; and from Yunari stream the downstream

tributaries that join the right bank of Kurichhu,

approximately 0.300 km below the dam; and the Yongri,

a small stream that joins the left bank of Kurichhu,

approximately 0.800 km below the dam as presented in

Figure 1.

Figure 1: Study area along the Kurichhu HEP in Mongar

2.2 Kurichhu fishway structure

The 55 m high concrete gravity dam of Kurichhu HEP

with 250 m in width and is provided with fishway at the

right bank of Kurichhu. It is a pool and weir type, with

submerged orifice and centrally located notch. The

fishway entrance is located at 492 masl. Two entrances

were provided for different water levels in the reservoir.

The upper exit is located at 529 masl and the lower exit at

524 masl. This gives the fishway height of 32 and 37 m,

depending upon the level of water in the reservoir. The

water discharged was approximately 1.05-1.27 cumecs at

the time of sampling.

The detail information is presented in Figure 2 and

Table 1.

Figure 2. Diagrammatic representation of fishway and

sampling sites (4-10).



2.3 Data collection methods

The data on fish species diversity were gathered three

times viz., from 25th - 29th June 2018, 20th - 22nd

November 2018 and 30th May- 3rd June 2019. Whereas,

data on fish attempting to ascend fishway was collected

twice in June 2018 and between May and June 2019. Fish

with good swimming ability and those with adhesive

organs were recorded from fishway.

2.4 Fish sampling

Fish samples were collected randomly from the main

Kurichhu river and tributaries using electrofisher (Model:

ELT62-2D; Grassl, Germany; DC 3KV) during June

2018 and November 2018. Whereas, in May 2019 the

fish samples were collected using locally improvised

electrofisher. The gates of fishway were gradually closed

to reduce the velocity of the water. Then, the fishes were

captured using dip nets from various elevations of the

fishway.

2.5 Velocity of water

The velocity of water flowing through the fishway was

measured at the middle of the fishway pool using

flowmeter (Model: FP111; Global Water Instruments,

USA). In addition, the depth of water along the fishway

was measured.

2.5 Basic water quality

The basic water quality parameters such as pH,

temperature and dissolved oxygen were determined from

Morichhu, Fishway, Yunari and Yongri. The pH and

temperature were determined using multiparameter kit

(MODEL: 98194; Hanna Instruments, Romania), and

dissolved oxygen (DO) was recorded using DO meter

(Model: SLD 150; Extech, Taiwan).

2.6 Data analysis

2.6.1 Morphometric measurement

The morphometric measurement was recorded,

particularly total length, standard length and the body

depth of fishes for this study. This is mainly for the

selection of a type of tags to be employed for the final

evaluation. Data collected on morphometric

measurement and fish species diversity were analyzed in

Microsoft Excel 2010.

3. RESULTS

3.1 Fish species diversity

The study recorded nine fish species viz., Neolissochilus

hexagonolepis, Schizothorax richardsonii, Schizothorax

progastus, Garra gotyla, Garrra lissorhynchus,

Psilorhynchus homaloptera, Pseudecheneis sulcata,

Glyptothorax sp., and Parachiloglanis hodgarti in total

from upstream and downstream of Kurichhu dam site.

Amongst the tributaries, Morichhu exhibited the highest

diversity with eight fish species followed by Yunari and

Yongri with six and four species, respectively.

3.2 Fish species and size attempting to ascend fishway

The sampling was done twice in various elevation of the

fishway when it was operational. The overall study

recorded eight fish species attempting to ascend the

fishway. During first sampling in June 2018, a total of six

species were observed along various elevations of the

fishway as presented in Table 1. However, during the

second sampling period carried out between May-June

2019,additional two species namely Parachiloglanis

hodgarti and Psilorhynchus homaloptera were recorded

(Table 1).

Table 1: Fish Species attempting to ascend fishway

Fish species June 2018

May-Jun 2019

Neolissochilus hexagonolepis * *

Schizothorax richardsonii * *

Schizothorax progastus * *

Garra gotyla * *

Pseudochenesis sulcata * *

Glyptothorax sp. * *

Psilorhynchus homaloptera - *

Parachiloglanis hodgarti - *

In order to have comprehensive information on sizes of

fish ascending the fishway, total length and body depth

was measured. This is carried out mainly to select suitable

tag and tagging method to evaluate the effectiveness of

fishway during the final course. The study recorded size

Table 1. Fishway design at Kurichhu dam

Particulars Remarks Type Pool-and-weir (Pool

Pass with Submerged Orifice)

Height of fishway (upper exit) 37 m

Height of fishway (lower exit) 32 m

No. of Pools 103

Dimension of Pool (L x B x H) 3 m x 1.5 m x 2 m

Dimension of Baffle (L x H) 1.5 m x 1.5 m

Dimension of Submerged Orifice (L x H)

0.45 m x 0.70 m

Dimension of Central Notch (L x H)

0.45 m x 0.30 m

Discharge 1.05-1.27 cumecs



span of 186 fishes in June 2018 and 102 fishes in May and

June 2019. The record showed variation in the size of

species in different sampling time.

3.2.1 Average body depth of fish

Table 2 presents the mean body depth of fish captured

from fishway during the study. The highest mean body

depth of fish recorded was 69.56 ± 5.07 mm for

Neolissochilus hexagonolepis, and lowest of 6.4 ± 0.60

mm was recorded for Psilorhynchus homaloptera.

3.2.2 Average length of fish

Table 3 shows the mean body length of fish ascending

fishway measured twice during study period. The longest

mean length of 323.82 ± 22.82 mm and shortest of 82.00

±1.97 mm was recorded for Neolissochilus hexagonolepis

and Psilorhynchus homaloptera, respectively.

3.3 Composition of fish utilizing fishway

The total composition of fishes from fishway was

determined during two period’s viz., June 2018 and

May/June 2019). The composition of fish species

recorded in different sampling periods differed. The study

recorded highest composition was Schizothorax

richardsonii (46.43%) in June 2018; whereas, in

May/June 2019, the highest composition was Garra

gotyla (30.39 %). The least composition was recorded for

Neolissochilus hexagonolepis (4.76%) in June 2018 and

0.98% each for Parachiloglanis hodgarti and

Pseudochenesis sulcata in 2019 as presented in Table 4.

3.3 Water discharge and flow in fishway

The water discharge in fishway was approximately 1.27

cumecs during June 2018 and 1.05 cumecs in May 2019.

The average velocity of water in fishway was 0.62 m/s in

May and 0.70 m/s in June 2018 and. The average water

depth of fishway was 1.11 m in May and 1.21 m in June

2018.

3.5 Basic water quality

The basic water quality parameter from four selected sites

at various elevation on fishway and three sites from

different tributaries was recorded. The pH values

recorded in this study fall within the reported satisfactory

range of 6-9 by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB),

India. The pH values between 6.5 to 8.5 are known to

supports healthy, diverse and productive fish and

macroinvertebrates communities (NAS 1972). The pH

and dissolved oxygen values of all sampling locations are

Table 2: Average body depth of fish ascending fishway

Fish species June 2018 May/June

2019

Neolissochilus hexagonolepis

75.00 ± 13.36

68.83 ± 5.27

Schizothorax richardsonii

37.89 ± 2.63 54.17 ± 7.00

Schizothorax progastus

27.42 ± .29 40

Garra gotyla 16.00 ± 2.13 16.13 ± 1.15

Pseudecheneis sulcata

13.87 ± 1.02 20

Glyptothorax sp. 9.20 ± 1.66 11.76 ± 1.10

Psilorhynchus homaloptera

0 6.4 ± 0.60

Parachiloglanis hodgarti

0 20

Table 3: Average body length of fish ascending fishway Fish species June 2018 May/June 2019 Neolissochilus hexagonolepis 355.00 ± 93.32 319.67 ± 23.38

Schizothorax richardsonii

214.08 ± 10.94 276.50 ± 35.40

Schizothorax progastus

150.43 ± 5.04 190

Garra gotyla 120.00 ± 4.30 122.26 ± 4.11 Pseudecheneis sulcata

112.57 ± 5.03 130

Glyptothorax sp. 102.00 ± 12.81 110.05 ± 7.53

Psilorhynchus homaloptera

0 82.00 ± 1.97

Parachiloglanis hodgarti 0 100

Table 4: Composition of fish species for different

sampling

Fish species June 2018 May/Ju

ne 2019

Neolissochilus hexagonolepis 4.76% 29.41%

Schizothorax richardsonii 46.43% 11.76%

Schizothorax progastus 8.33% 0.98%

Garra gotyla 7.14% 30.39%

Pseudocheneis sulcata 27.38% 0.98%

Glyptothorax sp. 5.95% 20.59%

Psilorhynchus homaloptera 0 4.90%

Parachiloglanis hodgarti 0 0.98%



within standards prescribed for Class I category by

UNECE standard (DO = > 7 ppm, pH = 6.5- 9) during all

sampling expeditions.

The pH and dissolved oxygen recorded in sampling sites

across all expeditions was as per standard laid by CPCB,

India for the propagation of wildlife and fisheries (Class

D) (DO = > 6 ppm, (pH = 6 - 9) (Table 5).

4.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

A total of nine fish species were recorded from the aquatic

ecosystem within the vicinity of Kurichhu HEP. Eight

fish species irrespective of the size were found using

fishway to migrate upstream and downstream. With this

preliminary findings, it is recommended for further

detailed studies to understand and document complete

species composition and changes in species diversity in

fishway with proper attention to following aspects: i)

conduct frequent visit, preferably monthly at fishway to

ascertain other fish species trying to ascend through

fishway, as some of reported fishes were not documented

during present survey, ii) study the relative abundance of

fish species utilizing the fishway along the vicinity of the

project iii) study the response of fish during onset of

fishway operation, which is usually done yearly during

the first week of February and response of fish to at time

of shutting down of fishway, which is usually done yearly

during last week of October, iv) conduct rudimentary test

to see the time required for fishes to ascend the fishway

through fin clipping, v) study the reproductive biology,

pertaining to gonadal development of fishes utilizing the

fishway, vi) understand about the design, operation and

management of fishway within the Kurichhu dam and vii)

monitor the basic water quality parameter within the

study area. The study also recommended using advance

technology such as Passive Integrated transponder to

evaluate the effectiveness of fishway.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors remain grateful to the Department of

Livestock (DoL), Ministry of Agriculture and Forests

(MoAF) for approving the preliminary study. In addition,

the authors would like to express gratitude to Druk Green

Power Corporation (DGPC) for approving the study

within their facilities. The authors would like to

acknowledge the staffs and management of Gyalpozhing

Range Office under Mongar Territorial Division and

Lingmethang Range Office under Phrumsingla National

Park, DoFPS for utmost support during fish sampling.

Lastly, the author would like to express our sincere thanks

to Towchu Rabgay, Chief Livestock Officer, RED, DoL

and Jigme Wangdi, Specialist, RED, DoL, Thimphu and,

Program Director and staffs of NRDCR&LF for their

continued support.

REFERENCES

CPCB (2010). Indian Institute of Management, Lucknow,

Ministry of Environment and Forest Government of

India.

NSB (2016). National Statistical Bureau; Statistical

yearbook of Bhutan.

NAS (1972). Food and Chemical codex; National academy

of Science, Washington D.C; Second Edition;

NBC (2019). Biodiversity statistics of Bhutan 2017: A

Preliminary Baseline. National Biodiversity Centre,

Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Thimphu, Bhutan.

NORAD (2017). Norwegian energy cooperation with

Bhutan: A summary report.

Thoni R J and Gurung DB (2018). Morphological and

molecular study of the torrent catfishes (Sisoridae:

Glyptosterninae) of Bhutan including the description of

five new species. Zootaxa 4476 [1]: 040–068.

The Water Regulation of Bhutan (2014). National

Environment Commission; Royal Government of

Bhutan, Thimphu.

Virdu M Theophilus E and Prakriti H (2014). Fish Ladder

at Kurichhu Hydropower Project, Bhutan:

Some thoughts.

World Bank (2017). Support to the Hydropower Sector in

Bhutan: Development of the National Repository for

Aquatic Biodiversity in Bhutan. Final Report, July

2017.

World Bank (2016). Managing Environmental and Social

Impacts of Hydropower in Bhutan. Final Report, June

2016.

Table 5. Basic water quality parameters (means) from sampling sites at Kurichhu HPP.

Sites DO (ppm) pH Temperature

(°C)

Morichhu 10.43±0.57 7.54±0.12 17.89±2.13

Fishway 11.55±1.46 8.18±0.37 18.08±0.58

Yunari 10.30±1.07 8.09±0.13 19.76±2.10

Yongri 9.83±0.46 7.72±0.23 20.87±3.42



133

Short Communication

EXPLORING OF ALIEN FISH SPECIES DIVERSITY IN AMOCHHU OF BHUTAN

SANGAY NORBU*, GOPAL PRASAD KHANAL, SINGYE TSHERING, PEMA

TSHERING AND CHANGLU

National Research and Development Centre for Riverine and Lake Fisheries, Department of

Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Haa, Bhutan.


Copyright © 2020 Sangay Norbu. The original work must be properly cited to permit unrestricted


ABSTRACT: A number of alien fish species are introduced into aquatic ecosystem undermining

their adverse impacts to the natural ecosystem, despites having a good ichthyofauna diversity

inclusive of some endemic fish species in Bhutan. The survey was undertaken to explore and

document alien fish species diversity in Amochhu and Haachhu due to high vulnerability from

anthropogenic influences. A total of 13 sites -11 sites at Amochhu and one site each from adjoining

fish hatcheries at National Research and Development Center for Riverine and Lake Fisheries, Haa

and National Research and Development Center for Aquaculture, Gelephu were selected for the

survey. The present survey recorded 37 fish species inclusive of five alien fish species namely

Cyprinus carpio, Cyprinus carpio, Ompok pabda, Clarias gariepinus and Salmo trutta. The

presence of Cyprinus carpio, Clarias gariepinus and Salmo trutta was confirmed in wild habitat;

whereas, Oreochromis mossambicus was observed established under confinement. The current

survey found out that the Salmo trutta had established a self-sustaining population, and Ompok

pabda was recorded for the first time in Amochhu. However, this survey could not ascertain the

pathway of introduction of those alien fish species. There is a need for the government to intervene

and put in proper policy measures to control introduction of both alien and cultured fish species in

waterbodies of Bhutan; and in parallel, it is felt important to educate general public on the

consequences of introducing alien fish species into the waterbodies.

Keywords: Alien fish species; invasive species; Cyprinus carpio; Clarias gariepinus;

Oreochromis mossambicus; Salmo trutta; tsethar.

1.INTRODUCTION

Alien fishes are introduced intentionally either for the

enhancement of food fish production for species

diversification, sport or recreational fishing and

ornamental purpose. Introduction and/or spread of

invasive alien species (IAS) threaten biological diversity

(CBD 2002) by establishing natural or semi-natural

ecosystems or habitat, as an agent of change (ICUN 2000),

through increasing biological invasions worldwide (Juette

et al. 2014). Biological invasion is a process whereby a

species is transported and introduced (intentionally or

accidentally) beyond its native range, spreads and

establishes self-sustaining populations into new habitats

(Juette et al. 2014).

Introduction of alien fish dates back to 1930’s in

Bhutan. Brown trout (Salmo trutta) was introduced for the

first time in 1930 for sport fishing (Rajbanshi and Csavas

1982) through release in rivers, streams and lakes of

Bhutan (Dubey 1978; Petrs 1999). Currently, brown trout

are found in many lakes, rivers and their tributaries such

as Wangchhu (Haachhu, Parochhu and Thimchhu),

Punatshangchhu (Mochhu and Phochhu), Manas

(Mangdechhu, Chamkharchhu and Nikachhu) (Dubey

1978; Petrs 1999; Gurung 2013; Gurung & Thoni 2015

and NRDCRLF 2017) of Bhutan. In addition, the

government had introduced seven warm-water and one

cold-water aquaculture fish species in 1980’s (Péteri

1987) and 2007 respectively, to enhance fish production.

Besides, unauthorized introduction of highly invasive

African sharp tooth catfish (Clarias gariepinus) to



Norbu et al. (2020) 134

Bhutanese water system in the form of Tsethar or life

release (mercy release) are reported (Gurung 2013;

Gurung et al. 2013). Such introduction of new fish species

and their establishment with self-sustaining population in

their introduced habitat (Kolar & Lodge 2001) is

considered as an important phase of invasion process

(Weyl et al. 2016). Cucherousset & Olen (2011)

summarized and reported ecological impact of invasive

alien freshwater fish according to five levels of biological

organization into genetic, individual, population,

community and ecosystem. Currently, empirical

information on alien fish diversity in Bhutan river systems

is lacking nor attempts are made to survey and document

till date. Therefore, this survey attempts to assess and

document alien fish species diversity along with their

introduction pathways in Amochhu.

2.MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Survey areas

Amochhu (chhu is local name for river), Aiechhu and

Haachhu were sampled to access the presence of alien fish

species diversity in wild habitat. Amochhu and Omchhu

at Phuntsholing and the headwater of Amochhu at

Sombaykha Dungkhag, Haa is the core survey area.

Further, Aiechhu (Maokhola) at Gelephu and Haachhu, at

Haa was considered to access the escapement of feral

population of aquaculture species in wild habitat as

presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Survey areas and sampling sites

2.2 Sites selection

A total of 13 sites - 11 sites are at Amochhu and one site

each adjoining to fish hatcheries of National Research and

Development Centre for Riverine and Lake Fisheries

(NRDCRLF), Haa and National Research and

Development Centre for Aquaculture (NRDCA), Gelephu

were identified.

2.3 Fish sampling

Fish sampling was conducted twice using handheld

electrofisher. Initial sampling was conducted in from 25th

September to 2nd October 2018 representing offset of

monsoon season. The second fish sampling was

conducted from 24th March to 4th April 2019 representing

pre-monsoon season. Each sampling site was

approximately 200 meters in length and uniform sampling

effort of 30 minutes was considered. The samples of

exotic fishes were collected and the live fish photographs

were also taken at field level to record pictorial form of

qualitative data (shape, colours, spots, patterns and other

visible characters), as formalin decolorizes the fish.

2.4 Morphometric measurement

The total length (TL) of the captured alien fishes were

measured on-sites using wooden board scale. The shape

and size of the fish was analyzed in the laboratory at

NRDCRLF using digital venire caliper.

2.5 Fish preservation

The fish samples collected from the field were preserved

in 10 % formalin (Jayaram 1981), with head facing

downward in the container to prevent damage to caudal

fin (Mandal & Jha 2013). The samples containers were

labelled properly against the datasheet of the sampling

sites before transportation to fish laboratory at the

NRDCRLF, Haa.

2.5 Fish identification

The fish species samples were identified at the laboratory

with references to taxonomic characters of the fishes

(Vishwanath et al. 2007; Talwar & Jhingran 1991;

NRDCRLF 2017). The valid taxa names were followed

from the Fish base. The ecological status on invasiveness

fish species identified was reported in accordance to

Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). The specimens

collected after identification were then preserved in 70 %

ethanol for future studies and references.

3.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Species diversity

Table 1 shows fish species diversity recorded from

Amochhu at Phuntsholing and Sombaykha, Haa. The

survey recorded 37 fish species inclusive of five alien fish

species belonging to six orders, 14 families and 30 genera

in Amochhu


Norbu et al. (2020) 135

Table 1: Ichthyofaunal diversity of Amochhu River.

Order Family Genera Species

Beloniformes Belonidae Xenentodon Xenentodon cancilla

Cobitidae Lepidocephalichthys Lepidocephalichthys guntea

Bangana Bangana dero

Barilius Barilius bendelisis

Barilius Barilius barna

Barilius Barilius vagra

Chagunius Chagunius chagunio

Crossocheilus Crossocheilus latius

Semiplotus Semiplotus semiplotus

Cyprinus Cyprinus carpio

Danio Danio rerio

Devario Devario aequipinnatus

Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Garra Garra annandalei

Garra Garra gotyla

Neolissochilus Neolissochilus hexagonolepis

Oreichthys Oreichthys crenuchoides

Pethia Pethia conchonius

Pethia Pethia ticto

Puntius Puntius sophore

Schizothorax Schizothorax progastus

Schizothorax Schizothorax richardsonii

Tor Tor putitora

Nemacheilidae Aborichthys Aborichthys sp.

Schistura Schistura reticulofasciata

Psilorhynchidae Psilorhynchus Psilorhynchus balitora

Badidae Badis Badis badis

Perciformes Channidae Channa Channa gachua

Cichlidae Oreochromis Oreochromis mossambicus

Salmoniformes Salmonidae Salmo Salmo trutta

Amblycipitidae Amblyceps Amblyceps cf. arunachalensis

Clariidae Clarias Clarias gariepinus

Siluridae Ompok Ompok pabda

Siluriformes

Sisoridae

Glyptothorax Glyptothorax sp.

Glyptothorax Glyptothorax panda

Parachiloglanis Parachiloglanis hodgarti

Pseudochenesis Pseudochenesis sulcate

Synbranchiformes Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus Mastacembelus armatus


Norbu et al. (2020) 136

3.2 Alien fish species and mechanism of invasion

The survey with reference to Global Invasive Species

Database (GISD) recorded five alien fish species (Figure

1) namely Clarias gariepinus, Cyprinus carpio,

Oreochromis mossambicus, Ompok pabda and Salmo

trutta in Amochhu (Torsa). The Clarias gariepinus and

Cyprinus carpio was presumed to be introduced in the

country through Tsethar (life saving) and Salmo trutta

was introduced in 1930s as sport fishing. The

Oreochromis mossambicus was found only in Crocodile

farm, used for feeding Crocodile, while Clarias

gariepinus was captured from main Amochhu and small

pools formed by the stream flowing from the right side of

Omchhu located along the workshop area in Phuntsholing.

The survey also confirmed presence of Ompok pabda

in Amochhu, and it was found sharing habitat with Clarias

gariepinus along the pools. The introduction of Clarias

gariepinus in Amochhu was also presumed to be through

Tsethar as likelihood was reported very high (Gurung

2013). The presence of Cyprinus carpio in Amochhu was

also established but did not record any feral population of

aquaculture species in the sampling sites adjoining fish

hatcheries. Nonetheless, the introduction mode of

Cyprinus carpio in Amochhu remains uncertain as

aquaculture activity was absent within the vicinity of

sampling area. Although, brown trout was recorded in

abundance in Haachhu, their pathway of introduction

could not be established.

Clarias gariepinus

Cyprinus carpio

Ompok pabda

Oreochromis mossambicus

Salmo trutta

Figure 1: Alien fish species recorded in Amochhu river

3.3 Alien fish species size (Length) and maturity

Morphometric measurement was recorded for the

captured alien fish species. The mean total length recorded

was 144.43 mm, 145 mm, 207.86±61.27 mm and

153.65±7.69 mm for Cyprinus carpio (n=1), Ompok

pabda (n=1), Clarias gariepinus (n=3) and Salmo trutta

(n=23), respectively.

According to Fish Base, the length at first maturity

for Cyprinus carpio ranges between 250 - 360 mm, 340

mm for Clarias gariepinus and 100 - 600 mm for Salmo

trutta. The length recorded by NRDCRLF for Cyprinus

carpio (n=1) from Omchhu was 174 mm in 2014. The

Salmo trutta captured in this survey was observed to be of

biologically breed-able size; whereas the Clarias

gariepinus and Cyprinus carpio have crossed half the

length at first maturity. Therefore, if additional

populations of same length-class are present these fish

species are expected to attain maturity soon and develop

self-sustaining population within Amochhu system. It was

reported that the Cyprinus carpio had successfully


Norbu et al. (2020) 137

spawned, established and constitute highest among fish

catch from Ganga River (Singh et al. 2010). The Clarias

gariepinus was reported to have established itself in Brazil

and South America (Weyl et al. 2016) and India among

others (Singh et al. 2010).

4. CONCLUSION

The current survey recorded 37 fish species inclusive of

five invasive alien species in Amochhu. Ompok pabda

was recorded for the very first time in Amochhu. The

Clarias gariepinus and Cyprinus carpio are adapted and

established within the Amochhu in Bhutan. Amochhu has

high ichthyofaunal diversity and at the same time it is

highly vulnerable to human influences. Currently,

tshethar or live release of fish into river ecosystem

remains a challenge with inevitable adverse consequences

on indigenous fish faunal diversity. Thus, it is imperative

to have proper policy strategies on introduction of exotic

and cultured fish species into the waterbodies of Bhutan.

In line, the government should also prioritize and

intervene on the conservation and development of local

fish species. It is also imperative to advocate and educate

general public on the consequences of unintentional and

intentional introduction of alien fish species into

waterbodies of Bhutan.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to immensely thank the

Department of Livestock (DoL), for valuable advice,

guidance and direction. The authors would like thanks the

officials of Gedu Territorial Division and Jigme Khesar

Strict Nature Reserve, particularly those based at

Phuntsholing and Sombaykha in providing necessary field

support. The authors would like to thanks Mr. Jigme

Wangdi, Specialist, DoL and Dr. Kesang Wangchuk,

Biodiversity specialist, International Center for Integrated

Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal for their

continued support and advice. Finally, authors would like

to express sincere appreciation to the Program Director

and staffs of NRDCRLF for their continued support

during the entire survey period.

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traits promote invasion success in amphibians and

reptiles, Ecology Letters, 20: 222–230.

CBD (2002). Decision VI/23: Alien species that threaten

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Diversity Secretariat, Montreal, Canada.

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on ecosystem services. In W. Nentwig, ed. Biological

Invasions. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 217-237.

Cucherousset J and Olden JD (2011). Ecological impacts

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characteristics of invasive species: a gammarid survey.

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Dubey GP (1978). Survey of the waters of Bhutan

physiography and fishery potential. Document

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Clarias gariepinus in Bhutan. In the newsletter of the

IUCN-SSC/WI freshwater fish specialist group -

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Network of South Asia, 1, 26.

Gurung DB, Dorji S, Tshering U and Wangyal JT (2013).

An annotated checklist of fishes from Bhutan. Journal

of Threatened Taxa, 5 (14):4880–4886.

Gurung DB and Thoni RJ (2015). Fishes of Bhutan: A

preliminary checklist. Kuensel Publishing Thimphu,

Bhutan, 87 pp.

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biodiversity loss caused by alien invasive species.

ICUN, Gland, Switzerland.

Jayaram KC (1981). The Freshwater Fishes of India. Hand

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personality and the ecological impacts of freshwater

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biology: predicting invaders. Trends in Ecology &

Evolution, 16 (4):199-204.

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Pradesh. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 16 (2):

429-434.

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you lose: life-history traits predict invasion and

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species profiling? Exploring the characteristics of non-

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139

Short Communication

COMPARISON OF GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF PIG SUCKLERS’ FED WITH CREEP

FEED AND SOW RATION

TENZIN PENJOR1*, GYEMBO TSHETEN1, PEMA SHERAB1 AND VIJAY

RAIKA MONGAR2

1National Piggery Research and Development Centre, Department of Livestock, MoAF,

Gelephu, Sarpang, Bhutan 2National Highland Research & Development Centre, Jakar, Bumthang, Bhutan

*Author for correspondences: [email protected]

Copyright © 2020 Tenzin Penjor. The original work must be properly cited to permit


ABSTRACT: The study was conducted to compare the overall growth performance of pig

sucklers fed with creep feed against current practices adopted in two government pig

breeding farms. A total of 100 sucklers each selected for the study were allotted to two

treatments viz., creep feeding (T1) and non-creep feeding (T2) through lucky draw. Same

number of sucklers from three pig breeds namely Duroc, Large Black and Saddle Back

were used in the experiment. The birth weights of pig sucklers’ were recorded on zero day

(at birth), on start of feeding creep feed (5th day), and thereafter weighed every three days

until weaning period. Post weaning body weight were measured and compared. The feeds

fed in both treatments were mixed with effective micro-organism (EM) solution for better

digestion. The animals were fed ad libitum. All data gathered were analyzed using t-test.

The study revealed that there was no significant difference (p=0.83) in mean body weight

at weaning between the two treatments. The mean body weight recorded was 10.48 and

10.56 kg for creep feeding and non-creep feeding respectively. The experiment revealed

that creep feeding of sucklers does not have any effect on the growth performance, and it

simply adds on to cost of production. Thus, the study concludes that creep feeding of

sucklers is not necessary and may discontinue in future.

Keywords: Average daily gain; creep feed; lactating sow; pre-weaning; post-weaning;

sucklers.

1 INTRODUCTION

Piggery sector has grown since 11 five-year plan (FYP)

triggered by the government subsidy package supports

in the country. Since then, the piggery enterprises both

for breeding and fattening have emerged, and in

subsequent piglet demand had increased by manifolds.

The government breeding farms bred and supply piglets

to interested farmers at subsidized rate much below cost

of production. Sucklers are fed creep feed from fifth day

after birth to weaning age of 35-42 days as it helps

stimulate piglets’ post- weaning feed consumption

(Cabrera et al. 2013). The two government pig breeding

farms at Gelephu and Lingmethang had spent Nu. 0.584

million on creep feed in 2018. FINNOR- Asia, Thailand

recommended to feed sucklers with sow ration instead

of creep while in lactation stage to reduce cost of

production. It is also timely for the management to look

for a possible cost cutting measures in pig breeding

farms without any compromises on overall growth

performance of piglets. Moreover, the effects of feeding

creep feed on the performance of piglets are not assessed

in the country as of date. Therefore, this study was

carried out to compare the performance of sucklers’

growth with and without feeding creep feed until

weaning age.


2.1 Study area and duration

The on-farm feeding trial was conducted in two

government pig farms at the National Piggery Research



Penjor et al. (2020) 140

and Development Centre, Gelephu and Regional Pig and

Poultry Breeding Centre (RPPBC), Lingmethang during

summer months from August-October.

2.2 Study design

A total of 100 sucklers each were selected, ear-notched

and allotted through lucky draw to two treatments –

creep feeding (T1) and non-creep feeding (T2). Sucklers

from lactating sows (Duroc, Large Black and Saddle

Back) between second to sixth parity were used for the

study. Animals in both treatments are fed ad libitum

twice a day. Similar environment condition particularly

the temperature and humidity were maintained during

the study period.

2.3 Feeding Management

The sucklers in T1 were fed creep feed and in T2 the

sucklers were fed sow ration as per the existing

conventional practices of the farm. Feeds are mixed with

effective micro-organism (EM) solution prior to feeding

to improve digestion.

The creep feed fed to sucklers in T1 contained 20%

crude protein (CP), 0.96% Lysine, 0.56% Methionine,

0.18% Tryptophan, 0.80% Ca, 0.60% available P, 3500

kcal/kg DE; while the sow ration fed to sucklers in T2

contained 14% CP, 0.58% Lysine, 0.36 % Methionine,

0.13% Tryptophan, 0.75% Ca, 0.50% available P and

3300 DE kcal/kg. The sucklers were fed twice a day,

morning and evening starting from 5th day after birth

until weaning (42 days).

After weaning the piglets were fed with starter feed

as a normal feeding regime of the farm until termination

of the trial until 16th measurement at 60 days.

2.4 Data collection

The body weight of sucklers were measured at 0 day (at

birth), 5th day on start of feeding sucklers, and thereafter

body weight was recorded every three days until

weaning (42 days), and continued for 5 more

measurements after weaning. The final body weight was

measured at the 60th day using digital weighing balance

(CAMRY- Model: EL10/EL11).

Mortality and morbidity of the study animals were

also recorded and analysed. The average weight gain of

animals was derived using formula; (Final live weight –

Initial live weight)/duration of experiment.

2.5. Data Analysis

Microsoft Excel was used for data compilation and

cleaning. T-Test was administered for data analysis

using SPSS version 23.

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Initial and final body weight

There was not much difference in initial weights of

animals used in this research. Similarly, the body weight

of sucklers measured at the start of trial (5th day), and

overall weight gain measured at the end of the research

period (16th measurements) for both treatments did not

show any significant difference (Table1). This is in line

with findings of Sulabo, (2009), who confirmed feeding

of creep feed did not affect pre-weaning gains and

weaning weights of pigs. However, in contrast Lee &

Kim (2018) reported that feeding creep feed improves

the growth performance of piglets.

Table1: Body weights at different stages and its

performance

Body weight

measurement (Kg)

Treatment

Creep Non-creep

feeding

N 100 100

Zero Day 1.69+0.35 1.63+0.32

5th Day 2.48+0.56 2.46+0.47

60th Day 10.48+2.29 10.56+2.75

3.2 Weight gain trend until weaning

The trend showed that there was significant difference in

weight gain until weaning (35 - 42 days old). There was

no significant difference in sucklers performance and

post weaning weight gain fed with creep feed (9.24 kg)

and non-creep (9.15kg) (Figure 1). Bruininx (2004)

reported that the consumption of creep feed while

suckling stimulates feed intake and growth after

weaning, and in line Heo et al. (2018) reported that

highly digestible creep feed improved pre-weaning

performance and feeding grain-based creep feed will

improve post-weaning performance in pigs.

Figure 1: Weight gain trend until weaning

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Birth

weight

Onset of

trial

At transfer At weaning

Weig

ht (K

g)

Body weight gain

Creep Non-creep



3.3 Post weaning weight gain and overall

performance

There was no significant difference (p=0.83) in post-

weaning weight gain of animals fed with two different

feeds in this study. The post weaning weight gain for

animals fed with creep and non-creep feeds were 10.48

± 2.29 and 10.56 ± 2.75 (kg) respectively (Figure 2). On

the contrary, it was reported greater post-weaning feed

intake and daily gains for pigs fed with creep feeding as

compared to non-fed animals (Sulabo 2009). In addition,

the same author reported that low feed intake during

lactation negatively affect sow and litter performance.

Few mortality cases were observed for both treatments

prior to weaning with incidences of diarrhoea and health

issues. Similarly, Saikia et al. (2018) reported that the

overall incidences of diarrhoea from birth to 10th week

of age were not significant among the different weaning

groups fed with pre-starter, starter and grower feeds.

Figure 2: Post- weaning performance of animals fed

with different feeds

4. CONCLUSION

There was no difference in the body weight gain and

overall performance of the pigs fed with creep feed and

sow ration. The study concludes that unless highly

digestible and economical creep feed is made available

withdrawing of creep feeding to sucklers will have no

adverse effect on sucklers overall performance and post

weaning body weight under subtropical condition.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors immensely acknowledge the logistics

support of management and all technical staff of

NPiRDC, Gelephu and RPPBC, Lingmethang, in

particular, Mr. Rinzin Wangchuk (LPS), RPPBC,

Lingmethang who played vital role in data collection

during the study. We thank Dr. Kesang Wangchuk,

Principle Research Officer, Research and Extension

Division, Department of Livestock for his technical

assistance in designing the experiment and tireless

guidance throughout the study period. At the same time,

the Research Unit is grateful to NRDCAN, Bumthang

for rendering technical and laboratory services on

animal feed nutrient analysis. We are indeed grateful to

Mr. Pema Thinley, Livestock Production Officer,

National Centre for Aquaculture, Gelephu for providing

assistance in data analysis.

REFERENCES

Bruininx EA, Binnendijk GP, van der Peet - Schwering

CM, Schrama JW, den Hartog LA and Everts, H

(2002). Effect of creep feed consumption on

individual feed intake characterisitics and

performance of group- housed weanling pigs. Journal

of Animal Science, 80: 1413 - 1418.

Bruininx EA, Schellingerhout AB, Binnendijk G P, van

der Peet- Schwering CM, Schrama JW and den Hartog

LA (2004). Individually assessed creep food

consumption by suckled piglets: influence on post-

weaning food intake characteristics and indicators of

gut structure and hind-gut fermentation. British

Soceity of Animal Science, 1357 - 7298.

CP Njoku OO (2015). Growth Performance, Carcass

Yield and Organ Weight of Growing Pigs and Fed

Different Levels of Feed. Slovak J. Animal Science,

48.

Cabrera RA, Usry JL, Arrellano C, Nogueira ET,

Kutschenko M and Moeser AJ (2013). Effects of

creep feeding and supplemental glutamine or

glutamine plus glutamate (Aminogut) on pre-and

post-weaning growth performance and intestinal

health of piglets. Journal of Animal Science and

Biotechnology, 4:29.

Coetzee F(2016). The importance of Creep Feeding.

PORCUS.

Eung Gi Kwon BK(2009). Effects of Fattening Period on

Growth Performance, Carcass Characteristics and

Lipogenic Gene Expression in Hanwoo Steers. Asian

-Australian. Journal of Animal Science, 232-952.

Isabelle Correge GP (2015). Positive impact of piglet

PCV2 vaccination on fattening pig performance in a

sub-clinically infected farm. 7th European

Symposium of Porcine Health Management. France:

ifip.

Kanora A (2009). Efffect on Productivity of Treating

Fattening Pigs Every 5 Weeks with Flubendazole in

Feed. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tridschrift, 78.

Malgorzata Kasprowicz Potocka AF (2011). Effect of

Protein Level in Diets of Grower- Finisher Pigs on

Growth Performance, Nitrogen Excretion and Carcass

Value. Polish Journal of Natural Sciences, 293- 301.

10.48

10.56

10.2

10.3

10.4

10.5

10.6

10.7

10.8

10.9

11

Creep Non-creep

Weig

ht

(Kg

)

Treatment



Popescu A (2012). Research Concerning the Economic

Efficiency in Pig Fattening in Farms of Various Sizes.

Animal Science and Biotechnologies, 45(2).

Potter AO (1930, November). Fattening Pigs for Market.

Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, p. 269.

R Stupka MS (2004). The impact of sex on the economics

of pig fattening. Czech University of Agriculture,

Prague, Czech Republic .

SB S, MW V, IH K, OS K & JM V (2005). Effects of

feeding antibiotic - free creep feed supplimented with

oligofructose, probiotics or synbiotics to suckling

piglets increase the pre-weaning weight gain and

composition of intestinal microbiota. US: US

National Library of Medicine: National Institute of

Health.

Stender DR (2012). Swine Feed Efficiency: Influence of

Market Weight. Iowa: Iowa State University.

Sulabo RC (2009). Influence of creep feeding on

individual consumption characteristics and growth

performance of neonatal and weanling pigs.

Manhattan, Kansas: Kansas State University.

Sulabo RC, Jacela JY, Tokach MD, Dritz SS, Goodband

RD and DeRouchey JM (2014). Effects of lactation

feed intake and creep feeding on sow and piglet

performance. Journal of Animal Science , 3145- 3153.

Viscente Rodrigues Estevez MS (2011). Average daily

weight gain of Iberian fattening pigs when grazing

natural resources. Livestock Science, 292- 295.

YS Kim SM (2004). Increasing the Pig Market Weight:

World Trends, Expected Consequences and Practical

Considerations. Jinju, Korea: Regional Animal

Industry Research Centre, Jinju National University.

Lee S & Kim IH (2018). Creep feeding improves growth

performance of suckling piglets. Brazilian Journal of

Animal Science, 1- 6.

Heo PS, Kim DH, Jang JC, Hong JS & Kim YY (2018).

Effects of different creep feed types on pre-weaning

and post-weaning performance and gut development.

Asian Australas Journal of Animal Science, 1956-

1962.



143

Short Communication

BENEFIT-COST ANALYSIS OF PULLET REARING IN SARPANG DISTRICT

SURYA B CHAMLING RAI*, TASHI JAMTSHO AND KINLEY DEMA

National Poultry Research and Development Centre, Department of Livestock, Ministry

of Agriculture and Forests, Sarpang, Bhutan.


Copyright © 2020 Surya B Chamling Rai. The original work must be properly cited to

permit unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction of this article in any medium

ABSTRACT: The study was designed to assess the benefit-cost analysis of pullet rearing

in Sarpang district. A total of 2000 numbers of commercial Hy-line Brown Day-Old Chicks

were placed at the stocking density of 10 birds/m2 in a private pullet rearing farm. The

chicks were reared in a semi-permanent shed in accordance with the entrepreneur’s normal

management practices. A total depreciated fixed cost, variable cost and total revenue were

calculated to compute the unit cost of pullet production at 56 days age. The study revealed

that 88 % of the total cost of production was incurred on variable cost and 12 % for fixed

cost. Amongst the variable cost, the highest expenditure was recorded on feed cost and

least on utilities. For the total fixed cost, large share of investment of 50.23 % was incurred

on poultry shed construction, and the least of 1% on chick drinker. The average unit cost

of producing eight weeks old pullet was computed at Nu. 131. Rearing 2000 DoCs earns a

net profit of Nu. 89,451 at the existing farm gate price of Nu.175. The profitability would

further increase with increase in production cycles from four to five per annum. This study

indicates that pullet rearing is a profitable venture and need to be encouraged in other

regions of the country

Keywords; Benefit cost; cost of production; day old chicks; profitable; pullet.

1. INTRODUCTION

Livestock sector plays an important role in improving

livelihood of the people worldwide. Among many other

livestock sub-sectors, poultry production has seen a

drastic change in the last 35 years. Windhorst (2014)

reported that the poultry meat and egg has been increasing

faster than beef and pork since 1975 to 2005. The rapid

changes seen in poultry sector are essentially due to

introduction of modern intensive production methods,

genetic improvements, improved preventive disease

control and biosecurity measures, increasing income and

human population and, urbanization (Narrod et al. 2006).

According to Irfana et al. (2015) the poultry sector

generates income and provides employment opportunity

for 1.5 million population in Pakistan.

In Asia, poultry industry has become one of the most

successful businesses and plays a vital role in generating

and supplementing the family income especially for those

with small land holdings. Globally, India is ranked third

after China and USA with egg production of 53.3 billion

and ranked 5th after USA, China, Brazil and Mexico in

chicken production (Hellin et al. 2015). In Bhutan, 60 %

of the population are dependent on livestock farming, and

livestock sector contributes 3.5 % to the country’s Gross

domestic product (GDP) (National Statistic Bureau

[NSB] 2013). Poultry farming is an important farming

opportunity for income generation and employment for

many Bhutanese producers and entrepreneurs, (Gyeltshen

et al. 2012).

Currently, Bhutan has three nucleus farms, viz.,

National Poultry Research and Development Centre

(NPRDC) in Sarpang, and two regional farms located in

Paro and Mongar. From these three farms, commercial

layer Day-Old Chicks (DoCs) are produced and

distributed to all districts for egg production. NPRDC is

the only agency that produces and distributes the broiler

DoCs. Off late, few poultry entrepreneurs have shown

interest in pullet rearing pullet rather than keeping layers,

for distribution to poultry farmers of higher altitudes.

Layer farmers claim that higher cost of pullets had

contributed to increased cost of production of table eggs.

This is yet to be substantiated. Currently, there are very

few farmers who are into pullets farming creating a


Rai et al. (2020) 144

favorable condition of imperfectly competitive market.

Thus, the pullet farmers are seen as profit makers. The

study on cost benefit analysis of pullet and unit cost of

production had never been conducted in the country and

published. Therefore, the study was mainly aimed to

compute the unit cost of production and cost benefit

analysis of pullet at eight weeks of age.


2.1 Study Area

The study was conducted at K.K. Pullet Farm located at

26°52'39"N, 90°16'12"E, 344 meters above the sea level

under Sompangkha geog, Sarpang from September 19th to

14th November, 2018.

The study area has warm sub-tropical climate,

characterized by hot and humid summer and moderately

cool and dry winter. The average annual temperature is

22°C and average annual rainfall ranges from 1200-2500

mm.

2.2 Experimental design

A total of 2000 numbers of commercial Hy-line Brown

DoCs were purchased from NPRDC, Sarpang and

stocked at K.K. Pullet Farm. The DoCs were reared at the

stocking density of 10 birds/m2 in a single shed. The birds

were reared up to eight weeks of age.

Standard management practices with regard to

brooding, lighting, feed and water provision and, bedding

requirement were followed. Also, the standard

recommended vaccination regime for poultry in Bhutan

was performed.

2.3 Data Collection and analysis

The data were collected for 56 days from 19th September

to 14th November, 2018. The body weights were

measured weekly and mortality recorded on a daily basis.

The actual data on fixed and variable costs were recorded

to assess unit cost of pullet production. The revenue

generated from the sale of birds and manure were also

recorded.

The data collected were entered, cleaned and coded using

Microsoft-Excel spreadsheet 2010 version. Simple

descriptive statistics (means and percentages) were used

to draw the inferences of the study.

The depreciation costs were calculated based on the

number of batches reared in a year. Simple total cost and

revenue generated were calculated to determine the

profit/loss statement of the pullet farms. The following

formulae were used to determine the relationships.

TC = TVC + TFC

NFI = TR – TC,

Where TC is the total cost, TVC is the total variable cost,

TFC is the total fixed cost, NFI is the net farm income

and, TR is the total revenue.


3.1 Fixed Cost

Fixed cost is the cost that remains constant regardless of

changes in the level of activity. The current study

included fixed cost depreciation on poultry shed,

equipment and appreciation on land lease. The

depreciation of shed was computed at the useful life of ten

years by number of batches reared in a year. The land on

lease was calculated for five years by number of batches

reared in a year. However, for the poultry equipment (e.g.,

drinkers, feeder) it was totally depreciated within a year

by number of batches to be reared in a year.

The study revealed that the total of Nu. 28,865 was

incurred as overall fixed cost for 56 days (Table 1) which

constituted 12 % of the total cost of production. This

finding was in line with study by Abdurofi et al. (2017)

and Olorunwa (2018) where they observed comparatively

low investment on fixed cost. Similar result was also

revealed by Maikasuwa (2014) in economic analysis of

small-layer production in Nigeria with birds ranging from

one to 500 numbers for a typical enterprise.

The highest total fixed cost was attributed to poultry

shed construction (50.23%), followed by purchase of

tarpaulin and medium feeders with 12 % and 11.78 %,

respectively. The least fixed cost was computed for chick

drinker which accounted to only 1% of the total fixed

Table 1: Depreciated fixed cost per batch of four cycles per annum

Particular Qty (No.) Unit cost (Nu.) Amount (Nu.) Per batch (Nu.) Percent

Land on lease 1 7500 7500 375 1.3 Cost of shed construction 1 580000 580000 14500 50.23 Brooder ring 2 1200 2400 600 2.08 Electric-brooder 2 4500 9000 2250 7.79 Chick Feeder 20 124 2480 620 2.15 Medium feeder 40 340 13600 3400 11.78 Chick drinker 20 59 1180 295 1.02 Drinker 40 200 8000 2000 6.93 Tarpaulin 3 4700 14100 3525 12.21 Beak Trimmer 1 5200 5200 1300 4.5

Total

28,865 100


Rai et al. (2020) 145

cost. The similar results of 55% fixed cost fixed on shed

construction and 1% on equipment were (Regional

Livestock Development Centre [RLDC] 2019).

3.2 Variable Cost

The variable cost changes with the change in activities.

The variable cost includes the cost of DoC, feed, labour,

bedding materials, consumables (vaccines and medicines)

and utility charges such as electricity. The total variable

cost of Nu. 214,684 was computed for 2000 number of

chicks in a rearing period of 56 days with a 95% livability

(Table 2).

Table 2:Total variable cost (Nu)

Particular Amount (Nu.) %

Transportation of feed 8000 3.7

Vitamins and minerals 5000 2.3

Saw dust 4000 1.9

Electricity 600 0.3

DoC 60000 27.9

Labour 32000 14.9

Feed 105084 48.9

Total 214,684 100

The result from the total variable cost showed that the

highest proportion of production cost was attributed to

commercial feed at 48.9 % followed by cost on DoC at

27.9 % and labour at 14.9 %. The least production cost

was incurred in electricity bill and bedding materials

which came to 0.3 % and 1.9 %, respectively. This result

was supported by Demircan et al. (2010) where feed cost

was ranked first among the cost items in the study.

Result by Abdurofi et al. (2017) found that feed cost

alone accounts for 70 % which is comparatively higher

than current study. In contrasts, Islam et al. (2016)

revealed feed cost of 13.58% from the total production

cost. The huge variation in feed cost may be attributed to

the economy of scale and production systems. For

instance, the 13.58% cost, as above, was estimated in

rural tribal community with 10 numbers of birds. In

poultry production, it is universally accepted that feed

represents the major cost, constituting up to 50% of the

total cost. The cost of DoC accounted to 27.9 % which is

higher than the results by Olorunwa (2018) in the broiler

production. The payment for labor accounted 14.9 % in

the current study which is comparable to the results

obtained by Olorunwa (2018).

3.3 Total Cost

Total cost is the sum of total fixed cost and variable cost.

During the study, a total cost of Nu. 243,549 was

computed for rearing pullet till 56 days old. Of the total

cost was incurred, variable cost and total fixed cost were

88% and 12 % respectively.

3.4 Cost of Production of Pullet

The Cost of Production (CoP) is the essential expenditure

to get the factors of production of land, labor, capital and

management needed to produce a particular commodity

(Guthrie & Wallace, 1969). The unit CoP of pullet was

calculated by using the following formula;

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑖𝑟𝑑

The study revealed that the unit cost of production of

pullet stood at Nu.131. This means that Nu. 131 was

incurred to produce one pullet of 56 days of age (Table

3). The study revealed that the rearing of pullet is a

profitable venture at the existing farm gate price of Nu.

175 per pullet. The finding of the study was computed

based on four batches of pullet production per annum

only. However, in ideal circumstance, five batches per

annum can be reared in the same facility keeping the

recommended downtime period of two weeks (Hy-line

International 2018).

Table 3: Unit cost of pullet production (Nu)

Description Amount (Nu.)

Total Fixed Cost 28865

Total Variable Cost 219684

Total Cost 248549

Total Bird 1900

Cost of Production 131

Table 4: Estimated Net Profit (Nu) generated from rearing pullets

Description Quantity Existing Rate (Nu.) Amount (Nu.) %

Sale of pullet (No) 1900 170 323,000 97

Sale of manure (bag) 200 50 10,000 3

Total Revenue

333,000

Total cost

243,549

Net Profit (TR-TC)

89,451 100


Rai et al. (2020) 146

3.5 Total Revenue

Total revenue of Nu. 333,000 was generated from the sale

of pullets and manure (Table 4). The maximum revenue

(97 %) was generated from the sale of pullets and only

3% was accounted from the sale of manure. The net profit

of Nu. 89,451 was generated after deducting the total cost.

3.6 Profitability of Pullet rearing

Farm budgeting tool (manually developed in MS excel

sheet, version 2010) was used to determine the

profitability of pullet rearing. The findings showed that

the total variable cost constituted the highest proportion

(88 %) of the total cost of production. The findings of this

study are in line with the results of Maikasuwa (2014),

where they observed that total variable cost constituted

94.46 % of the total cost. In broiler production, Olorunwa

(2018) observed 81.85% of the average total cost of

production was on the variable inputs where feed

constituted highest amongst the variable cost.

Nonetheless, the study results indicated that pullet

farming is economically viable in the study area.

4. CONCLUSION

On the basis of the present findings, pullet rearing is a

profitable venture due to short rearing cycle. The result

can be partially attributed to nearness of the pullet rearing

farm to the DoCs producing farm and feed mills where-

by the transportation cost is greatly reduced. Timely

supply of DoCs and strict disease and pests control

measures in place also would have a bearing on net

profitability. However, this finding may not apply to

pullet production in areas where feed transportation cost

is high, colder climatic condition and regions far from

DoC supply centre.

REFERENCES

Abdurofi I, Ismail MM, Kamal HAW and Gabdo BH

(2017). Economic analysis of broiler production in

Peninsular Malaysia. International Food Research

Journal, 24(April), 761–766.

NSB (2013). Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan. National

Staistics Bureaue, Thimphu

Demircan V, Yilmaz H, Dernek Z, Ba T, Gül M and

Koknaroglu H (2010). Economic analysis of different

laying hen farm capacities in Turkey, (1375): 489–

497.

Hellin J, Krishna VV, Erenstein O and Boeber C (2015).

India’s Poultry Revolution : Implications for its

Sustenance and the Global Poultry Trade, 18: 151–

164.

Hy-line International ((2018)). Management Guide for

Hy-line Commercial Layers. Hy-Line International.

Retrieved from www.hyline.com when date of

retrival/access

Irfana M, Memon N, Noonari S and Pathan M (2015).

Economic Analysis of Poultry Egg Production in

Quetta District, 14:5–13.

Islam R, Nath P, Bharali A and Borah R (2016). Analysis

of benefit-cost ( B : C ) ratio of Vanaraja and Local

chicken of Assam under backyard system of rearing.

Analysis of benefit-cost ( B : C ) ratio of Vanaraja and

Local chicken of Assam under backyard system of

rearing.

John A. Guthrie, Robert F. Wallace.1969. Economics

4th edition (.1st edition 1965), Homewood, Ill. : R. D.

Irwin, 1969.

Maikasuwa MA (2014). Economics of Small-Scale Layer

Production in Three Selected Local Government

Areas ( LGAs ) of Sokoto State , Nigeria. International

Journal of Agriculture Innovations and Research,

3(1): 229–234.

Narrod C, Tiongco M and Costales A (2006). Global

poultry sector trends and external drivers of structural

change, pp. 1–28.

Olorunwa OJ (2018). Economic Analysis of Broiler

Production in Lagos State Poultry Estate , Nigeria.

Journal of Investment and Management, 7(1):35–44.

https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jim.20180701.15

RLDC (2019). Annual progress report 2018 – 2019.

Regional Livestock Development Centre, Kanglung.

Windhorst H (2014). Changes in poultry production and

trade, https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0043933906001140



147

Short Communication

EFFECT ON MILK PRODUCTION AND COMPOSITIONS OF JERSEY CROSS COWS FED WITH

DRIED LUCERNE CHAFF AS FEED SUPPLEMENTS IN LATE AUTUMN

WANGCHUK*, JAMBAY GYELTSHEN, CHIMI RINZIN AND SONAM WANGCHUK

National Research & Development Center for Animal Nutrition, Department of Livestock,

Bumthang

*Author of correspondence: [email protected]

Copyright © 2020 Wangchuk. The original work must be properly cited to permit unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction of this article in any medium.

ABSTRACT: The study evaluated the effects of feeding dried Lucerne chaff as feed supplement

on milk production and composition in Jersey cross cows grazing temperate pasture. The feeding

experiment was conducted in late autumn in the month of October 2019 at the Brown Swiss Farm,

Bumthang. Ten lactating Jersey cross cows weighing 329.80 ± 45.06 kg live body weight were

divided into two groups of five each based on milk yield and stage of lactation as control and

experimental group. The animals in control group were allowed to graze in open pasture for seven

hours daily and were supplemented with cattle concentrate @ 1.5 kg per day. The cows in the

experimental group were fed with dried Lucerne chaff @ 30 % (2.32 ± 0.34 kg) of the total DM

requirement in addition to normal feeding regime as control group. The daily milk yield was

recorded for ten days after two weeks of feed adaption period. Milk samples were collected from all

experiment animals and analyzed weekly for the major nutrient composition. The daily milk yield

from the experimental group was observed significantly (p ˂ 0.05) higher than the control group.

There was no significance (p ˃ 0.05) difference in milk composition between the two groups. The

findings from current study reveal that the dried Lucerne chaff can be used as a legume-based protein

source for feeding dairy cows during fodder deficit period.

Keywords: Dried lucerne chaff; dairy; milk; crude protein; total mixed ration.

1. INTRODUCTION

Livestock production is an important farming activity of

rural populace which contributes for an economic

development, rural livelihoods and poverty alleviation

(Hossain et al. 2017). In Bhutan, livestock farming is the

important component of Bhutanese farming system and

plays an important role in improving the livelihood of

rural farmers (Wangdi, 2006). The government has been

prioritizing dairy sector to enhance milk production

through policy interventions such as timely supply of

inputs, efficient services delivery, and providing

subsidies and market facilities. Dairy farming is gaining

momentum amongst rural population in Bhutan. As a

result, improved cattle population are increasing, and

milk production had increased too. But, the genetic

potential of these improved cattle breeds are not fully

explored mainly due to poor feedings. One of the

important strategies to achieve this is to improve the

quality of feed, especially under farmers’ management

condition. In any commercial livestock farming, feeding

is the main driving force for successful livestock venture

and most expensive item of production cost (Makkar

2016). Devendra and Leng (2011) have mentioned that

the locally available feed resources act as the backbone

for improving productivity of animals in developing

countries. To maximize profitability from the dairy

farming, one need to ensure that the dairy cows receive

required quantity of essential nutrients in a cost-effective

way, preferably from locally available feed resources. In

any country, pasture based feeding system is the best and



Wangchuk et al. (2020) 148

cheapest for sustainable dairy farming. Although the use

of pasture is a profitable low cost feeding system, there

are some nutrient limitations to milk production.

Therefore, supplements must be considered to correct for

nutritional imbalances and deficiencies in pasture. In

Bhutan, milk production under smallholder farming

systems is season sensitive. Fluctuations of feeds in both

quantity and quality is a major driver. Milk production

decline in dry season due to forage scarcity is a common

phenomenon. One of the options for improving feeding

strategy is to use legume based roughage such as dried

Lucerne chaff prepared from green fodder Lucerne

(Medicago sativa) to supplement grazing animal or feed

during the scarcity of green fodder. The quality of forages

fed, has a great impact on the performance of the cow.

Alfalfa (Lucerne) is considered a high-quality pasture due

to its lower fiber content and a higher protein content (Lin

et al. 2019). Lucerne is the most widely cultivated legume

in the world (FAO 2013) and may be grazed, preserved as

hay or ensiled. The crude protein content of the Lucerne

ranges from 15-20 % on dry matter basis, NDF from 26-

39 % and ADF ranges from 20-25% of the dry matter

(Gyeltshen et al. 2017). Therefore, to come up with

suitable feeding strategy in temperate region, present

study investigated the effect of feeding dried Lucerne

chaff as supplement on milk production and composition

of Jersey cross cows in late autumn.


2.1 Experiment site

The feeding experiment was performed for 25 days (from

1st to 25th October 2019) at Brown Swiss farm in

Choekhor Geog under Bumthang Dzongkhag. The farm

is located at an altitude of 2700 masl with geographical

location between 27.54° North latitude and 90.75° East

longitude. The experimental site experiences a cool

temperate climate characterized by cool and humid

summer and cold dry winter. The average annual

temperature and rainfall reported was 22°C and was 63.82

mm respectively (NCHM 2018).

2.2 Animal selection and management

A total of 10 lactating Jersey cross cows weighing 329.80

± 45.06 kg live body weight of same age and lactation

stage were selected for the study. Prior to the feeding trial,

the selected animals were observed for physical health

status and were dewormed with Rafoxanide +Levamisole

@ 7.5 mg per kg live body weight.

2.3 Experiment design

The 10 jersey cross cows were blocked into two groups

with five cows of similar milk yield and lactation stage in

each group accordingly. Then each group was randomly

assigned one of the two dietary treatments: i)

Supplementation of Lucerne chaff ii) Normal feeding

regime without supplementation of Lucerne chaff.

2.4 Preparation of dried Lucerne chaff

The green Lucerne fodder was harvested at early

flowering stage and chopped into required size by chaff

cutter. The chopped fresh Lucerne fodder was sun dried

for one week inside Plastic green house at NRDCAN to

prepare dried Lucerne chaff.

2.5 Experimental feeding and diet composition

The treatments were divided into two equal parts and

were fed twice a day along with the basal diet. The

inclusion level of dried Lucerne chaff in experiment diet

per day was 2.32 ± 0.34 (SD) kg (30 % of the total dry

matter requirement of the cows). The experimental cows

were allowed to graze in the pasture field along with the

herd during the day and water was supplied throughout

the day. The basal diet consisted of forage intake from

seven hour of grazing in temperate farm pasture and cattle

concentrate were fed as supplement as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Diet composition (%) of experimental ration

Parameter Experimental Control

Dried Lucerne chaff (%) 30

Cattle concentrate (%) 18:20 18.20

Grazing pasture in hour

a day

7 7

2.6 Laboratory analysis

Composite sample of dried Lucerne chaff weighing 250

gm was collected from dried lot. The laboratory analysis

for dry matter and nutrient content was done at the

Animal Nutrition Laboratory, Bumthang. The proximate

analysis was performed to determine crude protein, crude

fat and crude fiber content. The nutrient composition of

dried Lucerne chaff was shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Nutrient composition of dried lucerne chaff

Forage sample

Percentage (%)

DM Ash Crude

fat

Crude

protein

Dried Lucerne

chaff

89 13.02 1.00 14.98



2.7 Milk production and recording

The experimental animals were milked twice a day; once

in the morning and in the evening and the milk yield was

recorded during each milking. The animals were milked

by bucket milking machine and the milk yield was

recorded in kilograms using weighing balance.

2.8 Milk sample collection and analysis

Milk samples were collected in the last day of every week.

The milk samples were tested in automatic milk analyzer

for determination of milk fat, milk protein, lactose and

SNF.


The data on milk production and composition recorded

during the experimental period was analyzed using

Microsoft excel and IBM SPSS version 23. The dataset

was checked for outliers, followed by Shapiro Wilk’s and

Levene’s tests for normality of data and homogeneity of

variance, respectively. The data was analyzed for

descriptive statistics such as mean and standard deviation.

Two sample independent t test was performed to find the

significance effect of treatments on milk yield and

composition in lactating cows.

3 RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Milk production and composition

Table 3 presents the milk production and composition of

control and experiment group.

In present study, the daily average milk production of

cows in the experimental diet group was found

significantly (p˂0.05) higher than the control group. This

finding is in line with the result of Wang et al. (2014) who

reported increased milk production when supplemented

with alfalfa hay forage. The increased milk yield for

experimental diet group may be attributed to increased

dry matter intake from additional feeding of Lucerne

chaff in addition to normal feeding regime of the farm.

Increasing energy intake can improve milk yield and

supply more energy and nutrients for milk synthesis (Wei

et al. 2019). The pasture intake from autumn grazing in

temperate pasture appears to be not sufficient to sustain

milk production with limited concentrate feeding.

According to Reynolds et al. (2011), a higher milk yield

in alfalfa hay diet resulted in the highest feed efficiency

and digestibility represents an important indicator for

improving the efficiency of energy utilization in dairy

cows. The ingredients and composition of diets fed to

dairy cows also affect nutrient digestibility and milk

production performance (Weiss et al. 2009). Concentrate

inclusion level were similar between the two diets and

therefore, the differences were attributed to the increase

DMI from additional legume forage source. But there

was no significant (p˃0.05) effect observed on milk

composition such as milk fat, SNF, milk density, lactose

and salt content between experimental and control group.

Similar finding was reported by Kahyani et al. (2013) and

Zyl et al. (2014) when feeding cows with various chopped

lengths and different quality of alfalfa hay. A decreased

ruminal pH due to low dietary fibre content can decrease

the ratio of acetate to propionate, which in turn could

cause a reduction in the milk fat content (Mertens 1997).

Grant et al. (1990) also reported that a reduction in hay

particle size resulted in a decreased milk fat content, and

eventually a reduction in 4% fat corrected milk (FCM)

production. However, additional feeding from legume

forage source in this experiment did not alter any of the

parameters of milk quality. This indicates the minimal

changes in the ratio of acetate to propionate despite

supplementary feeding of legume forage in this

experiment.

4 CONCLUSION

The current study concluded that the supplementation of

legume based roughage such as dried Lucerne chaff to

late autumn grazing dairy cows in temperate pasture can

increase the milk production. It is also convinced that the

dairy cows in Bhutan are not receiving adequate protein

and thus not being able to produce as per their genetic

potential. Based on the present finding, it is recommended

that dried Lucerne chaff can be fed as legume based

protein source for dairy cows during fodder deficit period

to enhance milk production in temperate region. It can

Table 3: Milk production and composition in

lactating Jersey cross cows (Means ± SD)

Parameters Control Experiment Sig.

level

Milk yield

(kg/day)

4.33 ± 0.52 5.61 ± 0.24 *

Milk fat (%) 5.96 ± 1.12 5.94 ± 1.62 ns

Solid not fat

(%)

8.54 ± 0.49 8.66 ± 0.46 ns

Lactose (%) 4.68 ± 0.28 4.74 ± 0.24 ns

Salt content

(%)

0.64 ± 0.05 0.66 ± 0.05 ns

Milk density 27.37 ± 1.45 27.88 ± 2.07 ns

*p ≤ 0.05; ns: nonsignificant



also complement protein source without negative effect

on milk production and economic return. However,

additional research is needed to recommend optimum

level of Lucerne supplementation to increase cow’s

productivity given its genetic composition.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank Mr. Dorji Samdrup (Sr.

LPS) and the staff of Brown Swiss Farm for their kind

assistance. The authors are also thankful to Dr. Kezang

Wangchuk (PRO), RED, DoL for his kind technical

assistance. The kind support of Mrs. Ganga Maya Rizal

(CFFO), Animal Nutrition Division DoL, Mr. Towchu

Rabgay (CLPO), RED, DoL and the staff of NRDCAN

Bumthang are highly acknowledged.

REFERENCE

Devendra C and Leng RA (2011). Feed resources for

animals in Asia: issues, strategies for use,

intensification and integration for increased

productivity. Asian-Australian Journal of Animal

Science, 24(3): 303–321.

FAO (2013). Production crops. FAOSTAT-Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Grant RJ, Colenbrander VF and Mertens DR (1990). Milk

fat depression in dairy cows: role of particle size of

alfalfa hay. Journal of Dairy Science, 73: 1823-1833.

Gyeltshen J, Wangda P and Wangchuk K (2017).

Handbook for Feed and Fodder Development Worker

in Bhutan, 3rd ed. National Research and

Development Center for Animal Nutrition, Jakar,

Bhutan.

Hossain SA, Sherasia PL, Phondba BT, Pathan FK and

Garg MR (2017). Effect of feeding green fodder based

diet in lactating buffaloes: Milk production,

economics and methane emission. Indian Journal of

Dairy Science, 70(6):767-773.

Kahyyani A, Ghorbani GR, Khorvash M, Nasrollahi SM

and Beauchemin KA (2013). Effect of alfalfa particle

size in high concentrate diets supplemented with

unsaturated fat: Chewing behavior, total tract

digestibility and milk production of dairy cows.

Journal of dairy science, 96:7110-7119.

Lin X, Hu Z, Li N, Hou Q, Wang Y, Peng J, Jiang Y and

Wang Z (2019). Power on rumen digestion,

metabolism and production performance in lactating

dairy cows. Advances in Bioscience and

biotechnology, 10: 197- 217.

Makkar HPS (2016). Animal nutrition in a 360-degree

view and a framework for future R&D work: towards

sustainable livestock production. Anim Prod Sci.

56(10): 1561–1568.

Mertens DR (1997). Creating a system for meeting the

fiber requirements of dairy cows. Journal of Dairy

Science, 80:1463-1481.

NCHM (2018). Climate Data Book of Bhutan. Royal

Government of Bhutan, Thimphu.

Reynolds CK, Crompton LA and Mills JAN (2011).

Improving the efficiency of energy utilization in

cattle. Anim. Prod. Sci. 51:6–12.

Wang B, Mao SY, Yang HJ, Wu YM, Wang JK, Li SL,

Shen ZM and Liu JX (2014). Effects of alfalfa and

cereal straw as a forage source on nutrient digestibility

and lactation performance in lactating dairy cows.

Journal of Dairy Science, 97:7706 – 7715.

Wangdi K (2006). Country Pasture/Forage Resources

Profile. FAO.

Weiss WP, St-Pierre NR, and Willett LB (2009). Varying

type of forage, concentration of metabolizable protein

and source of carbohydrate affects nutrient

digestibility and production by dairy cows. Journal of

Dairy Science, 92:5595–5606.

Wei ZH, Liang SL, Wang DM, Lui HY, Wanapat M and

Lui JX (2019). Lactation performance and rumen

fermentation in dairy cows fed a diet with alfalfa hay

replaced by corn stover and supplemented with

molasses. Asian- Australian Journal of Animal

Science, 32 (8): 1122-1127.

Zyl MV, Meeske R, Scholtz GD and Einkarmerer OB

(2014). The effect of Lucerne (Medicago sativa) hay

quality on milk production and composition of jersey

cows. South African Journal of Animal Science,

44(5): 25-30.

Schematic diagram of flow cytometry method for sex

sorting

HOW MUCH DO YOU KNOW ABOUT SEXED SEMEN TECHNOLOGY?

What is sexed semen?

Semen having X or Y bearing sperm to produce progenies of a desired sex either female or male (with about 80-90% accuracy).

Sex sorting technology was developed by the USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) researchers in Livermore,

California, and Beltsville, Maryland. The technology was patented as “Beltsville Sperm sexing technology”. The

commercialization of sexed semen started in United States in 2001 with a license granted to Sexing Technologies (ST), Texas.

Presently, sexed semen is commercially available only for Holstein Friesian and Jersey breeds of cattle.

How Sexed Semen is produced?

Sperm are sorted by identifying differences between the X- and Y- bearing sperm. The X-chromosome (female) contains about

3.8% more DNA than the Y-chromosome (male) in cattle. This difference in DNA content is used to sort the X- from the Y-

bearing sperm. Among several methods for semen sexing, flow cytometry-based sorting has emerged as most efficient. The

technology is refined through the decades and finally sex sorting is possible at the purity of more than 90%. The technique is

well standardized, patented and commercialized in USA, Europe and other countries.

Is it safe?

Yes, it is safe to use sexed semen for artificial

insemination. But sperm concentration in sexed

semen per dose is less and also the conception rate is

10 to 15 % less as compared to conventional semen.

What are the advantages of using sexed semen?

• Produce mostly female calves; increase heifers’

production for replacement within herd, and

increase opportunity to sell surplus heifers to

other farmers/farms

• Speed up genetic improvement

Technological limitations of using sexed semen

• High cost of sex sorting machine

• Waste of approximately 50% of sperm, hence

low sorting efficiency and speed

• Require highly skilled person to operate sex

sorting machines

• Damage to the sperm due to shear force,

electrostatic charge, could reduce freezing

potential of the sorted sperm

Implementation limitations using sexed semen

• High cost of the product which include the

cost of the intellectual property right

• The lower conception rate of sexed semen, critical considering

low AI coverage and conception rate in field

• Sperm concentration of sexed semen ranges between 2 million/dose whereas it is 20 million/dose in conventional semen.

• Managing sex semen with lower sperm concentration will be a challenge if AI Technician donor follow prescribed SoP.

Where can we buy and what is the price?

Sexed semen is commercially available mainly from Sexing Technology, USA. But there are other breeding companies in USA,

Canada and Europe producing sexed semen commercially using license from Sexing Technology, USA. NDRDC, DoL

Yusipang procures sex semen from abroad from recognized company such as World Wide Sires, USA, Cogent Genetics, UK,

Viking Genetics, Denmark. Average price of sex semen is USD 18 to 23 per dose which is higher than imported

normal/conventional semen.

Is sexed semen used only for heifer?

Sexed semen is recommended to be used only in heifers (especially virgin heifers) due to high fertility rate. However, it can also

be used in cows up to third lactation with excellent reproduction record.

Contributed by: National Dairy Research and Development Centre (NDRDC), Yusipang, Thimphu

AFRICAN SWINE FEVER (ASF)

ASF is a highly contagious disease of domestic and wild pigs and one

of the notifiable diseases. There is no vaccine and no treatment for

ASF. The disease does not affect human, but it causes high pig

mortality and severe economic loss. The virus is stubborn and

remains infectious in the environment and in contaminated pig

products for several days.

Key Biosecurity Principles to Protect your farms!

A. SEGREGATION: Establish physical barriers to limit the disease spread by human,

animals or feed and equipment’s to your farm.

i. Restrict entry of animal and unauthorized people into the farm

ii. Strictly monitor staff and visitor movements on the farm

iii. Implement quarantine measures when introducing new stock into the farm

B. CLEANING & DISINFECTION: Materials (e.g. vehicles, equipment) entering or

leaving a farm must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected to inactivate pathogens present

on materials

i. Wash hands with soap and water prior to and after visiting a pig farm

ii. Wear dedicated farm cloths and boots while working in the farm

iii. Clean and disinfect vehicles, foot wears and farm equipment regularly

iv. Clean and disinfect animal shed regularly

C. PREVENTION MEASURES: Adequate measures should be undertaken to prevent

incursion of infection in the farm and timely reporting of suspected cases to enhance rapid

detection and containment.

i. Report any suspected case of ASF (dead or alive) to the nearest Livestock Office or

BAFRA.

ii. Prevent direct or indirect contact with neighbor’s pig & wild pig.

iii. Do not feed untreated swills containing meat products to your pigs.

Contributed by: Dr. Karma Wangdi

Senior Veterinary Officer

Animal Health Division, DoL

BHUTAN JOURNAL of - Department of Livestock

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